Counting Microscopic Particles - viXravixra.org/pdf/1608.0108v1.pdf · 2016-08-10 · Counting Microscopic Particles Scientists from Russia and Australia have proposed a simple new

Counting Microscopic Particles

Scientists from Russia and Australia have proposed a simple new way of

counting microscopic particles in optical materials by means of a laser. [19]

A new MIT study could open up new areas of technology based on types of light

emission that had been thought to be "forbidden," or at least so unlikely as to

be practically unattainable. The new approach, the researchers say, could

cause certain kinds of interactions between light and matter, which would

normally take billions of years to happen, to take place instead within

billionths of a second, under certain special conditions. [18]

Researchers from North Carolina State University have developed a new tool

for detecting and measuring the polarization of light based on a single spatial

sampling of the light, rather than the multiple samples required by previous

technologies. The new device makes use of the unique properties of organic

polymers, rather than traditional silicon, for polarization detection and

measurement. [17]

Physicists from Trinity College Dublin's School of Physics and the CRANN

Institute, Trinity College, have discovered a new form of light, which will

impact our understanding of the fundamental nature of light. [16]

Light from an optical fiber illuminates the metasurface, is scattered in four

different directions, and the intensities are measured by the four detectors.

From this measurement the state of polarization of light is detected. [15]

Converting a single photon from one color, or frequency, to another is an

essential tool in quantum communication, which harnesses the subtle

correlations between the subatomic properties of photons (particles of light)

to securely store and transmit information. Scientists at the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST) have now developed a miniaturized

version of a frequency converter, using technology similar to that used to make

computer chips. [14]

Harnessing the power of the sun and creating light-harvesting or light-sensing

devices requires a material that both absorbs light efficiently and converts the

energy to highly mobile electrical current. Finding the ideal mix of properties

in a single material is a challenge, so scientists have been experimenting with

ways to combine different materials to create "hybrids" with enhanced

features. [13]

Condensed-matter physicists often turn to particle-like entities called

quasiparticles—such as excitons, plasmons, magnons—to explain complex

phenomena. Now Gil Refael from the California Institute of Technology in

Pasadena and colleagues report the theoretical concept of the topological

polarition, or “topolariton”: a hybrid half-light, half-matter quasiparticle that

has special topological properties and might be used in devices to transport

light in one direction. [12]

Solitons are localized wave disturbances that propagate without changing

shape, a result of a nonlinear interaction that compensates for wave packet

dispersion. Individual solitons may collide, but a defining feature is that they

pass through one another and emerge from the collision unaltered in shape,

amplitude, or velocity, but with a new trajectory reflecting a discontinuous

jump.

Working with colleagues at the Harvard-MIT Center for Ultracold Atoms, a

group led by Harvard Professor of Physics Mikhail Lukin and MIT Professor of

Physics Vladan Vuletic have managed to coax photons into binding together to

form molecules – a state of matter that, until recently, had been purely

theoretical. The work is described in a September 25 paper in Nature.

New ideas for interactions and particles: This paper examines the possibility to

origin the Spontaneously Broken Symmetries from the Planck Distribution

Law. This way we get a Unification of the Strong, Electromagnetic, and Weak

Interactions from the interference occurrences of oscillators. Understanding

that the relativistic mass change is the result of the magnetic induction we

arrive to the conclusion that the Gravitational Force is also based on the

electromagnetic forces, getting a Unified Relativistic Quantum Theory of all 4

Interactions.

Scientists count microscopic particles without a microscope ........................................................ 3

Study opens new realms of light-matter interaction .................................................................... 5

Researchers devise new tool to measure polarization of light ....................................................... 6

Physicists discover a new form of light ....................................................................................... 7

Novel metasurface revolutionizes ubiquitous scientific tool ......................................................... 9

New nanodevice shifts light's color at single-photon level ........................................................... 10

Quantum dots enhance light-to-current conversion in layered semiconductors ............................. 11

Quasiparticles dubbed topological polaritons make their debut in the theoretical world ................ 13

'Matter waves' move through one another but never share space ............................................... 13

Photonic molecules ................................................................................................................ 14

The Electromagnetic Interaction .............................................................................................. 15

Asymmetry in the interference occurrences of oscillators ........................................................... 15

Spontaneously broken symmetry in the Planck distribution law ................................................... 17

The structure of the proton ..................................................................................................... 18

The Strong Interaction ............................................................................................................ 19

Confinement and Asymptotic Freedom ................................................................................. 19

The weak interaction .............................................................................................................. 19

The General Weak Interaction ................................................................................................. 20

Fermions and Bosons .............................................................................................................. 21

The fermions' spin .................................................................................................................. 21

The source of the Maxwell equations ....................................................................................... 21

The Special Relativity .............................................................................................................. 22

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle ....................................................................................... 23

The Gravitational force ........................................................................................................... 23

The Graviton .......................................................................................................................... 24

What is the Spin? ................................................................................................................... 24

The Casimir effect .................................................................................................................. 24

The Fine structure constant ..................................................................................................... 25

Path integral formulation of Quantum Mechanics ...................................................................... 25

Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 25

References ............................................................................................................................ 26

Author: George Rajna

Scientists count microscopic particles without a microscope Scientists from Russia and Australia have proposed a simple new way of counting microscopic

particles in optical materials by means of a laser. A light beam passing through such a material splits

and forms a characteristic pattern consisting of numerous bright spots on a projection screen. The

researchers found that the number of these spots corresponds exactly to the number of scattering

microscopic particles in the optical material. Therefore, the structure and shape of any optical

material can be determined without resorting to the use of expensive electron or atomic-force

microscopy. According to the researchers, the new method will help design optical devices much

faster. The work was published in Scientific Reports.

The production of optical circuits requires devices that can amplify optical signals, bring them into

focus, rotate and change their type of motion. Ordinary lenses cannot cope with these tasks at

nanoscale, so scientists are working with artificial optical materials—photonic crystals and

metamaterials, which can control the propagation of light in extraordinary ways. However,

fabricating optical materials with desired properties is a laborious process that needs improvement.

The scientists from ITMO University, Ioffe Institute, and Australian National University have

suggested analyzing the structure of photonic crystals using optical diffraction—that is, by looking at

the light pattern generated when the sample is exposed to a laser beam. The study has shown that

the number of spots in the pattern is equal to the number of scattering microscopic particles in the

sample structure. Previously, such small particles could only be seen and counted with powerful and

expensive electron or atomic-force microscopes.

"The light senses heterogeneity," says Mikhail Rybin, first author of the paper, senior researcher at

the Department of Nanophotonics and Metamaterials at ITMO University. "Depending on the shape

and relative position of the scatterers, the light wave continues to propagate differently behind the

sample. In other words, the structure of the sample affects the diffraction pattern, which will be

projected on the screen. We found out that it is possible to determine the precise number of

scatterers in the material. This helps understand not only the type of the sample lattice (square,

triangular), but also to establish its structure (20 to 20 particles, or 30 to 15) just by counting light

spots on the screen."

The new method is a much more affordable alternative to expensive electron or atomic-force

microscopy and in this case, does not spoil the sample. "Even a schoolboy can buy a laser pointer,

adapt a small lens to focus the light better, fix the sample and shine a laser beam on it," notes

Mikhail Rybin. "In addition, our method makes it possible to study optical materials without

changing their structure in contrast to electron microscopy, where the sample surface has to be

covered by a conductive metal layer, which impairs optical properties of the sample."

