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I N S T I T U T E
COUNTRY BRIEFGERMANY
Petrus OlanderFrida AnderssonValeriya Mechkova
Country BriefSERIES 2016:09
THE VARIETIES OF DEMOCRACY INSTITUTE
June 2016
Please address comments and/or queries for information to:
V-Dem Institute
Department of Political Science
University of Gothenburg
Sprängkullsgatan 19, PO Box 711
SE 40530 Gothenburg
Sweden
E-mail: [email protected]
V-Dem Country Briefs are available in electronic format at www.v-dem.net.
Copyright © 2016 University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute. All rights reserved.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
1
About V-Dem Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) is a new approach to conceptualizing andmeasuring
democracy. V-Dem’s multidimensional and disaggregated approach acknowledges the
complexityoftheconceptofdemocracy.TheV-Demprojectdistinguishesamongfivehigh-level
principlesofdemocracy:electoral, liberal,participatory,deliberative,andegalitarian,whicharedisaggregatedintolower-levelcomponentsandspecificindicators.
KeyfeaturesofV-Dem:
• Provides reliable data on five high-level principles and 22 lower-level components of
democracy such as regular elections, judicial independence, direct democracy, and
genderequality,consistingofmorethan400distinctandpreciseindicators;
• Coversallcountriesanddependentterritoriesfrom1900tothepresentandprovidesan
estimateofmeasurementreliabilityforeachrating;
• Makesallratingspublic,freeofcharge,throughauser-friendlyinterface.
WithfourPrincipalInvestigators,twoProjectCoordinators,fifteenProjectManagers,morethan
thirtyRegionalManagers,almost200CountryCoordinators,severalAssistantResearchers,and
approximately2,600CountryExperts,theV-Demprojectisoneofthelargest-eversocialscience
data collection projects with a database of over 15 million data points. The database makes
highlydetailedanalysisofvirtuallyallaspectsofdemocracyinacountry,whilealsoallowingfor
summarycomparisonsbetweencountriesbasedonaggregatedindicesfordifferentdimensions
ofdemocracy.UsersfromanywhereareabletousetheV-Demonlineanalysistoolswhichcanbe
foundattheproject’swebsite.Governments,developmentagencies,andNGOscanbenefitfrom
thenuancedcomparativeandhistoricaldatawheninformingcriticaldecisionssuchasselecting
country program priorities, informing program designs and monitoring impact of their
programs.
Methodology:
Unlikeextantdatacollectionprojects,whichtypicallyuseasmallgroupofexpertswhorateall
countriesoraskasingleexperttocodeonecountry,theV-Demprojecthasrecruitedover2,600
local and cross-national experts toprovide judgmentsonvarious indicatorsaboutdemocracy.
TheV-Demdatasetiscreatedbycombiningfactualinformationfromexistingdatasourcesabout
constitutional regulations and de jure situationwith expert coding for questions that require
evaluation.Experts’ratingsareaggregatedthroughanadvancedstatisticalmodelthattakesinto
accountthepossibilitiesthatexpertsmaymakemistakesandhavedifferentscalesinmindwhen
coding. In addition, bridge-coders - experts who code multiple countries - are recruited to
calibratethescalesofestimatescross-nationally.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
2
Germany
Introduction ThisV-Demdatabrief illustrates thedemocraticdevelopmentofGermany from1900to2014.The purpose is to provide a concise overview of the V-Dem data collected for Germany. ThehistoricaldevelopmentofthefiveV-Demprinciplesofdemocracy-electoral,liberal,egalitarian,deliberative and participatory – is analyzed, accompanied by an overviewof the female rightsindex.Inaddition,thebriefdelvesfurtherintothedifferentcomponentsanddetailedindicatorsofthemainprinciplesofdemocracy1.Weanticipatethatthisbriefwillbeausefulresourceforpolicy-makers,practitionersandcitizen-leddemocracyassessments.Germany is currently Europe’s biggest economy and the continent’s second most populouscountry.Thecountryhasalonghistoryofholdingelections,butwithvaryinglevelsofquality.Atthe turn of the 20th century, Germany was a monarchy under the rule of Wilhelm II. AfterGermany’sdefeatintheWorldWarI,themonarchywasreplacedbyGermany’sfirstdemocraticregime:TheWeimarRepublic (1918-1933).However, financial problems, staggering inflation,andpoliticalturmoilcharacterizedtheinterwaryears.WithAdolfHitler’srisetopowerin1933,aperiodof totalitarianismbegan.Thecovered territoryby theV-Demcodingand in thisbriefincludes the territoryofAustriaduring theAnschluss (1938-1945)butdoesnot includeotherareasoccupiedduring(andintheyearleadingupto)WorldWarsIandII.AftertheendoftheWorldWarII(1939–1945)Germanywasoccupiedbythe“Alliedpowers”(the US, the UK, France and the Soviet Union). In 1949, two German stateswere formed: thewestern Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic(GDR).FRG is the legal successorof theGermanReichand is the territoryonwhich thisbrieffocusesduringthepartition.TheGermanDemocraticRepubliciscodedasaseparatepolityfromthe division in 1949 and not included in this brief. Likewise, the years of allied occupation(1945-1949)arenotincludedinthisbriefduetoalackofsovereignty.Afterthereunificationin1990,Germanyretainedthe1949constitutionoftheFederalRepublicwithsomeamendments.
Principles of Democracy The radar chart in Figure 1, gives an overview of the five V-Dem indices of democracy forGermanyat fourdifferentpoints in time:1905,1950,1995and2014.All indices in the figurerangefrom0to1,whereascoreof0suggeststhatacountrydidnotevincethecharacteristicsofdemocracyrelevanttothisparticularindexatthispointintime,while1correspondstothebestpossiblesituationforthisindex,accordingtotheV-Demmeasures.In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, the electoral component of democracy is fundamental andunderstoodasanessentialelementoftheotherprinciplesofrepresentativedemocracy–liberal,participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian; without it, we cannot call a regime “democratic”.However, we recognize that countries can have “democratic qualities”, without beingdemocracies. As a result, the aggregation formulae for all high-level principles of democracyincludethemeasureofelectoraldemocracy.Thus, forexample, “ParticipatoryDemocracy” isacompositescoreoftheelectoralandtheparticipatorycomponents.
1AllindicatorsandindicescanbefoundinGlossaryofTermsinAppendixI.Foranoverviewofthestructureoftheindices,pleaseseeAppendixII.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
3
Figure 1. Principles of Democracy Indices
In1905thescoresforGermanyonallindicesincludedinFigure1areverylow,between.1and.2,reflectingminimaldevelopmentinthecharacteristicscapturedwiththeseV-Demmeasures.
Asignificantchangecanbeseenwhencomparing1905tothenextpointintimeinthefigure.By1950 Germany (West) is an advanced democracy according to the scores of just below .8 onelectoraldemocracy. At thispoint in time,electoralaccountabilityhasdeveloped in thesensethat those in power are held accountable by citizens through electoral competition, a greaterfreedom of expression and association are achieved. Values around .7 on egalitarian anddeliberative, as well as liberal democracy, indicate overall similar democratic advancement.Thus, for themiddleof the century thedata reflectsa situationofmoreor lessequalpoliticalrepresentationacrossgroups; individualandminority rightsare, for themostpart,protected;and,finally,widedeliberationiscommonwhenimportantpolicy-changesarebeingconsidered.Participatorydemocracyscoreslowermeaningthat,comparedtotheotherdemocraticaspects,participatory aspects such as referendums and plebiscites are a less prominent feature ofGermanydemocracyin1950.
Betweentheyearsof1995and2014onlyminorchangescanbenoted.InbothyearsGermanyshowsdemocraticadvancementwithslightlyhigherscoresthanin1950,andsignificantlybetterthanin1905.Overall,thecomparisonbetweenthedifferentprinciplesofdemocracyissimilartothe one in 1950 with electoral democracy being the measure with the highest score closelyfollowed by deliberative, egalitarian, and liberal democracy in descending order. Againparticipatorydemocracyisnotasstrongastheotheraspectsofdemocracy.
InFigure2below,welookfurtherintotheaforementionedindicesandgraphthecomponentsthat go into the five higher level principles indices of democracy: the electoral, liberal,egalitarian, participatory and deliberative aspects. The development of these components inGermanyovermorethanonehundredyearsisdisplayedtogetherwiththefemalerightsindex2.ThisoverviewdescribeshowGermanywentfromanundemocraticcountryatthebeginningofthe20thcenturytoanestablisheddemocracyin2014.
2 The scaleofeach indexand indicator is specifiedwithinparentheses in the legendofeach figure. Inall indicatorsandindices graphed, a lower score corresponds to a lessdemocratic level,while ahigher score suggests amoredemocraticlevel.PleaseseeAppendixIformoreinformationoneachoftheindicatorsandindices.
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
ElectoralDemocracy
LiberalDemocracy
ParticipatoryDemocracy
DeliberativeDemocracy
EgalitarianDemocracy
1905
1950
1995
2014
V-DemDataBrief Germany
4
Lookingattheoverviewof115yearsofGermandemocraticdevelopment,fivemainperiodscan
bedistinguished:Thefirstperiodofmoreorlessconstantscoreslastsfromthebeginningofthe
century through World War I and ends around 1918 with the establishment of the Weimar
Republic.Duringthisperiodalldimensionsofdemocracyregistersignificantimprovementsfor
thesituationontheground.ThisrelativelydemocraticperiodendswithHitler’srisetopowerin
1933andisreplacedbytotalitarianism.ThesurrenderofGermanyin1945andtheendofWorld
War II ushers in the fourth period, the years of Allied occupation. Due to the absence of
autonomousinstitutionsinGermanyfortheseyears,thereisabreakintheV-Demdata.Thisis
followedbythefifthandfinalperiodthatcapturesthedevelopmentofWesternGermanyfrom
1949 and onwards. Theunification of Eastern andWesternGermany in 1990only affects the
scoresofthedimensionsinFigure2toasmalldegree.
Duringthefirstperiod, liberaldemocracyisthehighestscoringdimensionwithindividualand
minorityrightsbeingprotectedtoalargeextent,whiletheelectoralcomponentsuffersfromits
greatest deficits as political power-holders are only held accountable by citizens to a small
degree through electoral competition. After the establishment of the Republic in 1918, all
democracycomponentsexpand,albeittovaryingextents,withtheelectoralcomponentshowing
the biggest improvement. However, this is also the component that shows the greatest
fluctuationsanddropsduringthisperiod.
The takeoverofpowerbyHitlerandhisNationalSocialistParty is reflectedbyrapiddrops in
democracymeasures. From1933onwards, civil rights are replacedby totalitarian repression.
Severeviolationsofhumanrightsanddemocraticnormsarereflectedbythedataupuntil the
Alliedoccupationin1945whenthetimeseriesisinterrupted.
