Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster Police Technology Police Technology Chapter Six Police Technology A Brief History of

Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster

Police Technology Police Technology Chapter Six Chapter Six

A Brief History of Police A Brief History of Police Technology Technology


Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Explore the development of police Explore the development of police technology against the backgrounds technology against the backgrounds of the policing models – of the policing models – politicalpolitical, , professionalprofessional, and , and community based community based modelsmodels

Expand understanding of Expand understanding of tacticaltactical and and strategicstrategic information by looking at information by looking at how technology changed the nature how technology changed the nature of fingerprint evidenceof fingerprint evidence


Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Understand the difference between Understand the difference between policypolicy and and procedureprocedure and look at and look at how technology may impact policy how technology may impact policy and procedureand procedure

Further explore Further explore fragmentationfragmentation and and the market-place.the market-place.


IntroductionIntroduction

Look at history of technology two ways: Look at history of technology two ways: What happened and consequences of new technologiesWhat happened and consequences of new technologies Following a specific piece ofFollowing a specific piece of

information that has been information that has been

critical to solving crimes forcritical to solving crimes for

more than one hundred yearsmore than one hundred years

(fingerprinting)(fingerprinting)


Police Technology in TimePolice Technology in Time

Most CJ scholars divide the history Most CJ scholars divide the history of of

American policing into three eras: American policing into three eras: PoliticalPolitical ProfessionalProfessional Community OrientedCommunity Oriented


Political Policing EraPolitical Policing EraMost police forcesMost police forces

established in the late established in the late

1919thth century consisted or century consisted or

men who had beenmen who had been

appointed for limited terms appointed for limited terms

by local Politicians. by local Politicians. Patronage – an officer’s Patronage – an officer’s

primary source of primary source of information came from information came from the people who lived in the people who lived in the community or their the community or their beatbeat

Photograph provided by Cultural Tourism DC.


Professional PolicingProfessional Policing Government and Government and

policing evolved out of policing evolved out of the patronage system the patronage system into a civil service into a civil service system. system.

Prized hierarchy, Prized hierarchy, centralization rules, centralization rules, and standards became and standards became the professional the professional policing model. policing model.

Control of day-to-day Control of day-to-day operations from politics operations from politics to professional police to professional police managers. managers.


Technology impacting the modelTechnology impacting the model

Through the 1950s and 1960s, the idea thatThrough the 1950s and 1960s, the idea that

police supervisors and managers shouldpolice supervisors and managers should

control the production of service began tocontrol the production of service began to

take hold. take hold. Supervisors and managers began to count Supervisors and managers began to count

the numbers of calls for service an officer the numbers of calls for service an officer handledhandled

Timed how fast he arrived at the scene of Timed how fast he arrived at the scene of a calla call


““You get what you count. . .”You get what you count. . .”

Officer were not walking the Officer were not walking the community any longercommunity any longer

They were evaluated on the number They were evaluated on the number of calls they handled and of calls they handled and

How fast they got to the call. How fast they got to the call.


Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing Through the 1970s Through the 1970s

there continued to be a there continued to be a reliance on what was to reliance on what was to be seen as be seen as incident-incident-driven policingdriven policing. .

The advent of the The advent of the computer made it computer made it possible to organize possible to organize and review this and review this information on information on incidents and response. incidents and response.

The development of 9-The development of 9-1-1 only added to the 1-1 only added to the police ability to handle police ability to handle incidents. incidents.

Photograph provided by Gary Allen, 9-1-1 Dispatch Magazine


Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing As officers judged on the As officers judged on the

number of calls they number of calls they handled rose through handled rose through the ranks, the concept of the ranks, the concept of professionalism professionalism increased. increased.

police managers did police managers did notnot rely on community inputrely on community input

The idea that the police The idea that the police were the professionals were the professionals who knew best, who knew best, responded quickly, and responded quickly, and handled incidents handled incidents became organizationally became organizationally entrenched. entrenched.

Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency ServicesServices


The professional model and the The professional model and the technology changed the relationship technology changed the relationship between the police and the between the police and the community community

This introduced a new problem of the This introduced a new problem of the growing distance between police growing distance between police officers and the communities they officers and the communities they served. served.

Incident Driven PolicingIncident Driven Policing


Community Oriented PolicingCommunity Oriented Policing

Founded on two social science theories: Founded on two social science theories: Normative Sponsorship TheoryNormative Sponsorship Theory – Most – Most

people are good. People will work people are good. People will work together if the goal is within the normal together if the goal is within the normal standards of the community. standards of the community.

Critical Social TheoryCritical Social Theory – Looks at the – Looks at the way the community comes together to way the community comes together to analyze a problem that is preventing analyze a problem that is preventing the attainment of their goals or needs. the attainment of their goals or needs.


Problem Oriented PolicingProblem Oriented Policing

Shares many of the same Shares many of the same characteristics of community-oriented characteristics of community-oriented policing. policing.

Concentrates on situational crime Concentrates on situational crime prevention. prevention.