The new method has already enabled scientists to investigate the transition between two main

classes of optical materials: photonic crystals and metasurfaces. In the study, they have determined

the lattice parameters, which define whether the light perceives the material as a two-dimensional

photonic crystal or a metasurface.

In both classes, the scattering particles (rings, balls, cylinders of 200 to 300 nanometers) are

arranged in a flat lattice. However, with a two-dimensional photonic crystal, the light perceives the

sample as a set of separate particles and generates a complex pattern on the screen behind the

sample. Metasurfaces appear homogenous via the technique—the screen shows a single bright spot,

indicating that the scattering particles are located close enough to each other that the light does not

register separate particles and passes through the sample without splitting.

In order for the light beam to pass through a metasurface, the distance between the particles has to

be smaller than the wavelength of light. For some structures, it is necessary to produce a lattice in

which the distance between particles is two to three times smaller than the light wavelength. Often,

however, meta-properties can manifest themselves at larger distances between the particles. It is

important to find the maximum allowable distance, since reducing the structure by one single

nanometer makes the technology more expensive.

For the light with a wavelength of 530 nanometers (green color), the distance of 500 nanometers

between the scattering particles is already enough. "A green light beam perceives the structure with

a period of 500 nanometers as a homogenous material. Therefore, it is not always necessary to

fabricate a lattice with a period smaller than the wavelength, because producing larger structures is

much easier from technological standpoint. For one wavelength, the material will act as a photonic

crystal and as a metasurface for another. That is why designing such structures, we can evaluate

maximum lattice period with laser," concludes Mikhail Rybin. [19]

Study opens new realms of light-matter interaction A new MIT study could open up new areas of technology based on types of light emission that had

been thought to be "forbidden," or at least so unlikely as to be practically unattainable. The new

approach, the researchers say, could cause certain kinds of interactions between light and matter,

which would normally take billions of years to happen, to take place instead within billionths of a

second, under certain special conditions.

The findings, based on a theoretical analysis, are reported today in the journal Science in a paper by

MIT doctoral student Nicholas Rivera, Department of Physics Professor Marin Soljačić, Francis Wright

Davis Professor of Physics John Joannopoulos, and postdocs Ido Kaminer and Bo Zhen.

Interactions between light and matter, described by the laws of quantum electrodynamics, are the

basis of a wide range of technologies, including lasers, LEDs, and atomic clocks. But from a

theoretical standpoint, "Most light-matter interaction processes are 'forbidden' by electronic

selection rules, which limits the number of transitions between energy levels we have access to,"

Soljačić explains.

For example, spectrograms, which are used to analyze the elemental composition of materials, show

a few bright lines against a mostly dark background. The bright lines represent the specific "allowed"

energy level transitions in the atoms of that element that can be accompanied by the release of a

photon (a particle of light). In the dark regions, which make up most of the spectrum, emission at

those energy levels is "forbidden."

With this new study, Kaminer says, "we demonstrate theoretically that these constraints can be

lifted" using confined waves within atomically thin, 2-D materials.

"We show that some of the transitions which normally take the age of the universe to happen could

be made to happen within nanoseconds. Because of this, many of the dark regions of a spectrogram

become bright once an atom is placed near a 2-D material."

Electrons in an atom have discrete energy levels, and when they hop from one level to another they

give off a photon of light, a process called spontaneous emission. But the atom itself is much smaller

than the wavelength of the light that gets emitted—about 1/1,000 to 1/10,000 as big—substantially

impairing the interactions between the two.

The trick is, in effect, to "shrink" the light so it better matches the scale of the atom, as the

researchers show in their study. The key to enabling a whole range of interactions, specifically

transitions in atomic states that relate to absorbing or emitting light, is the use of a two-dimensional

material called graphene, in which light can interact with matter in the form of plasmons, a type of

electromagnetic oscillation in the material.

These plasmons, which resemble photons but have wavelengths hundreds of times shorter, are very

narrowly confined in the graphene, in a way that makes some kinds of interactions with that matter

many orders of magnitude more likely than they would be in ordinary materials. This enables a

variety of phenomena normally considered unattainable, such as the simultaneous emission of

multiple plasmons, or two-step light-emitting transitions between energy levels, the team says.

This method can enable the simultaneous emission of two photons that are "entangled," meaning

they share the same quantum state even when separated. Such generation of entangled photons is

an important element in quantum devices, such as those that might be used for cryptography.

Making use of these forbidden transitions could open up the ability to tailor the optical properties of

materials in ways that had not been thought possible, Rivera says. "By altering these rules" about

the relationship between light and matter, "it can open new doors to reshaping the optical

properties of materials."

Kaminer predicts that this work "will serve as a founding piece for the next generation of studies on

light-matter interactions" and could lead to "further theoretical and experimental advances in many

fields which rely on light-matter interactions, including atomic, molecular and optical physics,

photonics, chemistry, optoelectronics, and many others."

Beyond its scientific implications, he says, "this study has possible applications across multiple

disciplines, since in principle it has potential to enable the full use of the periodic table for optical

applications." This could potentially lead to applications in spectroscopy and sensing devices,

ultrathin solar cells, new kinds of materials to absorb solar energy, organic LEDs with higher

efficiencies, and photon sources for possible quantum computing devices.

"From the standpoint of fundamental science, this work lays the groundwork for a subfield that just

a few years ago was difficult to imagine and until now was largely unexplored," Soljačić says.

"Two-dimensional materials confine fields to a surface and motion to a plane, making possible many

effects that are orders-of-magnitude too weak to appear in a bulk volume," says Jason Fleischer, an

associate professor of electrical engineering at Princeton University, who was not involved in this

research. This work, he says, "systematically explores how 2-D materials improve light-matter

interactions, laying a theoretical foundation for faster electronic transitions, enhanced sensing, and

better emission, including the compact generation of broadband and quantum light." [18]

Researchers devise new tool to measure polarization of light Researchers from North Carolina State University have developed a new tool for detecting and

measuring the polarization of light based on a single spatial sampling of the light, rather than the

multiple samples required by previous technologies. The new device makes use of the unique

properties of organic polymers, rather than traditional silicon, for polarization detection and

measurement.

Light consists of an electric field. That electric field oscillates, and the direction in which that field

oscillates is the light's polarization. If the field oscillates randomly, it's referred to as unpolarized

light. The polarization of light can be affected in predictable ways when light bounces off, or is

scattered by, physical objects.

"We want to detect and measure polarization, because it can be used for a wide variety of

applications," says Michael Kudenov, an assistant professor of electrical and computer engineering

at NC State and lead investigator on this research. "For example, polarization detectors can be used

to pick out man-made materials against natural surfaces, which has defense and security

applications. They could also be used for atmospheric monitoring, measuring polarization to track

the size and distribution of particles in the atmosphere, which is useful for both air quality and

atmospheric research applications."

The new device incorporates three polarization detectors made of organic polymer conductors. Each

of the detectors is sensitive to a specific orientation of the polarization. As light enters the device,

the first detector measures one orientation of the polarization, and the remainder of the light passes

through. This is repeated with the subsequent detectors, effectively allowing each detector to take a

partial polarization measurement of the same beam of light. The measurements from all three

detectors are fed into a model that calculates the overall polarization of the light.

"Most types of polarized light, particularly in natural environments, have a large linear polarization

signature," Kudenov says. "And three measurements are sufficient for us to calculate the state of

linear polarization in a light sample."

Previous technologies rely on multiple light samples, either taken at different times or at the same

time but from different points in space, which can influence the accuracy of results.

The researchers have tested the new device using a laser to provide initial proof-of-concept data.