The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany is adopted in 1949 guaranteeing the
principlesofdemocracy,civilandpoliticalrightsandthefederalstructureofgovernment.After
settingupthenewinstitutionsofthestate,thecountrysuffersnosubstantialreductionsinthe
remainingperiodofthetimeseriesexploredinthisbrief.
Participatory democracy shows slightly lower levels compared to the other democracy
componentsofrecentdecades.Nevertheless,scoresabove.6indicatethatGermancitizenshave
somemeans forparticipating in thepoliticaldevelopmentof theircountry,even throughnon-
electoralprocesses.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
5
In the followingsectionwe furtherexploreeachof the fivecomponentsofdemocracyand thefemalerightsindex,bygraphingthespecificindicatorsandindicesconstitutingthem.
The Electoral Component The V-Dem electoral democracy component index measures the core value of making rulersresponsive to citizens through competition for the approval of a broad electorate duringperiodicelections;whetherpoliticalandcivilsocietyorganizationscanoperatefreely;whetherelectionsarecleanandnotmarredbyfraudorsystematicirregularities;andthechiefexecutiveofacountryisselected(directlyorindirectly)throughelections.Figure3displaysthefoursub-indicesthatconstitutetheelectoralcomponentindex.
Asindicatedbytheelectedexecutiveindex(redline)inFigure3,theheadoftheexecutiveduringthe firstyearsof the20thcenturywasnotanelectedofficial.The fallof themonarchyand theestablishment of the Weimar Republic ushered in the first (indirectly) elected executive inGermany.During that period the directly electedpresident appointed a chancellor asHead ofGovernment.AfterHitler’sappointmentaschancellorin1933,thisprocedurewasnotrepeated.This interruption of the electoral cycle is reflected in the V-Dem data through a drop of theelectedexecutiveindexto0.Thehigh-intermediatelevelofthisindicatorfrom1949reflectstheindirectvotingproceduresfortheelectionofheadofstateandheadofgovernment.
The jump in share of the population with suffrage in 1918 reflects the fact that suffrage wasextendedtowomen.Thesmalldropbetween1935and1945registersthelimitationsonvotingrightsthatwereimposedontheJewishpopulation.
Thefreedomofassociationindexreflectstheextenttowhichpeoplearefreetoformpartiesandcivilsocietyorganizations.Duringthefirst twodecadesof the20thcenturyGermanshadsomefreedominthisrespect,whichwasconsiderablyexpandedduringtheWeimarRepublic.DuringtheNaziregime,freedomofassociationwasseverelylimited.
German elections in the beginning of the century were characterized by certain problems intermsofregistrationfraud,systematicirregularities,governmentintimidationoftheopposition,vote buying, and/or election violence, as suggested by the data in the clean election index.ElectionqualityimprovedslightlyaftertheendofthemonarchyanddeclinedagaindrasticallytowardstheendoftheWeimerRepublic.AftertheEnablingActofMarch1933,theNaziregime
V-DemDataBrief Germany
6
virtuallyabolishedthelegislativepowersoftheParliamentandconcentratedtheminthehandsof the executive. The V-Dem data reflects this degradation as an interruption of the electoralcycle with no data on the clean election index. After the establishment ofWestern Germany,electionswere largely freeandfairas indicatedbythehigh levelsonthecleanelections indexfrom1949onwards.
The Liberal Component The liberal principle of democracy emphasizes the importance of protecting individual andminority rights against the tyranny of the state. This is achieved through constitutionallyprotectedcivillibertiesandstrongruleoflaw,andeffectivechecksandbalancesbythejudiciaryand the legislaturewhich limit theuseof executivepower.Theseaspects are capturedby thethreeindicesthatconstitutetheV-Demliberalcomponent.Figure3showsthedevelopmentofthesethreeindicesovertimeinGermany.
The different aspects of liberal democracy in Figure 4 havemostly developed in tandem, andhavelargelysimilarscoresthroughouttheyears.Alloftheaspectsstartoutatmoderatelyhighlevelsslightlyabove.5and.6in1900.Equality before the law and individual liberty index measure the extent to which laws aretransparentandrigorouslyenforcedandpublicadministrationimpartial,aswellastheextenttowhich citizens enjoy access to justice, secure property rights, freedom from forced labor,freedomofmovement,physical integrity rights, and freedomof religion.This aspectof liberaldemocracydeterioratesduringWorldWarI.After the war all aspects of liberal democracy improve slightly. Particularly, the legislature’sability to monitor and question the executive is strengthened as portrayed by the indexlegislativeconstrainsontheexecutive.However,withpassageoftheEnablingActofMarch1933,Hitler and his cabinet virtually took over the legislative powers allowing him to rulewithoutoversight of either legislative chamber. Hence, since the functions of the German Parliamentwereaborted,dataismissingfromthisindexafter1933.The fact that the executive did not respect the constitution and the judiciarywas not able tooperateindependentlyoftheexecutiveafter1933,theindexjudicialconstraintsontheexecutivereflectsonlyminimalscores.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
7
FollowingWorldWarIIandtheestablishmentofWesternGermanyin1949,liberaldemocracydeveloped significantly, including adherence to the constitution, protection of individuallibertiesandastrongbalancebetweenthedifferentbranchesofpower.
The Participatory Component The participatory dimension of democracy embodies the values of direct rule and activeparticipationbycitizensinallpoliticalprocesses;itemphasizesnon-electoralformsofpoliticalparticipation such as through such channels as civil society organizations and through themechanismofdirectdemocracy.
At the start of the 20th century some aspects of participatory democracy are much moreprominentthanothers,reflectedinscoresspreadfromzeroto.6inFigure5.Thehighestscoreis that for civil society participation, and the score reflects the fact that civil society had asubstantial role in Germanpolitical life under the emperor. The role of civil society increasesduring theWeimar Republic only to diminish under the Nazis. In the period after the alliedoccupation,civilsocietyparticipationagainbecomesacentralfeatureoftheGermandemocracy.
Regional and local governments have, with the exception of the Nazi years been a fixture ofGerman politics. Themeasures indicatewhether there are elected subnational entities and, iftheyexist,towhatextenttheycanoperatewithoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesattheirrespective levels.Throughouttheyearsthishasbeenthecasemorefortheregional levelthanthelocallevel,thoughinrecentyearsthereislessdifferenceintheextentoftheirfreedomfrominterference.ThelargefreedomfrominterferenceinrecentyearsisinstarkcontrasttothestateofthingsbeforeWorldWarIwhenlocalgovernments,inparticular,hadlimitedfreedom.
Directpopularvoterefershere toan institutionalizedprocessbywhichcitizensofaregionorcountryregister theirchoiceoropiniononspecific issuesusingaballot. It includes initiatives,referendums,andplebiscites.ThedirectpopularvotefirstbecomesafeatureinGermanyafterWorldWarI,growsinprominenceduringtheWeimarRepublic,andisevenrepeatedlyusedbytheNaziregime.WhenWesternGermanyisestablished,directpopularvoteisabolishedatthenationallevel.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
8
The Deliberative Component The deliberative component of democracy captures the core value that political decisions areguidedbythepursuitof thepublicgoodandshouldbe informedbyrespectfulandreasonabledialogueatalllevelsratherthanbyemotionalappeals,solidaryattachments,parochialinterests,orcoercion.
Note, that the indicators displayed in Figures 6, 7 and 8 have different scales, which arespecifiedinparenthesesinthelegendofeachfigure.Forexample,reasonedjustificationandtherangeofconsultationsbothhaveascoreofaround2atthebeginningofthecentury,butinthecaseofreasonedjustificationthisisarelativelyhighscore,whileitisaratherlowscorefortheindicatorrangeofconsultations.
Reasoned justification (green line)measurestheextenttowhichpoliticalelitesgivepublicandreasonedjustificationsfortheirpositionsonpolicies.Undertheemperorthisisfairlycommon,thoughlesssoduringWorldWarI.Increasinglyelaboratejustificationsbecomecomecommonduring theWeimarRepublic,butwithHitler’s rise topower, justificationsagainbecomemoresimplistic. With the establishment of Western Germany, justifications gradually improve inquality. From the 1970s onward, sophisticated and nuanced justifications tend be offered byGermanleaders.
Common good (purple line) indicates whether the political elite’s justifications refer to thecommongoodortomorenarrowinterests.Thepurplelineshowsthat,untiltheendofthealliedoccupation,justificationswereamixtureofthecommongoodandmorespecificgroups,butthatafteroccupation, thereasonsgiven forpoliciesmostly inreference to thecommongood,wereunderstood either as the greatest good for the greatest number, or as helping the leastadvantagedinasociety.
Anothercentralaspectofdeliberativedemocracy is thewidthand independenceof thepublicdeliberationsonlargepoliticalissuesbeyondtheelitelevel,whichiscapturedwiththeindicatorengagedsociety(blueline).UntiltheendofWorldWarI,publicdeliberationwasnotrepressedbut was, nevertheless, limited. During the Weimar Republic, debate and deliberation wereencouraged, though, in practice, confined to certain segments of society. Under theNazis, thepolicyprocessbecamelargelyshutofffromthepublic,andafter1949,thedebategrewinbothdepth and volume. Since unification in 1990, ordinary people and non-elite groups tend to
V-DemDataBrief Germany
9
discussmajorpoliciesamongthemselvesand inthemediawithgrass-rootsdeliberationbeing
commonandunconstrained.
Inthebeginningofthe20thcenturytherangeofwithin-eliteconsultationsinadvanceofpolicy
decisionsislimitedtoloyalistsoftherulingelites,asportrayedbythedatawiththeredline;as
World War I ends, the range of consultations increases. In the FDR actors from across thepoliticalspectrum,aswellasrelevantactorsinbusinessandsociety,tendtobeconsultedwhen
policiesarebeingcontemplated.Thedatafortherespectforcounterargumentsmeasurecloselyfollowsthepathoftherangeofconsultations,thoughataslightlylowerlevel.
The Egalitarian Component The egalitarian idea is thatmaterial and immaterial inequalities inhibit the actual exercise offormalrightsandliberties;henceamoreequaldistributionofresources,education,andhealth
acrosssocioeconomicgroupsshouldenhancepoliticalequality.
InFigure7theeightindicatorsthatcomposetheegalitariandemocracycomponentareplotted.Withtheexceptionofpowerdistributedbygender,allmeasuresinFigure7showintermediate
levelsatthestartoftheseries.
Thelowscoreforpowerdistributedbygender(greenline)indicatesthat,intheearly1900sandduringtheNaziregime,menheldavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpowerinGermany.Following
WorldWarI,womenstrengthenedtheirpositionbutstilltheyhadonlymarginalinfluence.After
the end of Allied occupation, the distribution of power became graduallymore gender equal.
