Corruption in Nigeria Economy System

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Corruption in Nigeria: Review, Causes,

Effects and Solutions January 6, 2016

Introduction

Corruption is Nigeria's biggest challenge. It is clear to every citizen that the level of corruption in

the country is high. It's found in every sector of society. Be it a small or big sector, there is every

possibility of observing corrupt practices when critically examined.

hat is corruption! It's the dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power, typically

involving bribery. It is the illegitimate use of power to benefit a private interest "#orris $%%$&.

Corruption is the giving of a bribe to an official so that the truth will not be told. It involves the

embezzlement of public fund for personal use and any act which is considered to be criminal act

according to the law of a particular society.

Review on the Corrupt State

Nigeria, which the most populated country in frica, has been ran(ed high in corruption by

)ransparency International and other notable organizations that monitor corrupt practices around

the world. )hey do not have anything good to say about Nigeria at all. *igh corruption ran(ings

affect almost all Nigerians who migrate to foreign countries, as foreigners have the perception

that since Nigeria is corrupt, so are all Nigerians.

In the year +, )ransparency International carried out a survey on the corruption levels of %

countries, including -enya, Cameroon, ngola, Nigeria, Cte/d'Ivoire, 0imbabwe, 1thiopia,

2hana, 3enegal, 0ambia, India, 4enezuela, #oldova, and others. t the end of the ran(ing,

Nigeria was seen as the most corrupt in that ran(ing because the country occupied the %th

position in terms of transparency. Nigeria was the most corrupt country in the year +.

In +$, Nigeria was ran(ed the second/most corrupt nation in the world out of %$ countries,

falling only to Bangladesh. )his shows that corruption in Nigeria improved by one step when

compared with that of +.

3till from the same source, in the year ++, Nigeria was again ran(ed the second/most corrupt

country in the world, after the organization surveyed $+ countries. Nigeria was seen at the

bottom, occupying the $$th position in terms of Confidence Interval "CI&.

In +5, Nigeria received the same ran(ing, ma(ing no improvements from +5.


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+6's ran(ing showed a little improvement when compared to the past four years. Nigeria was

ran(ed the third most corrupt country in the world, performing better than Bangladesh and *aiti.

)hat year, $67 nations were surveyed.

)he record on the corruption in Nigeria really improved in +7. )he number of countries

surveyed by the )ransparency International was $78. Nigeria was ran(ed sixth most corrupt.

#ore countries were surveyed by )ransparency International in +9. $95 countries were

surveyed that year. )he results showed some improvement, and Nigeria was ran(ed the $8th

most corrupt country in the world. *aiti was the world's most corrupt nation that year.

mong the $8 countries surveyed in +:, Nigeria ran(ed $68. )his result shows that Nigeria

was 5+nd most corrupt country in the world.

n analysis of the anti/graft;anti/corruption laws in Nigeria shows that corruption will continue

in spite of the law, because the perpetrators do not fear any consezochu(wu +$5&. In that year, the country ran(ed $5%th out of the $:9 surveyed

countries, ma(ing Nigeria the 5:th most corrupt nation.

In +$5, Nigeria ran(ed $66 out of $:: surveyed countries in terms of transparency. )he score

made Nigeria 55rd most corrupt country in the world that year. )he result published by the

organization also showed that Nigeria scored +7? out of $ in terms of transparency.

In the +$6 ran(ing, Nigeria is ran(ed $59 out $:6 surveyed countries ")ransparency

International +$6&. )he result shows that there is improvement, though things are still bad.

Nigeria was the 58th most corrupt country in the world in +$6.

Nigeria failed when it came to transparency in the country. By contrast, in +$5, @enmar( and

New 0ealand scored highest at %$? each, meaning the countries are clean and have higher

Confidence Intervals than Nigeria. In the other words, Nigeria is highly corrupt.

Facets of Corruption

Corruption ta(es many forms and can be interpreted by many people in many ways. It is hard to

enter any sector in Nigeria without observing one corrupt practice or the other. )he areas where

corruption is observed are not only in the public sector or in politics


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Political Corruption

Boo(s have been written, people have tal(ed, and press companies have been writing on the high

level of corruption in Nigeria politics, yet the political perpetrators pretend as if they are not the

people being tal(ed about. )hey feel they are above the law.

Corruption ta(es many shapes, starting with embezzlement, bribery, rituals, rigging in elections

and so on. In fact, corruption is highest in the political system. In both the 3enate and the *ouse

of Aepresentatives, corruption is seen as normal. here do we start among politicians! It is

because of the wic(ed level of corruption that ma(es both the youths and the old struggle to

find themselves in one political party or the other. )hey believe that once they occupy any

position in politics, even the smallest, they will use corrupt tric(s to fill their poc(ets with public

funds.

1mbezzlement of public funds is common. #any leaders have helped boost the economies of

other nations by depositing embezzled money in foreign ban(s. Dacts and figures have shown

that on many occasions, the men who rule the country have embezzled funds into foreign ban(s.

Eolitical corruption is persistent in the Nigerian state. 3ince the creation of modern public

administration in the country, there have been cases of official misuse of resources for personal

enrichment "3torey Aeport +$6&. fter the death of the former president, Eresident 3ani bacha,

an investigation was carried out to detect the amount of money he embezzled in gas plant

construction in the country. )he investigations led to the freezing of accounts containing about

F$ million >nited 3tates dollars "*ector +6& that he stole. )he bacha administration in the

$%%s notoriously looted upwards of F5 billion ">zochu(wu +$5&.

s of a few years bac(, whenever it was time for election in Nigeria, small children in the

country began to go missing. Child/missing during that period was rampant and parents were

usually advised to guide and guard their children from ritualists. But why was it li(e that and

what were the children used for! )his is another face of corruption that brea(s the hearts of

mothers. )he missing children were used by contesting politicians to perform ritual (illings in

order to get protections and other devilish powers that will enable them win elections. )his is

corruption and wic(edness in the highest order because it involves the termination of human life.

)hose who ta(e part in that practice have their children at home and went on capturing and

(illing the children of others. It is not as if this has stopped, but it has slowed down.

1lection rigging is not an unheard/of phenomenon. @uring elections, the contestants hire thugs

who go round the election polling stations to highGac( the ballot boxes. hen they steal these

boxes, they then use their hands to vote for their candidate. In the recent times, the new tactics

that the contestants have adopted is buying voterHs cards so that they can manipulate and use the

cards for their own advantages.


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=n many occasions politicians have bribed some top officials to do wrong things to their favour.

3ome political leaders, including governors and presidents, have been sued by opponents, but the

sued followed the bac( door, bribing barristers and Gudges. t the end of the Gudgement, the

leader who bribed won in the case.

Corruption in Universities and CollegesIt is not new to any real Nigerian to hear that corruption parades itself in universities,

polytechnics and colleges. )here are certain things that lecturers do that deserve hot

punishment. #ost lecturers use the opportunity they have to ta(e advantage of others.

*arassment of women by lecturers and pressure to sleep with them is common. )he most painful

part of it is that some of them are married, yet they are not satisfied. fter some of the female

undergraduates submit to the lecturers reniversities have been crying about the amount of funds allocated to them. lecturer in a

university located in nambra 3tate on the nature of the poor standard of the foundry in the

department of #etallurgical and #aterials 1ngineering has this to say hat ma(es our foundry

to be of low standard is...corruption. n organization gave the department some money that

would have been more than enough to upgrade and standardize the foundry, but I do not (now

what the management of the department did with the money. Corruption is one of the biggest

challenges faced by the education system.

*ow do some students find their ways into the universities! 3ome are there not by merit, but

through a (ind of bribery called sorting. 3ome rich men in the country bribe vice/chancellors and

heads of departments to secure admission for their children. hen this (ind of dirty practice is

conducted, those who would have made it on merit are cheated, as no admission will be offeredto them. 1very university in Nigeria has a


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F.5$& or twenty naira " + K F.$+&. )he police are now turning to gods that receive money

from the worshipper as offering.

3ome women prison inmates went into prisons singled to come out doubled. hat this implies is

that the policemen use the opportunity they have to assault women who are imprisoned. )he

women may say no, but because the policemen have guns, the women could not do anything.

)hey were impregnated before they were granted bail. hat (ind of prayer will erase this (ind of

abomination!

Corruption in Football

Corruption is li(e a curse laid upon us by an un(nown person. 1ven in football has corruption.

Elayers are not chosen by merit. It is all about who you (now in top political offices or society.

In the Nigerian Dootball Dederation "NDD&, corruption is the reason why #r. is elected as the

leader of the group today and tomorrow the election is nullified and #r. B chosen. 1verybody

wants to be at the head so that he will fill his bag with the national ca(e. Eeople do not fight to

wor( because it is stressful, so whenever people fight for a particular position, there is every

possibility that they are there to clean out the organization.

Aeports and evidence have shown that there are corrupt practices in Nigerian football. BBC

news report said this senior football official and a club administrator have been banned for

$ years following their involvement in corruption, the football authority has announced "BBC

3port News +$5&. #atch/fixing and corruption is a problem in Nigerian football and has lead to

sanctions against a number of clubs, referees and officials "=luwashina +$5&.

referee "name withdrawn& who is currently a Catholic priest serving in a parish in nambra,

once gave his experience on the level of corruption in football. ccording to priest, he said that

he narrowly escaped death when he officiated a match in the local league. *e stated fter the

first half of the match, none of the two sides scored any goal. Before the beginning of the second

half, some officials and young youths who were supporting the club at home side came and said

to me if you want to leave this pitch alive, ma(e sure that you do anything possible to see that

our club win this match. )he young referee was scared of the treat and finally the home side

won the match with a lone goal. )he inability of 3uper 1agles of Nigeria to


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decorates it, and convinces people to Goin him, that he has been given powers to summon signs

and miracles from 2od.

