Creed And Deed, by Felix Adler.txt

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Title:CreedAndDeedASeriesofDiscourses

Author:FelixAdler

ReleaseDate:October10,2011[EBook#37697]

Language:English

***STARTOFTHISPROJECTGUTENBERGEBOOKCREEDANDDEED***

ProducedbyDavidWidger

CREEDANDDEED

ASERIESOFDISCOURSES

ByFelixAdler

1880

PREFATORYNOTICE.

Thelecturescontainedinthefollowingpagesarepublishedbyrequestofthesocietybeforewhichtheyweredelivered.ThoseonImmortalityandReligionhavebeenconsiderablyabridgedandcondensed.Theremainderhavebeenallowedtoretaintheiroriginalformwithoutanyseriousmodification.TheFirstAnniversaryDiscoursereviewsthework

oftheyear,andgivesabriefaccountofthemotiveswhichimpelledthesocietytoorganizeandofthegeneralanimusbywhichitslaborsaredirected.TheLectureentitledTheFormoftheIdealforeshadowstheconstructivepurposeofthemovement.ThearticlesonTheEvolutionofHebrewReligionandReformedJudaismfromthe_PopularScienceMonthly(September_,1876)andthe_NorthAmericanReview(July-AugustandSeptember-October)_containinthesubstanceofseveralofthelecturesoflastwinter'scourse,andarereprintedintheappendixwiththekindconsentoftheeditors.Rigidadherrencetotherequirementsofsystematicexpositionisneitherpossiblenordesirableinaddressesof



thekindandhasnotthereforebeenattempted.

IngivingthisvolumetothepublicIgladlyembracetheopportunityofexpressingmysinceregratitudetothosefaithfulandself-sacrificingfriendswhoseindefatigablelaborshavegonesofartowinforahazardousventurethepromiseofassuredpermanenceandsatisfactorydevelopment.

FelixAdler.

NewYork,September,1877.

CREEDANDDEED

I.IMMORTALITY

"notbytheCreedbutbytheDeed."

TheSpcietywhichIhavetheprivilegeofaddressing,hasbeenorganizedwiththeaboveforitsmotto.Someofmyhearershaveentirelyabandonedthetenetsofthepositivereligions;otherscontinuetoholdthemtrue,but,arediscouragedbythelackofspiritualforce,theprominencegiventomereexternals,thebarrenformalisminthechurchesandsynagogues.Weagreeinbelievingthattheologyisflourishingattheexpenseofreligion.Itseemstousthatdifferencesincreedareconstantlyincreasing,andwillcontinuetomultiplywiththegrowthanddifferentiationofthehumanintellect.Weperceivethateveryattempttosettleproblemsoffaithhasthusfarsignallyfailed,norcanwehopeforbetterresultsinthefuture.Certaintyevenwithregardtotheessentialdogmasappearstousimpossible.Wedonotthereforedenydogma,butprefertoremitittothesphereofindividualconviction

withwhichpublicassociationsshouldhavenoconcern.Farfrombelievingthatthedoctrinesofreligionascommonlytaughtareessentialtothewellbeingofsociety,weapprehendthatthedisputesconcerningthe"authorofthelaw"havedivertedtheattentionofmenfromthelawitself,andthattheso-calleddutiestowardGodtooofteninterferewiththeproperperformanceofourdutiestowardoneanother.Itwerebettertoinsistlessuponarightbelief,andmoreupourightaction.

Inordertofindacommonbasiswhereongoodmen,whetherbelieversorunbelieverscanunite,welooktothemorallawitself,whosecertaintyrestsintheuniversalexperienceofcivilizedHumanity.Weshallholdquestionsoffaithinabeyance,shallendeavortostimulatethe

conscienceandtothisendshallseektoawakenaninterestinthegravesocialproblemsofourday,whichneednothingsomuchasavigorousexertionofourmoralenergies,inordertoarriveatapeaceablesolution.Tobroadenanddeepentheethicalsentimentinourselves,andtoholduptothesadrealitiesofthetimes,themirroroftheideallife,istheobjectwithwhichwesetout.Wedonotthereforedeludeourselveswiththehopethattheidealwilleverbefullyrealized,butareconvincedthatinaspiringtonobleendsthesoulwilltakeonsomethingofthegrandeurofwhatittrulyadmires.Startingwiththeassumptionthatthedoctrinesofreligionareincapableofproof,



itbehoovesustoshowinoneormoreinstancesthefallacyoftheargumentsuponwhichtheyarecommonlyfounded,andweshallbeginwiththedoctrineofIMMORTALITY.

Inapproachingoursubjectwearefirstconfrontedbytheargumentfromthecommonconsentofmankind.LikethebeliefinGod,thehopeofimmortalityissaidtobeimplantedineveryhumanheart,andtheexperienceoftravellersiscitedtoshowthateventhemostbarbarousraceshavegivenitexpressioninsomeform,howevercrude.Asidefromthefactthatthestatement,asitstands,issomewhatexaggerated,wewilladmitthatthebeliefinafuturestateiswidelycurrentamongsavagetribes.Butthevalueofthistestimonybecomesextremelydoubtfuloncloserinspection.Abriefaccountoftheoriginoftheconceptionofsoulamongourprimitiveancestors,willmakethisplain.

Ifweobserveachildinitssleep,somehalfarticulateword,somecryorgestureoccasionallyrevealstousthevividnessofthedreamswithwhichthelittlebrainisteeming.Itishardlydoubtfulthatthechildmistakesthevisionsofitsdreamforactualoccurrences,andattachesthesamerealitytothesemiasmasofthestagnantnightastotheclearprospectsofdaylightreason.Eventheadultsometimesfindsitdifficulttoclearhisbrainofthefancieswhichoccupieditinthehoursofsleep.Andthetestoflargeexperiencecanaloneenablehimtodistinguishbetweenfactandphantom.Icallattentiontothesefacts,

becausethephenomenaofsleepanddreamsseemtoofferasatisfactorycluetothenaivetheoriesofthelowerracesconcerningdeathandtheafterlife.Thesavageindeedistheveritablechild-man.Hisardentemotions,hiscrudelogic,theeagernesswithwhichhequestionsthehowandwhereforeofnature,andthecomparativeeasewithwhichhissimpleunderstandingacceptsthemostfancifulsolutions,allcombinetoplacehimonthelevelofthechild.

