Corruption is Not Identifiable as a Single

8/4/2019 Corruption is Not Identifiable as a Single

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/corruption-is-not-identifiable-as-a-single 1/12

1

2. Introduction:

2.1 What is Corruption?

Corruption is not identifiable as a single, separate, independent entity which can be isolated

and destroyed. Corruption is a complex set of processes involving human behaviour and

many other variables, some of which are difficult to recognise or measure. Even though

corruption manifests itself as a force on its own and often generates its own momentum, it is

linked to many other factors, and it is by understanding these factors that we can hope to

understand corruption. Understanding corruption is therefore the first step in eradicating or,

at least, containing corruption. In order to understand corruption, we have to first define it.

There are several meanings of the word corruption but when we use the term, we usually

refer to a specific kind of exchange, activity or behaviour. For instance, corruption could

mean a process of physical decay or degeneration; the loss of innocence; a state of moral

impurity or moral deterioration; perversion in taste or language; and also the wrongful,

negligent or wilfully corrupt act of a public official in the discharge of his or her public

duties. Therefore, when we discuss corruption in Bangladesh, we are referring to the

exchange, activity, process or behaviour which occurs when the public domain comes into

contact with the private domain. From this definition, it is obvious that corruption carries

within it several assumptions - of a 'public' as opposed to a 'private' domain; an official codeof behaviour as opposed to an unofficial code of behaviour; the existence of a public or state

apparatus; and even the existence of a particular kind of social, economic and political

organisation (within which the public and private can operate smoothly). These assumptions,

embodied in the popular meaning of corruption, are significant because definitions aside,

when it comes to dealing with corruption - at the political, economic and certainly, at the

sociological level - it is often difficult to decide exactly what constitutes corruption.



2

2. 2 Definition of Corruption

It is very a very challenging task to define a complex phenomenon like corruption because it

is viewed differently from different aspects. Although there is rapidly growing interestsamong policy makers, NGOs ,donor agencies, academicians etc. to identify the causes and

consequences of corruption, still no consensus has been made to define corruption

comprehensively in existing literatures. Its notion varies across country, culture, society and

of course overtime. One activity may be viewed as corruption in developing countries while

it may not be in developed countries. In general, the term “corruption” is always used to label

a large set of illegal activities ranging from “bribery” to “extortion”, from “embezzlement” to

“nepotism”. In this paper I am concerned with the corruption in public sector governance and

its impact on economy of Bangladesh. That is why the scope to define corruption from

different perspective is limited here. The World Bank’s definition of corruption is “The abuse

of public office for private gain. Corruption is every transaction between actors from the

private and public sectors through collective utilities that are illegally transformed into

private gains”2. But there is no way to believe that corruption is only a problem within public

administration. Corruption is also pervasive in private sector. Klitgaard (1998) has given a

very simple definition of this multidimensional subject as: C=M+D-A-S where

C=Corruption, M= Monopoly, D= Discretion, A= Accountability and S= Public sector

salaries3. Put differently, the degree of corruption depends on the amount of monopoly power

and unrestricted supremacy that official's exercise and the extent to which they are held

responsible for their actions. The UN's Dictionary of Social Science explain as “ Corruption

in public life is the use of public power for private profit, preferment of prestige or for the

benefit of group or class, in a way that constitutes a breach of law of standards of high moral

conduct”(1978:43). According to Transparency International (TI-2009), corruption is the

misuse of entrusted political power for personal gain. In the light of the above discussion,

corruption can be defined in a broader perspective as the exploitation of public resources and

avoidance of public laws that results in unfair personal gains, lessen economic growth rate

and encourages greater inequality of income.



3

2.3 Corruption and Social Problems

This review found that few studies examine or establish a direct relationship between

corruption and Social Problems. Corruption, by itself, does not produce Social Problems.

Rather, corruption has direct consequences on economic and governance factors,

intermediaries that in turn produce Social Problems. Thus, the relationship examined by

researchers is an indirect one.

2.4 Sociological Perspective of corruption

It might be asked, what is a sociological point of view? Sociology is the study of the

development, nature and laws of human society. Society, in turn, is a term which describes a

mode of life, and includes a range of interests and activities, such as process, organisation,

structure, human behaviour, human relationships, customs, and forms. The term

'sociological', therefore, can be fairly widely applied.

To provide an understanding of corruption from a sociological perspective, it would be

necessary to examine, explore and critically analyse corruption as a process of social

formation, encompassing corruption in the real world of social structures, institutions and

modes of exchange, and at the same time, to also locate and reconcile the reality within an

analytical framework which would critically explore the discourse on corruption. This Study

aims to approach the subject of corruption in Bangladesh from the sociological perspective

by critically examining a selection of literature on the subject, and by seeking through this

examination to explore the fundamental processes of the social formation of corruption in

Bangladesh - both as a reality, as well as expressed in the literature selected on the subject.