Imagine how a man that have been dying of hunger for years claim that you should come to him

that he has been called and can transform you financial status. It is the common thing they

usually say that ma(e hungry Nigerians yield to their deceptions. )he people come and the so/

called pastors use their tric(s to collect the money that is remaining in the poc(ets of the poor

ones in the country.

3ome of the pastors go to the extent of using magical and devilish powers in running their church

business in the name of 2odHs power. )hey give the congregations what they want without them

(nowing the source of their so/called power. If it is for women who are in search of babies, the

babies may be given to them through devilish powers but continue to cause headaches to the

childrenHs parents till death. )oday, one of the children will steal money from a ban( through

armed robbery and tomorrow (ill an innocent person, operating under the influence of the devil.

Eastors have on many occasions been caught in adultery and fornication. It is not new and it is

certain that you as a reader have heard about such shameful acts. )hrough newspapers,

televisions, and other channels, the immoral acts committed by Nigerian pastors have been

observed. In early November of +$6, there was a radio program from Blaze D#, =rifite, on a

pastor that impregnated an $$/year/old girl. ccording to the report, the girl was impregnated by

the pastor when her mother too( her to the pastorHs place for prayers, and left for her own

business.

Internet FraudDraudulent Internet activity is another face of corruption. 2raduates and non/graduates who lac(sthe (nowledge and s(ills to help them earn money find Goy in Internet fraud. It is a criminal act

and deserves serious punishment. mong the classes of offences committed in Nigeria, both the

3enate and members of *ouse of Aepresentative are wor(ing hard to see that those caught in

such fraud act face the punishments they deserve without any favour.

3ome Nigerians, who are mainly youths, have been scamming their fellow citizens using illegal

means. 3ome host websites online and claim to be giving Gobs to Gob see(ers and scam any who

fall prey to their tric(s. )hey tell Gob see(ers to ma(e certain payments for processing documents

without them (nowing that they will not be issued any Gob. 3ome Nigerians have been stolenfrom by cyber criminals.

)he level of corruption in Nigeria has made many citizens of the country show no respect to holy

and 2odly affairs. )his is seen in the report given by the spiritual director of doration #inistry

1nugu Nigeria, #1N, news report on @ecember +$6. ccording to the spiritual director, Aev.

Dather 1Gi(e #ba(a, some Nigerians impersonated him through websites and social media sites,


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specifically Daceboo(. *e lamented that the bad guys used his picture to deceive people and

collect money from them while claiming they were Dr. #ba(a. )he notable reverend father made

it clear that he is not on Daceboo( and neither does he own a website with his name. *e went

further to say that anyone caught in that act will dance ti the music that he or she deserves and

the police have been involved to find those criminals out.

Corruption in the Customs Service

re Nigerian customs really doing the wor( they are called to do correctly! )he customs service

of Nigeria is the organization that is authorized to clear goods that are imported into the country.

)his group is not free from the menace of corruption.

In most occasions, you must pay bribes to customs before your goods are cleared. #any

containers that are being held captive by customs because the owners are not willing to pay the

large amount of money being demanded.

Causes of Corruption

number of things cause corruption, and among them are

Greed

Poor youth empowerment

Poverty

Unemployment

Greed

2reed has caused a lot of crises in the world, including in Nigeria. It is because of greed that

political leaders embezzle from the funds they are supposed to use for national development for

their own selfish needs.

Poor Youth Empowerment

Eoor moral youth empowerment is a contributor to corruption. Internet fraud, sexual harassment

by male C1=s, and other bad acts are because Nigerians lac( understanding on the importance of

youth empowerment. hen parents and governments empower youths both financially and

morally, the level of corruption among them will diminish.

Povert

ccording to international standards of poverty, a person is said to be poor when he lives under

F$.+7 " +$, though it varies& per day. )here are many poor people in Nigeria, and poverty

pushes them into corruption. ccording to orld Ban( 2roup, in +6, 95.$? of Nigerians were

poor. )he poverty level increased in +$. In +$, 98? of the Nigerian population were


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estimated to be poor. person can ta(e bribes to commit crime because he is poor. It is one of

the reasons why the poor youths in the country collect bribes to wor( as thugs for Nigerian

politicians.

Unemploment

>nemployment is one of the maGor challenges in Nigeria and does not need much explanation

because it has bro(en the hearts of many citizens. Eeople are pushed into corrupt practice

because of high unemployment. n unemployed citizen can indulge in corruption to ma(e

money and live better.

E!ects of Corruption

)he negative consenemployment in Nigeria would have been eradicated to some extent if only investors were

attracted to it. Companies that would have invested in Nigeria are afraid because they do not

(now if the corrupt practice will ruin their industries in time. Because of this, they refuse toinvest in Nigeria.

Rise in Poverty

hen the heads of public service are busy laundering the money that is supposed to be used to

create employment for the masses and reduce poverty, what happens is that there will be a rise in

the poverty level of the country. Lust li(e the rise in poverty as statistically shown between +6

and +8. 3ince the government is selfish and does not want to help the poor, poverty continues

to rise in Nigeria.

Poor National Development

ny country with high corruption is li(ely to experience developmental ban(ruptcy. situation

where some C1=s indulge in corrupt practices to ma(e their money means that economic

development will suffer. hen Nigerians (eep on shifting the countryHs currency to foreign

countries, there will be less economic development in Nigeria.


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National Crises

3o many crises in Nigeria today are as a result of corruption. )he insecurity in Nigeria brought

about by Bo(o *aram is a conse


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Proper !overnment "unding of Sc#ools

>nderstanding the importance of s(ill ac


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orld :an3 Group) +2018-, Poverty and $'uity)

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(uEa&u (ohammed Dusi

*epartment o Political science,

:ayero University, =ano

Presented at a seminar 7r#ani&ed y the code o conduct :ureau, held in Ji#awa 8

Star or3shopCseminar is Fcomatin#

corruption and moral *ecadence in the ocal Government dministration) Since the

country is now operatin# under a democratic constitution, with hu#e Hnancial

resources accruin# to the ocal Government dministrations, and so hi#h

e/pectation rom the people, and yet no visile development can e seen in the

ocal Government reas, at least in Ji#awa state, it is most appropriate to discuss

this issue)

%he little contriution " am #oin# to ma3e in this seminar is on the suIect o,

corruption and its eects and how it can e controlled in Ni#eria)

"n recent years, with the introduction o Structural dIustment Pro#ramme, (athew

Parris has oserved that Fcorruption has ecome an rican epidemic) "t is

impossile to overstate the poisonin# o human relations and the paraly&in# o

initiative that the corruption on the rican scale rin#)

recent report y the "nternational


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%his contriution is aimed at drawin# the attention o the participant at this seminar

on conse'uences o corruption and how to control it)

:ut, eore #oin# into all these we need to clariy what is corruption and the types

o corruption) %his is very essential ecause, in order to H#ht corruption we must

understand what it is and what are its maniestations)

.orruption

%he word corruption has varied meanin#s deendin# on the political culture and

civili&ation o the people) "n many Ni#erian communities a man or community o

men can #ive or sent a #it to an o9cer, in appreciation o his #ood perormance)

%his is called #aisuwa in


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or#ani&er o this seminar, " need not mention speciHcally these cases) "nstead " will

attempt to hi#hli#ht types o corruption, which the :ureau may wish to #ive

attention, i the prolem is to e uprooted rom Ni#eriaEs society)

*o#on!yaro posited two typesCcourses o corruption in the usiness world) $ach

corresponds to the #roup or or#anisation involved) %he Hrst is in tradin# anddistriution o #oods) %his involves and perpetuates corruption y protectin#,

hoardin# and also speculation o commodities) %he second involves #eneral

contractors who operate throu#h lar#e Hnancial conspiracy with power holders,

dictatin# policies or states and ederal #overnment) %hat is corruption in usiness

relationship, which is now very common even in international usiness)

@emi de3unle, on the other hand, identiHes other orms o corruption) t one level

it is the misuse o pulic o9ce or pulic responsiility or private +personal or

sectional- #ains) t another level it involves the use o pulic or private unds in

order to ac'uire and return political power or to #et #overnment policies passed and

accepted) %he second is called commercialCeconomic corruption) %hese are acts y

those transactin# usiness with various level o Government L @ederal, State and

ocal Government, y oerin# 3ic3ac3 or commissions to #overnment o9cials or

pulic wor3 contract) %he third is called administrative proessional corruption which

involves the casual ut delierate and lar#ely criminal action y top administrative

and proessional personnel who ause their position and their proessional statuses

or private material and social, political #ains) %hey operate via alsiHcation o

accounts, eme&&lement o corporate or #overnment unds throu#h milea#e and

other claims, raudulent ta/ returns, and cover!up o proessional misdeeds)

%he ourth orm o corruption is the or#anised corruption) (ostly common incountries o >estern $urope and merica, it is a relatively lar#e!scale and comple/

criminal activity carried on y #roups o (aHa, mostly elites and their control a#ents

who are loosely as ti#htly or#ani&ed or the enrichment o those participatin# or or

Hnancin# o proIects o the #roup, or political or usiness purposes) %he memers

o these #roups are inKuential, connected to inormation sources and control)