Awarethatthebodyinsleepisatrest,whileatthesametimethesleeperisconsciousofactingandsuffering,visitingdistantregionsperhaps,conversingwithfriends,engaginginbattlewithenemies,thesavagereasonedthattheremustbeamanwithintheman,asitwere,--anairycounterfeitofmanwhichleavesitsgrossertenementinthenight,

andinthecourseofitswanderingsexperienceswhateverthefortunesofthedreammaychancetobe.Instancesarerelatedwherethebodywasprematurelydisturbed,theinnermanwaspreventedfromreturningtohisenvelope,anddeathresulted.Theshadowcastbythehumanfigure,anattenuatedimageofman,connectedwiththebodyandyetdistinctfromit,affordedacuriousconfirmationofthisartlesstheory.TheBasutos*affirmthatapersonhavingononeoccasionincautiouslyapproachedthebankofariver,hisshadowwasseizedbyacrocodile,andhediedinconsequence.ThestoryofshadowlessorsoullessmenhasbeenmadefamiliartomodernliteraturebyChamisso'swellknowntale.Thespectralmanwhosevershisconnectionwiththebodyduringsleep,remainsconcealedwithinitduringthehoursofwaking,andinthismanner,theideaofahumansoulasdistinctfromthebody,takesits

rise.**Itiseasytoseehowbyextendingtheanalogy,whatwecalldeathmusthaveappearedasonlyanotherformofsleep,andhowthetheoryofdreamsgaverisetoabeliefinthecontinuanceoflifebeyondthegrave.Thatsleepanddeatharetwinbrothers,wastotheprimitivemanmorethanmeremetaphor.Asinsleep,soindeath,thebodyisatrest,butasinsleep,soalsoindeath,ashadewassupposedtogoforthcapableofactingandsuffering,andyearningtoreturntoitsformercondition.Theapparitionsofthedeceasedseenatnightbythefriendstheyhadleftbehind,weretakentoberealvisitations,andcorroboratedtheassumptionofthecontinuedexistenceofthedeparted.



Theghostsofthedeadweredreamingphantoms,debarredfrompermanentlyreturningtotheirabandonedbodies.

*Thedreamtheoryseemstobetheonegenerallyadoptedbywritersonprimitiveculture.ForanextendedaccountofthissubjectvidetheworksofTylor,LubbockandBastian,fromwhichtheillustrationsgiveninthetextaretaken.

**PeterSchlemihl.

***Thesoulwasbelievedtobecorporealinnature,onlymorevagueandshadowythantheframeworkofthebody,anddistinguishedbygreaterswiftnessoflocomotion.

Theviewwehavetakenoftheoriginoftheconceptionofsoulisgreatlystrengthenedwhenweconsiderthethoroughlymaterialcharacteroftheghost'slifeafterdeath.Theghostcontinuestobeliabletohunger,pain,cold,asbefore.Butthelivinghaveshutitoutfromtheircommunion;inconsequenceithatesitsformercompanions,persecutesthemwhereitcan,andwreaksitsvengeanceuponthemwhentheyareleastpreparedtoresistit.InacertaindistrictofGermanyitwasbelievedthatthedeadperson,whentroubledbythepangsofhunger,beginsbygnawingitsshrouduntilthatiscompletelydevoured,thenrisingfromthegrave,itstalksthroughthevillageandinthe

shapeofavampire,sitsuponthechildrenintheircradles,andsuckstheirblood.Whensatedwiththehideousfeast,itreturnstothechurchyardtorenewitsvisitsonthesucceedingnights.Inordertohinderthemfromusingtheirjaws,itwascustomarytoplacestonesorcoinsintothemouthsofthedeadbeforeburialandthemostgrotesquedeviceswereresortedto,topreventthemuchdreadedreturnofthedenizensofthetomb.Inthemiddleagesthecorpsewasoftenspikeddowntohinderitsrising.AmongtheHottentotsaholewasbrokenintothewall,throughwhichthecorpsewascarriedfromthehouse,andthencarefullycoveredup,itbeingtheprevailingsuperstition,thatthedeadcanonlyreenterbythesamewayinwhichtheyhavepreviouslymadetheirexit.AmongacertainnegrotribeofAfrica,thepathfromthehousetothegravewasstrewnwiththorns,inthehopethattheghost

wouldfindthepathtoopainful,anddesist.Aslateas1861,itoccurredinavillageinGallicia,thattheghostofadeadpeasantwasfoundtopursuetheliving,andtheinhabitantsrushingouttothegravefearfullymutilatedthebody,topreventitfromcommittingfurtherinjury.

Thesameconception,fromamorecharitablepointofview,ledtotheinstitutionofregularmealsfortheghostsatstatedintervals.InNorth-easternIndia,afterthebodyhasbeenconsignedtoitsfinalresting-place,afriendofthedeceasedstepsforward,andholdingfoodanddrinkinhishand,speaksthefollowingsuggestivewords,"Takeandeat;heretoforeyouhaveeatenanddrunkwithus,youcandosonomore;youwereoneofus,youcanbesonolonger;wecomenomoretoyou;

comeyounottous."InEasternAfrica,theWanicasareaccustomedtofillacocoa-nutshellwithriceandtembo,andplaceitnearthegrave.IntheCongodistrict,achannelisdugintothegraveleadingtothemouthofthecorpse,bywhichmeansfoodanddrinkaredulyconveyed.ThesenseofdecorumimpelscertainTuraniantribestoplacenotonlyfood,butevennapkins,onthegravesoftheirrelatives.WecannotresistthetemptationofquotingthefollowingpassagefromMr.Tylor'sgraphicaccountofthemannerinwhichtheChinesefeasttheirghostlyvisitors."Somevictualsareleftoverforanyblindorfeeblespiritwhomaybelate,andapailofgruelisprovidedforheadlesssouls,



withspoonsforthemtoputitdowntheirthroatswith.Suchproceedingsculminateintheso-calledUniversalRescue,nowandthencelebrated,whenalittlehouseisbuiltfortheexpectedvisitors,withseparateaccommodations,andbathroomsformaleandfemaleghosts."*IntheAlpachValleyofTyrol,ghostsreleasedfrompurgatoryonthenightofAllSouls,returntothehousesofthepeasantry.Alightisleftburninginthediningroom,andacertaincake,preparedfortheoccasion,isplaceduponthetablefortheirdelectation,alsoapotofgreaseforthepoorsoulstoanointtheirwoundswith.

*Tylor,PrimitiveCulture,ii,p.34.