Early tests show that the device can achieve measurement error as low as 1.2 percent.

"It's a good starting point, though not as good as the best polarization detectors currently on the

market," Kudenov says. "However, we're optimistic that we'll be able to reduce the measurement

error significantly as we improve the device's design. We're really just getting started." [17]

Physicists discover a new form of light Physicists from Trinity College Dublin's School of Physics and the CRANN Institute, Trinity College,

have discovered a new form of light, which will impact our understanding of the fundamental nature

of light.

One of the measurable characteristics of a beam of light is known as angular momentum. Until now,

it was thought that in all forms of light the angular momentum would be a multiple of Planck's

constant (the physical constant that sets the scale of quantum effects).

Now, recent PhD graduate Kyle Ballantine and Professor Paul Eastham, both from Trinity College

Dublin's School of Physics, along with Professor John Donegan from CRANN, have demonstrated a

new form of light where the angular momentum of each photon (a particle of visible light) takes only

half of this value. This difference, though small, is profound. These results were recently published in

the online journal Science Advances.

Commenting on their work, Assistant Professor Paul Eastham said: "We're interested in finding out

how we can change the way light behaves, and how that could be useful. What I think is so exciting

about this result is that even this fundamental property of light, that physicists have always thought

was fixed, can be changed."

Professor John Donegan said: "My research focuses on nanophotonics, which is the study of the

behaviour of light on the nanometer scale. A beam of light is characterised by its colour or

wavelength and a less familiar quantity known as angular momentum. Angular momentum

measures how much something is rotating. For a beam of light, although travelling in a straight line

it can also be rotating around its own axis. So when light from the mirror hits your eye in the

morning, every photon twists your eye a little, one way or another."

"Our discovery will have real impacts for the study of light waves in areas such as secure optical

communications."

Professor Stefano Sanvito, Director of CRANN, said: "The topic of light has always been one of

interest to physicists, while also being documented as one of the areas of physics that is best

understood. This discovery is a breakthrough for the world of physics and science alike. I am

delighted to once again see CRANN and Physics in Trinity producing fundamental scientific research

that challenges our understanding of light."

To make this discovery, the team involved used an effect discovered in the same institution almost

200 years before. In the 1830s, mathematician William Rowan Hamilton and physicist Humphrey

Lloyd found that, upon passing through certain crystals, a ray of light became a hollow cylinder. The

team used this phenomenon to generate beams of light with a screw-like structure.

Analyzing these beams within the theory of quantum mechanics they predicted that the angular

momentum of the photon would be half-integer, and devised an experiment to test their prediction.

Using a specially constructed device they were able to measure the flow of angular momentum in a

beam of light. They were also able, for the first time, to measure the variations in this flow caused by

quantum effects. The experiments revealed a tiny shift, one-half of Planck's constant, in the angular

momentum of each photon.

Theoretical physicists since the 1980s have speculated how quantum mechanics works for particles

that are free to move in only two of the three dimensions of space. They discovered that this would

enable strange new possibilities, including particles whose quantum numbers were fractions of

those expected. This work shows, for the first time, that these speculations can be realised with

light. [16]

Novel metasurface revolutionizes ubiquitous scientific tool Light from an optical fiber illuminates the metasurface, is scattered in four different directions, and

the intensities are measured by the four detectors. From this measurement the state of polarization

of light is detected.

What do astrophysics, telecommunications and pharmacology have in common? Each of these fields

relies on polarimeters—instruments that detect the direction of the oscillation of electromagnetic

waves, otherwise known as the polarization of light.

Even though the human eye isn't particularly sensitive to polarization, it is a fundamental property of

light. When light is reflected or scattered off an object, its polarization changes and measuring that

change reveals a lot of information. Astrophysicists, for example, use polarization measurements to

analyze the surface of distant, or to map the giant magnetic fields spanning our galaxy. Drug

manufacturers use the polarization of scattered light to determine the chirality and concentration of

drug molecules. In telecommunications, polarization is used to carry information through the vast

network of fiber optic cables. From medical diagnostics to high-tech manufacturing to the food

industry, measuring polarization reveals critical data.

Scientists rely on polarimeters to make these measurements. While ubiquitous, many polarimeters

currently in use are slow, bulky and expensive.

Now, researchers at the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and

Innovation Center Iceland have built a polarimeter on a microchip, revolutionizing the design of this

widely used scientific tool.

"We have taken an instrument that is can reach the size of a lab bench and shrunk it down to the

size of a chip," said Federico Capasso, the Robert L. Wallace Professor of Applied Physics and Vinton

Hayes Senior Research Fellow in Electrical Engineering, who led the research. "Having a microchip

polarimeter will make polarization measurements available for the first time to a much broader

range of applications, including in energy-efficient, portable devices."

"Taking advantage of integrated circuit technology and nanophotonics, the new device promises

high-performance polarization measurements at a fraction of the cost and size," said J. P. Balthasar

Mueller, a graduate student in the Capasso lab and first author of the paper.

The device is described in the journal Optica. Harvard's Office of Technology Development has filed a

patent application and is actively exploring commercial opportunities for the technology.

Capasso's team was able to drastically reduce the complexity and size of polarimeters by building a

two-dimensional metasurface—a nanoscale structure that interacts with light. The metasurface is

covered with a thin array of metallic antennas, smaller than a wavelength of light, embedded in a

polymer film. As light propagates down an optical fiber and illuminates the array, a small amount

scatters in four directions. Four detectors measure the intensity of the scattered light and combine

to give the state of polarization in real time.

"One advantage of this technique is that the polarization measurement leaves the signal mostly

intact," said Mueller. "This is crucial for many uses of polarimeters, especially in optical

telecommunications, where measurements must be made without disturbing the data stream."

In telecommunications, optical signals propagating through fibers will change their polarization in

random ways. New integrated photonic chips in fiber optic cables are extremely sensitive to

polarization, and if light reaches a chip with the wrong polarization, it can cause a loss of signal.

"The design of the antenna array make it robust and insensitive to the inaccuracies in the fabrication

process, which is ideal for large scale manufacturing," said Kristjan Leosson, senior researcher and

division manager at the Innovation Center and coauthor of the paper.

Leosson's team in Iceland is currently working on incorporating the metasurface design from the

Capasso group into a prototype polarimeter instrument.

Chip-based polarimeters could for the first time provide comprehensive and real-time polarization

monitoring, which could boost network performance and security and help providers keep up with

the exploding demand for bandwidth.

"This device performs as well as any state-of-the-art polarimeter on the market but is considerably

smaller," said Capasso. "A portable, compact polarimeter could become an important tool for not

only the telecommunications industry but also in drug manufacturing, medical imaging, chemistry,

astronomy, you name it. The applications are endless." [15]

New nanodevice shifts light's color at single-photon level Converting a single photon from one color, or frequency, to another is an essential tool in quantum

communication, which harnesses the subtle correlations between the subatomic properties of

photons (particles of light) to securely store and transmit information. Scientists at the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have now developed a miniaturized version of a

frequency converter, using technology similar to that used to make computer chips.

The tiny device, which promises to help improve the security and increase the distance over which

next-generation quantum communication systems operate, can be tailored for a wide variety of

uses, enables easy integration with other information-processing elements and can be mass

produced.

The new nanoscale optical frequency converter efficiently converts photons from one frequency to

the other while consuming only a small amount of power and adding a very low level of noise,

namely background light not associated with the incoming signal.