%heir methods o operations include either violent attac3 or 'uite manipulation o

#overnment treasury, i# usiness centres or i# private individuals) %he Hth one is

a mere petty corruption o lower ran3ed wor3ers li3e messen#ers, cler3, security

men etc) who receive some returns or services oered, especially in #overnmentestalishments)

.orruption and the *evelopment #enda

s " ar#ued at the e#innin# o this paper corruption in Ni#eria is a normal aair)

:orrowin# rom e?ine, there is in particular Ma culture o political corruptionE in

which corruption is the normal stu o politics) "ndeed, in Ni#eria, hardly an

uncorrupt person will e anythin# in the scheme o thin#s in runnin# the


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#overnment) " you were not corrupt, you would e mar#inali&ed i not #ot rid o)

nd i you are corrupt, you must e prepared to ollow anythin# without personal

initiative or ideas o an alternative policy)

$specially, o recent, political corruption has ecome an increasin#ly, important

issue, such that other types o corruption is allowed to thrive unchec3ed or is evenencoura#ed) %he noise a#ainst corruption y the >orld :an3 and other "nternational

a#encies and #overnment o >estern $urope and merica is only reerrin# to

political corruption) %he others are condoned y the same a#encies and

#overnments)

%hus, political corruption will e our maIor attention in relation to *evelopment

#enda) @irst, what is development %here are many deHnitions o development)

Petit Roert dictionary contains the ollowin# entry as meanin# o development)

%hese are #rowth lossomin#, pro#ress, e/tension, e/pansion) %hese words imply

that orward advancement o anythin# is development) >hether economic, political,

or social) %hen the report o the south commission, under the chairmanship o the

ormer %an&anian President late Julius Nyerere, while summin# up the aspirations

and policies o developin# countries, deHned development as Fa process which

enales human ein#s to reali&e their potential, uild sel!conHdence, and lead lives

o di#nity and ulHlment) "t is a process, which rees people rom the ear o want

and e/ploitation) "t is a movement away rom political, economic and social

oppression) @urthermore, the


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Set a#ainst corruption on hi#h scale, the "(@ and the >orld :an3 have even

promoted the H#ht a#ainst political corruption as a condition or und acilities to

implement Structural dIustment Pro#ramme) :ut the reality is ased on the

assumption that political corruption is caused y interventionist state and in order

to wipe out corruption a neo!lieral state should e put in place) %hat is a state

which will withdraw all services e)#) education, health, withdrawal o all sorts osusidies, commerciali&ation and privati&ation o pulic enterprises, etc)

%he Ni#eriaEs state has already ecome the so!called neo!lieral state pursuin# the

neo!lieral a#enda) :ut, does that eliminate corruption rom Ni#eriaEs society)

%he reality is that under the present economic development a#enda, corruption and

political corruption in particular has increased and ecome wide spread more than

any moment in the past history o Ni#eria)

Undoutedly, corruption has a ne#ative impact on all indicators o economic

development) .orruption, especially political corruption reeds lac3 o productivity,

lac3 o initiative and creativity to put sound policies, which could #enerate urther

development) %hus, the rate o economic #rowth, domestic and orei#n investment,

employment and air income distriution all suered and retarded as a result o

corruption) "n act, the prolems o corruption have increasin#ly pushed Ni#eriaEs

society and economy to the ric3s o disaster, as the current lac3 o pro#ress and

the political crisis etween the le#islature and the e/ecutive shows) %his political

crisis is a #reat revelation o people in the leadership o Ni#eria, overwhelmed y

corruption o o9ce can #o to any e/tent includin# the #eneration o trial, re#ional,

and reli#ious support to protect their loot)

"t is the same scenario o similar or dierent dimensions o political conKict we can

Hnd in states and local #overnment area) s one 3een oserver has noted, wherever

there is relative peace and understandin# etween the various o9cials is where the

loot o political corruption spreads to every ody in the team)

(echanisms o .ontrollin# .orruption

$very #overnment in Ni#eria reco#ni&ed corruption as a maIor ostacle to easy

development) Sometimes #overnment is chan#ed y the rmed orces ecause o

corruption) nd there are many approaches to stem the tides o, indiscipline,

corruption and moral decay in Ni#eria) %he approaches to address corruption ran#esrom the estalishment o code o conduct ureau +the or#ani&ers o this seminar-

y *ecree, as an enorcement, investi#ative and detective ody to trace corrupt

practices and cause punishment y the law) 7thers include the pulic complaint

commission, the various Judicial dministrative %riunals o in'uiry into scandals y

pulic o9cers) %he ethical revolution committee initiated y President Shehu

Sha#ari in 158 as well as the >ar #ainst "ndiscipline y General :uhari and

"dia#on in 15 all into the same a#enda o H#htin# corruption in Ni#eria)


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%he aove eorts y various #overnments to tac3le the prolem o corruption has

indicated the e/tent to which corruption has #one deep in the lives o Ni#erians) "n

his amous JaIi declaration in 1 General 7asanIo emoaned the indiscipline,

corruption, moral decay and lac3 o patriotism, which characteri&ed various acet o

Ni#eriaEs lie) Dou would recall that 7asanIo, in the JaIi *eclaration e/alted allNi#erians to e more discipline, more humane and more considerate towards the

welare o their ellow citi&ens, and to eschew materialism, Kamoyant display o

wealth, and unnecessary ac'uisitive tendencies)

President 7asanIo made that statement in 1 when he was the (ilitary


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corruption that #overnment unds are deposited in personal Savin# ccounts which

accrue interests not to the #overnment ut to the person)

lso some #overnors and local #overnment chairmen are the sole contractors o all

proIects and purchases y their #overnments) Some #o and do it directly while

some put their riends and rothers as middlemen to do the purchases)

ll these happen either ecause o personal a##randi&ement, sectional purposes,

asence o clear pro#ramme and le#al ramewor3 to deal ruthlessly with the

prolem or it may e ecause o poor pay to some cate#ories o pulic servants)

"ndeed, it is ecause o the corrupt practices o Ni#eriaEs pulic service unctionaries

that, neither the landscape o Ni#eria not the standard o livin# o its citi&ens has

si#niHcantly improve since independence, despite the hu#e monetary resources

which the #overnment has een ale to accumulate over the years) lso, at level o

political development, Ni#eria remains perpetually incapale o resolvin# its political

crisis, includin# the present crisis etween the le#islature and the e/ecutive)


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Corruption in #igeria* " #ew Paradigm for E!ective Control

By Victor E. Dike

%here are many unresolved prolems in Ni#eria, ut the issue o the upsur#e o

corruption is troulin#) nd the dama#es it has done to the polity are astronomical)

%he menace o corruption leads to slow movement o Hles in o9ces, police e/tortion

toll#ates and slow tra9cs on the hi#hways, port con#estion, 'ueues at passport

o9ces and #as stations, #host wor3ers syndrome, election irre#ularities, amon#

others) $ven the mad people on the street reco#ni&e the havoc caused y

corruption ! the unds allocated or their welare disappear into the thin air) %hus, it

is elieved y many in the society that corruption is the ane o Ni#eria)

.onse'uently, the issue 3eeps reoccurrin# in every academic and inormal

discussion in Ni#eria) nd the issue will hardly #o awayQ

Some writers say that corruption is endemic in all #overnments, and that it is notpeculiar to any continent, re#ion and ethnic #roup) "t cuts across aiths, reli#ious

denominations and political systems and aects oth youn# and old, man and

woman ali3e) .orruption is ound in democratic and dictatorial politicsO feudal,

capitalist and socialisteconomies) Christian, Muslim, Hindu,and Buddhist cultures

are e'ually edeviled y corruption) nd corrupt practices did not e#in todayO the

history is as old as the world) ncient civili&ations have traces o widespread

ille#ality and corruption) %hus, corruption has een ui'uitous in comple/ societies

rom ancient Egypt,Israel, Rome,and Greecedown to the present +ipset and en&

2000, pp)112!118-) %his does not, however, mean that the ma#nitude o corruption

is e'ual in every society Some countries are more corrupt than othersQ s GeorgeOrwellnotes in his widely read oo3,Animal arm; ll animals are e'ual, ut some

animals are more e'ual than others +June 16, p)10-)

Since corruption is not new, and since it is a #loal phenomenon, it is not peculiar to

Ni#eria)


20/53

Perhaps, ecause corruption has received an e/tensive attention in the

communities, and perhaps, due to the act that it has een over!Ko##ed in the

academic circles, corruption has received varied deHnitions) .orruption has roadly

een deHned as a perversion or a chan#e rom #ood to ad) SpeciHcally, corruption

or corrupt ehavior involves the violation o estalished rules or personal #ain and

proHt +Sen 1, p)2-) .orruption is eorts to secure wealth or power throu#hille#al means private #ain at pulic e/penseO or a misuse o pulic power or private

eneHt +ipset en&, 2000, p)112!114-)

"n addition, corruption is a ehavior which deviates rom the ormal duties o a

pulic role, ecause o private #ainsT ! re#ardin# +personal, close amily, private

cli'ue, pecuniary or status #ains) "t is a ehavior which violates rules a#ainst the

e/ercise o certain types o dutiesT or private #ainsT ! re#ardin# inKuence +Nye,

16-) %his deHnition includes such ehavior as riery +use o a reward to pervert

the Iud#ment o a person in a position o trust-O nepotism +estowal o patrona#e y

reason o ascripti$e relationship rather than merit-O and misappropriation +ille#al

appropriation o pulic resources or private uses +:anHeld 161-) %o the already

crowded landscape +7soa 16-, adds that corruption is an anti!social ehaviour

conerrin# improper eneHts contrary to le#al and moral norms, and which

undermine the authorities to improve the livin# conditions o the people)