Nevertheless,thedatasuggeststhatevenin2014powerwasstillnotbeingdistributedequally
bygender.
Germany’sscoreonthemeasurepowerdistributedbysocialgroup(blackline)isjustbelow2atthebeginningofthecentury,reflectingthatintheperiodbeforethewarthepoliticalpowerin
Germany was monopolized by a coalition of only select social groups. TheWeimar Republic
becomesmore inclusive,butduring theNaziyears largepartsof thepopulationareexcluded.
Since the establishment of Western Germany, and especially after 1970, social group
characteristicssuchasethnicity,race,andreligiondonothavegreatimpactonpolitics.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
10
Whenlookingatsocialgroupequality forcivil liberties (orange line)asimilarpatternemerges.BeforeWorldWarI,whilesomesocialgroupshadlittlepoliticalpower,thecivillibertiesofmostgroupswere almost equal.AfterHitler’s rise topower, the situationdeterioratedquickly and,untiltheendofWorldWarII,somegroupshadfewifanycivilliberties.InthenewlyestablishedWesternGermanytherewerefewdifferences incivil libertiesbasedonsocialgroup,andfromthemid-1950sonward,allsalientgroupshavehadthesameliberties.
Data on the indicator power distributed by socioeconomic groups suggests that socioeconomicpositionandclassweresalientfactorsinpoliticallifeundertheemperor.Peoplewithaverageorpoor incomehad little influence,and, instead, therichenjoyedavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpower.IntheWeimarRepublicpeopleofaverageandpoorincomewereabletoassertpoliticalinfluence toa largerextent thanbefore,andwhenone’ssocioeconomicpositionbecamemoreimportant,asHitlerwascomingtopower,theshiftbecamelessdramaticthaninotheraspectsofdemocracy. In the years after thewar and thedecades that followed, thewealthyhad a greatdeal of political influence, to some extent, evenmore than other groups, but other segmentswerealsoabletoassertasignificantamountofpoliticalinfluencetoanalmostequalextent.
Healthequality (purple line), andeducational equality (darkblue line)measurewhether somepeopleduetopoorhealthorpooreducationalqualityarepreventedfromexercisingtheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.The twoareclosely linked inGermany,whichcanbeseen inFigure7.Fromthebeginningofthe20thcenturyonward,thereisabasicequalityintermsofhealthandeducation,thoughforsometheprovisionsofhealthcareandeducationareinadequateandtheirabilitiesareundermined.This improvesduringtheWeimarRepublic,andtheNazitakeoverin1933 has only a small negative impact. After World War II, health no longer impedes theexercisingofpoliticalrights,andeducationgraduallyimprovestoalevelatwhich,bytheendofthe1970s,onlyasmallminorityhasaneducational levelthat impedestheirabilitytoexercisebasicrights.
The indicatormeans-tested vs. universalistic (light blue line) aims to capturewhetherwelfareprograms are means-tested, targeting only the poor or underprivileged constituents (forexamplethroughcash-transferprograms)orwhethertheypotentiallybenefitallmembersofthepolity(suchprogramscanincludefreeeducation,nationalhealthcareschemes,andretirementprograms).IntheV-Demconceptualscheme,welfareprogramsthatbenefiteveryoneanddonotstigmatize certain unprivileged groups, such as poor people, are more democratic from anegalitarianperspectivethanmeans-testedprogramswhichonlytargettheseparticulargroups.Overtheentireperiod,thescoreneverdropsbelow3andfrom1949onward,thescoreisabove4,indicatingthatatleasthalfofthepoliciescouldbeconsidereduniversalisticovertime.
Theindicatorparticularisticorpublicgoods(yellowline)reflectstheextenttowhichsocialandinfrastructure expenditures are public-goods in character. The scores between two and threeduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyindicatethatamajorityofgoodsareprovidedaspublicgoods.Thescoreofjustbelow4duringthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyreflectsthatalmostallpolicesarepublic.
Female Rights Equality betweenwomen andmen is indivisible from democracy at all levels, and is broadlyrecognizedasapre-conditionfortrulyrepresentativeandresponsivegovernments.TheV-Demfemale rights index focuses on political rights understood to include the ability of women toparticipateintheopendiscussionofpoliticalissues,toparticipateincivilsocietyorganizations,thefreedomofmovement,therighttoprivateproperty,theaccesstojustice,thefreedomfromforced labor, and an equal share in the overall distribution of power. Figure 8 displays thesevenindicatorsthatconstitutethisindexforGermany.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
11
Atthebeginningofthe20thcenturyanduptotheNazitakeoverin1933,Germanwomenlargelyenjoyeda freedomofdomesticmovement (black line),anda freedomfromforced labor (orangeline)asindicatedbyscoresbetween3and4.In1933bothdropsharply.Themovementofsomeminoritiesisrestrictedwhilemanystillretainthisfreedom.Intwostagesforcedlaborbecomesmore common and the Nazis introduce state sanctioned forced labor for some women asreflectedinthescoreofzerofromtheendofthe1930sto1945.SincetheendofWorldWarII,Germanyisvirtuallyfreefromforcedlaborforwomen.
Women’s property rights (yellow line) varies in imperial Germany, but following the end ofWorld War I, this right is made more equal. In 1933 levels start to deteriorate, but this isinterrupted by the establishment ofWestern Germany. Since the late 1970s all, or almost all,women enjoy equal property rights. For much of the period in Figure 8 the development ofaccessto justice forwomen (greenline)hasshadowedthatofpropertyrights forwomen(notethatthescalesaredifferent).
CSOparticipationforwomen(redline)andfreedomofdiscussionforwomen(purpleline)arealsotwo measures for which Germany follows a similar path. The former indicator measureswomen’sfreedomtoengageincivilsocietyorganizationsandwhetherCSOspursuingwomen’sinterests are prevented from taking part in associational life. The latter focuses on women’sability to openly discuss political issues in private homes and in public spaces. In imperialGermany and in the Weimar Republic, women were free to do both, with only a handful ofexceptions. Following the end of WorldWar II, there were few limits placed on debating orparticipatingincivilsociety.
In theGermanEmpiremenhadavirtualmonopolyofpoliticalpower,as indicatedby the lowscoreforpowerdistributedbygender(lightbluelineinthisfigure).ThischangedastheimperialsystemgavewaytotheWeimarRepublicandwomenstartedtogaininfluence.TheNaziregimelargelyput a stop to this, however, anduntil the endofAlliedoccupationwomenhad limitedpoliticalinfluence.Followingthewar,womenembarkedonaslowbutconstantprocesstogainmore influence over politics in Germany. In 2014 they still have some ways to go beforeachievingdefactofullequality.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
12
Concluding Remarks BasedondatafromkeyV-Demindicesandindicators,thisdatabriefpresentsanoverviewofthedemocraticdevelopmentofGermanyfrom1900to2014.
ThedemocratichistoryofGermanyrevealspatternofupsanddownsoverthepastcentury.19thcentury institutions survived to the end of World War I, when they were replaced bydemocratizationefforts.DuringtheNaziregimetheseeffortswerediminished,however,astheminimalscoresonalmostallV-Demmeasurescanattest. In thereconstructionyearsafter thewarthisreportfollowsWesternGermany.Arapidadvancementisachievedonmanydemocracyaspectsandalreadyinthe1950sGermanystartstoexhibithighscoresonanumberofV-Demmeasures such as quality of elections, rule of law andprotection of individual liberties.Otherareassuchaswomen’spoliticalinfluenceanddeliberationtakemoretimetodevelop.
By the turn of the century, a reunified Germany is mostly rated as highly democratic by themultipleV-Demcoders.However,directpopularvotessuchasreferendumscouldbeutilizedtoa greater extent if the goal is to develop the participatory aspect of democracy in Germany.Women’sparticipation inpolitics, togetherwithgrass-rootsdeliberations, isanotherarea thatcouldbenefitfrommorefocusedattention.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
13
Appendix I. List of variables. Thisisalistofalltheindicesandindicatorsincludedinthecountrybrief.
Itcontainsthequestionandthequestionalternativesaswellasinformationofaggregation,scale,
datareleaseandcitation.ThesecanalsobefoundintheV-Demcodebook.
VariablesincludedinFigure1.
Electoraldemocracyindex(D)(v2x_polyarchy)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofelectoraldemocracyinitsfullestsenseachieved?
Clarifications:Theelectoralprincipleofdemocracyseekstoembodythecorevalueofmakingrulers
responsivetocitizens,achievedthroughelectoralcompetitionfortheelectorate’sapprovalunder
circumstances when suffrage is extensive; political and civil society organizations can operate
freely; elections are clean and not marred by fraud or systematic irregularities; and elections
affect the composition of the chief executive of the country. In between elections, there is
freedom of expression and an independent media capable of presenting alternative views on
matters of political relevance. In the V-Dem conceptual scheme, electoral democracy is
understood as an essential element of any other conception of (representative) democracy –
liberal,participatory,deliberative,egalitarian,orsomeother.
Aggregation:Theindexisformedbytakingtheaverageof,ontheonehand,thesumoftheindices
measuringfreedomofassociation(thick)(v2x_frassoc_thick),suffrage(v2x_suffr),cleanelections
(v2xel_frefair), elected executive (de jure) (v2x_accex) and freedom of expression
(v2x_freexp_thick);and,ontheother,thefive-wayinteractionbetweenthoseindices.Thisishalf
waybetweena straightaverageand strictmultiplication,meaning theaverageof the two. It is
thus a compromise between the twomost well known aggregation formulas in the literature,
bothallowing"compensation"inonesub-componentforlackofpolyarchyintheothers,butalso
punishing countries not strong in one sub-component according to the "weakest link"
argument.TheaggregationisdoneatthelevelofDahlssub-components(withtheoneexception
ofthenon-electoralcomponent).Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:
v2x_polyarchy=
.1*v2x_suffr+.1*v2xel_frefair+.1*v2x_accex+.1*v2x_frassoc_thick+.1*v2x_freexp_thick+.5*
v2x_suffr*v2xel_frefair*v2x_accex*v2x_frassoc_thick*v2x_freexp_thick.
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_freexp_thickv2x_EDcomp_thick
Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Liberaldemocracyindex(D)(v2x_libdem)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofliberaldemocracyachieved?