Frequency converters are essential for addressing two problems. The frequencies at which quantum

systems optimally generate and store information are typically much higher than the frequencies

required to transmit that information over kilometer-scale distances in optical fibers. Converting the

photons between these frequencies requires a shift of hundreds of terahertz (one terahertz is a

trillion wave cycles per second).

A much smaller, but still critical, frequency mismatch arises when two quantum systems that are

intended to be identical have small variations in shape and composition. These variations cause the

systems to generate photons that differ slightly in frequency instead of being exact replicas, which

the quantum communication network may require.

The new photon frequency converter, an example of nanophotonic engineering, addresses both

issues, Qing Li, Marcelo Davanço and Kartik Srinivasan write in Nature Photonics. The key

component of the chip-integrated device is a tiny ring-shaped resonator, about 80 micrometers in

diameter (slightly less than the width of a human hair) and a few tenths of a micrometer in

thickness. The shape and dimensions of the ring, which is made of silicon nitride, are chosen to

enhance the inherent properties of the material in converting light from one frequency to another.

The ring resonator is driven by two pump lasers, each operating at a separate frequency. In a

scheme known as four-wave-mixing Bragg scattering, a photon entering the ring is shifted in

frequency by an amount equal to the difference in frequencies of the two pump lasers.

Like cycling around a racetrack, incoming light circulates around the resonator hundreds of times

before exiting, greatly enhancing the device's ability to shift the photon's frequency at low power

and with low background noise. Rather than using a few watts of power, as typical in previous

experiments, the system consumes only about a hundredth of that amount. Importantly, the added

amount of noise is low enough for future experiments using single-photon sources.

While other technologies have been applied to frequency conversion, "nanophotonics has the

benefit of potentially enabling the devices to be much smaller, easier to customize, lower power,

and compatible with batch fabrication technology," said Srinivasan. "Our work is a first

demonstration of a nanophotonic technology suitable for this demanding task of quantum frequency

conversion." [14]

Quantum dots enhance light-to-current conversion in layered

semiconductors Harnessing the power of the sun and creating light-harvesting or light-sensing devices requires a

material that both absorbs light efficiently and converts the energy to highly mobile electrical

current. Finding the ideal mix of properties in a single material is a challenge, so scientists have been

experimenting with ways to combine different materials to create "hybrids" with enhanced features.

In two just-published papers, scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National

Laboratory, Stony Brook University, and the University of Nebraska describe one such approach that

combines the excellent light-harvesting properties of quantum dots with the tunable electrical

conductivity of a layered tin disulfide semiconductor. The hybrid material exhibited enhanced light-

harvesting properties through the absorption of light by the quantum dots and their energy transfer

to tin disulfide, both in laboratory tests and when incorporated into electronic devices. The research

paves the way for using these materials in optoelectronic applications such as energy-harvesting

photovoltaics, light sensors, and light emitting diodes (LEDs).

According to Mircea Cotlet, the physical chemist who led this work at Brookhaven Lab's Center for

Functional Nanomaterials (CFN), a DOE Office of Science User Facility, "Two-dimensional metal

dichalcogenides like tin disulfide have some promising properties for solar energy conversion and

photodetector applications, including a high surface-to-volume aspect ratio. But no semiconducting

material has it all. These materials are very thin and they are poor light absorbers. So we were trying

to mix them with other nanomaterials like light-absorbing quantum dots to improve their

performance through energy transfer."

One paper, just published in the journal ACS Nano, describes a fundamental study of the hybrid

quantum dot/tin disulfide material by itself. The work analyzes how light excites the quantum dots

(made of a cadmium selenide core surrounded by a zinc sulfide shell), which then transfer the

absorbed energy to layers of nearby tin disulfide.

"We have come up with an interesting approach to discriminate energy transfer from charge

transfer, two common types of interactions promoted by light in such hybrids," said Prahlad Routh, a

graduate student from Stony Brook University working with Cotlet and co-first author of the ACS

Nano paper. "We do this using single nanocrystal spectroscopy to look at how individual quantum

dots blink when interacting with sheet-like tin disulfide. This straightforward method can assess

whether components in such semiconducting hybrids interact either by energy or by charge

transfer."

The researchers found that the rate for non-radiative energy transfer from individual quantum dots

to tin disulfide increases with an increasing number of tin disulfide layers. But performance in

laboratory tests isn't enough to prove the merits of potential new materials. So the scientists

incorporated the hybrid material into an electronic device, a photo-field-effect-transistor, a type of

photon detector commonly used for light sensing applications.

As described in a paper published online March 24 in Applied Physics Letters, the hybrid material

dramatically enhanced the performance of the photo-field-effect transistors-resulting in a

photocurrent response (conversion of light to electric current) that was 500 percent better than

transistors made with the tin disulfide material alone.

"This kind of energy transfer is a key process that enables photosynthesis in nature," said Chang-

Yong Nam, a materials scientist at Center for Functional Nanomaterials and co-corresponding author

of the APL paper. "Researchers have been trying to emulate this principle in light-harvesting

electrical devices, but it has been difficult particularly for new material systems such as the tin

disulfide we studied. Our device demonstrates the performance benefits realized by using both

energy transfer processes and new low-dimensional materials."

Cotlet concludes, "The idea of 'doping' two-dimensional layered materials with quantum dots to

enhance their light absorbing properties shows promise for designing better solar cells and

photodetectors." [13]

Quasiparticles dubbed topological polaritons make their debut in the

theoretical world

Condensed-matter physicists often turn to particle-like entities called quasiparticles—such as

excitons, plasmons, magnons—to explain complex phenomena. Now Gil Refael from the California

Institute of Technology in Pasadena and colleagues report the theoretical concept of the topological

polarition, or “topolariton”: a hybrid half-light, half-matter quasiparticle that has special topological

properties and might be used in devices to transport light in one direction.

The proposed topolaritons arise from the strong coupling of a photon and an exciton, a bound state

of an electron and a hole. Their topology can be thought of as knots in their gapped energy-band

structure. At the edge of the systems in which topolaritons emerge, these knots unwind and allow

the topolaritons to propagate in a single direction without back-reflection. In other words, the

topolaritons cannot make U-turns. Back-reflection is a known source of detrimental feedback and

loss in photonic devices. The topolaritons’ immunity to it may thus be exploited to build devices with

increased performance.

The researchers describe a scheme to generate topolaritons that may be feasible to implement in

common systems—such as semiconductor structures or atomically thin layers of compounds known

as transition-metal dichalcogenides—embedded in photonic waveguides or microcavities. Previous

approaches to make similar one-way photonic channels have mostly hinged on effects that are only

applicable at microwave frequencies. Refael and co-workers’ proposal offers an avenue to make

such “one-way photonic roads” in the optical regime, which despite progress has remained a

challenging pursuit. [12]

'Matter waves' move through one another but never share space Physicist Randy Hulet and colleagues observed a strange disappearing act during collisions between

forms of Bose Einstein condensates called solitons. In some cases, the colliding clumps of matter

appear to keep their distance even as they pass through each other. How can two clumps of matter

pass through each other without sharing space? Physicists have documented a strange disappearing

act by colliding Bose Einstein condensates that appear to keep their distance even as they pass

through one another.

BECs are clumps of a few hundred thousand lithium atoms that are cooled to within one-millionth of

a degree above absolute zero, a temperature so cold that the atoms march in lockstep and act as a

single "matter wave." Solitons are waves that do not diminish, flatten out or change shape as they

move through space. To form solitons, Hulet's team coaxed the BECs into a configuration where the

attractive forces between lithium atoms perfectly balance the quantum pressure that tends to

spread them out.