$ven thou#h some o these deHnitions o corruption have een around or over

decades, the recent development in Ni#eria where discoveries o stolen pulic unds

run into illions o %& 'ollars and Ni#eria !aira, ma3e these deHnitions very

ade'uate and appropriate) .orruption is proaly the main means to accumulate

'uic3 wealth in Ni#eria) .orruption occurs in many forms,and it has contriuted

immensely to thepo$ertyand miseryo a lar#e se#ment o the Ni#erian population)

%he #ature and Characteristics of Corruption

Some studies have ta3en a holistic +roader- approach in the discussion o

corruption y dividin# it into many orms and su!divisions) %hese are;

i- Political .orruption +grand-O

ii- :ureaucratic .orruption +petty-O and

iii- $lectoral .orruption)

Political corruption ta3es place at the hi#hest levels o political authority) "t occurs

when the politicians and political decision!ma3ers, who are entitled to ormulate,

estalish and implement the laws in the name o the people, are themselves

corrupt) "t also ta3es place when policy ormulation and le#islation is tailored to

eneHt politicians and le#islators) Political corruption is sometimes seen as similar


21/53

to corruption o #reed as it aects the manner in which decisions are made, as it

manipulates political institutions, rules o procedure, and distorts the institutions o

#overnment +!ORA', ch)4, Jan) 2000O "he Encyclopedia Americana, ()))-)

:ureaucratic corruption occurs in the pulic administration or the implementation

end o politics) %his 3ind o corruption has een randed low level and street level) "tis the 3ind o corruption the citi&ens encounter daily at places li3e the hospitals,

schools, local licensin# o9ces, police, ta/in# o9ces and on and on) :ureaucratic

petty corruption, which is seen as similar to corruption o need, occurs when one

otains a usiness rom the pulic sector throu#h inappropriate procedure +see

N7R*, ch)4, 2000-)

$lectoral corruption includes purchase o votes with money, promises o o9ce or

special avors, coercion, intimidation, and intererence with reedom o election

Ni#eria is a #ood e/ample where this practice is common) ?otes are ou#ht, people

are 3illed or maimed in the name o election, losers end up as the winners in

elections, and votes turn up in areas where votes were not castT) .orruption in o9ce

involves sales o le#islative votes, administrative, or Iudicial decision, or

#overnmental appointment) *is#uised payment in the orm o #its, le#al ees,

employment, avors to relatives, social inKuence, or any relationship that sacriHces

the pulic interest and welare, with or without the implied payment o money, is

usually considered corrupt +"he Encyclopedia Americana, ()))-)

7ther orms o corruption include;

- Bri*ery; %he payment +in money or 3ind- that is ta3en or #iven in a corrupt

relationship) %hese include +ic+*ac+s, gratuities, payo-, sweeteners, greasingpalms, etc) +:ayart et) al 1, p)11-)

:- raud. "t involves some 3ind o tric3ery, swindle and deceit, countereitin#,

rac3etin#, smu##lin# and or#ery +"id) p)11-)

.- Em*e//lement; %his is thet o pulic resources y pulic o9cials) "t is when a

state o9cial steals rom the pulic institution in which heCshe is employed) "n

Ni#eria the eme&&lement o pulic unds is one o the most common ways o

economic accumulation, perhaps, due to lac3 o strict re#ulatory systems)

*- E0tortion; %his is money and other resources e/tracted y the use o coercion,

violence or threats to use orce) "t is oten seen as e/traction from *elow%he police

and custom o9cers are the main culprits in Ni#eriaT +:ayart et) al 1, p)11-)

$- a$oritism. %his is a mechanism o power ause implyin# a hi#hly iased

distriution o state resources)


22/53

@- !epotism; %his is a special orm o avoritism in which an o9ce holder preers

hisCher +infol+and amily memers) !epotism, which is also common in Ni#eriaT,

occurs when one is e/empted rom the application o certain laws or re#ulations or

#iven undue preerence in the allocation o scarce resources +!ORA', ch1(, ch12

ch13, Jan) 2000OAmundsen, 1O Girling1O also see air*an+s, Jr) 1-)

@or e-ecti$e controlo corruption in Ni#eria, the society must develop a culture o

relative openness, in contrast to the current ureaucratic climate o secrecy) nd a

merit system +instead o the trial ias, state o ori#in and nepotism or avoritism,

which have colored the landscape- should e adopted in employment and

distriution o national resources, etc) (ore importantly, the leadership must muster

the political will to tac3le the prolem head!on +see report on &econd Glo*al orum

on ighting and &afeguarding Integrity, (ay 25!81, 1-) Re#ardless o where it

occurs, what causes corruption or the orm it ta3es, the simple act remains that

corruption is li3ely to have a more proound and dierent eects in less developed

countries, than in wealthy and developed societies) %his is due to a variety o

conditions, which cannot deviate si#niHcantly rom the nature o their

underdevelopment +Nye 16-) :ecause o the corrosive eects o corruption in

national development, and #iven the relative limited resources or poverty in the

re#ion, rica, and indeed Ni#eria, can least aord to e corrupt)

%he Causes of Corruption

Recently, the International Olympic Committee +"7.-, had to relieve some o its

o9cials o their posts ecause they had ta3en ries) nd all the commissioners o

the European %nion+$U-, resi#ned ecause they, too, had een ound to e corrupt

eyond acceptale limits) "n the United States, Enron Corporation, an ener#y #iantand 4orldCom, a telecommunication company, were char#ed with raud) %he

companies manipulated their alanced sheets, proHt and loss account and ta/

liailities) $nrons accountant, Arthur Andersen,collapsed or #reed and raud as it

was char#ed with ostruction o Iustice in connection to the $nron proe +Reuters

June 2, 2002O "he O*ser$er+U=-, June , 2002-) %hese are tip o the iceer#Q

Det, analysts tend to elieve that developed countries are less corruption than

developin# nations) 7ne o them points out that throu#hout the aric o pulic lie

in newly "ndependent Stateruns the scarlet thread o riery and corruption +>raith

and Simp3ins 168-) nother writer notes that it will pro*a*lye Vdi9cult to secure

y honest meansT a visa to a developin# country that would e the suIect o a

corruption study +Nye 16-)

>hy is corruption a viale enterprise in the "hird 4orld, nay, Ni#eria %he causes o

corruption are myriadO and they havepoliticaland culturalvariales) Some evidence

points to a lin3 etween corruption and social diversity, ethnolinguistic

fractionali/ation, and the proportions o countrys population adherin# to dierent


23/53

reli#ious traditions +ipset and en&, 2000-) nd studies note also that corruption is

widespread in most non!democratic countries, and particularly, in countries that

have een randed neo!patrimonial, +leptocratic and pre*endal +!ORA' 2000-)

%hus, the political system and the culture o a society could ma3e the citi&ens more

prone to corrupt activities)


24/53

position) $ven as corrupt practices are #oin# o the roo, little attention, i any, is

ein# #iven to this ideal)

7ther actors are poor reward system and #reedO Ni#erias reward system is,

perhaps, the poorest in the world) Ni#eria is a society where national priorities are

turned upside downO hard wor3 is not rewarded, ut ro#ues are oten #loriHed inNi#eria) s Authur &chlesingersaid o merica in the 60s, 7ur theT troule with

Ni#eriaT is not that our capailities are inade'uate) "t is that our priorities ! which

means our values are wron# +


25/53

resources) %hey note that cultures that stress economic success as an important

#oal ut nevertheless stron#ly restricts access to opportunities will have hi#her

levels o corruption +2000, pp) 112!11-) %his proaly e/plains the hi#h incidence

o corrupt ehaviors in Ni#eria) (any Ni#erians are hi#hly achievement oriented,

ut they have relatively low access to economic opportunities1 @or e/amplemany

civil servants wor3 or months without #ettin# paid +"his'ay, July , 2002O 'aily"rust, July , 2002-) Det, the society e/pects them to e honest and productive)

(any o those civil servants wor3in# without pay are parents, who are e/pected to

train their children in schools with empty wallet) cials, which they are unale to e/plain the

source, points to how ad corruption has reached in the society) (any o these

o9cials eore ein# elected or appointed into o9ces had little or modest income)

:ut now, they are owners o many properties around the world + "his'ay Online,

June 24, 2002-) "n contrast with the %nited &tates, many o the elected o9cials are

3nown to e modest in livin# +%here are some ad e##s in their midst, ut they ace

the laws when they are ound wantin#-) %he 2000 Hnancial disclosure orms

released in 2001, which is re'uired annually or all ?8? memers o Congress

+


26/53

%he eects o corruption on a nations socio!political and economic development are

myriad) %he ne#ative eects impact economic #rowth as it, amon# other thin#s,

reduces pulic spendin# on education +(auro, 1O and 1-) ipset and en&

note that the eect on #rowth, is in part, a result o reduced level o investment, as

it adds to investment ris3 +2000-) %he eect o corruption on education comes rom

the act that the #overnment spends relatively more on items to ma3e room orgraft +Shleier ?ishny, 18O ipset en&, 2002-) nd corrupt #overnment

o9cials would shit #overnment e/penditures to areas in which they can collect

ries easily) ar#e and hard!to!mana#e proIects, such as airports or hi#hways,

ma3e raud easy) "n addition, poverty and income ine'ualities are tied to corruption