Occasionally,toobviatethenecessityofcontinuedattendanceuponthedead,asinglesumptuousfeastisprovidedimmediatelyaftertheirdemise,andthisisbelievedtocanceltheirclaimsonceforall.Inthismannerarosethecustomoffuneralbanquets.InEngland,inthefifteenthcentury,anoisyrevelofthreedays'durationattendedtheobsequiesofSirJohnPaston.Theso-calledIrishwakeoriginatedinthesameway.Afterthefirstoutbreaksofgriefhavesubsided,meatanddrinkarebroughtin,chieflythelatter,andwhatwasatfirstintendedforapartingentertainmenttothedead,oftenendsintheboisterousexcessesoftheliving.

Itisherepropertoremarkthatthesavagetribeswhobelieveinan

afterexistence,donotinmanyinstancesclaimthisprivilegeforthemselvesalone,butshareitwillinglywiththeloweranimalsandevenwithinanimateobjects.Weapons,utensils,andevenvictuals--havetheirghostlyrepresentativeslikemen.Whenagreatchiefdies,hiswidowisoftenforcedbypublicopiniontofollowhimtothegrave,inorderthatthedepartedbravemaynotbewifelessinthehereafter.Butbesidesthewidow,hishorse,hiswar-club,hisgirdle,hisfavoritetrinketsareburiedorburnedwithhimtoservehisuseorvanityinspectre-land.

Fromwhathaspreceded,itmustbeclearthatthesavage'sconceptionofaghostbearsbutafaintanddistantresemblancetotheideaofsoul,asitbecamecurrentintheschoolsofphilosophy;norcanthelatterderivesupportfromtheignorantreasonings,thehastyinductionsof

primitiveman.Onthelowerlevelsofculturetheideaofimmortalityindeedisquiteunknown.Iftheghostcontinuesitsshadowyexistenceafterdeath,itisnonethelessliabletocometoanabruptend,andthennothingwhateverofitsformersubstanceremains;itisapale,filmything,exposedtotheinroadsofthehostileelements,surroundedbynumerousdangers,towhichitmayatanymomentsuccumb.IntheTongaIslandsonlythesoulsofthewell-bornaresupposedtosurviveatall.Thecommonpeoplehavenosoulsworthspeakingof,andwhentheydie,arecompletelyextinguished.TheghostsofGuineanegroesarecompelledtoapproachthebankoftheterribleriverofdeath.Someofthemarethereuponwaftedacrosstoleadpleasantlivesontheoppositeside,othersaredrownedinthestream,orbeatentoatomswithaclub.WiththeFijiansitisalwaysamatterofdoubtwhetherasoulwillsucceed

atallinmaintainingitsfeebleexistenceafterithasleftitsprotectinghouseofsinewandbone.Buttheyopenapeculiarlydismalprospecttowifelesssouls.Nanananga,afiercedemoniacbeing,watchesforthemontheshoreastheyapproach,anddashesthemtopiecesupontherocks.TheGreenlandersaffirmthatafterdeaththesoulentersuponalong,lonejourneyoveramountainfullofprecipitousdescents,coveredwithiceandsnow.Thestormshowlaboutitspath,andeverystepisfraughtwithpainanddanger.Ifanyharmhappenstothepoorwandererhere,thenitdies"theotherdeath"fromwhichthereisnore-awakening.



Inthetheoriesofafuturestate,asdevisedbythelowerraces,weareatalosstodetectthegermsofanymorespirituallongings.Farfromlookingforwardwithpleasedanticipationorconfidencetotheworldtocome,thebarbarianshudderedashethoughtofhisapproachingend,andwasloathtoexchangethewhiteandsunnyworldforthedrearycompanionshipoflucklessshades.Thelifethatawaitedhimwasnotinthemajorityofinstancesabetterorahigherlifethanthis;notfreefromthelimitationsofsense;nolargerperfectingofwhatisheredwarfedandcrippled;itwaslower,poorer,meaner;itwastothepresent,whatthepressedfloweristothefull-blownrose;thesameinsubstance,indeed,butwithitsbeautyperished,anditsjoyousfragranceevanesced.

Theargumentfromthecommonconsentofmankindintruthdeservesnoseriousattention.*

*Thedoctrineofspiritualimmortalityisnotcommontothehumanrace.Themateriallifeoftheghostbearsnoanalogytowhatwemeanbythesoul'scontinuance.Thecontinuanceoftheghost'sexistenceisnotanimmortalcontinuance.

Theargumentcannotbesubstantiated,itwouldprovenothing,ifit

could.Thegeneralconcurrenceofthewholehumanraceinanyformoferrorwouldnotmakethaterrorlesserroneous,andthetestimonyofunitedmillionsagainstasolitarythinkermightkickthebeamwhenbalancedinthescalesoftruth.

Whenwebeholdanignorantknavesquanderinghisill-gottengainsonsuperfluities,whilehonestpeoplearefamishingforwantofthenecessaries;whenweseetheunscrupulouspoliticianoutstrippingthedeservingstatesman,intheraceforfameandstation;whenmodestmeritshrinksincorners,andthenativeroyaltyoftalentplayscourtiertothekingsoflucre,weareremindedofthecomplaintofJob,thatthebadprosper,andtherighteousaredown-trodden,yetthattheysleeptogetherinthedustandthewormcoversthemalike.

Thisevidentdisparitybetweenvirtueandhappinesshasledmentotakerefugeinthethoughtofcompensationhereafter,andthenecessityofafuturestateinwhichthegoodshallberewarded,andtheevilpunished,accordingtotheverdictofajustjudge,hasbeendeducedevenfromtheapparentinjusticeofthepresent.Thustheveryimperfectionsofourownlifeonearth,affordapretextforthemostambitiousconceptionsofhumandestiny.

Theargumentfromthenecessityofrewardandpunishmentisextremelypopularamongtheuneducated,sinceitappealsostensiblytotheirsenseofjusticeandassuresthemthatbytheaidofDivineomnipotence,afullcorrespondencebetweenworthinessandhappiness,thoughvainly

expectedhere,willbeestablishedinanothersphere.Itbehoovesustoenquirewhetherthereisanythinginthenatureofvirtue,thatdemandsacorrespondenceofthiskind.