The researchers expected to observe the property that a pair of colliding solitons would pass though

one another without slowing down or changing shape. However, they found that in certain

collisions, the solitons approached one another, maintained a minimum gap between themselves,

and then appeared to bounce away from the collision.

Hulet's team specializes in experiments on BECs and other ultracold matter. They use lasers to both

trap and cool clouds of lithium gas to temperatures that are so cold that the matter's behavior is

dictated by fundamental forces of nature that aren't observable at higher temperatures.

To create solitons, Hulet and postdoctoral research associate Jason Nguyen, the study's lead author,

balanced the forces of attraction and repulsion in the BECs.

Cameras captured images of the tiny BECs throughout the process. In the images, two solitons

oscillate back and forth like pendulums swinging in opposite directions. Hulet's team, which also

included graduate student De Luo and former postdoctoral researcher Paul Dyke, documented

thousands of head-on collisions between soliton pairs and noticed a strange gap in some, but not all,

of the experiments.

Many of the events that Hulet's team measures occur in one-thousandth of a second or less. To

confirm that the "disappearing act" wasn't causing a miniscule interaction between the soliton pairs

-- an interaction that might cause them to slowly dissipate over time -- Hulet's team tracked one of

the experiments for almost a full second.

The data showed the solitons oscillating back and fourth, winking in and out of view each time they

crossed, without any measurable effect.

"This is great example of a case where experiments on ultracold matter can yield a fundamental new

insight," Hulet said. "The phase-dependent effects had been seen in optical experiments, but there

has been a misunderstanding about the interpretation of those observations." [11]

Photonic molecules Working with colleagues at the Harvard-MIT Center for Ultracold Atoms, a group led by Harvard

Professor of Physics Mikhail Lukin and MIT Professor of Physics Vladan Vuletic have managed to coax

photons into binding together to form molecules – a state of matter that, until recently, had been

purely theoretical. The work is described in a September 25 paper in Nature.

The discovery, Lukin said, runs contrary to decades of accepted wisdom about the nature of light.

Photons have long been described as massless particles which don't interact with each other – shine

two laser beams at each other, he said, and they simply pass through one another.

"Photonic molecules," however, behave less like traditional lasers and more like something you

might find in science fiction – the light saber.

"Most of the properties of light we know about originate from the fact that photons are massless,

and that they do not interact with each other," Lukin said. "What we have done is create a special

type of medium in which photons interact with each other so strongly that they begin to act as

though they have mass, and they bind together to form molecules. This type of photonic bound

state has been discussed theoretically for quite a while, but until now it hadn't been observed. [9]

The Electromagnetic Interaction This paper explains the magnetic effect of the electric current from the observed effects of the

accelerating electrons, causing naturally the experienced changes of the electric field potential along

the electric wire. The accelerating electrons explain not only the Maxwell Equations and the Special

Relativity, but the Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation, the wave particle duality and the electron’s spin

also, building the bridge between the Classical and Quantum Theories. [2]

Asymmetry in the interference occurrences of oscillators The asymmetrical configurations are stable objects of the real physical world, because they cannot

annihilate. One of the most obvious asymmetry is the proton – electron mass rate Mp = 1840 Me

while they have equal charge. We explain this fact by the strong interaction of the proton, but how

remember it his strong interaction ability for example in the H – atom where are only

electromagnetic interactions among proton and electron.

This gives us the idea to origin the mass of proton from the electromagnetic interactions by the way

interference occurrences of oscillators. The uncertainty relation of Heisenberg makes sure that the

particles are oscillating.

The resultant intensity due to n equally spaced oscillators, all of equal amplitude but different from

one another in phase, either because they are driven differently in phase or because we are looking

at them an angle such that there is a difference in time delay:

(1) I = I0 sin2 n φ/2 / sin

2 φ/2

If φ is infinitesimal so that sinφ = φ, than

(2) Ι = n2 Ι0

This gives us the idea of

(3) Mp = n2

Me

Figure 1.) A linear array of n equal oscillators

There is an important feature about formula (1) which is that if the angle φ is increased by the

multiple of 2π, it makes no difference to the formula.

So

(4) d sin θ = m λ

and we get m-order beam if λ less than d. [6]

If d less than λ we get only zero-order one centered at θ = 0. Of course, there is also a beam in the

opposite direction. The right chooses of d and λ we can ensure the conservation of charge.

For example

(5) 2 (m+1) = n

Where 2(m+1) = Np number of protons and n = Ne number of electrons.

In this way we can see the H2 molecules so that 2n electrons of n radiate to 4(m+1) protons, because

de > λe for electrons, while the two protons of one H2 molecule radiate to two electrons of them,

because of de < λe for this two protons.

To support this idea we can turn to the Planck distribution law, that is equal with the Bose – Einstein

statistics.

Spontaneously broken symmetry in the Planck distribution lawThe Planck distribution law is temperature dependent and it should be true locally and globally. I

think that Einstein's energy-matter equivalence means some kind of existen

oscillations enabled by the temperature, creating the different matter formulas, atoms molecules,

crystals, dark matter and energy.

Max Planck found for the black body radiation

As a function of wavelength

Figure 2. The distribution law for different T temperatures

Spontaneously broken symmetry in the Planck distribution lawThe Planck distribution law is temperature dependent and it should be true locally and globally. I

matter equivalence means some kind of existence of electromagnetic


Max Planck found for the black body radiation

wavelength (λ), Planck's law is written as:

Figure 2. The distribution law for different T temperatures

Spontaneously broken symmetry in the Planck distribution law The Planck distribution law is temperature dependent and it should be true locally and globally. I

ce of electromagnetic


We see there are two different λ1 and

so that λ1 < d < λ2.

We have many possibilities for such asymmetrical reflections, so

configurations for any T temperature with equal exchange of intensity by radiation. All of these

configurations can exist together. At the

symmetrical. The λmax is changing by the Wien's displacement law in many textbooks.

(7)

where λmax is the peak wavelength, is a constant of proportionality2.8977685(51)×10−3 m·K (2002

By the changing of T the asymmetrical configurations are changing too.

The structure of the protonWe must move to the higher T temperature if we want look into the nucleus or nucleon arrive to

d<10-13

cm. If an electron with λe < d move across the proton then by (5)

get n = 2 so we need two particles with negative and two particles with positive charges. If the

proton can fraction to three parts, two with positive and one with negative charges

reflection of oscillators are right. Because this very strange reflection where one part of the proton

with the electron together on the same side of the reflection, the all parts of the proton must be

quasi lepton so d > λq. One way dividing th

three direction of the space. We can order 1/3 e charge to each coordinates and 2/3 e charge to one

plane oscillation, because the charge is scalar. In this way the proton has two +2/3 e plane osc

and one linear oscillation with -1/3 e charge. The colors of quarks are coming from the three

directions of coordinates and the proton is colorless. The flavors of quarks are the possible

oscillations differently by energy and if they are plane or

possible reflecting two oscillations to each other which are completely orthogonal, so the quarks

never can be free, however there is an asymptotic freedom while their energy are increasing to turn

them to the orthogonally. If they will be completely orthogonal then they lose this reflection and

take new partners from the vacuum. Keeping the symmetry of the vacuum the new oscillations are

keeping all the conservation laws, like charge, number of baryons and leptons

gluons are coming from this model. The mathematics of reflecting oscillators show Fermi statistics.