Clarifications:Theliberalprincipleofdemocracyemphasizestheimportanceofprotectingindividual
andminority rightsagainst thetyrannyof thestateandthetyrannyof themajority.The liberal
modeltakesa“negative”viewofpoliticalpowerinsofarasitjudgesthequalityofdemocracyby
the limits placed on government. This is achieved by constitutionally protected civil liberties,
strong rule of law, an independent judiciary, and effective checks and balances that, together,
limittheexerciseofexecutivepower.Tomakethisameasureofliberaldemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
14
Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_libdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_liberal+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_liberal
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_liberalv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Participatorydemocracyindex(D)(v2x_partipdem)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofparticipatorydemocracyachieved?Clarifications:Theparticipatoryprincipleofdemocracyemphasizesactiveparticipationbycitizensin
allpoliticalprocesses,electoralandnon-electoral.Itismotivatedbyuneasinessaboutabedrockpractice of electoral democracy: delegating authority to representatives. Thus, direct rule bycitizens is preferred, wherever practicable. This model of democracy thus takes suffrage forgranted, emphasizing engagement in civil society organizations, direct democracy, andsubnationalelectedbodies.Tomakeitameasureofparticipatorydemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.
Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_partipdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_partip+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_partip
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_polyarchyv2x_partipDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Deliberativedemocracyindex(D)(v2x_delibdem)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofdeliberativedemocracyachieved?Clarification:Thedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyfocusesontheprocessbywhichdecisionsare
reached in a polity. A deliberative process is one in which public reasoning focused on thecommon good motivates political decisions—as contrasted with emotional appeals, solidaryattachments, parochial interests, or coercion. According to this principle, democracy requiresmorethananaggregationofexistingpreferences.Thereshouldalsoberespectfuldialogueatalllevels—from preference formation to final decision—among informed and competentparticipants who are open to persuasion. To make it a measure of not only the deliberativeprinciple but also of democracy, the index also takes the level of electoral democracy intoaccount.
Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_delibdem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_delib+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_delib
Scale:IntervalSources:v2xdl_delibv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
15
Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)
Egalitariandemocracyindex(D)(v2x_egaldem)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheidealofegalitariandemocracyachieved?Clarifications: The egalitarian principle of democracy addresses the distribution of political power
acrosssocialgroups,i.e.,groupsdefinedbyclass,sex,religion,andethnicity.Thisperspectiveondemocracyemphasizesthataformalguaranteeofpoliticalrightsandcivillibertiesarenotalwayssufficient for political equality. Ideally, all social groups should have approximately equalparticipation,representation,agenda-settingpower,protectionunderthelaw,andinfluenceoverpolicymakingandpolicy implementation. Ifsuchequalitydoesnotexist,thestateoughttoseekto redistribute socio-economic resources, education, and health so as to enhance politicalequality.Tomakeitameasureofegalitariandemocracy,theindexalsotakesthelevelofelectoraldemocracyintoaccount.
Aggregation:Theindexisaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_egaldem=.25*v2x_polyarchy^1.6+.25*v2x_egal+.5*v2x_polyarchy^1.6*v2x_egal
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_egalv2x_polyarchyDatarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
VariablesincludedinFigure2.
Electoralcomponentindex(D)(v2x_EDcomp_thick)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheelectoralprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification: The electoral principle of democracy seeks to achieve responsiveness and
accountabilitybetweenleadersandcitizensthroughthemechanismofcompetitiveelections.Thisispresumedtobeachievedwhensuffrageisextensive;politicalandcivilsocietyorganizationscanoperatefreely;electionsarecleanandnotmarredbyfraudorsystematic irregularities;andthechiefexecutiveofacountryisselected(directlyorindirectly)throughelections.
Aggregation:Theelectoralcomponentindexisoperationalizedasachaindefinedbyitsweakestlinkof freedom of association, suffrage, clean elections, and elected executive. The index is thusaggregatedusingthisformula:v2x_EDcomp_thick=v2x_frassoc_thick*v2x_suffr*v2xel_frefair*v2x_accex.
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_frassoc_thickv2x_suffrv2xel_frefairv2x_accexDatarelease:3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Participatorycomponentindex(D)(v2x_partip)
Projectmanager:JanTeorell
V-DemDataBrief Germany
16
Question:Towhatextentistheparticipatoryprincipleachieved?Clarification:Theparticipatoryprincipleofdemocracyemphasizesactiveparticipationbycitizensin
allpoliticalprocesses,electoralandnon-electoral.Itismotivatedbyuneasinessaboutabedrockpractice of electoral democracy: delegating authority to representatives. Thus, direct rule bycitizens is preferred, wherever practicable. This model of democracy thus takes suffrage forgranted, emphasizing engagement in civil society organizations, direct democracy, andsubnationalelectedbodies.
Aggregation: This index is formed by averaging the following indices: civil society participation(v2x_iccpart), direct popular vote (v2xdd_dd), elected local government power (v2xel_locelec),andelectedregionalgovernmentpower(v2xel_regelec).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2x_iccpartv2xdd_ddv2xel_locelecv2xel_regelecDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Egalitariancomponentindex(D)(v2x_egal)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheegalitarianprincipleachieved?Clarifications: The egalitarian principle of democracy addresses the distribution of political power
acrosssocialgroups,i.e.,groupsdefinedbyclass,sex,religion,andethnicity.Thisperspectiveondemocracyemphasizesthataformalguaranteeofpoliticalrightsandcivillibertiesarenotalwayssufficient for political equality. Ideally, all social groups should have approximately equalparticipation,representation,agenda-settingpower,protectionunderthelaw,andinfluenceoverpolicymakingandpolicy implementation. Ifsuchequalitydoesnotexist,thestateoughttoseekto redistribute socio-economic resources, education, and health so as to enhance politicalequality.
Aggregation: The index is formedbypointestimatesdrawnfromaBayesianfactoranalysismodelincluding indicators of power distribution according to socioeconomic position (v2pepwrses),power distribution according to social group (v2pepwrsoc), social group equality in respect forcivil liberties (v2clsocgrp), equal access to education (v2peedueq), equal access to health(v2pehealth),powerdistributionaccordingtogender(v2pepwrgen),shareofbudgetallocatedtopublic/common goods (v2dlencmps), and the share ofwelfare programs that provide universalratherthanmeans-testedbenefits(v2dlunivl).
Scale:IntervalSources: v2pepwrses v2pepwrsoc v2clsocgrp v2peedueq v2pehealth v2pepwrgen v2dlencmps
v2dlunivlDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Liberalcomponentindex(D)(v2x_liberal)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentistheliberalprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification:Theliberalprincipleofdemocracyemphasizestheimportanceofprotectingindividual
andminority rightsagainst thetyrannyof thestateandthetyrannyof themajority.The liberalmodeltakesa“negative”viewofpoliticalpowerinsofarasitjudgesthequalityofdemocracybythe limits placed on government. This is achieved by constitutionally protected civil liberties,
V-DemDataBrief Germany
17
strong rule of law, an independent judiciary, and effective checks and balances that, together,limittheexerciseofexecutivepower.
Aggregation: This index is formedbyaveraging the following indices:equalitybefore the lawandindividual liberties (v2xcl_rol), judicial constraints on the executive (v2x_jucon), and legislativeconstraintsontheexecutive(v2xlg_legcon).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2xcl_rolv2x_juconv2xlg_legconDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Deliberativecomponentindex(D)(v2xdl_delib)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentisthedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyachieved?Clarification:Thedeliberativeprincipleofdemocracyfocusesontheprocessbywhichdecisionsare
reached in a polity. A deliberative process is one in which public reasoning focused on thecommon good motivates political decisions—as contrasted with emotional appeals, solidaryattachments, parochial interests, or coercion. According to this principle, democracy requiresmorethananaggregationofexistingpreferences.Thereshouldalsoberespectfuldialogueatalllevels—from preference formation to final decision—among informed and competentparticipantswhoareopentopersuasion.Tomeasurethesefeaturesofapolitywetrytodeterminetheextenttowhichpoliticalelitesgivepublicjustificationsfortheirpositionsonmattersofpublicpolicy,justifytheirpositionsintermsof the public good, acknowledge and respect counter-arguments; and how wide the range ofconsultationisatelitelevels.
Aggregation: The index is formedbypointestimatesdrawnfromaBayesianfactoranalysismodelincludingthefollowingindicators:reasonedjustification(v2dlreason),commongoodjustification(v2dlcommon), respect for counterarguments (v2dlcountr), range of consultation (v2dlconslt),andengagedsociety(v2dlengage).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2dlreasonv2dlcommonv2dlcountrv2dlconsltv2dlengageDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Femalerightsindex(D)(v2x_gender)
Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Towhatextentarewomen’spoliticalrightsprotected?Clarifications: Political rights indexfocusesontheabilityofwomentoparticipate indiscussionsof
political issues, participation in civil society organizations, freedom of movement, the right toprivate property, access to justice, freedom from forced labor, representation in the ranks ofjournalists,andanequalshareintheoveralldistributionofpower.
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for CSO women’s participation (v2csgender), female journalists(v2mefemjrn),freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen(v2cldmovew),freedomofdiscussionfor women (v2cldiscw), freedom from forced labor for women (v2clslavef), property rights forwomen(v2clprptyw),accesstojusticeforwomen(v2clacjstw),andpowerdistributedbygender(v2pepwrgen).
V-DemDataBrief Germany
18
Scale:IntervalSources: v2csgender v2mefemjrn v2cldmovew v2cldiscw v2clslavef v2clprptyw v2clacjstw
v2pepwrgen
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
VariablesincludedinFigure3.
Freedomofassociation(thick)index(D)(v2x_frassoc_thick)
Projectmanager:AllenHicken,MichaelBernhard,JanTeorell
Question: To what extent are parties, including opposition parties, allowed to form and toparticipate in elections, and towhat extent are civil society organizations able to form and tooperatefreely?
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for party ban (v2psparban), barriers to parties (v2psbars), oppositionparties autonomy (v2psoppaut), elections multiparty (v2elmulpar), CSO entry and exit(v2cseeorgs) and CSO repression (v2csreprss). Since the multiparty elections indicator is onlyobservedinelectionyears,itsvalueshavefirstbeenrepeatedwithinelectionregimeperiods(asdefinedbyv2x_elecreg).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2psparbanv2psbarsv2psoppautv2elmulparv2cseeorgsv2csreprss
Data release: 4, 5 (release 1, 2, and 3 used a different aggregation formula for the thinner indexv2x_frassoc)
Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Cleanelectionsindex(D)(v2xel_frefair)
Projectmanagers:StaffanLindberg,JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentareelectionsfreeandfair?Clarifications: Free and fair connotes an absence of registration fraud, systematic irregularities,
governmentintimidationoftheopposition,votebuying,andelectionviolence.
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for EMB autonomy (v2elembaut), EMB capacity (v2elembcap), electionvoter registry (v2elrgstry), election votebuying (v2elvotbuy), electionother voting irregularities(v2elirreg), election government intimidation (v2elintim), election other electoral violence(v2elpeace), and election free and fair (v2elfrfair). Since the bulk of these indicators are onlyobserved in election years, the index scores have then been repeated within election regimeperiods(asdefinedbyv2x_elecreg)
Scale:IntervalSources:v2elembautv2elembcapv2elrgstryv2elvotbuyv2elirregv2elintimv2elpeacev2elfrfair
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Shareofpopulationwithsuffrage(D)(v2x_suffr)
Projectmanager:Svend-ErikSkaaning
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Question:Whatshareofadultcitizens(asdefinedbystatute)hasthelegalrighttovoteinnational
elections?