ThephilosopherEpicuruswasperhapsthefirstamongtheancientstotakestronggroundinfavoroftheutilitarianviewofvirtue.Pleasure,heholds,isthepurposeofexistence,andvirtueisthusreducedtoenlightenedself-interest.Therearedifferentkindsofpleasure;pleasuresofthesensesandofthesoul.Epicuruspointsoutthattheformercannotbeconsideredtruepleasures,sincetheydefeattheir



ownend,bluntingthecapacityofenjoymentinproportionastheyareindulged,andincapableofaffordingpermanentsatisfaction.Himselfamanofrefinedtastesandfastidioushabits,heshrankfromtheverycoarsenessofthepassions,andcounselledmoderation,friendshipandbenevolence.Butherefusedtorecognizeinthesevirtuesanyintrinsicvalueoftheirown,andlaudedthemonlybecauseincontrasttothelowerappetites,theenjoymenttheyaffordislastingandconstantlyincreaseswiththeirexercise.Itiseasytoperceivethatwhenthemorallawisthusstrippedofitsauthoritytocommand,thechoicebetweendutyandinclinationwillbegovernedbyfortuitouspreferences,andnotbyprinciple.Itthenremainsforeachindividualtodecidewhatformofpleasuremaybemostcongenialtohistemperanddesires.Thephilosopherwillvaluethedelightsofcontemplativeease,andofkindlycommunionwithhisfellow-men;thepassionateyouthmayholdthatasingledeepdraughtfromthechaliceofsensualpleasureisworthmorethanawholelifetimeofneutralself-restraint;"eatanddrink"willbehismotto;"remoteconsequences--whoknows?To-morrowwemaydie."Moreoverthedoctrineofenlightenedself-interesthasthisfatalobjectiontoit,thatifconsistentlyapplied,atleastamongthepowerfuloftheearth,itwouldleadtoconsequencestheveryreverseofmoral.Itisbuttootruethathonestyisnotalwaysthebestpolicy;thatfraudandviolence,whenperpetratedonascaleofsufficientmagnitude,(instancethedivisionofunfortunatePoland,)arenotalwayspunishedastheydeservetobe.Farfromteachingthetyranttosubdue

hisbaserinstincts,enlightenedself-interestmightratherleadhimtostifletheaccusingvoiceofconscience,andtorootoutthescruplesthatinterferewithhisambition.Unlessweconcedethatthemorallawhasaclaimuponuswhichtheconstitutionofournaturedoesnotpermitustodenywithimpunity,andthatitspleasuresdiffer,notonlyindegree,butinkind,fromallothers,virtue,whileanecessitytotheweak,becomesfollyinthestrong;andNapoleon,thatgiganticegotist,wascorrect,whenhecalledloveasillyinfatuation,andsentimentathingforwomen.

TheprinciplesofEpicurusnotonlyadulteratethemotivesofgoodnesswiththedesireofreward,buttheymaketherewardofdesiretheverysanctionofallvirtue,andthusdeprivehumannatureofitsbesttitle

tonobility.

Trulydisinterestednessisthedistinguishingmarkofeveryhighendeavor.Thepursuitoftheartistisunselfish,thebeautyhecreatesishisreward.Thetoilofthescientistinthepursuitofabstracttruthisunselfish,thetruthheseesishisreward.Whyshouldwehesitatetoacknowledgeinthedomainofethics,whatweconcedeintherealmofartandscience?Tosaythatunselfishnessitselfisonlythemorerefinedexpressionofaselfishinstinct,istousethetermselfishwithadoublemeaning,isamereemptyplayonwords.Wehavetheinnateneedofharmonyinthemoralrelations;thisisourglory,andthestampoftheDivineuponournature.Wecannotdemonstratetheexistenceofdisinterestedmotives,anymorethanwecandemonstrate

thatthereisjoyinthesunlightandfreedominthemountainbreeze.Thefactthatwe_demandunselfishness_inactionaloneassuresusthatthestandardofenlightenedself-interestisfalse.

Andindeedifweconsulttheopinionsofmen,wheretheyareleastlikelytobewarpedbysophistry,weshallfindthatdisinterestednessistheuniversalcriterionbywhichmoralworthismeasured.Ifwesuspectthemotivewecondemntheact.Ifapersongiveslargelyforsomeobjectofpublicusefulnessorcharity,wedonotpermitthemunificenceofthegifttodeceiveourjudgment.Perhapsheismerely



desirousofvauntinghiswealth,perhapsitissocialstandingheaimsat,perhapsheiscovetousoffame.Ifthesesuspicionsprovewellfounded,theverymenwhoaccepthisbountywillintheirsecretheartsdespisehim,andbyacertainrevulsionoffeelingweshallresenthisactionallthemore,because,notonlyishedestituteofhonorablepurpose,buthehasfilchedthefairfrontofvirtue,anddefiledthelaureleveninthewearingofit.

Wedonotevenaccordthenameofgoodnesstothateasy,amiablesympathywhichleadsustoalleviatethesufferingsofothers,unlessitbeguidedbywiseregardfortheirpermanentwelfare.

Thetatteredclothes,thehaggardlooks,thepiteouspleadingvoiceofthepauperonthepublichighwaymayawakenourpity,butthesystemofindiscriminatealms-givingisjustlycondemnedasaweaknessratherthanavirtue.

Ontheotherhandobediencetoduty,whenitinvolvespainandself-abnegation,seemstoriseinthegeneralestimation.Clearlybecauseinthisinstanceeventhesuspicionofinterestedmotivesisremoved,sincehardship,injuryinestateandhappiness,andeventhepossiblelossoflife,areamongtheforeseenconsequencesoftheact.ItisforthisreasonthattheBookofMartyrshasbecomethegoldenbookofmankind,andthatthestoryoftheirlivesneverfailstofill

uswithmingledsorrow,andadmiration,andpride.Theyaremonumentsonthefieldofhistory,milestonesonthepathofhumanprogress.Weregardthemandgainnewcourageandconfidenceinourbetterselves.TheblazingpyreontheCampoFiore,whereonGiordanoBrunobreatheshislast,becomesabeacon-lightforthetruth-seeker;thedyingSocratesstillpoursbenignantpeaceovermanyasufferer'scouch;theManofsorrows,onCalvary,comfortstheheartsoftheChristianmillions.Inthepresenceofthesehighexamplestheinadequacyoftheselfishstandardbecomesclearlyapparent.Werecognizewhatasublimequalitythatisinmanwhichenableshim,notonlytotriumphovertormentandsuffering,buttodevotehisveryselftodestructionforthesakeofhonorandtruth.Freelymustvirtuebewooed,notforthedowryshemaybring;byloyaldevotiontoherforherownsakeonly,canshebewon!