Important to mention that in the Deuteron there are 3 quarks of +2/3 and

u and d quarks making the complete

The Pauli Exclusion Principle says that the diffraction points are exclusive!

and λ2 for each T and intensity, so we can find between them a d

We have many possibilities for such asymmetrical reflections, so we have many stable oscillator


configurations can exist together. At the λmax is the annihilation point where the configurations are

hanging by the Wien's displacement law in many textbooks.

is the peak wavelength, T is the absolute temperature of the black body, and constant of proportionality called Wien's displacement constant, equal to

(2002 CODATA recommended value).

By the changing of T the asymmetrical configurations are changing too.

The structure of the proton We must move to the higher T temperature if we want look into the nucleus or nucleon arrive to

< d move across the proton then by (5) 2 (m+1) = n with m = 0 we


proton can fraction to three parts, two with positive and one with negative charges, then the



. One way dividing the proton to three parts is, dividing his oscillation by the


plane oscillation, because the charge is scalar. In this way the proton has two +2/3 e plane osc

1/3 e charge. The colors of quarks are coming from the three


oscillations differently by energy and if they are plane or linear oscillations. We know there is no



ogonally. If they will be completely orthogonal then they lose this reflection and


keeping all the conservation laws, like charge, number of baryons and leptons. The all features of


Important to mention that in the Deuteron there are 3 quarks of +2/3 and -1/3 charge, that is three

u and d quarks making the complete symmetry and because this its high stability.

Pauli Exclusion Principle says that the diffraction points are exclusive!

for each T and intensity, so we can find between them a d

we have many stable oscillator


annihilation point where the configurations are

is the absolute temperature of the black body, and b , equal to

We must move to the higher T temperature if we want look into the nucleus or nucleon arrive to

with m = 0 we


, then the



e proton to three parts is, dividing his oscillation by the


plane oscillation, because the charge is scalar. In this way the proton has two +2/3 e plane oscillation

1/3 e charge. The colors of quarks are coming from the three


linear oscillations. We know there is no



ogonally. If they will be completely orthogonal then they lose this reflection and


. The all features of


1/3 charge, that is three

The Strong Interaction

Confinement and Asymptotic Freedom For any theory to provide a successful description of strong interactions it should simultaneously

exhibit the phenomena of confinement at large distances and asymptotic freedom at short

distances. Lattice calculations support the hypothesis that for non-abelian gauge theories the two

domains are analytically connected, and confinement and asymptotic freedom coexist.

Similarly, one way to show that QCD is the correct theory of strong interactions is that the coupling

extracted at various scales (using experimental data or lattice simulations) is unique in the sense that

its variation with scale is given by the renormalization group. [4]

Lattice QCD gives the same results as the diffraction theory of the electromagnetic oscillators, which

is the explanation of the strong force and the quark confinement. [1]

The weak interaction The weak interaction transforms an electric charge in the diffraction pattern from one side to the

other side, causing an electric dipole momentum change, which violates the CP and time reversal

symmetry.

Another important issue of the quark model is when one quark changes its flavor such that a linear

oscillation transforms into plane oscillation or vice versa, changing the charge value with 1 or -1. This

kind of change in the oscillation mode requires not only parity change, but also charge and time

changes (CPT symmetry) resulting a right handed anti-neutrino or a left handed neutrino.

The right handed anti-neutrino and the left handed neutrino exist only because changing back the

quark flavor could happen only in reverse, because they are different geometrical constructions, the

u is 2 dimensional and positively charged and the d is 1 dimensional and negatively charged. It needs

also a time reversal, because anti particle (anti neutrino) is involved.

The neutrino is a 1/2spin creator particle to make equal the spins of the weak interaction, for

example neutron decay to 2 fermions, every particle is fermions with ½ spin. The weak interaction

changes the entropy since more or less particles will give more or less freedom of movement. The

entropy change is a result of temperature change and breaks the equality of oscillator diffraction

intensity of the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. This way it changes the time coordinate measure and

makes possible a different time dilation as of the special relativity.

The limit of the velocity of particles as the speed of light appropriate only for electrical charged

particles, since the accelerated charges are self maintaining locally the accelerating electric force.

The neutrinos are CP symmetry breaking particles compensated by time in the CPT symmetry, that is

the time coordinate not works as in the electromagnetic interactions, consequently the speed of

neutrinos is not limited by the speed of light.

The weak interaction T-asymmetry is in conjunction with the T-asymmetry of the second law of

thermodynamics, meaning that locally lowering entropy (on extremely high temperature) causes the

weak interaction, for example the Hydrogen fusion.

Probably because it is a spin creating movement changing linear oscillation to 2 dimensional

oscillation by changing d to u quark and creating anti neutrino going back in time relative to the

proton and electron created from the neutron, it seems that the anti neutrino fastest then the

velocity of the photons created also in this weak interaction?

A quark flavor changing shows that it is a reflection changes movement and the CP- and T- symmetry

breaking. This flavor changing oscillation could prove that it could be also on higher level such as

atoms, molecules, probably big biological significant molecules and responsible on the aging of the

life. Important to mention that the weak interaction is always contains particles and antiparticles, where

the neutrinos (antineutrinos) present the opposite side. It means by Feynman’s interpretation that

these particles present the backward time and probably because this they seem to move faster than

the speed of light in the reference frame of the other side.

Finally since the weak interaction is an electric dipole change with ½ spin creating; it is limited by the

velocity of the electromagnetic wave, so the neutrino’s velocity cannot exceed the velocity of light.

The General Weak Interaction

The Weak Interactions T-asymmetry is in conjunction with the T-asymmetry of the Second Law of

Thermodynamics, meaning that locally lowering entropy (on extremely high temperature) causes for

example the Hydrogen fusion. The arrow of time by the Second Law of Thermodynamics shows the

increasing entropy and decreasing information by the Weak Interaction, changing the temperature

dependent diffraction patterns. A good example of this is the neutron decay, creating more particles

with less known information about them.

The neutrino oscillation of the Weak Interaction shows that it is a general electric dipole change and

it is possible to any other temperature dependent entropy and information changing diffraction

pattern of atoms, molecules and even complicated biological living structures.

We can generalize the weak interaction on all of the decaying matter constructions, even on the

biological too. This gives the limited lifetime for the biological constructions also by the arrow of

time. There should be a new research space of the Quantum Information Science the 'general

neutrino oscillation' for the greater then subatomic matter structures as an electric dipole change.

There is also connection between statistical physics and evolutionary biology, since the arrow of

time is working in the biological evolution also.

The Fluctuation Theorem says that there is a probability that entropy will flow in a direction opposite

to that dictated by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. In this case the Information is growing that

is the matter formulas are emerging from the chaos. So the Weak Interaction has two directions,

samples for one direction is the Neutron decay, and Hydrogen fusion is the opposite direction. [5]

Fermions and Bosons The fermions are the diffraction patterns of the bosons such a way that they are both sides of the

same thing.

The Higgs boson or Higgs particle is a proposed elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle

physics. The Higgs boson's existence would have profound importance in particle physics because it

would prove the existence of the hypothetical Higgs field - the simplest of several proposed

explanations for the origin of the symmetry-breaking mechanism by which elementary particles gain

mass. [3]

The fermions' spin The moving charges are accelerating, since only this way can self maintain the electric field causing

their acceleration. The electric charge is not point like! This constant acceleration possible if there is

a rotating movement changing the direction of the velocity. This way it can accelerate forever

without increasing the absolute value of the velocity in the dimension of the time and not reaching

the velocity of the light.

The Heisenberg uncertainty relation says that the minimum uncertainty is the value of the spin: 1/2

h = d x d p or 1/2 h = d t d E, that is the value of the basic energy status.