Clarification: This question does not take into consideration restrictions based on age, residence,having been convicted for crime, or being legally incompetent. It covers legal (de jure)
restrictions,notrestrictionsthatmaybeoperativeinpractice(defacto).Thescoresreflectdejure
provisions of suffrage extension in percentage of the adult population as of January 1 in a
particularyear.Theadultpopulation(asdefinedbystatute) isdefinedbycitizens inthecaseof
independent countries or the people living in the territorial entity in the case of colonies.
Universalsuffrageiscodedas100%.Universalmalesuffrageonly iscodedas50%.Yearsbefore
electoralprovisionsareintroducedarescored0%.Thescoresdonotreflectwhetheranelectoral
regime was interrupted or not. Only if new constitutions, electoral laws, or the like explicitly
introduce new regulations of suffrage, the scores were adjusted accordingly if the changes
suggesteddoingso.Ifqualifyingcriteriaotherthangenderapply(suchasproperty,taxpayments,
income, literacy, region, race, ethnicity, religion, and/or ‘economic independence’), estimates
have been calculated by combining information on the restrictions with different kinds of
statisticalinformation(onpopulationsize,agedistribution,wealthdistribution,literacyrates,size
of ethnic groups, etc.), secondary country-specific sources, and – in the case of very poor
information–theconditionsinsimilarcountriesorcolonies.
Aggregation:v2elsuffrage/100
Responses:PercentScale:IntervalSource:v2elsuffrageDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Electedexecutiveindex(dejure)(D)(v2x_accex)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Isthechiefexecutiveappointedthroughpopularelections(eitherdirectlyorindirectly)?Clarifications:Thisindexattemptstomeasurewhetherthechiefexecutiveiselected,eitherdirectly
electedthroughpopularelectionsor indirectly throughapopularlyelected legislaturethatthen
appointsthechiefexecutive.
Note thatapopularelection isminimallydefinedandalso includes shamelectionswith limited
suffrageandnocompetition.Similarly,“appointment”bylegislatureonlyimpliesselectionand/or
approval,notthepowertodismiss.
Thisindexisusefulprimarilyforaggregatinghigher-orderindicesandshouldnotbeinterpretedas
animportantelementofdemocracyinitsownright.
Aggregation: There are six different chains of appointment/selection to take into account in
constructingthisindex,allofwhicharescaledtovaryfrom0to1.First,whethertheheadofstate
is directly elected (a=1) or not (a=0). Second, the extent to which the legislature is popularlyelected(b),measuredastheproportionoflegislatorselected(iflegislatureisunicameral),orthe
weighted average of the proportion elected for each house,with theweight defined bywhich
house isdominant (if legislature isbicameral).Third,whether theheadofstate isappointedby
thelegislature,ortheapprovalofthelegislatureisnecessaryfortheappointmentoftheheadof
state (c1=1, otherwise 0). Fourth, whether the head of government is appointed by the
legislature, or the approval of the legislature is necessary for the appointment of the head of
government(c2=1,otherwise0).Fifth,whethertheheadofgovernmentisappointedbythehead
ofstate(d=1)ornot(d=0).Sixth,whethertheheadofgovernmentisdirectlyelected(e=1)ornot
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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(e=0). Define hosw as the weight for the head of state. If the head of state is also head ofgovernment (v2exhoshog==1), hosw=1. If the head of state hasmore power than the head of
governmentovertheappointmentanddismissalofcabinetministers,thenhosw=1;ifthereverseis true, hosw=0. If they share equal power, hosw=.5. Define the weight for the head ofgovernmentashogw=1-hosw.Theformulais:
v2x_accex=
hosw*[max(a1,b*c1)]+hogw*[max(a1*d,b*c1*d,a2,b*c2)]
Scale:IntervalSources: v2lgello v2lgelecup v2lgdomchm v2exaphos v2expathhs v2exaphogp v2expathhg
v2exdfcbhsv2exdjcbhgv2exdfdmhsv2exdfdshgv2exhoshog
Datarelease:4,5(release1,2,and3usedadifferent,preliminaryaggregationformula)Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
VariablesincludedinFigure4.
Equalitybeforethelawandindividuallibertyindex(D)(v2xcl_rol)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion: Towhat extent are laws transparent and rigorously enforced andpublic administration
impartial,andtowhatextentdocitizensenjoyaccesstojustice,securepropertyrights,freedom
fromforcedlabor,freedomofmovement,physicalintegrityrights,andfreedomofreligion?
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis
modelof the indicators for rigorousand impartialpublic administration (v2clrspct), transparent
laws with predictable enforcement (v2cltrnslw), access to justice for men/women (v2clacjstm,
v2clacjstw), property rights for men/women (v2clprptym, v2clprptyw), freedom from torture
(v2cltort),freedomfrompoliticalkillings(v2clkill),fromforcedlaborformen/women(v2clslavem
v2clslavef), freedom of religion (v2clrelig), freedom of foreign movement (v2clfmove), and
freedomofdomesticmovementformen/women(v2cldmovem,v2cldmovew).
Scale:IntervalSources: v2clrspct v2cltrnslw v2clacjstm v2clacjstw v2clprptym v2clprptyw v2cltort v2clkill
v2clslavemv2clslavefv2clreligv2clfmovev2cldmovemv2cldmovew
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Legislativeconstraintsontheexecutiveindex(D)(v2xlg_legcon)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion: To what extent is the legislature and government agencies (e.g., comptroller general,
general prosecutor, or ombudsman) capable of questioning, investigating, and exercising
oversightovertheexecutive?
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis
model of the indicators for legislature questions officials in practice (v2lgqstexp), executive
oversight (v2lgotovst), legislature investigates inpractice (v2lginvstp),and legislatureopposition
parties(v2lgoppart).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2lgqstexpv2lgotovstv2lginvstpv2lgoppart
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Judicialconstraintsontheexecutiveindex(D)(v2x_jucon)
Projectmanager:JanTeorellQuestion:Towhatextentdoestheexecutiverespecttheconstitutionandcomplywithcourtrulings,
andtowhatextentisthejudiciaryabletoactinanindependentfashion?Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysis
model of the indicators for executive respects constitution (v2exrescon), compliance withjudiciary (v2jucomp), compliance with high court (v2juhccomp), high court independence(v2juhcind),andlowercourtindependence(v2juncind).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2exresconv2jucompv2juhccompv2juhcindv2juncindDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure5.
Civilsocietyparticipationindex(D)(v2x_cspart)
Projectmanager:MichaelBernhardQuestion: Are major CSOs routinely consulted by policymaker; how large is the involvement of
peopleinCSOs;arewomenpreventedfromparticipating;andislegislativecandidatenominationwithinpartyorganizationhighlydecentralizedormadethroughpartyprimaries?
Clarifications:Thesphereofcivilsocietyliesinthepublicspacebetweentheprivatesphereandthestate. Here, citizens organize in groups to pursue their collective interests and ideals.We callthese groups civil society organizations (CSOs). CSOs include, but are by nomeans limited to,interest groups, labor unions, spiritual organizations (if they are engaged in civic or politicalactivities), social movements, professional associations, charities, and other non-governmentalorganizations.The core civil society index (CCSI) is designed to provide a measure of a robust civil society,understoodasonethatenjoysautonomyfromthestateandinwhichcitizensfreelyandactivelypursuetheirpoliticalandcivicgoals,howeverconceived.
Aggregation: The index is formed by taking the point estimates from a Bayesian factor analysismodel of the indicators for candidate selection –national/local (v2pscnslnl), CSO consultation(v2cscnsult), CSO participatory environment (v2csprtcpt), and CSO women’s participation(v2csgender).
Scale:IntervalSources:v2pscnslnlv2cscnsultv2csprtcptv2csgenderDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Localgovernment(D)(v2xel_locelec)
Projectmanagers:KellyMcMann,JanTeorellQuestion: Are there elected local governments, and –if so – to what extent can they operate
withoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesatthelocallevel?
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Clarification: The lowest score would be reserved for a country that has no elected localgovernments.Amediumscorewouldbeaccordedacountrythathaselectedlocalgovernmentsbutwhere those governments are subordinate tounelectedofficials at the local level (perhapsappointedby a higher-level body).A high scorewouldbe accorded to a country inwhich localgovernmentsareelectedandable tooperatewithout restrictions fromunelectedactors at thelocal level (with the exception of judicial bodies). (Naturally, local governments remainsubordinatetotheregionalandnationalgovernments.)
Aggregation:First,localgovernmentelected(v2ellocelc)isrecodedsothat0=noneelected,1=onlyexecutiveelected,2=onlyassemblyelected,and3=bothelected.Thisnewconstructisthenscaledtovaryfrom0-1andmultipliedbylocalofficesrelativepower(v2ellocpwr)scaledtovaryfrom0-1.
Scale:IntervalSources:v2ellocelcv2ellocpwrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Directpopularvoteindex(D)(v2xdd_dd)
Projectmanager:DavidAltmanQuestion:Towhatextentisthedirectpopularvoteutilized?Clarification: Directpopularvotingrefersheretoaninstitutionalizedprocessbywhichcitizensofa
regionorcountryregistertheirchoiceoropiniononspecificissuesthroughaballot.Itisintendedto embrace initiatives, referendums, and plebiscites, as those terms are usually understood. Itcapturessomeaspectsofthemoregeneralconceptofdirectdemocracy.The termdoesnot encompass recall elections,deliberativeassemblies, or settings inwhich thevote is not secret or the purview is restricted. Likewise, it does not apply to elections forrepresentatives.
Aggregation: This indexmeasureshoweasy it is to initiateandapproveadirectpopularvoteandhowconsequentialthatvoteis(ifapproved)?Easeofinitiationismeasuredby(a)theexistenceofadirectdemocracyprocess(v2ddlegci), (b)thenumberofsignaturesneeded(v2ddsigcip), (c)time-limits to circulate the signatures (v2ddgrgpci), and (d) the level of government (nationaland/or subnational). Ease of approval is measured by quorums pertaining to (a) participation(v2ddgrgpci), (b) approval (v2ddbindci), (c) supermajority (v2ddspmjci), and (d) districtmajority(v2dddistci).Consequencesaremeasuredby(a)thelegalstatusofthedecisionmadebycitizens(binding or merely consultative) (v2ddlegci), and (b) the frequency with which direct popularvoteshavebeenapprovedinthepast(v2ddciniyr).