Ifthusitappearsthatnotonlyistherenothinginthenatureofvirtuetowarrantaclaimtoreward,butthatitisherverynaturetodisclaimanyreward,itwillbecomeplainthattheproblem,asstatedinthebeginning,restsuponanentirelyfalsefoundation.Thattheunrighteousandunprincipledshouldenjoytemporalhappiness,doesnotoffendthelawofjustice.Thatyou,mygoodsir,honestinallyourdealings,truthfulinallyouracts,shouldbeunhappy,isgreatlytobedeplored.WhyevilandunhappinessshouldhavebeenallowedatalltoenteraworldcreatedbyanallgoodandallpowerfulBeingmayfairlybeasked.Whythosewhopossessthetreasureofaclearconscienceshouldnotalsopossessthelessergoodsofearth,isaquestionwithwhichmoralityisinnowiseconcerned.

Virtuecanhavenorecompense,saveasitisitsownrecompense,andvicecanreceivenorealpunishmentsaveasitisitsownavenger.Thehopeofimmortality,insofarasitisbaseduponthesupposednecessityofrightinginafuturestatewhatisherewrong,isthereforeuntenable,foritisbasedupontheassumptionofawrongwhichexistsintheimaginationmerely._Andhewhoclaimsarewardbecauseofhisvirtue,hastherebyforfeitedhisrighttomaintaintheclaim,sincethatisnotvirtue,whichlooksforreward._



*****

Havingendeavoredtoshowthatthejoysofearthcannotbeclaimedastherecompenseofamorallife,wemustyetadmitthatthedesireofhappinessisaltogethertoostronganddeep-seatedinhumannaturetobethussummarilydismissed.Weseekhappinessonitsownaccountquiteapartfromanytitlewhichvirtuemaygiveustoitsenjoyment.Werewecreatedformisery?Doesnotthepovertyandgeneralunsatisfactorinessofourpresentconditionwarrantusinexpectingamplerfulfilment,permanentblissinanafterlife?Ithinkweshallderivesomeassistanceindiscussingthisquestion,byattemptingtoresolvetheconceptionofhappinessintoitsconstituentelements.

Pleasurehasbeendefinedtoconsistinthesatisfactionofanyofman'snaturalwants.Thevarietyofourpleasurescorrespondstothediversityofourwants.

Foodtothehungry,resttotheweary,aresourcesofpleasure.Tofeelonsomecoldwintrydaythegenialwarmthoftruehearthfirecreepingintoourblood,andthefrozenlimbsrelaxingtheirstiffness,ispleasure.Allmenadmirethebeautifulanddelightinadornment.Eventherudesavageseekstogratifyhisaesthetictastes,sofarasthemeanswhichnatureplacesathiscommandpermit.Thecustomoftattooingtheskiniswidelypracticedamongthelowerraces,andstarsand

circles,treesandplants,andotheringeniousdevicesareimpressedwithlaboriouspatienceuponthedifferentmembersofthebody.ThechiefsoftheFijiIslanders,anudeandcannibalrace,arerepresentedaswearinganelaboratehead-dressofthreeandevenfivefeetindimensions,andwereaccustomedtospendseveralhourseachday,underthecareoftheroyalhair-dresser.Amongcivilizedmenthedesireforadornmentfindsventchieflyinexternalobjects,whileeverycoarsesolicitationofattentiontothepersonisshunned.Tastilydecoratedhouses,flowers,paintings,music,gratifyoursenseofsymmetry,andspreadanatmosphereofcultureandrefinementinthevicinityofourdailyoccupations.Buttherearedeeperandpurerjoysinreserve.Maniseminentlyasocialbeing;hehastheneedofsympathyanddependsupontheaffectionsofhisfellows.Thepresenceofcherishedcompanions

andfriendsbecomesanecessitytohim;inabsenceheyearnsforit,andthelackofitisoneofthemostseriousafflictionsofhumanlife."Woeuntohimwho,farfromparentsandlovedkinsmen,alonelylifemustlead.Hispresentjoysdevouringgriefdothsnatch.Histhoughtsareeverstrayinginthedistancebacktohisfather'shall,wherethesunoflifefirstroseuponhim,andwherechildrenofthecommonhome,playfully,withgentlebonds,closeandcloserdrewtheirheartstogether."*Thetranquildelightwhichwederivefromtheenlargementofintellect,andtheexquisiteinwardsatisfactionthatresultsfromhighfidelitytoduty,maybementionedasthelasttocrownthescaleofpleasures.

*Goethe,IphigenieaufTauris,ActI.

Now,itisevidentthatalltheseelementsofhappiness,thesediverseraysthatnowheremeltintotheperfectlight,aredependentuponthephysicalorganizationofman,suchasitis,evenfortheirpartialattainment;ofthelowerpleasures,thisisatonceevident.Butalittlereflectionwillshowthesametobethecasewiththehigher.Ifweconsidertheaestheticfaculty,wefinditsgratificationconditionedbyaphysicalbasis.Whatweremusicwithouttheear;whatthesymmetryofform,withouttheeyeandtouch?Theintellect,initsturn,fashions-theroughtimberofexperience,whichaneverflowingstreamof



sensationcarriesintotheworkshopofthebrain.Canthemindfeeduponitself?Canthelawsofthoughtactotherwisethanuponthematerialaffordedbythesenses?Thesameisalsotruewithrespecttoourmoralqualities,andtheexerciseofthevirtuesisinconceivablebeyondthepaleofhumansociety.Allvirtuepresupposesatendencytoerr;thefailingsandlimitationsofourmortalcondition.Justiceistheadjustmentoflimitationscommontoallmeninsuchmannerthattheirstressshallnotbearmoreheavilyupononethanupontheother.Loveistheexpansionofonelimitednatureinanotherandtheirmutualenrichmentbysuchunion.Charity,fortitude,continence,whateverweapplaudinhumanconduct,isbutanindirecttestimonytothenaturalimperfectionsinherentinthehumanheart,andisaccountedadmirableonlyinsofarasittendstoensurethebestinterestsoftheraceonearth.Whenthereforethisbodyiscorrupted,whenwedepartfromoutthefellowshipofmen,thegratificationoftheappetites,theenjoymentofbeauty,theexerciseofreason,andthepracticeofvirtuebecomealikeunthinkable.