+ipset en& 2000-) *evelopment proIects are oten made unnecessarily comple/

in Ni#eria to Iustiy the corrupt and hu#e e/pense on it) %he new national stadium in

uIa, which is said to have #ulped millions o !airamore than necessary, is a case

in point)

*espite the immoral aspect and pernicious eects o corruption, some scholars

have ar#ued that corruption can e eneHcial to political development or Vpolitical

moderni&ationV +Pye, (arch 16-) Political moderni&ation or development means

#rowth in the capacity o a societys #overnmental structures and processes to

maintain their le#itimacy over time +presumaly in time o social chan#e- y

contriutin# to economic development, national inte#ration and administrative

capacity, and so on +Nye 16-) >e would not #et entan#led with the dierent

scales used or measurin# political development) Nevertheless, Ma0 Gluc+man

opined that scandals associated with corruption sometimes have the eect o

stren#thenin# a value system o a society as a whole +1-) %his is proaly true in

relation to Ni#eria) %he scandals associated with the A*acha era +lootin# o the

treasury and human ri#hts violations- have #iven the nation some ood or thou#ht)Ni#eria is still perple/ed and reoccupied with the issues o how to stren#then the

nations essential #overnmental structures to avoid the reoccurrence o these 3inds

o lootin# and atrocities in uture)

"n addition, some writers have noted that corruption may help to ease the transition

rom traditional lie to a modern political lie) Some have ar#ued that the vast #ap

etween literate o9cial and illiterate peasant, which is oten characteristic o the

countryside, may e rid#ed i the peasant approaches the o9cial earin#

traditional #its or their +corrupt- money e'uivalent) "n this respect, McMullanpoints

out that Va de#ree o low!level corruptionV can soten relations o o9cials andpeople +July 161-) nd &hilsnotes that corruption can humani&e #overnment and

ma3e it less awesome +162-) %hese oservations are common occurrences in

Ni#eria where communities pay political visits to their Go$ernors, Commissioners

and top ci$il ser$antswith cows, wines, cola nutsand money stued in Ghana must

go+a#s- in other to #et them attend to their local prolems)


27/53

%he apparent eneHts o corruption notwithstandin#, we are here mainly concerned

with the evils o corruption) ny ri#ht thin3in# person in Ni#eria where ui'uitous

corruption has rava#ed the society will Hnd it impossile to a#ree that corruption is

eneHcial, no matter how plausile it may e)

%he Evils of Corruption

(any studies have een conducted that show the evils or conse'uences o

corruption) nd corruption has tau#ht the Ni#eria a dan#erous and wron# lesson

that it does not pay to e honest, hardwor3in# and law!aidin#) %hrou#h corrupt

means many political o9ce holders ac'uire wealth and properties in and outside

Ni#eriaO and many display their wealth +which is eyond the means-, ut the society

does not lin3) %his has made politics a i# usiness in Ni#eria, ecause anythin#

spent to secure a political o9ce is re#arded as an investment, which matures

immediately one #ets into o9ce +"he Guardian, July 14, 2002-)

.orruption wastes s3ills as precious time is oten wasted to set up unendin#

committees to H#ht corruption, and to monitor pulic proIects) "t also leads to aid

or#one) Some orei#n donors do not #ive aid to corrupt nations) @or instance, the

International Monetary und+"(@- has withdrawn development support rom some

nations that are notoriously corrupt) nd the 4orld Ban+has introduced tou#her

anti!corruption standards into its lendin# policies to corrupt countries) Similarly,

other or#ani&ations such as the Council of Europeand the Organi/ation of American

&tates are ta3in# tou#h measures a#ainst international corruption +OEC',

*ecemer 1-) .orruption is politically destaili&in#, as it leads to social

revolution and military ta3eovers) (ost Vpost!coup rationali&ationsV in less

developed worlds point to corruption) %he General Buhari9s post!coup roadcast toNi#erians in 158 is a case in point +>elch, Jr), 15-) :ut hidin# under the e/cuse o

corruption to topple a le#itimate #overnment in Ni#eria will sei&e to e a credile

reason or the involvement o the military in Ni#erian politics in uture) %his is

ecause many o the previous military leaders in Ni#eria were as corrupt, i not

more corrupt than the civilian politicians they replaced) .orruption was even lamed

or the Hrst 166 military coup in Ni#eria +and that in Ghana too-) estern re#ion and the ear o northern domination o the

aairs o Ni#eria were other reasons +>allerstein, (arch 14, 166O =ilson, Jan) 81,

166-)

.orruption causes a reduction in 'uality o #oods and services availale to the

pulic, as some companies could cut corners to increase proHt mar#ins) .orruption

eects investment, economic #rowth, and #overn!ment e/penditure choicesO it also

reduces private investment +(auro 1-) :riery and corruption, the culture o late

payment, delays or reusal o payment or services already done, are accordin# to

the ord :ishop o Guilord, *avid Pec3, scarin# away :ritish investors rom Ni#eria)


28/53

the lie lood o any company is its cash Kow) nd ri#htly points out that the price o

corruption is poverty +'aily "rust, July , 2002-) :ecause o the widespread o

VpettyV and V#randV the international usiness community re#ard the whole o rica

as a Vsin3hole that swallows their money with little or no returnV +.alla#hy 14-)

>ith the recent chan#es in the political economy o East Europe, the attention o

the usiness world has een turned to this area where they may reap 'uic3erresults rom their investments)

7ne rican diplomat could not say it any etter; V$astern $urope is nowT the most

se/y eautiul #irl, and we ricaT are an old tattered lady) People are tired o rica)

So many countries, so many warsV +!ewswee+ Education #rogram ! @allC14,

conKict in rica-) s we have seen, what is happenin# in rica is a lueprint o the

prolem acin# Ni#eria) %he nations Vunwor3ale economic policies, latant

corruptionV in act, the Vossili&ed systemV o #overnment has rou#ht almost

everythin# to a halt +dams, (ayCJune, 1-) %hus, corruption discoura#es honest

eort and valuale economic activitiesO and it reeds ine9ciency and nepotism)

.orruption leads to possile inormation distortion as it coo3s the oo3sO and a hi#h

level o corruption can ma3e pulic policies ineective +Sen 1, p)18O also see

ReutersJessica


29/53

COUNTR

Y

RAN

KCOUNTRY RAN

K

COUNTRY RAN

K

Denmark 1 Finland 1

Finland

1

Finland 2 Denmark 2Iceland

2

Sweden 3 NewZealand

3 Denmark 3

NewZealand

4 Iceland 4 New Zealand 4

Iceland 5 Sina!"re 5Sina!"re

5

Canada # Sweden #Sweden

#

Sina!"re $ Canada $Ne%&erland'

$

T&eNe%&erland'

( T&eNe%&erland'

( A)'%ralia (

N"rwa* + ,)-em.")r +N"rwa*

+

Swi%/erland 10 N"rwa* 10Swi%/erland

10

ie%nam $5 R)''ia An"la

124

R)''ia $# Tan/ania (2A/er.aian

c)ad"r $$ Ukraine (3Camer""n


30/53

ene/)ela $( A/er.aian (4e"ria

C"l"m.ia $+ "li6iaTaiki'%an

Ind"ne'ia (0 Camer""n7*anmar

Nigeria 81 Ken*a8ara)a*

Tan/ania (2 Ind"ne'ia ((9ai%i 131

9"nd)ra' (3 UandaNieria 132

8ara)a* (4 Nigeria 90anlade'& 133

Camer""n (5 anlade'& +1

Source (s):

The Transparency International Corruption Index,1++(: and

,i!'e%; Se*m")r < Salman ,en/; "Corruption, Culture, and Markets,"+2000-,"n CultureMatters,


31/53

.orruption is also destructive o #overnmental structures and capacity) "he!E4&, in

its July 11, 1 issue "he ace of a ;iar, ro3e the news o or#ery and perIury

committed y the ormer &pea+ero the House of Representati$es, Alha@i I*rahim

&alisu Buhari1%hrou#h corrupt means, Alha@i I*rahim &alisu Buhari amassed wealth

+he made millions wor3in# or !E#A-, and ried his way to the ourth hi#hest

position in the land) %his scandal dominated the political a#enda o Ni#eria or sometime) "t is a national shame that a croo3 was in!char#e o the House of

Representati$esthe ody that ma3es the laws o the land) >hat type o laws could

he have made or Ni#eria #resident Olusegun O*asan@odisappointed the world y

#rantin# Alha@i &alisu Buhari a state pardon, despite his apparent campai#n to

transorm Ni#eria into a corruption!ree society +O*asan@o9s Inaugural &peech, (ay

2, 1-) %he Buharigate, as the scandal was later called, nearly destroyed

Ni#erias democracy!e/periment)

.orruption can destroy the le#itimacy o a #overnment) %he &hehu &hagari

administration was written o as inept ecause o the ma#nitude o corruption in

the administration, and its lac3 o policy direction +Sueru 14-) .orruption may

alienate modern!oriented civil servants and may cause them to reduce or withdraw

their service or to leave the country) .orruption is one the reasons or the 9*rain

drain9phenomenon in Ni#eria +talented proessionals leavin# the country in search

o employment some where else-) "n Ni#eria, you can hardly enter an o9ce and #et

your Hle si#ned e/cept you drop some money) $ven the security personnel at the

door o every o9ce will as3 or +rie- tips "n other words, corruption leads to slow

movin# Hles that #et throu#h the des3 o o9cers once the interested parties have

compromised themselves) "t also leads to missin# Hles that wouldT resurace

immediately the des3 o9cer is settled, unnecessary ureaucracy and delays until

ees are paid +7loIaO "he Guardian,pril 21, 2002-)