Sociological interpretations must take into account social, political and economic forces, both

as societal conditions, as well as rhetorical and historical influences which inform the

discourse on corruption. It is also important to move beyond dichotomous, normative

conclusions and focus instead on corruption as an exchange, as well as behaviour, process

and outcome. Consequently, the challenge in exploring corruption from this perspective lies

essentially in being able to critically focus on the subject of corruption as it exists in

Bangladesh, together with the conceptual demands of the dominant discourse on the subject.

As will be discussed in some detail in this Study, many of the works under review are

informed - either implicitly or explicitly - by an ethnocentric, modernising ideology, which is



4

not necessarily applicable to the reality of conditions in developing societies like Bangladesh.

The significance of these influences is enormous because they reflect the dominant discourse

on corruption - especially as an issue of development -- in no uncertain terms.

Corruption as behaviour, process or activity, is impossible to quantify. Consequently, for

social scientists the functional argument which focuses on the 'positive' aspects of corruption

necessarily provides only a means of understanding process. Thus, while it might be argued

that corruption functions as a useful mechanism to aid social, political or economic exchange,

the relevance to social science lies in the process as activity, without reference to its

normative qualities. Consequently, while this Study adopts many 'functional' arguments, it

does so in a non-judgmental way, the aim being to further the understanding of the process by

which corruption takes place in a given situation.



5

3. Findings and Analysis:

The 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index shows that (CPI) Bangladesh is in 134th

position in

the world.

3.1 Education: Corruption: Preventing access to education

The falling standards in the education sector are also revealed by the survey: 74% of thehouseholds used extra regular method for admission of their children into school. Among the

various extra regular methods used, payment of donation was most prominent and used by

about 41% of the households, followed by the use of political influence (28%) and through

Corruption in Education: Ratio of Service Receipients Forced to Pay Bribe

54.1

21.8

35.5 32.5

for admission in school to be enlisted for

stipend in primary level

to be enlisted for

stipend in secondary

level

for actual disbursement

of the stipend

P e r c e n t a g e



6

private tutors (10%). Payment of money for admission of children into school was reported

by 3.6% of the households. When the households were asked about the ethical standard one

out of every five households believed that unethical practice existed in the admission

procedure.

3.2 Health: Corruption: Preventing access to health service

The survey revealed that approximately two-fifths (39.4%) of the households reported

payment higher than normal registration fees at the outpatient department. The households

who had patients seeking impatient treatment also reported irregularities in admission

procedure. Normal process of admission was reported by only 41% of the households.

Among the extra regular methods for admission into hospital the frequently used methods

were: consultation with the doctor at private chamber (20% of the households); payment of

extra money to the hospital staff (18% of households); through hospital staff (9%); and

through influential persons reported by 9% of the households. Measures of opinion showed

that about 70% of the households either agreed or completely agreed that there existed

unethical practices in the procedure for admission into the hospital and a higher proportion

(81%) held similar view regarding supply of medicines or treatment at the hospital.

C o r r u pt i o n i n H e a l t h : R a t i o o f S e r v i c e R e c e i p i e n t s

F or c e d t o P a y B r i b e

54.8

29.3

for outdoor treatment for operation/x-

ray/pathological test

P e r c e n t a g e



7

3.3 Municipal Service Sector: water, electricity, holding tax and business & trade license

Another sector which has a profound effect on the quality of life is the supply of public

amenities. The baseline survey revealed that only about 44% of urban dwellers in the country

had\ municipal water supply. About 23% of the households reported difficulty getting water

supply and of these about 17% of the households reported payment of extras money, 16%

reported repeated visits and 12% reported long wait and red tape in getting water line. In

relation to electricity supply approximately 4 out of every 5 urban households in the country

reported to have electricity connection. Just fewer than 30% of these households did not face

any difficulty in getting electricity connection to their house. The remaining 70% of the

households faced various difficulties: among the difficulties faced about 33% of the

Corruption in Police: Ratio of Service Receipients Forced to Pay Bribe

77.7 79.2

60.6

for FIR/GD or any other

complain

for police clearance to avoid arrest

P e r c e n t a g e

9.529

7.94

2.384

4.569

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Low Income (< Tk.

72,000 per year)

Middle Income

(72000-140,000)

High Income

(140,000+)

Total

P e r c e n t a g e



8

4. Recommendation

4.1 Increasing Political Accountability

Political accountability refers to the constraints placed on the behavior of public officials byorganizations and constituencies with the power to apply sanctions on them. As political

accountability increases, the costs to public officials of taking decisions that benefit their

private interests at the expense deferent/disincentive to corrupt practices.

4.2 Strengthening Civil Society Participation

As stakeholders in good governance and institution mediating between the state and the

public, the organizations that comprise "civil society"- citizen groups, nongovernmental

organizations, trade unions, business associations, think tanks, academia, religious

organizations and last media- can have an important role to play in constraining corruption.