Wedesirelargerhappinessthanwecanhereachieve;butbecausewedesireathing,arewethereforeatallwarrantedinbelievingthatweshallobtainit?Isthecourseoftheworld'saffairssuchastoencouragesoflatteringanhypothesis?Isnotthefatalitythatsooftenattendsourbesteffortsinthislife,anargumentagainst,ratherthaninfavorofincreasingfelicityinanother?Weshouldassumeawiser

attitudeasagainstfate.Therearethosewhofretunderdisappointment,andmurmurandrebelasiftheyhadbeendefraudedofaright;asiftheyhadenteredintoacompactwithdestinytotheiradvantage,asifthemyriadworldsmovedthroughspacefortheirespecialgood.Thisisaninsanespirit.Weneedsomethingofthevimofstoicismtograpplewiththedifficultiesoflife;weneedtocultivatealargerpatience;anhumblespiritpreparedforeveryloss,andwelcomingeveryhourofjoyasanunlookedforgain.Thereareathousandpleasurestooinlittlethingswhichwe,withthepetulanceofchildren,dailyspurn,becausewecannothaveallweaskfor.Ineverystonethereisinstruction,ineveryvaryingaspectoftheskythereisbeauty,wherevermencongregateandcommune,lessonsofwisdomarerevealedtotheobserver.Themovementofeverlastinglawsquiversinthemeanest

trifles,andtheeternities,thinlyveiled,lookoutuponuswiththeirsolemngazefromeverypassingmaskoftime.Theseletusstudy;artwillhelpus;sciencewillopentousawondrouschainofworkingswhichthemindcannotexhaust,andactiveexertionsforthecommonwealwillgiveagenerousglowtoourlives,andstilltheunquietyearningswhichwemayneverentirelysetatrest.Youhaveseenhowtheflowersgrow,howthatmanyseedsarescatteredandbutfewtakeroot;howthegermslowlyandwithdifficultydevelops.Therainwatersit,thewarmsunbeamfostersit;stormssweepingovertheearth,maycrushitwhileitisstillayoungandtendershoot.Atlast,sometimesafteryearsofpreparation,itbudsandopensandbloomsandbecomesadelightandaglory,afountoffragrance,acrownofbeauty.Afewdayspassanditdroops;whatthelongprocessoftimehasslowlycreated,asingle

momentmaysufficetodestroy;andyetthoughitstimewasbrief,theflowerfulfilleditsnatureonlyinthatpassingbloom;allthepreviousstagesofitsexistencehadameaningonlyastheyleduptothis,thefinalrevelationofitspurpose.

Thebloomofhumanlifeismorality;whateverelsewemaypossess,health,andwealth,power,grace,knowledge,haveavalueonlyastheyleaduptothis;haveameaningonlyastheymakethispossible.Norshouldwecomplainthattheblightofdeathsoquicklywitherswhatthecourseofthreescoreyearshasscarcesufficedtoproduce.Inthehour



ofourdestruction,wewillliftupourheartsintriumph--wehaveblossomed!Wehaveblossomed!

Butitwillbesaid,thattheflowerwhenitiswiltedandwitheredhere,maybetransplantedtofairerregions;thatthesoulmaytakeonneworgans,whenithasabandoneditsearthlyhabitation,andinaseriesoftransformationsofwhich,itistrue,wecanformnodefiniteconception,mayenterafreshuponitsstrugglesforworthinessinotherspheres.Thisis,indeed,theloftiestexpressionwhichthehopeofimmortalityhasfound.Unliketheargumentspreviouslyconsidered,itisunalloyedbyanyselfishmotive,isfoundeduponareallyexaltedsentiment,anditisLoveandVirtuethemselvesthatheretakeupthestrain,andsingustheiranimatingsongofceaselessprogresstowardthegood.Theargumentinthisshape,involvesthefurtherquestionwhethertheexistenceofanindependentandindestructiblesoulisassured,anduponthispointthewholeproblemofimmortalityfinallyhinges.

Thequestionwhetherwhatweareaccustomedtocallthesoulisadistinctandindivisibleentity,ormerelytheresultofmaterialprocesses,hasdividedmankindformorethantwothousandyears,andsomeoftheablestthinkershaverangedthemselvesoneitherside.AsearlyasthefifthcenturyB.C.thephilosopherDemocrituspropoundedmaterialisticdoctrinesamongtheGreeks.Accordingtohim,thesoulis

acombinationofsmooth,round,polishedandmovingatoms,andtothemotionsoftheseatomsthephenomenaoflifearetobeascribed.

AmongtheRomans,Lucretiusadvancedsimilarviews.Hetookparticularpainstocombatthe"vulgarfearofdeath,"protestingthattheprospectofdissolutionwouldloseitsterrors,didwenotfoolishlyimagineourselvesconsciousofbeingdead,forgettingthatdeathimpliestheentirecessationofconsciousness.Thefollowersofmaterialisticopinionsamongtheancients,werenotafew.ButduringtheascendancyoftheChristianChurch,theseopinionsretiredintothebackground,untilintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,theywererevivedbysuchmenasGassendiandLaMettrie,andothers.Inmoderntimestheyhavebeenwidelyspread.

ThelistofnamesontheoppositesideisheadedbySocrates,Plato,Aristotle,andembracesthegreatmajorityofwritersandpublicteachers,downtothepresentday.

Itmayappearstrangethatwhenthebeliefinimmortalityhadoncebecomecurrent,menshouldhavebeentemptedtoforegoitspleasingprospects,andeven,withacertainvehemence,tourgetheirscepticalviewsuponothers.Letusconsiderforamoment,whatitwasthatinducedthematerialiststoassumetheirposition.Theobservedcorrespondencebetweenmentalandphysicalphenomenadoubtlessledtheminthefirstinstancetoadopttheirpeculiarviews.

Weseeinthetinybodyofthenewbornbabe,barelymorethanthefaintstirringsofanimallife;monthspassbybeforeitisabletoformanyclearconceptionofthepersonsandthingsinitsvicinity,thesimplermentalprocessesappearingsimultaneouslywiththegrowthofthebodilyorgans.Theintellectreachesitshighestdevelopmentintheageofmanhoodandwomanhood,whenwestandinthematurityofourphysicalpowers.Inthatmiddleageoflifelies,withrareexceptions,thebestworkwearedestinedtoaccomplish.Havingentereduponthedownwardslope,ourfacultiesgraduallylosetheirvigor,untilwesinkintothefinalstageofdrivellingoldage,andbecomefeebleinmind,aswe



arehelplessinbody.Inthismannerthecloseconnectionbetweenourspiritualandmaterialparts,isbroughthomeforcibly,eventotheunreflecting;astheoneenlargessodoestheother:astheonediminishessodoestheother:togethertheyincrease,togethertheyareweakened;theinferenceisdrawn,shallitnotbe,thattogethertheywillperish?