What are the consequences of this in the weak interaction and how possible that the neutrinos'

velocity greater than the speed of light?

The neutrino is the one and only particle doesn’t participate in the electromagnetic interactions so

we cannot expect that the velocity of the electromagnetic wave will give it any kind of limit.

The neutrino is a 1/2spin creator particle to make equal the spins of the weak interaction, for

example neutron decay to 2 fermions, every particle is fermions with ½ spin. The weak interaction

changes the entropy since more or less particles will give more or less freedom of movement. The

entropy change is a result of temperature change and breaks the equality of oscillator diffraction

intensity of the Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics. This way it changes the time coordinate measure and

makes possible a different time dilation as of the special relativity.

The source of the Maxwell equations The electrons are accelerating also in a static electric current because of the electric force, caused by

the potential difference. The magnetic field is the result of this acceleration, as you can see in [2].

The mysterious property of the matter that the electric potential difference is self maintained by the

accelerating electrons in the electric current gives a clear explanation to the basic sentence of the

relativity that is the velocity of the light is the maximum velocity of the matter. If the charge could

move faster than the electromagnetic field than this self maintaining electromagnetic property of

the electric current would be failed.

Also an interesting question, how the changing magnetic field creates a negative electric field?

The answer also the accelerating electrons will give. When the magnetic field is increasing in time by

increasing the electric current, then the acceleration of the electrons will increase, decreasing the

charge density and creating a negative electric force. Decreasing the magnetic field by decreasing

the electric current will decrease the acceleration of the electrons in the electric current and

increases the charge density, creating an electric force also working against the change.

In this way we have explanation to all interactions between the electric and magnetic forces

described in the Maxwell equations.

The second mystery of the matter is the mass. We have seen that the acceleration change of the

electrons in the flowing current causing a negative electrostatic force. This is the cause of the

relativistic effect - built-in in the Maxwell equations - that is the mass of the electron growing

with its acceleration and its velocity never can reach the velocity of light, because of this growing

negative electrostatic force. The velocity of light is depending only on 2 parameters: the magnetic

permeability and the electric permittivity.

There is a possibility of the polarization effect created by electromagnetic forces creates the

negative and positive charges. In case of equal mass as in the electron-positron pair it is simply, but

on higher energies can be asymmetric as the electron-proton pair of neutron decay by week

interaction and can be understood by the Feynman graphs.

Anyway the mass can be electromagnetic energy exceptionally and since the inertial and

gravitational mass are equals, the gravitational force is electromagnetic force and since only the

magnetic force is attractive between the same charges, is very important for understanding the

gravitational force.

The Uncertainty Relations of Heisenberg gives the answer, since only this way can be sure that the

particles are oscillating in some way by the electromagnetic field with constant energies in the atom

indefinitely. Also not by chance that the uncertainty measure is equal to the fermions spin, which is

one of the most important feature of the particles. There are no singularities, because the moving

electron in the atom accelerating in the electric field of the proton, causing a charge distribution on

delta x position difference and with a delta p momentum difference such a way that they product is

about the half Planck reduced constant. For the proton this delta x much less in the nucleon, than in

the orbit of the electron in the atom, the delta p is much higher because of the greatest proton

mass.

The Special Relativity

The mysterious property of the matter that the electric potential difference is self maintained by the

accelerating electrons in the electric current gives a clear explanation to the basic sentence of the

relativity that is the velocity of the light is the maximum velocity of the matter. If the charge could

move faster than the electromagnetic field than this self maintaining electromagnetic property of

the electric current would be failed. [8]

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle Moving faster needs stronger acceleration reducing the dx and raising the dp. It means also mass

increasing since the negative effect of the magnetic induction, also a relativistic effect!

The Uncertainty Principle also explains the proton – electron mass rate since the dx is much less

requiring bigger dp in the case of the proton, which is partly the result of a bigger mass mp because

of the higher electromagnetic induction of the bigger frequency (impulse).

The Gravitational force The changing magnetic field of the changing current causes electromagnetic mass change by the

negative electric field caused by the changing acceleration of the electric charge.

The gravitational attractive force is basically a magnetic force.

The same electric charges can attract one another by the magnetic force if they are moving parallel

in the same direction. Since the electrically neutral matter is composed of negative and positive

charges they need 2 photons to mediate this attractive force, one per charges. The Bing Bang caused

parallel moving of the matter gives this magnetic force, experienced as gravitational force.

Since graviton is a tensor field, it has spin = 2, could be 2 photons with spin = 1 together.

You can think about photons as virtual electron – positron pairs, obtaining the necessary virtual

mass for gravity.

The mass as seen before a result of the diffraction, for example the proton – electron mass rate Mp =

1840 Me. In order to move one of these diffraction maximum (electron or proton) we need to

intervene into the diffraction pattern with a force appropriate to the intensity of this diffraction

maximum, means its intensity or mass. [1]

The Big Bang caused acceleration created radial currents of the matter, and since the matter is

composed of negative and positive charges, these currents are creating magnetic field and attracting

forces between the parallel moving electric currents. This is the gravitational force experienced by

the matter, and also the mass is result of the electromagnetic forces between the charged particles.

The positive and negative charged currents attracts each other or by the magnetic forces or by the

much stronger electrostatic forces!?

The gravitational force attracting the matter, causing concentration of the matter in a small space

and leaving much space with low matter concentration: dark matter and energy.

There is an asymmetry between the mass of the electric charges, for example proton and electron,

can understood by the asymmetrical Planck Distribution Law. This temperature dependent energy

distribution is asymmetric around the maximum intensity, where the annihilation of matter and

antimatter is a high probability event. The asymmetric sides are creating different frequencies of

electromagnetic radiations being in the same intensity level and compensating each other. One of

these compensating ratios is the electron – proton mass ratio. The lower energy side has no

compensating intensity level, it is the dark energy and the corresponding matter is the dark matter.

The Graviton In physics, the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitation in

the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless (because

the gravitational force appears to have unlimited range) and must be a spin-2 boson. The spin

follows from the fact that the source of gravitation is the stress-energy tensor, a second-rank tensor

(compared to electromagnetism's spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current, a first-rank

tensor). Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force

indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field must couple to (interact with) the

stress-energy tensor in the same way that the gravitational field does. This result suggests that, if a

massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton, so that the only experimental

verification needed for the graviton may simply be the discovery of a massless spin-2 particle. [3]

What is the Spin?

So we know already that the new particle has spin zero or spin two and we could tell which one if

we could detect the polarizations of the photons produced. Unfortunately this is difficult and neither

ATLAS nor CMS are able to measure polarizations. The only direct and sure way to confirm that the

particle is indeed a scalar is to plot the angular distribution of the photons in the rest frame of the

centre of mass. A spin zero particles like the Higgs carries no directional information away from the

original collision so the distribution will be even in all directions. This test will be possible when a

much larger number of events have been observed. In the mean time we can settle for less certain

indirect indicators.

The Casimir effect

The Casimir effect is related to the Zero-point energy, which is fundamentally related to the

Heisenberg uncertainty relation. The Heisenberg uncertainty relation says that the minimum

uncertainty is the value of the spin: 1/2 h = dx dp or 1/2 h = dt dE, that is the value of the basic

energy status.