:y dollin# out money to politicians, General A*acha #ot many o the nations

political class to commit political suicide in 15) (any o them lined up en masse

to proclaim him as a dynamic leader and the only person 'ualiHed to lead Ni#eria)

Similarly, recently many politicians rom the rulin# #eoples 'emocratic #arty+P*P-

recently trooped to President O*asan@osOta armin Ogun &tateto e# him to run

or a second term) $ven GeneralA*u*a+ar9svisile timidity to address the issue o

corruption in Ni#eria was alarmin# and discoura#in#, as he retained the military

o9cers o accused o lootin# the national treasury with GeneralA*acha)


32/53

o corruption in Ni#eria) ".-, without success) Now the current

civilian administration o President Olusegun O*asan@o has instituted an

Independent Corrupt #ractices Commission+".P.-, which seems to have power only

over the corrupt poor)

ny society aced with the challen#es o corruption will continue to Hnd ways to

rea3 the circle) %his author has ar#ued elsewhere that Ni#eria cannot eectively


33/53

control the menace o corruption in the nation y merely institutin# proe panels) "t

was su##ested that the to tame the sur#e o corruption in Ni#eria, the #eneral

population should e re!orientated to a etter value system) %his is ecause

Ni#erians have or lon# een livin# on the sur$i$al of the 5ttestand gra*whate$er

comesyourwaymentality +*i3e, 7ctoer 6, 1O *i3e, @eruary , 2002-) %he re!

orientation o the youth in Ni#eria to a #ood value system could help in the wara#ainst corruption) %he 4orld


34/53

%o win the war on corruption, adherence to ethical standards in decision!ma3in#

must e the oundation o the nations policies) >ithout ethics +set o moral

principles or values or principles o conducts #overnin# an individual or a #roup- !

4e*sters !ew Collegiate 'ictionary, 150, p)85, in the conduct o the aairs o the

nation +pulic and usiness-, the apparent wars on corruption in Ni#eria will not e

successul) "n other words, without ethics, any money ud#eted toward H#htin#corruption in Ni#eria is a thin# cast to the wild cat1Ni#eria has to ma3e laws and

implement them to the letters) sAristotleinsists, the aim o ethical philosophy is

practical ! to ma3e us etter men ! +"he #hilosophy of Aristotle, Bam*rough +ed)-,

p)250O "his'ay,(ay 26, 2002-) nd to win the war on corruption Ni#eria has to

ortiy the institutional chec3s and alances amon# the countrys maIor social orces

and the separation o powers within the #overnment +*ahl 15-) %he nation has to

ma3e sure that those entrusted to e/ecute the war on corruption are men and

women o $irtue! those who reco#ni&e and always do what is ri#ht) @or MacIntyre,

virtue is an ac'uired human 'uality, the possession and e/ercise o which enales

us to achieve those #oods which are internal to practices, and the lac3 o which

eectively prevents us rom achievin# any o such #oods) ?irtuous leaders in

#overnment and usinessT are persons o honesty, inte#rity and trust +(ac"ntyre

151O iei# 10O @ran3ena 168O *i3e 2001, pp)108!104-)

rmed with ethics and virtue, the nation should then set out to reduce personal

#ains to corrupt ehavior with tou#h penalties on the culprits) (a3in# tou#h rules

with vi#orous enorcement can deter corrupt ehavior) %he nation should not #rant

too much discretionary powers to o9cers who are in position to #rant avor to

others +usinessmen in particular-, such as o9cer who issue out licenses and

passports +%hese o9cers oten create artiHcial scarcity to attract ries rom the

desperate pulic-) %here is the temptation to e corrupt when the o9cials who havea lot o power are themselves poor +Sen 2000, pp) 2!26-)

7ne o the reasons or the upsur#e o corrupt activities in Ni#eria is that many

Ni#erians have not had the chance to live under the rule law, as the society has

since independence rom :ritain in 160, een under the claws o the military) s

Edward 'e Bononotes in his oo3, uture #ositi$e, aw and order are a asic part o

the aric o society) Society needs to #ive a hi#h priority to this aspect o lie,

ecause poor 'uality here down#rades everythin# elseV +10-) %he Ni#erian police

should e up#raded in status, and e well trained, well e'uipped and well paid +and

on time too-) %he police should ecome an elite profession, which would e openonly to those with #ood moral character) " the police and other security a#ents +or

instance, customs and the military-, will learn and understand their limits +not to

harass and 3ill innocent citi&ens- and ollow the rules, thin#s mi#ht improve in

Ni#eria)

%his is not to su##est that upper level o9cers could not e corrupt) %op ureaucrats

with e/cessive powers could ause them) .ases aound, ut the cases o Generals


35/53

I*rahim Ba*angidaand &ani A*achaare well documented) %he eects o power on

those who wield it are well stated in 155 y ;ord Acton, who noted that Power

tends to corruptO asolute power corrupts asolutely +*ahl 15, p) 8-) :eore this

time a :ritish statesman, 4illiam #itt, oserved in a speech that %nlimited power, is

apt to corrupt the minds o those who possess it +"id) p) 8-)

%he mass mediahas a crucial role to play in the campai#n to educate the people o

their ri#hts as citi&ens, and in e/posin# the ro#ues) Nothin# chills nonsensemore

than e/posure to thin air) %he nation should erect permanent structures in the

society to constantly tac3le corruption, instead o settin# up adhoc corruption!

panels here and there) %he citi&ens have a role to play in the war a#ainst corruption;

they should always try to resist the temptation to oer ries to corrupt

#overnment o9cials, as it ta3es two to tan#o)

%o deal with corruption in ancient, many ureaucrats were paid a corruption!

preventin# allowance yang lien as incentive to remain clean and law!aidin#

+latas, 150O =lit#aard, 155-) %o Amartya &ena payment system o this 3ind

can help reduce corruption throu#h what he calls its income eect, as the o9cer

who #ets this payment may e less in need o ma3in# a 'uic3 uc3) %his type o

payment will also have what he calls sustitution eect) %he o9cer receivin# the

payment would 3now that corrupt ehavior may involve serious loss o a hi#h!salary

employment i thin#s were to #o ad +that is, i he or she is cau#ht with his or her

hand in the coo+ie @ar- +Sen 2000-) "n some cases, how people ehave in a society

depends on how they see and perceive others ehave) " the prevailin# ehavior in

a country is ad, others could imitate the ehavior)


36/53

hands were tainted while in o9ce in the society) (emers o the .ommission

include,Alha@i u*airu Mohammed, Hairat Ade Balogun, #ro1 &ayeed Ham/at Mali+,

Alha@i Muhammed Mahmud Maishanu, Alphonso Olufunmilayo ada+a, Mrs1 &alome

Audu a+anda, Re$1 r1 Moses Orshio Adasu, #rof1 :Mrs1D %che Modum, 'r1 Asi+po

EssienI*o+, Ms1 Adeline Elemechi %wana+a, Ga*riel "aimu Aduda, with #eter

Eyiamen+ue Odilias secretary +"hisday !ews, June 24, 2002-) Now the commissionhas its *ait in the water, ut so ar it has not landed any *ig 5sh) 7r, has it cau#ht

any Hsh at all


37/53

procurement contracts, accept such clauses and the penalties associated

with their violation)

5- "ntroduce similar anti!riery clauses into contracts relatin# to privati&ation

o #overnment enterprises, and the development o natural resources)

- $nsure that enorcement is predictale and orceulO and

10-%o criminali&e the acts o rieryO prohiit the deduction o ries or ta/

purposesO and erect arriers to transer to western Hnancial institutions o

Hnancial #ains derived rom corrupt practices +%nited &tates Information

Agency, Nov 1, 1-)

7ther steps authorities could ta3e to control corruption include;

11- 'eclaration of Assets; %he state should re'uire that all hi#h!level Ni#erian

o9cials +Presidents, (inisters, e#islative o9cers, .entral an3 #overnors,

Police and .ustoms .hies, (ilitary Generals-, si#n a statement #rantin#

permission to an3s +oth local and orei#n-, real estate or investment house

to disclose any personal assets they may hold) :rea3in# this veil o secrecy, it

has een ar#ued, is crucial i assets declarations are to e veriHed and

accountaility enorced +*iamond, 12-O

12- 4ithholding of Aid. "nternational donors +the IM and 4orld Ban+- can e

helpul y cuttin# o completely distriution o assistance to any country

mar3ed or hi#h!level corruptionO

18- &crutiny for sources of income. s was pointed out aove, scrutini&in#

individual depositors o hu#e sum o money, y Hnancial institutions or

sources, would #o alon# way to curin# lootin# o national treasury y civil

servants)

"t has een reported that the Commonwealth of !ationshave started wor3 on a

pro#ram that would ma3e it di9cult, i not impossile, or an3s and other Hnancial

institutions to accept monies looted rom the national treasury o a Commonwealth

memer nations) %he ormer scrie o the Commonwealth of !ations, Chief Eme+a

Anyao+u, disclosed this at O*osi+Anam*ra &tate- in January 1 +"he Guardian,

Jan) 2, 1-) %he Organi/ation of African %nity+7U-, which recently chan#ed its

name toAfrican %nion+U-, should emulate other international or#ani&ations to

wor3 toward stampin# out corrupt and dictatorship rom its midst) (erely chan#in#

its name without a change in ideologyis Iust li3e puttin# an old wineinto a new

cala*ash)