Scale:IntervalSources: v2ddlegci v2ddsigcip v2ddgrtlci v2ddgrgpci v2ddlevci v2ddbindci v2ddthreci v2ddspmjci
v2dddistciv2ddlegciv2ddciniyrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Regionalgovernment(D)(v2xel_regelec)
Projectmanagers:KellyMcMann,JanTeorellQuestion: Are there elected regional governments, and –if so – towhat extent can theyoperate
withoutinterferencefromunelectedbodiesattheregionallevel?
V-DemDataBrief Germany
23
Clarification: The lowest score would be reserved for a country that has no elected regionalgovernments. A medium score would be accorded a country that has elected regionalgovernmentsbutwherethosegovernmentsaresubordinatetounelectedofficialsattheregionallevel(perhapsappointedbyahigher-levelbody).Ahighscorewouldbeaccordedtoacountryinwhichregionalgovernmentsareelectedandabletooperatewithoutrestrictionsfromunelectedactors at the regional level (with the exception of judicial bodies). (Naturally, regionalgovernmentsremainsubordinatetothenationalgovernment.)
Aggregation: First, regional government elected (v2elsrgel) is recoded so that 0=none elected,1=only executive elected, 2=only assembly elected, and 3=both elected. This new construct isthenscaledtovaryfrom0-1andmultipliedbyregionalofficesrelativepower(v2elrgpwr)scaledtovaryfrom0-1.
Scale:IntervalSources:v2elsrgelv2elrgpwrDatarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure6.
Reasonedjustification(C)(v2dlreason,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When important policy changes are being considered, i.e. before a decision has been
made,towhatextentdopoliticalelitesgivepublicandreasonedjustificationsfortheirpositions?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle
thatismosttypicalofprominentnationalpoliticalleaders.Responses:
0:Nojustification.Elitesalmostalwaysonlydictatethatsomethingshouldorshouldnotbedone,butnoreasoningaboutjustificationisgiven.Forexample,“Wemustcutspending.”
1:Inferiorjustification.Elitestendtogivereasonswhysomeoneshouldorshouldnotbefordoingornotdoingsomething,butthereasonstendtobeillogicalorfalse,althoughtheymayappealtomanyvoters.Forexample,“Wemustcutspending.Thestateisinefficient.”[Theinferenceisincompletebecauseaddressinginefficiencieswouldnotnecessarilyreducespendinganditmightundermineessentialservices.]
2:Qualifiedjustification.Elitestendtoofferasinglesimplereasonjustifyingwhytheproposedpoliciescontributetoordetractfromanoutcome.Forexample,“Wemustcutspendingbecausetaxpayerscannotaffordtopayforcurrentprograms.”
3:Sophisticatedjustification.Elitestendtooffermorethanoneormorecomplex,nuancedandcompletejustification.Forexample,“Wemustcutspendingbecausetaxpayerscannotaffordtopayforcurrentgovernmentprograms.Raisingtaxeswouldhurteconomicgrowth,anddeficitspendingwouldleadtoinflation.”
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Respectcounterarguments(C)(v2dlcountr,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When importantpolicy changes arebeing considered, towhat extentdopolitical elites
acknowledgeandrespectcounterarguments?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle
thatismosttypicalofprominentnationalpoliticalleaders.Responses:
0:Counterargumentsarenotallowedorifarticulated,punished.1:Counterargumentsareallowedatleastfromsomeparties,butalmostalwaysareignored.2:Elitestendtoacknowledgecounterargumentsbutthenexplicitlydegradethembymakinga
negativestatementaboutthemortheindividualsandgroupsthatproposethem.3:Elitestendtoacknowledgecounterargumentswithoutmakingexplicitnegativeorpositive
statementsaboutthem.4:Elitesalmostalwaysacknowledgecounterargumentsandexplicitlyvaluethem,evenifthey
ultimatelyrejectthemforthemostpart.5:Elitesalmostalwaysacknowledgecounterargumentsandexplicitlyvaluethem,and
frequentlyalsoevenacceptthemandchangetheirposition.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Engagedsociety(C)(v2dlengage,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion:Whenimportantpolicychangesarebeingconsidered,howwideandhowindependentare
publicdeliberations?Clarification: This question refers to deliberation as manifested in discussion, debate, and other
publicforumssuchaspopularmedia.Responses:
0:Publicdeliberationisnever,oralmostneverallowed.1:Somelimitedpublicdeliberationsareallowedbutthepublicbelowtheelitelevelsisalmost
alwayseitherunawareofmajorpolicydebatesorunabletotakepartinthem.2:Publicdeliberationisnotrepressedbutneverthelessinfrequentandnon-eliteactorsare
typicallycontrolledand/orconstrainedbytheelites.3:Publicdeliberationisactivelyencouragedandsomeautonomousnon-elitegroups
participate,butitisconfinedtoasmallsliceofspecializedgroupsthattendstobethesameacrossissue-areas.
4:Publicdeliberationisactivelyencouragedandarelativelybroadsegmentofnon-elitegroupsoftenparticipateandvarywithdifferentissue-areas.
5:Largenumbersofnon-elitegroupsaswellasordinarypeopletendtodiscussmajorpoliciesamongthemselves,inthemedia,inassociationsorneighborhoods,orinthestreets.Grass-rootsdeliberationiscommonandunconstrained.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Commongood(C)(v2dlcommon,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When importantpolicy changes arebeing considered, towhat extentdopolitical elites
justifytheirpositionsintermsofthecommongood?Clarification:Becausediscoursevariesgreatlyfrompersontoperson,baseyouransweronthestyle
thatismosttypicalofprominentnationalpoliticalleaders.Responses:
0:Littleornojustificationintermsofthecommongoodisusuallyoffered.1:Specificbusiness,geographic,group,party,orconstituencyinterestsareforthemostpart
offeredasjustifications.2:Justificationsareforthemostpartamixofspecificinterestsandthecommongoodanditis
impossibletosaywhichjustificationismorecommonthantheother.3:Justificationsarebasedonamixtureofreferencestoconstituency/party/groupinterests
andonappealstothecommongood.4:Justificationsareforthemostpartalmostalwaysbasedonexplicitstatementsofthe
commongoodforsociety,understoodeitherasthegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumberorashelpingtheleastadvantagedinasociety.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Rangeofconsultation(C)(v2dlconslt,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion: When important policy changes are being considered, how wide is the range of
consultationatelitelevels?Clarification:Becausepracticesvarygreatlyfrompolicytopolicy,baseyouransweronthestylethat
ismosttypicalofpolicymaking.Responses:
0:Noconsultation.Theleaderoraverysmallgroup(e.g.militarycouncil)makesauthoritativedecisionsontheirown.
1:Verylittleandnarrow.Consultationwithonlyanarrowcircleofloyalparty/rulingelites.2:Consultationincludestheformerplusalargergroupthatisloyaltothegovernment,suchas
therulingparty’sorparties’localexecutivesand/orwomen,youthandotherbranches.3:Consultationincludestheformerplusleadersofotherparties.4:Consultationincludestheformerplusaselectrangeofsociety/labor/business
representatives.5:Consultationengageselitesfromessentiallyallpartsofthepoliticalspectrumandall
politicallyrelevantsectorsofsocietyandbusiness.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).VariablesincludedinFigure7.
Powerdistributedbysocioeconomicposition(C)(v2pepwrses,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanager:JohnGerring Question:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtosocioeconomicposition?Clarification: All societies are characterized by some degree of economic (wealth and income)
inequality. Insomesocieties, incomeandwealtharedistributed inagrosslyunequal fashion. Inothers,thedifferencebetweenrichandpoorisnotsogreat.Here,weareconcernednotwiththedegreeofsocial inequalitybutratherwiththepoliticaleffectsofthis inequality.Specifically,weareconcernedwiththeextenttowhichwealthandincometranslatesintopoliticalpower.
Responses:0:Wealthypeopleenjoyavirtualmonopolyonpoliticalpower.Averageandpoorerpeople
havealmostnoinfluence.1:Wealthypeopleenjoyadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Peopleofaverageincomehave
littlesay.Poorerpeoplehaveessentiallynoinfluence.2:Wealthypeoplehaveaverystrongholdonpoliticalpower.Peopleofaverageorpoorer
incomehavesomedegreeofinfluencebutonlyonissuesthatmatterlessforwealthypeople.
3:Wealthypeoplehavemorepoliticalpowerthanothers.Butpeopleofaverageincomehavealmostasmuchinfluenceandpoorpeoplealsohaveasignificantdegreeofpoliticalpower.
4:Wealthypeoplehavenomorepoliticalpowerthanthosewhoseeconomicstatusisaverageorpoor.Politicalpowerismoreorlessequallydistributedacrosseconomicgroups.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Socialgroupequalityinrespectforcivilliberties(C)(v2clsocgrp,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanager:Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Doallsocialgroups,asdistinguishedbylanguage,ethnicity,religion,race,region,orcaste,
enjoythesamelevelofcivilliberties,oraresomegroupsgenerallyinamorefavorableposition?Clarification:Here,civillibertiesareunderstoodtoincludeaccesstojustice,privatepropertyrights,
freedomofmovement,andfreedomfromforcedlabor.Responses:
0:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoymuchfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.
1:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoysubstantiallyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.
2:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoymoderatelyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.
3:Membersofsomesocialgroupsenjoyslightlyfewercivillibertiesthanthegeneralpopulation.
4:Membersofallsalientsocialgroupsenjoythesamelevelofcivilliberties.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
27
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.
Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-DemMethodology,postedatV-Dem.net).
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Healthequality(C)(v2pehealth,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindberg
Question:Towhatextentishighqualitybasichealthcareguaranteedtoall,sufficienttoenablethemtoexercisetheirbasicpoliticalrightsasadultcitizens?
Clarification:Poor-qualityhealthcarecanmakecitizensunabletoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizensbyfailingtoadequatelytreatpreventableandtreatableillnessesthatrenderthemunabletowork,participateinsocialorpoliticalorganizations,orvote(wherevotingisallowed).
Responses:0:Extreme.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,atleast75percent(%)ofcitizens’abilityto
exercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.1:Unequal.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,atleast25percent(%)ofcitizens’abilityto
exercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.2:Somewhatequal.Becauseofpoor-qualityhealthcare,tento25percent(%)ofcitizens’
abilitytoexercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.3:Relativelyequal.Basichealthcareisoverallequalinqualitybutbecauseofpoor-quality
healthcare,fivetotenpercent(%)ofcitizens’abilitytoexercisetheirpoliticalrightsasadultcitizensisundermined.
4:Equal.Basichealthcareisequalinqualityandlessthanfivepercent(%)ofcitizenscannotexercisetheirbasicpoliticalrightsasadultcitizens.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.
Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-DemMethodology,postedatV-Dem.net).
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Particularisticorpublicgoods(C)(v2dlencmps)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindberg
Question:Consideringtheprofileofsocialandinfrastructuralspendinginthenationalbudget,how“particularistic”or“publicgoods”aremostexpenditures?