Thephenomenaofsleepandofcomaseemtoconveythesamelesson.Ahazestealsoverourconsciousness;sometimessettlingintoimpenetrablenight;asthebodyforatimewearsthesemblanceofdeath,soalsoisthemindstupefiedorcompletelyparalyzed.Hourspassby;intheinterval,thebusinessoftheworldhasgoneonasbefore,buttoustherehasbeenonlyavoidandutterblank.Andthusitissaidshalltherebeavoidandablankinthetomb;timewillpassby,andweshallnotknowit;menwillmoveandactandweshallbenonethewiserforit;itwillbealllikesleep,onlythattherewillbenodreams.

Andagainwhensomemalignantfeverseizesuponthebodyandcorruptsthecurrentsoftheblood,howdothepoordisorderedthoughtsdanceaboutwildly,drivenbythelashofthedistemper;howdoestheuseofstimulantsbesottheintellect,sothateveryhigherpowerisdeadened;howinthewildravingsofthediseasedbrain,dowebeholdthehideousmockeryofmind.

Anddoesnotthegraveitselftestifyloudlythattheendisanendindeed;thebodyfallstopieces,thedustcommingleswiththedust,andnothingremains,nothingatleastofwhichwecaneverhaveexperience.Rightorwrong,thesefactsimpressthemind,andtheirleadenweightservestodragdownouraspirations.

Itistrue,theconsiderationsIhaveenumeratedarebaseduponameresurfaceviewofthings,butthemoreaccuratemethodsofscienceseem,atfirstsight,toconfirmthegeneralconclusionstowhichtheylead.Onthispoint,itwouldbewelltodwellforamoment.JohnStuartMillacknowledgesthat"theevidenceiswell-nighcompletethatallthoughtandfeelinghassomeactionofthebodilyorganismforitsimmediatecoincidentandaccompaniment,andthatthespecificvariations,and

especiallythedifferentdegreesofcomplicationofthenervousandcerebralorganism,correspondtodifferencesinthedevelopmentofourmentalfaculties."

Theprodigiousdifficultiesinthewayofthestudyofthebrainmaylongretardtheprogressoftheinvestigator,butforthepurposesofourargumentweareatlibertytoassumewhateveriswithinthelimitsofpossibleachievement.Wemaysupposethatphysiologywillsucceedsofarthatthebrainwillbeaccuratelyandcompletelymappedout,andthatthemotionsoftheatomsuponwhichthethousandvaryingmodesofthoughtandfeelingdepend,willbeknownandmeasured.Inanticipatingsuchresults,wehavereachedtheutmosttenablepositionofmaterialism.

Butnowtooursurprisewediscoverthatallthisbeingallowed,theultimatequestion,whatissoul,remainsstillunsolvedandasinsolubleasever.Theunvaryingcoincidenceofcertainmodesofsoulwithcertainmaterialprocessesmaybewithintherangeofproof,butwhatcannotbeprovenis,thatthesematerialprocessesexplainthepsychicphenomena.

Ifitisurgedthatthesamedifficultypresentsitselfintheexplanationofthemostordinaryoccurrences,thisobjectionisbaseduponamisapprehensionofthepointatissue.



Thescientistcannotshowwhyheatshouldbeconvertibleintomotion,buthowitisthustransformediseasytodemonstrate,andtheexactmechanicalequivalentofheathasbeencalculated.Buthowcertainmotionsofatomsinthebrainshouldgenerate,notheat,butconsciousness,butthoughtandlove,ispastallconception.Thereareheretwodifferentordersoffacts,havingnocommonprincipletowhichtheycouldbothbereduced.Thereisanimpassablegulfbetweenthemwhichcaninnowisebebridgedover.

Norwoulditavailustoendowtheatomitselfwiththepromiseandpotencyofintellect;weshouldtherebythrowbacktheissueastepfurther,anddisguisetheproblemwhoseexistenceitwerebettertoplainlyacknowledge.Thebroadfactofconsciousnessthereforeremainsunexplainedandinexplicableasbefore.Arrivedatthislimit,scienceitselfpausesandrefusestopassfurther.

Someoftheleadingnaturalistsofourdayhavelatelyexpressedthemselvesclearlyandterselyinthissense.TheeminentphysiologistDuboisRey-monddeniesthattheconnectionbetweencertainmotionsofcertainatomsinthebrain,andwhathecalls,theprimal,undefinableandundeniablefactsofconsciousness,isatallconceivable.ProfessorTyndallinhisaddresson"ThescopeandlimitsofScientificMaterialism,"explainshisviewswithsimilarprecision.

Wereourmindssoexpanded,strengthenedandilluminatedastoenableustoseeandfeeltheverymoleculesofthebrain;werewecapableoffollowingalltheirmotions,alltheirgroupings,alltheirelectricdischarges,ifsuchtherebe;andwereweintimatelyacquaintedwiththecorrespondingstatesofthoughtandfeeling,weshouldbeasfaraseverfromthesolutionoftheproblem.Howarethesephysicalprocessesconnectedbyandwiththefactsofconsciousness?Idonotthinkthematerialistisentitledtosaythathismoleculargroupingsandhismolecularmotionsexplaineverything,inrealitytheyexplainnothing....Theproblemofbodyandsoulisasinsolubleinitsmodernformasitwasinthepre-scientificages.

Nowsinceitisimpossibletodemonstratethatthepowersofmindareaproductofmatter,thepossibilityundoubtedlyremainsthatthesepowersmaycontinuetoexistevenaftertheirconnectionwiththephysicalorganismhasbeendissolved.Ifalltheargumentsthatarecommonlyadducedinsupportofthedoctrineofafuturelifefallshortoftheirobject,itisbutjusttoaddthateveryargumenttothecontraryisequallydevoidoffoundation.Thedoctrineofimmortalitycannotbedisproved.Ofthenatureofsoulweareinabsoluteignoranceweknownothing;whatismore,wecanknownothingAtthispointwetouchtheutmostboundaryofhumanreason,andmustbecontenttowritemysteryofmysteries.