Conclusion


38/53

(any laws are already on the oo3 to H#ht corruption in Ni#eria +includin# those

crated y the international or#ani&ations-) :ut what is important now, as #eter

Eigen, chairman o the watchdog #roup, "ransparency Internationalhas noted, is

the political will to H#ht corruption at home countries) nd as Ro*ert Mc!amara

remar3ed at the end o the &econd Glo*al orum on ighting Corruption and

&afeguarding Integrity at "he Hague (ay 81, 2001, $very country has to determineit own priorities on the war a#ainst corruption) :ut each society should ocus on

concrete actions that can yield measurale results, and pulicly report whether

results are ein# achieved +see Odessey, 4ashington ile &ta- 4riter, (ay 81,

2001-)

ove all, Ni#eria cannot e seen as secure and ree until the peoples human ri#hts

are respected and protected y the #overnment) s Mi+hail Gor*ache$points out,

Vthe world cannot e considered secure i human ri#hts are ein# violated)V nd

more importantly, the world cannot e considered secure i a many people lac3 the

elementary condition or lie worthy o man) Similarly, Ni#eria cannot e considered

secure i millions o people #o hun#ry, do not have a roo over their heads and to e

Ioless and sic3 indeHnitely, with the most asic human ri#ht, the ri#ht to lie is

disre#ardedV +(orrison 155-) %hrou#h it all, to tame corruption, Ni#eria has to use

words as well as actions a multiaceted approach)


39/53

latas, Syed 'ussein,The Sociology of Corruption, 3ingapore, Times Book,$%8

mundsen, Inge,n search of a counter!hegemony" State an# ci$il society in the struggle for

#emocracy in Africa">npublished Eh.@. )hesis, Institute of Eolitical 3cience, >niversity of

)romso, $%%:

mundsen, Inge,3ee ch.$, ch.+, and ch.6 corruption @efinitions and Concepts. )he report was

commissioned by the Nor%egian Agency for &e$elopment Cooperation "N=A@&, by was

prepared bynge Amun#sen, Chr.'ichelsen nstitute"C#I&, Lanuary +.

(anfield, Edward,The 'oral Basis of a Back%ar# Society"Chicago Dree Eress, $%78&

Bayart, Lean/DrancoisJ 1llis, 3tephen and *ibou, Beatrice (a criminalisation #e l)tat enAfri*ue" Paris, +-, )#itions Complexe The Criminalisation of the State in Africa, =xford,

$%%%, Lames Curry.

C" '" .oo#house. "New Mor( Elume *arcourt Brace Boo(, $%%9&, p. $%

(ivere, !odfrey,Ban on importation of o$er / years ol# $ehicles: 'inistry of 0inance urge# to

exten# #ea#line. The 1anguar# 2nline, Lune 6, ++

(owman, )ames Sntro#uction: )thical Theory an# practice in Pu3lic 'anagement, in)thical

0rontier in Pu3lic 'anagement: Seeking Ne% Strategies for Resol$ing )thical &ilemmasJ Lames

3. Bowman, editor, 3an Drancisco Lossey Base, $%%$

(ryce, )ames,'o#ern &emocracies,New Mor(, $%+$

Da#l, Ro*ert, 2n &emocracy"New *aven and ondon Male >niversity Eress, $%%8&, p.:5J

p.$$+

De (ono, Edward,0uture Positi$e, Eenguin Boo(s, $%%, p.+8

Callag#y, $#omas,Africa: falling off the 'ap4Current 5istory, Lanuary $%%6, pp.5$/59

CNN News, Tom &aschle: A man of mo#est means,ashington "E&,Lune $6, +$


40/53

Di+e, ictor E,(ea#ership, &emocracy an# the Nigerian )conomy: (essons from the Past an#

&irections for the 0uture"O3acramento, C )he ightning EressP $%%%

Di+e, ictor E,The philosophy of Transforming Nigeria into a Corruption!free Society: Are the

pro3es the Solution? 2nline Pu3lication Nigeriaworld.com;feature;article;corruption.html,

=ctober 9, $%%%

Di+e, ictor E, &emocracy an# Political (ife in Nigeria O0aria, Nigeria hmadu Bello

>niversity EressP +$, pp. %:/$$5

Di+e, ictor E,The State of e#ucation in Nigeria an# the health of the nation in the Nigeria

1conomic 3ummit 2roup "N132& periodical, Lune ++. lso see 2nline Pu3lication, Africa

)conomic Analysis, at www.afbis.com;analysis;education$+6+56:5:.htm

Ewulu, (rig#t,.hy British in$estors shun Nigeria, &aily Trust, Luly %, ++

E%ema, .alac#y, 6lo3al 0inancial institutions options for po$erty re#uction, The 6uar#ian

2nline,Luly $, ++

"air*an+s )r C#arles ', The 0eu#ali7ation of the State in 8ournal of &emocracy4 vol. $,

no.+, $%%%, pp.6:/75

"ran+ena, /illiams 0,)thics,+nd1dition, Erentice *all, Inc., 1nglewood Cliff, NL, $%95

!irling, )o#n,Corruption: Capitalism an# &emocracy,ondon, $%%:, Aoutledge

!luc+man, .a1,Custom an# Conflicts in Africa, =xford, $%77

'all, )essica,.orl#Com 0aces 0rau# Charge,Reuters"Ehiladelphia&, Lune +:, ++.

'arrison, 2awrence E, 9n#er#e$elopment s a State of 'in#: The (atin American Case

"Cambridge Center for International ffairs, *arvard >niv.J anham, #d., >niversity Eress of

merica, $%87&, p.:

0ilson, .artin,Behin# Nigerias Re$olts,New eader, Lanuary $%99, pp.%/$+


41/53

0litgaard, Ro*ert,Controlling Corruption"Ber(eley >niversity of California Eress, $%88&, p.:

2ewis, Peter, The Politics of )conomics,frican Aeport, #ay;Lune, $%%6, p.6:

2ie*ig, )ames E, Business )thics!Profiles in Ci$ic 1irtue4 Dulcrum Eublication, 2olden,Colorado, $%%

2ipset, Seymour .artin, and !a*riel Salman 2en%, Corruption, Culture, an# 'arkets, in

Culture 'atters, (a%rence )" 5arrison, an# Samuel P" 5untington, eds., "New Mor( Basic

Boo(s, +&, p.$$+.

2otterman, Edward,Ba# rules 3ree# corruption,Pioneer Press, pril +7, ++

.acIntyre, lasdair C.,After 1irtue, >niversity of Notre @ame Eress, Lune $%8$

.adue+we, 34o,Corruption an# The Nigerian Proect!ssues,This&ay Sun#ay 2nline, #ay +9,

++

.auro, Paolo,Corruption an# 6ro%th,;uarterly 8ournal of )conomics, $$, no. 5, $%%7.

#auro, Eaolo, The effects of Corruption on 6ro%th, n$estment, an# 6o$ernment )xpen#iture: A

Cross! Country Analysis, in Corruption an# the 6lo3al )conomy, ed., -imberly nn 1lliot

"ashington, @.C. Institute for International 1conomics, $%%:&.

.auro, Paolo, .hy .orry A3out Corruption,editor,'0 Pu3lications: )conomic ssues, No. 9,

$%%:

.erton, Ro*ert 0,Social Theory an# Social Structure"New Mor( Dree Eress, $%98&, pp.+69/

+68

.oore, Step#en,Po%er an# Corruption,4isions Eaperbac(, $%%:

.omodu, S#a+a, Sacke# A$iation 2fficials to 0ace Akan3i Commission"This&ay Ne%s=nline,

Lune +5, +&


42/53

.orrison, Donald, 'ikhail 6or3ache$: An ntimate BiographyJ )ime Boo(, $%88, p.+7

.c.ullan, .,A Theory of Corruption,The Sociological Re$ie%"-eele&, %, Luly $%9$, p.$%9$

Ndiulor, $onyPrice Nigeria is paying for Corruption, The 6uar#ian 2nline, #arch $:, $%%%

Newswee+ Education Program/ Dall;$%%6J see 'conflict in frica'

Nye, ) S, Corruption an# Political &e$elopment: A Case!Benefit Analysis, )he merican

Eolitical 3cience Aeview, $%9:, pp. 6$:/6+:

3ditta, C#i+a,mo .orkers Begin Strike Action4 This&ay Ne%s, Luly 8, ++

3dessey, (ruce, ".ashington 0ile Staff .riter&, &elegates at 6lo3al 0orum on Corruption

9rge# to Take Action No%" 9"S" &ept" of State: nternational nformation Program , #ay 5$,

$%%%.

3g*odo, *ra#am,Primaries 2f Bloo# The 6uar#ian 2nline, Luly $6, ++

3gug*ua4a, C#arles, 1iolent protests in mo o$er allege# ritual killing, The 6uar#ian 2nline ,

#ay $9, ++

3+powo, (lessyn,A6AB: Reformist at %ar, 1anguar# 2nline, 5th#arch, ++

3lo4a, .artins,5o% Ci$il Ser$ants )ngage n Corruption, By )xperts4The 6uar#ian 2nline,

pril +$, ++

3*asan4o, 3*asan4onaugural A##ress#ay +%, $%%%

3rwell, !eorge,Animal 0arm"with a New preface byRussell Baker and introduction by

3nala4a, $aiwo 5 0e#inde 3nala4a,5o% Polygamy .recks Nigeria, frica. CAP.2NA

Boo(s, >-, $%%:

Pye, 2ucian,The Concept of Political &e$elopment,)he nnals, 578, #arch $%97, pp.$/$%


43/53

Sc#lesinger, ut#ur, The Ne% 'oo# in Politics in The Sixties, 2erald *oward "editor&,

ashington 3


44/53

/allerstein, Immanuel,Autopsy of Nkrumas 6hana,New eader, #arch $6, $%99, pp.5/7

/e*sters New Collegiate Dictionary,2. Q C. #erriam Company, 3pringfield, #ass, >3,

$%8

/elc#, Claude )r The 'ilitary an# the States in Africa: Pro3lems of Political Transition in

0a(i 1rgas, editor, The African States in Transition,3t. #artins Eress, New Mor(, $%8:

/orld alues Study !roup, .orl# 1alues Sur$ey Co#e Book,ICE3A 9$9 "nn rbor, #ich.,

ugust $%%6&.