Clarification: Particularistic spending is narrowly targeted on a specific corporation, sector, socialgroup, region, party, or set of constituents. Such spending may be referred to as “pork,”“clientelistic,”or“privategoods.”
Public-goodsspending is intendedtobenefitallcommunitieswithinasociety, though itmaybemeans-tested so as to target poor, needy, or otherwise underprivileged constituents. The keypointisthatallwhosatisfythemeans-testareallowedtoreceivethebenefit.
Your answer should consider the entire budget of social and infrastructural spending. We areinterested in the relative valueof particularistic andpublic-goods spending, not thenumber ofbillsorprogramsthatfallintoeithercategory.
Responses:0:Almostallofthesocialandinfrastructureexpendituresareparticularistic.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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1:Mostsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresareparticularistic,butasignificantportion(e.g.¼or1/3)ispublic-goods.
2:Socialandinfrastructureexpendituresareevenlydividedbetweenparticularisticandpublic-goodsprograms.
3:Mostsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresarepublic-goodsbutasignificantportion(e.g.,¼or1/3)isparticularistic.
4:Almostallsocialandinfrastructureexpendituresarepublic-goodsincharacter.Onlyasmallportionisparticularistic.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Powerdistributedbysocialgroup(C)(v2pepwrsoc,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtosocialgroups?Clarification: A social group is differentiated within a country by caste, ethnicity, language, race,
region,religion,orsomecombinationthereof. (Itdoesnot include identitiesgrounded insexualorientationorsocioeconomicstatus.)Socialgroupidentityiscontextuallydefinedandislikelytovaryacrosscountriesandthroughtime.Socialgroupidentitiesarealsolikelytocross-cut,sothatagivenpersoncouldbedefinedinmultipleways,i.e.,aspartofmultiplegroups.Nonetheless,atanygivenpoint in time thereare social groupswithina society thatareunderstood -by thoseresidingwithinthatsociety–tobedifferent,inwaysthatmaybepoliticallyrelevant.
Responses:0:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyonesocialgroupcomprisingaminorityofthepopulation.
Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.1:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyseveralsocialgroupscomprisingaminorityofthe
population.Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.2:Politicalpowerismonopolizedbyseveralsocialgroupscomprisingamajorityofthe
population.Thismonopolyisinstitutionalized,i.e.,notsubjecttofrequentchange.3:Eitherallsocialgroupspossesssomepoliticalpower,withsomegroupshavingmorepower
thanothers;ordifferentsocialgroupsalternateinpower,withonegroupcontrollingmuchofthepoliticalpowerforaperiodoftime,followedbyanother–butallsignificantgroupshaveaturnattheseatofpower.
4:Allsocialgroupshaveroughlyequalpoliticalpowerortherearenostrongethnic,caste,linguistic,racial,religious,orregionaldifferencestospeakof.Socialgroupcharacteristicsarenotrelevanttopolitics.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Educationalequality(C)(v2peedueq,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindberg
V-DemDataBrief Germany
29
Question:Towhatextentishighqualitybasiceducationguaranteedtoall,sufficienttoenablethemtoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens?
Clarification: Basiceducationreferstoagestypicallybetween6and16yearsofagebutthisvariesslightlyamongcountries.
Responses:0:Extreme.Provisionofhighqualitybasiceducationisextremelyunequalandatleast75
percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.
1:Unequal.Provisionofhighqualitybasiceducationisextremelyunequalandatleast25percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.
2:Somewhatequal.Basiceducationisrelativelyequalinqualitybuttento25percent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.
3:Relativelyequal.Basiceducationisoverallequalinqualitybutfivetotenpercent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatprobablyunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.
4:Equal.Basiceducationisequalinqualityandlessthanfivepercent(%)ofchildrenreceivesuchlow-qualityeducationthatprobablyunderminestheirabilitytoexercisetheirbasicrightsasadultcitizens.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Powerdistributedbygender(C)(v2pepwrgen,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtogender?Responses:
0:Menhaveanear-monopolyonpoliticalpower.1:Menhaveadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Womenhaveonlymarginalinfluence.2:Menhavemuchmorepoliticalpowerbutwomenhavesomeareasofinfluence.3:Menhavesomewhatmorepoliticalpowerthanwomen.4:Menandwomenhaveroughlyequalpoliticalpower.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Means-testedv.universalisticpolicy(C)(v2dlunivl,*_dos,*_ord,*_meanl)
Projectmanagers:MichaelCoppedge,JohnGerring,StaffanLindbergQuestion:Howmanywelfareprogramsaremeans-testedandhowmanybenefitall(orvirtuallyall)
membersofthepolity?
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Clarification: A means-tested program targets poor, needy, or otherwise underprivilegedconstituents.Cash-transferprogramsarenormallymeans-tested.A universal (non-means tested) program potentially benefits everyone. This includes freeeducation,nationalhealthcare schemes,and retirementprograms.Granted, somemaybenefitmore than others from these programs (e.g., when people with higher salaries get higherunemploymentbenefits).Thekeypoint is thatpracticallyeveryone isabeneficiary,orpotentialbeneficiary.Thepurposeofthisquestionisnottogaugethesizeofthewelfarestatebutratheritsquality.So,youranswershouldbebasedonwhateverprogramsexist.
Responses:0:Thereareno,orextremelylimited,welfarestatepolicies(education,health,retirement,
unemployment,povertyprograms).1:Almostallofthewelfarestatepoliciesaremeans-tested.2:Mostwelfarestatepoliciesmeans-tested,butasignificantportion(e.g.¼or1/3)is
universalisticandpotentiallybenefitseveryoneinthepopulation.3:Thewelfarestatepoliciesareroughlyevenlydividedbetweenmeans-testedand
universalistic.4:Mostwelfarestatepoliciesareuniversalistic,butasignificantportion(e.g.,¼or1/3)are
means-tested.5:Almostallwelfarestatepoliciesareuniversalincharacter.Onlyasmallportionismeans-
tested.Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
VariablesincludedinFigure8.
CSOwomen’sparticipation(C)(v2csgender,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanager:MichaelBernhardQuestion:Arewomenpreventedfromparticipatingincivilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)?Clarification: Pleasepayattentiontoboth(A)whetherwomenarepreventedfromparticipating in
civilsocietyorganizations(CSOs)becauseoftheirgenderand(B)whetherCSOspursuingwomen’sinterestsarepreventedfromtakingpartinassociationallife.
Responses:0:Almostalways.1:Frequently.2:Abouthalfthetime.3:Rarely.4:Almostnever.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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Freedomofdiscussionforwomen(C)(v2cldiscw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Arewomenabletoopenlydiscusspoliticalissuesinprivatehomesandinpublicspaces?Clarification: This indicator specifies the extent to which women are able to engage in private
discussions,particularlyonpoliticalissues,inprivatehomesandpublicspaces(restaurants,publictransportation, sports events,work etc.)without fear of harassment by othermembers of thepolityorthepublicauthorities.Weareinterestedinrestrictionsbythegovernmentanditsagentsbutalsoculturalrestrictionsorcustomarylawsthatareenforcedbyothermembersofthepolity,sometimesininformalways.This question does not ask you to assess the relative freedom ofmen and women. Thus, it ispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylow–rightstofreedomofdiscussion.
Responses:0:Notrespected.Hardlyanyfreedomofexpressionexistsforwomen.Womenaresubjectto
immediateandharshinterventionandharassmentforexpressionofpoliticalopinion.1:Weaklyrespected.Expressionsofpoliticalopinionsbywomenarefrequentlyexposedto
interventionandharassment.2:Somewhatrespected.Expressionsofpoliticalopinionsbywomenareoccasionallyexposed
tointerventionandharassment.3:Mostlyrespected.Thereareminorrestraintsonthefreedomofexpressionintheprivate
sphere,predominantlylimitedtoafewisolatedcasesoronlylinkedtosoftsanctions.Butasarulethereisnointerventionorharassmentifwomenmakepoliticalstatements.
4:Fullyrespected.Freedomofspeechbywomenintheirhomesandinpublicspacesisnotrestricted.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Propertyrightsforwomen(C)(v2clprptyw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Dowomenenjoytherighttoprivateproperty?Clarification: Private property includes the right to acquire, possess, inherit, and sell private
property, including land. Limitsonproperty rightsmaycome from the state (whichmay legallylimit rightsor fail toenforce them); customary lawsandpractices;or religiousor social norms.Thisquestionconcernstherighttoprivateproperty,notactualownershipofproperty.Thisquestiondoesnotaskyoutoassesstherelativerightsofmenandwomen.Thus,itispossibletoassignthelowestpossiblescoretoacountryevenifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andveryminimal–propertyrights.
Responses:0:Virtuallynowomenenjoyprivatepropertyrightsofanykind.1:Somewomenenjoysomeprivatepropertyrights,butmosthavenone.2:Manywomenenjoymanyprivatepropertyrights,butasmallerproportionenjoysfewor
none.3:Morethanhalfofwomenenjoymostprivatepropertyrights,yetasmallershareofwomen
havemuchmorerestrictedrights.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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4:Mostwomenenjoymostprivatepropertyrightsbutasmallminoritydoesnot.5:Virtuallyallwomenenjoyall,oralmostall,propertyrights.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Powerdistributedbygender(C)(v2pepwrgen,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanager:JohnGerringQuestion:Ispoliticalpowerdistributedaccordingtogender?Responses:
0:Menhaveanear-monopolyonpoliticalpower.1:Menhaveadominantholdonpoliticalpower.Womenhaveonlymarginalinfluence.2:Menhavemuchmorepoliticalpowerbutwomenhavesomeareasofinfluence.3:Menhavesomewhatmorepoliticalpowerthanwomen.4:Menandwomenhaveroughlyequalpoliticalpower.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen(C)(v2cldmovew,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaningQuestion:Dowomenenjoyfreedomofmovementwithinthecountry?Clarification: This indicator specifies the extent to which all women are able to move freely, in
daytimeandnighttime,inpublicthoroughfares,acrossregionswithinacountry,andtoestablishpermanentresidencywheretheywish.Notethatrestrictionsinmovementmightbeimposedbythe state and/or by informal norms and practices. Such restrictions sometimes fall on ruralresidents,onspecificsocialgroups,orondissidents.This question does not ask you to assess the relative freedom ofmen and women. Thus, it ispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylow–freedomofmovement.Donotconsiderrestrictionsinmovementthatareplacedonordinary(non-political)criminals.Donotconsiderrestrictionsinmovementthatresultfromcrimeorunrest.
Responses:0:Virtuallynowomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement(e.g.,NorthKoreaorAfghanistan
undertheTaliban).1:Somewomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement,butmostdonot(e.g.,ApartheidSouth
Africa).2:Mostwomenenjoysomefreedomofmovementbutasizeableminoritydoesnot.