This is true at the country level as well as internationally. Civil Society Organizations (CSO),

with Transparency International spearheading the fight against corruption is the most

prominent example of what an international civil society organization can achieve in

awareness- raising, pressuring government as well as international organizations for change

and pressuring governments as well as international organizations for change and working

with various sectors to implement innovative anti-corruption reforms.

4.3 Creating a Competitive Private Sector

The degree to which powerful elite's influence decisions and policy-making of the state

(state capture) constraints the implementation of a fair, competitive, honest and transparent

private sector and thus hinders broad-based economic development. The ability of powerful

economic interest to capture the state can be constrained by:

Economic policy liberalization

Enhancing greater competition

Regulatory reform

Good corporate governance

Promoting business associations, trade unions, and concerned parties

Transnational cooperation



9

4.4 Institutional Restraints on power

The Institutional design of the state can be an important mechanism in checking corruption.

Of particular importance is the effective development of institutional restraints within the

state, which is most effectively achieved through some degree of separation of powers and

establishment of crosscutting oversight responsibilities among state institutions. Effective

constraints by state institutions on each other can diminish opportunities for the abuse of

power and penalize abuses if they occur. For ensuring institutional restraints on power the

following steps should be taken:

Independent and Effective Judiciary

Anti-corruption Legislation

Independent Prosecution and Enforcement

Audit Organizations

Legislative Oversight

4.5 Improving Public Sector Management

A fifth building block of an anti- corruption strategy consists of reforms in the internal

management of public resources and administration to reduce opportunities and incentives for

corruption. Reforming public sector management and public finance requires.

A meritoric civil service with magnetized, adequate pay

Enhancing transparency and accountability in budget management

Enhancing transparency and accountability in tax and customs

Policy reforms in sectional service delivery

Decentralization with accountability

In most cases greater public oversight can play a key role in the reform process. The practice

of political patronage in public administration continues to be an important source of

corruption in many development countries. Political patronage can be a source of

accountability to the patron, but it can undermine continuity and the development of

standards, institutional values, and memory in the public sector. This opens the way to

conflict of interest, misprocurement, and theft of public funds. The short-term and uncertain

nature of many political appointments also decreases the time horizons of public sector

workers, creating incentives for predatory behavior.

4.6 Anti-Corruption Legislation



10

While a well-functioning, competent and clean judiciary is key in upholding the rule of law

on a day-to-day basis, anti-corruption laws turn out to be an effective means prosecute of an

anti-corruption strategy. Anti-corruption laws work to deter corrupt actions, prosecute and

resurrect a sense of justice, which has become a rare commodity in endemically corrupt

countries. Legislation supporting the transition towards a corruption free society includes a

freedom of information law, whereby citizens can demand the disclosure of information

regarding government activities; a whistle-blower protection law in order to encourage the

reporting of corruption cases; conflict of interest law, procurement laws and party financing

laws. Anti-money laundering regulations also contribute towards curbing fraudulent

practices.

4.7 Transparency

Transparency via public scrutiny has proven to be one of the most powerful forms of

monitoring public officials. Such transparency can be fostered by a number of measures,

including: opening sessions of the parliament, government, and the courts to the public;

registering lobbying activities; and publishing the voting records of parliamentarians, annual

reports of government bodies, trial records, and the decisions of judges. A free and vibrant

media is another important factor in making transparency work for the general public.

4.8 The Role of the Media

A free and open media help expose levels of corruption by uncovering and shedding light on

abuses. In transition economies on Eastern on Eastern and central Europe, greater openness

felt by the media since the rail of communism has brought with it a plethora of stories of

fraud, corruption, and criminal activity, making the media perhaps the most persistent

institution in the fight against corruption. The Internet provides unprecedented opportunities

of disseminating knowledge and increasing transparency across national borders in a timely

fashion at low cost.



11

5. Conclusion

To fight corruption requires highest level political commitment for courageous action

without fear or favor. Where the political commitment is weak, and institutions are not

functioning independently and effectively – create demand: inform, communicate and

campaign for a social movement. Addressing corruption in Bangladesh will require a

comprehensive strategy because of the issues raised in this paper – the core reason being the

collusive nature of political and administrative elites and their relationships, which in turn has

maintained its debilitating hold on state institutions and process. Given the extent of the

problem and its impact on economic and political life in Bangladesh, it is unrealistic to expect

a reform agenda which will reduce the level of corruption in a few years. What the paper

proposes is a two-step reform agenda: (i) reform of the state institutions with focus on the

accountability of the executive (to prevent political corruption) and (ii) reform of the civil

service recruitment process and a review of its norms and regulations to ensure greater

accountability, transparency, efficiency and effectiveness.



12

Bibliography:

1. www.wikipedia.com/tib

2. www.transparency.org/report_2010_bd

3. www.accbd.gov.bd

http://www.wikipedia.com/tib

http://www.transparency.org/report_2010_bd



http://www.wikipedia.com/tib

Documents

Corruption is Not Identifiable as a Single