The moving charges are accelerating, since only this way can self maintain the electric field causing

their acceleration. The electric charge is not point like! This constant acceleration possible if there is

a rotating movement changing the direction of the velocity. This way it can accelerate forever

without increasing the absolute value of the velocity in the dimension of the time and not reaching

the velocity of the light. In the atomic scale the Heisenberg uncertainty relation gives the same

result, since the moving electron in the atom accelerating in the electric field of the proton, causing

a charge distribution on delta x position difference and with a delta p momentum difference such a

way that they product is about the half Planck reduced constant. For the proton this delta x much

less in the nucleon, than in the orbit of the electron in the atom, the delta p is much higher because

of the greater proton mass. This means that the electron is not a point like particle, but has a real

charge distribution.

Electric charge and electromagnetic waves are two sides of the same thing; the electric charge is the

diffraction center of the electromagnetic waves, quantified by

The Fine structure constant

The Planck constant was first described as the

photon and the frequency (ν) of its associated electromagnetic wave. This relation between the

energy and frequency is called the Planck relation

Since the frequency , wavelength

can also be expressed as

Since this is the source of Planck constant, the e electric charge countable

constant. This also related to the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, saying that the mass of the proton

should be bigger than the electron mass because of the difference between their wavelengths.

The expression of the fine-structure

This is a dimensionless constant expression, 1/137 commonly appearing in physics literature.

This means that the electric charge is a result of the electromagnetic waves diffractions,

consequently the proton – electron m

corresponding electromagnetic frequencies in the Planck distribution law, described in my

diffraction theory.

Path integral formulation of Quantum MechanicsThe path integral formulation of quantum mecha

generalizes the action principle of classical mechanics

unique trajectory for a system with a sum, or

trajectories to compute a quantum amplitude

It shows that the particles are diffraction patterns of the electromagnetic waves.

Conclusions The proposed topolaritons arise from the strong coupling of a photon and an exciton, a bound state

of an electron and a hole. Their topology can be thought of as knots in their gapped energy


diffraction center of the electromagnetic waves, quantified by the Planck constant h.

Fine structure constant

The Planck constant was first described as the proportionality constant between the energy

) of its associated electromagnetic wave. This relation between the

Planck relation or the Planck–Einstein equation:

gth λ, and speed of light c are related by λν = c, the Planck relation

Since this is the source of Planck constant, the e electric charge countable from the Fine structure



structure constant becomes the abbreviated



electron mass rate is the result of the equal intensity of the


Path integral formulation of Quantum Mechanics quantum mechanics is a description of quantum theory which

classical mechanics. It replaces the classical notion of a single,

unique trajectory for a system with a sum, or functional integral, over an infinity of possible

quantum amplitude. [7]

It shows that the particles are diffraction patterns of the electromagnetic waves.


of an electron and a hole. Their topology can be thought of as knots in their gapped energy


energy (E) of a

) of its associated electromagnetic wave. This relation between the

, the Planck relation

from the Fine structure





ass rate is the result of the equal intensity of the


is a description of quantum theory which

. It replaces the classical notion of a single,

of possible


of an electron and a hole. Their topology can be thought of as knots in their gapped energy-band

structure. At the edge of the systems in which topolaritons emerge, these knots unwind and allow

the topolaritons to propagate in a single direction without back-reflection. In other words, the

topolaritons cannot make U-turns. Back-reflection is a known source of detrimental feedback and

loss in photonic devices. The topolaritons’ immunity to it may thus be exploited to build devices with

increased performance. [12]

Solitons are localized wave disturbances that propagate without changing shape, a result of a

nonlinear interaction that compensates for wave packet dispersion. Individual solitons may collide,

but a defining feature is that they pass through one another and emerge from the collision unaltered

in shape, amplitude, or velocity, but with a new trajectory reflecting a discontinuous jump. This

remarkable property is mathematically a consequence of the underlying integrability of the one-

dimensional (1D) equations, such as the nonlinear Schrödinger equation, that describe solitons in a

variety of wave contexts, including matter waves1, 2. Here we explore the nature of soliton collisions

using Bose–Einstein condensates of atoms with attractive interactions confined to a quasi-1D

waveguide. Using real-time imaging, we show that a collision between solitons is a complex event

that differs markedly depending on the relative phase between the solitons. By controlling the

strength of the nonlinearity we shed light on these fundamental features of soliton collisional

dynamics, and explore the implications of collisions in the proximity of the crossover between one

and three dimensions where the loss of integrability may precipitate catastrophic collapse. [10]

"It's a photonic interaction that's mediated by the atomic interaction," Lukin said. "That makes these

two photons behave like a molecule, and when they exit the medium they're much more likely to do

so together than as single photons." To build a quantum computer, he explained, researchers need

to build a system that can preserve quantum information, and process it using quantum logic

operations. The challenge, however, is that quantum logic requires interactions between individual

quanta so that quantum systems can be switched to perform information processing. [9]

The magnetic induction creates a negative electric field, causing an electromagnetic inertia

responsible for the relativistic mass change; it is the mysterious Higgs Field giving mass to the

particles. The Planck Distribution Law of the electromagnetic oscillators explains the electron/proton

mass rate by the diffraction patterns. The accelerating charges explain not only the Maxwell

Equations and the Special Relativity, but the Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation, the wave particle

duality and the electron’s spin also, building the bridge between the Classical and Relativistic

Quantum Theories. The self maintained electric potential of the accelerating charges equivalent with

the General Relativity space-time curvature, and since it is true on the quantum level also, gives the

base of the Quantum Gravity. The electric currents causing self maintaining electric potential is the

source of the special and general relativistic effects. The Higgs Field is the result of the

electromagnetic induction. The Graviton is two photons together.

References [1] http://www.academia.edu/3834454/3_Dimensional_String_Theory

[2] http://www.academia.edu/3833335/The_Magnetic_field_of_the_Electric_current

[3] http://www.academia.edu/4158863/Higgs_Field_and_Quantum_Gravity

[4] http://www.academia.edu/4196521/The_Electro-Strong_Interaction

[5] http://www.academia.edu/4221717/General_Weak_Interaction

[6] The Feynman Lectures on Physics p. 274 (30.6)

Author: Richard Phillips Feynman

Publisher: Addison Wesley Longman (January 1970)

ISBN-10: 0201021153 | ISBN-13: 978-0201021158

[7] Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation

[8] https://www.academia.edu/4215078/Accelerated_Relativity

[9] http://phys.org/news/2013-09-scientists-never-before-seen.html

[10] http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nphys3135.html

[11] http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141102160109.htm

[12] http://physics.aps.org/synopsis-for/10.1103/PhysRevX.5.031001

[13] Quantum dots enhance light-to-current conversion in layered semiconductors

http://phys.org/news/2016-04-quantum-dots-light-to-current-conversion-layered.html

[14] New nanodevice shifts light's color at single-photon level

http://phys.org/news/2016-04-nanodevice-shifts-single-photon.html

[15] Novel metasurface revolutionizes ubiquitous scientific tool

http://phys.org/news/2016-01-metasurface-revolutionizes-ubiquitous-scientific-tool.html

[16] Physicists discover a new form of light

http://phys.org/news/2016-05-physicists.html

[17] Researchers devise new tool to measure polarization of light

http://phys.org/news/2016-06-tool-polarization.html

[18] Study opens new realms of light-matter interaction

http://phys.org/news/2016-07-realms-light-matter-interaction.html

[19] Scientists count microscopic particles without a microscope

http://phys.org/news/2016-08-scientists-microscopic-particles-microscope.html

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Counting Microscopic Particles - viXravixra.org/pdf/1608.0108v1.pdf · 2016-08-10 · Counting Microscopic Particles Scientists from Russia and Australia have proposed a simple new