/rait#, Ronald and Edgar Simp+ins, Corruption in &e$eloping Countries, ondon, $%95,

pp.$$/$+


45/53

.auses nd .onse'uences 7 .orruption; %he Ni#erian $/perience

Eosted by olasope$inN13, =EINI=N,E=I)IC3, EA133 3))1#1N)on Luly +5, +$5

$+ am ; $ comment

By Kayode Oladele

=ne of the reasons why we are meeting here this evening is to exchange ideas on our

experiences, challenges, progress so far made in our fight against corruption and discuss current

developments in corruption prevention in relation to institutional techni


46/53

)o this extent and with a focus on the activities of the 1conomic and Dinancial Crimes

Commission "1DCC& in Nigeria, this presentation engages two


47/53

internal revenue agents, and other institutions including the Gudiciary have comprehensive codes

of conduct to regulate their behaviours which also prohibit the receiving or accepting of bribes,

gifts, gratifications etc. *owever, in a political economy that is laced with corruption, such

formal rules are usually supplanted by informal rules or customs that allow corruption to

flourish. Dor instance, the law may criminalize the giving and ta(ing of bribes but in practice,

one can hardly get anything done without gratification or in Nigerian parlance, settling

someone. In Nigeria until the establishment of the 1DCC, the laws were hardly enforced and the

informal rules prevailed. )he 1DCC was thus established to strengthen the institutions and to

shift emphasis bac( to the recognition and enforcement of formal rules. In addition to the

formation of the 1DCC, the government of Nigeria, recognizing the need to have a strong formal

rules, had also enacted various other laws such as )he #oney aundering ct, the dvance Dree

Draud Aelated =ffences ct and the Dailed Ban(s "Aecovery of @ebts& and Dinancial

#alpractices in Ban(s ct and several other appropriate legal framewor(s to control corruption

and strengthen the legal and economic institutions including the criminal Gustice administration.

)he ct also made the 1DCC the designated Dinancial Intelligence >nit "DI>& in Nigeria, whichis charged with the responsibility of co/coordinating the various institutions involved in the fight

against money laundering and enforcement of all laws dealing with economic and financial

crimes in Nigeria. 1ssentially however, the incentive to engage in corruption and corrupt

practice is stronger where the probability of being discovered or prosecuted is remote or non/

existent.

nother cause of corruption is public perception. Corruption is supported when some;few

societal culture promotes corruption. hy should a convicted corrupt individual be offered a

chieftaincy title by traditional rulers! hy do governors, some of whom have been fingered in

corruption be given awards or be elected into the senate! )here are also other instances wherereligious institutions have ordained corrupt public officials and sometimes organized

than(sgiving services for corrupt ex/convicts who are Gust being release from prisons.

)he nature of the economy is also a crucial factor. It has been argued that rent/see(ing or rent/

based systems tend to promote corruption. If this view holds, then, because the Nigerian

economy is based on rents from crude oil and gas, it follows that there would be a number of

lea(ages that would allow for the easy flow of cash and favours, sometimes in illegal ways.

>ntil recently in Nigeria, public officers would deliberately delay the implementation of national

budget with the hope that at the end of the financial year, any unspent budget would become

largesse to be shared by the senior civil servants. )his is why it is often said by experts that for

corruption in public sector to flourish, public officials must possess the authority to design or

administer regulations and policies in a discretionary manner. *owever, with the passage of

new government policies which have made it mandatory for any unspent budget heads at the end

of the financial year to be returned to the federation account and the passage of the Dreedom of

Information ct which is aimed at promoting transparency and accountability in government

finance among others, this practice has also become a thing of the past in Nigeria.


48/53

=ther identified causes of corruption in Nigeria include poverty, poor remuneration or incentive

system.

Conse&uences of Corruption in Nigeria

)he conse


49/53

Dive, corruption also has other social costs apart from poverty. s rightly noted by #yint "+

7&, in any society, there are laws and regulations to serve social obGectives and to protect the

public interest, such as building codes, environmental controls, traffic laws and prudential

ban(ing regulations. 4iolating these laws for economic gain through corrupt means can cause

serious social harm. )he fre


50/53

In +$+ for instance, a total of :,:5: petitions were received and processed by the Commission.

)his represents 9? increase over petitions received in the preceding year. =ut of these, +,99

were assigned for investigation, +,587 were referred to other security agencies for necessary

action and +,:69 were reGected for lac( of merit. total of %: criminal convictions bordering on

money laundering, illegal oil bun(ering, pipeline vandalism, ban( fraud, forgery and criminal

breach of trust, etc. were also secured.

In the same way, a combined total asset worth N %,:77,%+6,957.9% was also recovered and

forfeited to various victims of crimes which included government agencies and departments,

private individuals, institutions and organisations. )his is besides the recovery of a total of the

over F$:million between +$ and +$$ made through settlements "Gointly with the *onourable

ttorney 2eneral of the Dederation and #inister of Lustice& from foreign multinationals involved

in the *alliburton bribery scandal and custom duty violation, etc.

In addition, in the first - authorities

with critical assistance during the course of the investigation. )he 1DCCHs partnership with the

>- authorities in these cases represents best practices in international cooperation as provided

by the >nited Nations Convention against Corruption ">NCC&.

)he criminal prosecution of top Eolitically 1xposed Eerson "E1Es& also continues to receive

priority attention of the Commission. )his is consistent with its top S down approach to

combating corruption. )o this effect, five former state governors and a former spea(er of *ouse

of Aepresentatives including a cabinet #inister were accordingly charged to court between +$$


51/53

and +$+ for corrupt practices bordering on contract fraud and;or abuse of office. )he trials of

these cases are pending and will be concluded soon.

i(ewise, in what perhaps can be described as one of the biggest public sector frauds in Nigerian

history, some dishonest mar(eters of petroleum products swindled the Dederal government of

over N$.:$ trillion under the petroleum 3upport Dund "E31& 3cheme. )he sheer magnitude of

this monumental fraud ignited and fuelled national protests led by labour unions and civil society

organization in Lanuary +$+ against the federal governmentHs proposal to completely remove

the fuel subsidy scheme. 1ven though, further investigation continues, the 1DCC has so far

investigated and arraigned $5 companies including their management staff and directors in court

with a combined sum of N$+.6 billion involved. =f this amount, the Commission has so far

recovered over N5 billion.

ith the efforts of the Commission and its partners, Nigeria was delisted from the infamous list

of non cooperative nations in the fight against corruption and money laundering by the Dinancial

ction )as( Dorce "D)D&, the organization responsible for combating money laundering and

financing of terrorism.

*owever, while the 1DCC does not have all the powers to eliminate all the conditions that cause

corruption, it has been involved in activities that would help eliminate some of the conditions for

causing corruption. part from its declared goal of arresting and prosecuting corrupt individuals,

the current leadership of the Commission aims to expand the fight against corruption beyond the

1DCC to what can be described as the pri$ate sphere, though with normal interface with the

pu3lic sphere.

)hree such areas are worth mentioning. Dirst are the Commission efforts at public enlightenment

of youths and young adults. Considering that one of the focal principles of the current leadership

of the 1DCC is that the fight against corruption can only be won when the society becomes a

partner, the Commission has become active in schools to encourage youths to shun corrupt

activities. 3econd is a periodic engagement with the media with the aim of publicising some of

the achievements of the 1DCC and its challenges. )he Commission, with the help of its

@irectorate for #edia and Eublic ffairs, is currently in the process of fine/tuning a system that

would encourage a continuous reportage of corruption and its manifestations in the Nigerian

Eress. good number of Gournalists have been (ey to the fight against corruption and have been

agents of anti/corruption beyond the rituals of reporting the activities of the Commission alone.)hird is its partnership with other (ey actors in society such the bureaucracy, religious

institutions and other private organisations.

t this Guncture however, I would li(e to use this opportunity to discuss a fallacy that has

continued to be a feature of the criti


52/53

should be located only in terms of the number of individuals serving Gail terms. )his is true and

logical but it assumes that the 1DCC is the only agency that would determine the incarceration of

corrupt individuals. Dor instance, in spite of the fact that the 1DCC did all in its powers to

prosecute a former governor of @elta 3tate in Nigeria, #r. Lames Ibori in a Nigerian Court, the

CommissionHs efforts were frustrated by the inherent wea(ness in the Nigerian criminal Gustice

administration and the Nigerian legal system Dortunately, the 1DCC shares the victory with the

ondon court in the prosecution and imprisonment of #r. Ibori who is now serving Gail term in

>- owing to the partnership of the Commission with the >- authorities in the case within the

context of the best practices espoused in international cooperation provided for by the >nited

Nations Convention against Corruption ">NCC&. Ipso facto, even when the Commission would

have preferred to Gail corrupt individuals to long prison terms for their crimes against humanity,

in the final analysis, it is t

Documents

Corruption in Nigeria Economy System