Alternativelyallwomenenjoypartialfreedomofmovement.3:Mostwomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovementbutasmallminoritydoesnot.4:Virtuallyallwomenenjoyfullfreedomofmovement.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
33
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.
Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-DemMethodology,postedatV-Dem.net).
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen(C)(v2clslavef,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaning
Question:Areadultwomenfreefromservitudeandotherkindsofforcedlabor?
Clarification:Involuntaryservitudeoccurswhenanadultisunabletoquitajobs/hedesirestoleave–notbyreasonofeconomicnecessitybutratherbyreasonofemployer’scoercion.Thisincludeslabor camps but not work or service which forms part of normal civic obligations such asconscriptionoremploymentincommandeconomies.
This questiondoesnot ask you to assess the relative freedomofmenandwomen from forcedlabor. Thus, a country inwhich bothmen andwomen suffer the same conditions of servitudemightbecodeda(0)forwomen,eventhoughthereisequalityacrossthesexes.
Responses:0:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaboriswidespreadandaccepted(perhapseven
organized)bythestate.1:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborissubstantial.Althoughofficiallyopposedby
thepublicauthorities,thestateisunwillingorunabletoeffectivelycontainthepractice.2:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborexistsbutisnotwidespreadandusually
activelyopposedbypublicauthorities,oronlytoleratedinsomeparticularareasoramongparticularsocialgroups.
3:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborisinfrequentandonlyfoundinthecriminalunderground.Itisactivelyandsincerelyopposedbythepublicauthorities.
4:Femaleservitudeorotherkindsofforcedlaborisvirtuallynon-existent.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.
Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-DemMethodology,postedatV-Dem.net).
Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
Accesstojusticeforwomen(C)(v2clacjstw,*_dos,*_ord,*_mean)
Projectmanagers:PamelaPaxton,Svend-ErikSkaaning
Question:Dowomenenjoyequal,secure,andeffectiveaccesstojustice?
Clarification: Thisquestionspecifiestheextenttowhichwomencanbringcasesbeforethecourtswithout risk to their personal safety, trials are fair, and women have effective ability to seekredress if public authorities violate their rights, including the rights to counsel, defense, andappeal.
Thisquestiondoesnotaskyoutoassesstherelativeaccesstojusticemenandwomen.Thus,itispossibletoassignthe lowestpossiblescoretoacountryeven ifmenandwomenenjoyequal–andextremelylimited–accesstojustice.
Responses:0:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisnon-existent.
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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1:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisusuallynotestablishedorwidelyrespected.
2:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisinconsistentlyobserved.Minorproblemscharacterizemostcasesoroccurratherunevenlyacrossdifferentpartsofthecountry.
3:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisusuallyobserved.4:Secureandeffectiveaccesstojusticeforwomenisalmostalwaysobserved.
Scale:Ordinal,convertedtointervalbythemeasurementmodel.Cross-coder aggregation: Bayesian item response theory measurement model (see V-Dem
Methodology,postedatV-Dem.net).Datarelease:1,2,3,4,5.Citation:V-Demcodebook(seesuggestedcitationatthetopofthisdocument).
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Appendix II. Overview of the structure of the indices.
StructureofAggregation–IndicesandIndicators
DemocracyIndicesNames
Mid-LevelDemocracyandGovernanceIndicesNames
Lower-LevelDemocracyandGovernanceIndicesNames
NamesIndicators v2_tagIndicesandIndicators
ElectoralDemocracyIndex
v2x_polyarchy
Freedomofexpressionindex
v2x_freexp
Governmentcensorshipeffort-Media
v2mecenefm
Harassmentofjournalists v2meharjrn Mediaself-censorship v2meslfcen Freedomofdiscussion
formenv2cldiscm
Freedomofdiscussionforwomen
v2cldiscw
Freedomofacademicandculturalexpression
v2clacfree
Alternativesourceinformationindex
v2xme_altinf
Mediabias v2mebias Print/broadcastmedia
criticalv2mecrit
Print/broadcastmediaperspectives
v2merange
ElectoralComponentIndex
v2x_EDcomp_thick
Freedomofassociationindex(thick)
v2x_frassoc_thick
PartyBan v2psparban Barrierstoparties v2psbars Oppositionparties
autonomyv2psoppaut
Electionsmultiparty v2elmulpar CSOentryandexit v2cseeorgs CSOrepression v2csreprss Shareof
populationwithsuffrage
v2x_suffr
Percentofpopulationwithsuffrage
v2elsuffrage
Cleanelections v2xel_frefair
V-DemDataBrief Germany
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index EMBautonomy v2elembaut EMBcapacity v2elembcap Electionvoterregistry v2elrgstry Electionvotebuying v2elvotbuy Electionothervoting
irregularitiesv2elirreg
Electiongovernmentintimidation
v2elintim
Electionotherelectoralviolence
v2elpeace
Electionfreeandfair v2elfrfair Electedexecutive
index(dejure) v2x_accex
Lowerchamberelected v2lgello Upperchamberelected v2lgelecup Legislaturedominant
chamberv2lgdomchm
HOSselectionbylegislatureinpractice
v2exaphos
HOSappointmentinpractice
v2expathhs
HOGselectionbylegislatureinpractice
v2exaphogp
HOGappointmentinpractice
v2expathhg
HOSappointscabinetinpractice
v2exdfcbhs
HOGappointscabinetinpractice
v2exdjcbhg
HOSdismissesministersinpractice
v2exdfdmhs
HOGdismissesministersinpractice
v2exdfdshg
HOSappointscabinetinpractice
v2exdfcbhs
LiberalDemocracyIndex
v2x_libdem
ElectoralDemocracyIndex
v2x_polyarchy
LiberalComponentIndex
v2x_liberal
Equalitybeforethelawandindividuallibertyindex
v2xcl_rol
Rigorousandimpartialpublicadministration
v2clrspct
Transparentlawswithpredictableenforcement
v2cltrnslw
Accesstojusticeformen v2clacjstm
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Accesstojusticeforwomen
v2clacjstw
Propertyrightsformen v2clprptym Propertyrightsfor
womenv2clprptyw
Freedomfromtorture v2cltort Freedomfrompolitical
killingsv2clkill
Freedomfromforcedlaborformen
v2clslavem
Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen
v2clslavef
Freedomofreligion v2clrelig Freedomofforeign
movementv2clfmove
Freedomofdomesticmovementformen
v2cldmovem
Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen
v2cldmovew
Judicialconstraintsontheexecutiveindex
v2x_jucon
Executiverespectsconstitution
v2exrescon
Compliancewithjudiciary
v2jucomp
Compliancewithhighcourt
v2juhccomp
Highcourtindependence v2juhcind Lowercourtindependence v2juncind Legislative
constraintsontheexecutiveindex
v2xlg_legcon
Legislaturequestionsofficialsinpractice
v2lgqstexp
Executiveoversight v2lgotovst Legislatureinvestigatesin
practicev2lginvstp
Legislatureoppositionparties
v2lgoppart
DeliberativeDemocracyIndex
v2x_delibdem
ElectoralDemocracyIndex
v2x_polyarchy
DeliberativeComponentIndex
v2xdl_delib
Reasonedjustification v2dlreason Commongood v2dlcommon Respect
counterargumentsv2dlcountr
Rangeofconsultation v2dlconslt
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Engagedsociety v2dlengage EgalitariandemocracyIndex
v2x_egaldem
ElectoralDemocracyIndex
v2x_polyarchy
EgalitarianComponentIndex
v2x_egal
Powerdistributedbysocioeconomicposition
v2pepwrses
Powerdistributedbysocialgroup
v2pepwrsoc
Socialgroupequalityinrespectforcivilliberties
v2clsocgrp
Educationalequality v2peedueq Healthequality v2pehealth Powerdistributedby
genderv2pepwrgen
Encompassing-ness v2dlencmps Means-testedvs.
universalisticv2dlunivl
ParticipatoryDemocracyIndex
v2x_partipdem
ElectoralDemocracyIndex
v2x_polyarchy
ParticipatoryComponentIndex
v2x_partip
Civilsocietyparticipationindex
v2x_cspart
Candidateselection--National/local
v2pscnslnl
CSOconsultation v2cscnsult CSOparticipatory
environmentv2csprtcpt
CSOwomensparticipation
v2csgender
DirectPopularVoteIndex
v2xdd_dd
Initiativespermitted v2ddlegci Initiativessignatures% v2ddsigcip Initiativessignature-
gatheringtimelimitv2ddgrtlci
Initiativessignature-gatheringperiod
v2ddgrgpci
Initiativeslevel v2ddlevci Initiativesparticipation
thresholdv2ddbindci
Initiativesapprovalthreshold
v2ddthreci
Initiativesadministrativethreshold
v2dddistci
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Initiativessupermajority v2ddspmjci Occurrenceofcitizen-
initiativethisyearv2ddciniyr
Localgovernmentindex
v2xel_locelec
Localgovernmentelected
v2ellocelc
Localofficesrelativepower
v2ellocpwr
Localgovernmentexists v2ellocgov Regional
governmentindex v2xel_regelec
Regionalgovernmentelected
v2elsrgel
Regionalofficesrelativepower
v2elrgpwr
Regionalgovernmentexists
v2elreggov
CoreCivilSociety
Index v2xcs_ccsi
CSOentryandexit v2cseeorgs CSOrepression v2csreprss CSOparticipatory
environmentv2csprtcpt
Party
Institutionalizationindex
v2xps_party
Partyorganizations v2psorgs PartyBranches v2psprbrch Partylinkages v2psprlnks Distinctpartyplatforms v2psplats Legislativeparty
cohesionv2pscohesv
Femalerightsindex v2x_gender
CSOwomensparticipation
v2csgender
Percent(%)FemaleJournalists
v2mefemjrn
Freedomofdomesticmovementforwomen
v2cldmovew
Freedomofdiscussionforwomen
v2cldiscw
Freedomfromforcedlaborforwomen
v2clslavef
Propertyrightsforwomen
v2clprptyw
Accesstojusticeforwomen
v2clacjstw
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Powerdistributedbygender
v2pepwrgen
ElectoralRegime
Index v2x_elecreg
Legislativeorconstituentassemblyelection
v2xel_elecparl
v2eltype v2eltype_0 v2eltype v2eltype_1 v2eltype v2eltype_4 v2eltype v2eltype_5 Legislatureclosed
downoraborted v2xlg_leginter
Legislaturebicameral v2lgbicam Presidential
election v2xel_elecpres
v2eltype v2eltype_6 v2eltype v2eltype_7 Chiefexecutiveno
longerelected v2x_hosinter
HOS=HOG? v2exhoshog HOGappointmentin
practicev2expathhg
HOSappointmentinpractice
v2expathhs