Looks at the community of the problem. Looks at the community of the problem. The Definition of “community” would The Definition of “community” would shift as problems were solved (versus shift as problems were solved (versus static geographic communities). static geographic communities).


Technology’s Impact on Policing Technology’s Impact on Policing StyleStyle

Political Model

Professional Model

Incident DrivenTechnology


Changing the Value of Changing the Value of InformationInformation

The increasing ability The increasing ability to obtain, organize, to obtain, organize, analyze and recall analyze and recall information has information has increased its valueincreased its value



One of the earliest applications of One of the earliest applications of science to criminal investigation is science to criminal investigation is fingerprintfingerprint classification. classification. Visible – left by touching a substance Visible – left by touching a substance

before touching a surface (e.g., blood on before touching a surface (e.g., blood on a counter)a counter)

LatentLatent – hidden fingerprints left behind – hidden fingerprints left behind by the natural oils from our hands. (Best by the natural oils from our hands. (Best obtained when surface is clean, dry, obtained when surface is clean, dry, smooth and non-porous.) smooth and non-porous.)



At the beginning of At the beginning of the 20the 20thth Century Century fingerprints were fingerprints were routinely taken routinely taken from offenders and from offenders and the cards stored.the cards stored.

At this time, for a At this time, for a match each print match each print must be compared must be compared against millions of against millions of cardscards



At first, systems of classification At first, systems of classification enable fingerprint specialist to narrow enable fingerprint specialist to narrow the search from millions of cards to the search from millions of cards to thousands – but still a hand search thousands – but still a hand search and analysisand analysis

The computer enabled the automation The computer enabled the automation ofof

the process.the process.


Automated Fingerprint Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemIdentification System

The process of analyzing fingerprints is The process of analyzing fingerprints is dactylography.dactylography.

Software used sophisticated and Software used sophisticated and complex algorithms to recognize and complex algorithms to recognize and compare compare minutiaeminutiae. . HoweverHowever;;

Computer processing speeds were slowComputer processing speeds were slow Hardware and software to store the Hardware and software to store the

information had not yet been developedinformation had not yet been developed


National Crime Information National Crime Information CenterCenter

NCICNCIC organized in 1967 by the FBI to organized in 1967 by the FBI to handle fingerprints cards and handle fingerprints cards and requests for comparison. requests for comparison.

Began to incorporate criminal Began to incorporate criminal histories and correlate them to histories and correlate them to offender fingerprint cards on file. offender fingerprint cards on file.

Medium of transmission was U.S. Medium of transmission was U.S. mail and eventually fax. mail and eventually fax.


Local agencies forged ahead Local agencies forged ahead developing their own applications developing their own applications similar to NCIC creating fragmentationsimilar to NCIC creating fragmentation

AFISAFIS technology began to be used technology began to be used routinely especially in the routinely especially in the investigation of cold cases. investigation of cold cases.

1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and 1999 – the FBI launched IAFIS and made available nationwide the made available nationwide the fingerprints of 33 million criminals. fingerprints of 33 million criminals.




Digital scanning – obtains Digital scanning – obtains

an image on the fingerprint, an image on the fingerprint,

examines and compares. examines and compares. Capacitance scanningCapacitance scanning – –

uses a charged coupled uses a charged coupled device (CCD)device (CCD)

Optical ScanningOptical Scanning – light – light source illuminates the source illuminates the suspect’s fingertipssuspect’s fingertips

Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.


Differences are important for two Differences are important for two

reasons: reasons: Capacitance scanner does not Capacitance scanner does not

contain the CCD and is more readily contain the CCD and is more readily miniaturizedminiaturized

Capacitance scanner is actually Capacitance scanner is actually taking measurements and is not taking measurements and is not easily fooled. easily fooled.



NCIC 200NCIC 200

NCIC 2000 promises NCIC 2000 promises to take fingerprint to take fingerprint technology into the technology into the fieldfield

Photograph provided by Cross Match Technologies, Inc.


Policy and ProcedurePolicy and Procedure

ProceduresProcedures are a set of instructions are a set of instructions on how to do something. on how to do something.

PolicyPolicy is a broad statement on how is a broad statement on how things should be done – how we things should be done – how we want human beings to exercise want human beings to exercise judgment. judgment.


FragmentationFragmentation

The nature of United States Law enforcement has caused policies, procedures and technology to develop different from agency to agency.



17,000 state and local law 17,000 state and local law enforcement agencies. enforcement agencies.

Different community expectations Different community expectations and standards and standards

Difference equipment acquisitions Difference equipment acquisitions according to size of budgetaccording to size of budget

Expertise develops at different ratesExpertise develops at different rates



Fragmentation – Fragmentation – policy, procedure policy, procedure and technology – and technology – causes problems causes problems whenever agencies whenever agencies must or should must or should work togetherwork togetherPhotograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency Photograph provided by Robert Eplett, California Governor’s Office of Emergency

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Copyright 2005 - 2009: Hi Tech Criminal Justice, Raymond E. Foster Police Technology Police Technology Chapter Six Police Technology A Brief History of