Inthestateofsettleduncertaintytowhichwearethusreduced,the

shapeofouropinionswillbedeterminedbythebiasofournaturesortheinfluenceofeducation.Thescepticwillremindusofthepointsinwhichweresemblealltheperishableformsofnatureandholditimprobablethatwealoneshouldescapetheuniversallawofdissolution.Otherswillclingtothehopeofcontinuedlife,evenonthebrinkofthegrave,andthestronginstinctofselfpreservationwillgivetoneandcolortotheirreligiousbeliefs.Deepphilosophicalspeculationsarepossibleastothatultimatesourceofbeing,thathiddenlightofwhichbothmatterandmindarediversereflections.Andheretoopoetryassumesitslegitimateoffice.Onthemiststhatcovertheinfinite



abyss,wemayprojectwhateverimages,foulorfair,welist.Scienceyoumaybesurewillneverdisturbus.Dogmaticassertionhowever,oneithersideistotallyunwarranted:andthequestionofimmortality(Ithinkwemustsoonerorlatermakeupourmindstothat)willremainanopenone.Certain,only,isthefactofouruncertainty.

Iftheconclusionstowhichwehavethusbeenled,seempurelynegativeintheirbearings,theyarenonethelesscapableofcertainpositiveapplications,whichdeserveourseriousattention.Thelongingforimmortalityhasbeendevelopedintoamorbidcravingundertheinfluenceofthecurrentreligiousteachings,andhasbecomeadisturbingelementinhumansociety.Onmorethanoneoccasionithasimperilledthepeaceofnations,andthedoctrinesofsalvationbecamethewatchwordsofcontendingarmies.Thedoubtfulchancesofeternalfelicityordamnationbecametheoneabsorbingtopiconwhichmen'smindsdwelt,andthewildhorrorsoftheChristianHellhavecastagloomovermanyaninnocentlife,andcurtailedthescantmeasureofitsearthlyhappiness.Itweresomethinggained,ifbyacoolanddispassionatejudgmenttheinfluenceofthesedismalfantasiescouldbelessened,andmenbefreedfromtheirslavishsubjectiontophantomsbornoftheirowndistemperedimaginations.

Furthermore,itfollowsfromwhatwehavesaidthatthebeliefinimmortalityshouldnotbeinculcatedasadogmainourschoolsof

religion,andaboveallthatthedictatesofthemorallawshouldinnowisebemadetodependuponitfortheirsanction.Themorallawisthecommongrounduponwhichallreligiousandinfactalltruemenmaymeet.Itistheonebasisofunionthatremainstousamidtheclashingantagonismsofthesects.Whiledogmaisbyitsnature,opentoattack,anditsacceptanceatalltimesamatterofchoice,theprinciplesofmoralityhavearighttodemandimplicitobedience,andshouldrestaseverlastingveritiesinthehumanheart.Letusreflectwellbeforeweimperilthelatterbytheundueprominencewhichwegivetheformer.Itisnotneedfultoimparttoachildthewholetruth,butwhatitlearnsshouldbewhollytrue,andnothingshouldbetaughtitasafundamentalfactwhichitcaneverinafteryearsbeledtocallinquestion.Howoftenhasitoccurredthatwhentheriperreasonofthemanhasrejected

thetenetsofthechurchinwhichhewaseducated,hehasbeentemptedtocastasideallthereligiousteachingsofhisyouth,themoralwiththerest,asidlefableanddeceit.

Andlastly,friends,aswedonot,cannotknow,itispresumablywisethatweshouldnotknow.Thevanityofalloureffortstograsptheinfinite,shouldteachusthatonthisislandoftimewhereonwelive,liesourwork.Initsjoyswemayfreelytakedelight;foritswoesweshouldreserveoursympathies,andinlaboringtoadvancetheprogressofthegoodwemustfindoursatisfaction.

Beforeclosingthissubjecthoweverletusrecallvividlytoourmindsthatthedesireforcontinuanceafterdeathiscapableofthemost

nobleexpression,andofsupplyinguswithwholesomeconsolationandinspiritingmotivestoaction.Theindividualpasses,buttheracelives!Thereisalawinnaturethatnoforceiseverlost.Thethousandvaryingformsthatebbandflowaroundusarevariousonlytoourfeeblevision.Atthecoretheyareone,transmuted,yetthesame,changingyetchangeless,perishingtoriseanew.Thelawoftheconservationofenergyholdsgoodthroughouttheentiredomainofmatter.Andsuchalawtooobtainsinourspirituallife.Thelawoftheconservationofmoralenergyisnolessanabidingtruth;wearenotdustmerely,thatreturnstodust;wearenotsummerfliesthatbaskinthesunshineofthe



passingday;wearenotboundedinourinfluencebythenarrowtenureofouryears.Saynotwhenthesodhasclosedabovethosewhohavebeendeartoyouthatallisgone.Saynotthatthegraceandloveliness,andwisdomthatoncedweltwithinthepallidformisbreathedawaylikeahollowwind.Noryetstandidlygazinguponthecloud-landofthefuture,watchingifyoucantraceperchancetheirshadowylineamentsfadingintothedimnessofuntriedworlds.Thedeadarenotdeadifwehavelovedthemtruly.Inourownliveswegivethemimmortality.Letusariseandtakeuptheworktheyhaveleftunfinished,andpreservethetreasurestheyhavewon,androundoutthecircuitoftheirbeingtothefullnessofanamplerorbitinourown.

Allthegoodthatwasinthemlivesinyou,thegermandnucleusofthebetterthatshallbe.Alltheevilthatinheredinthemshallbecleansedawayinyouandyourvirtuesshallbetheatonementfortheirsins.Thusshallthefathersliveinthechildren,andfromgenerationtogenerationthebondthatconnectsthepastwiththefutureremainsunbroken.Theythathaveleftyouarenotafar;theirpresenceisnearandreal,asilentandaugustcompanionship.Inthestillhoursofmeditation;underthestarlitnight,inthestressofaction,intrialsandtemptations,youwillheartheirvoiceswhisperingwordsofcheerorwarning,andyourdeedsaretheirdeedsandyourlivesaretheirlives.

Sodoesthelightofotherdaysstillshineinthebrighthuedflowers

thatclotheourfields;sodotheywhoarelongsincegatheredintothesilentcityofthedeadstillmoveaboutourhouses,distributingkindnessandnoblenessamongourlives.Sodoesthetollofthefuneralbellbecomeanalarumtorouseustomoreactiveeffortandtothenoblerserviceofmankind.

II.RELIGION.

Thequestion,Havewestillareligion,propoundedbyDavidFriedrichStrausssomefewyearsago,willlongengagetheattentionofradical

thinkers.Itisclearthattoansweritsatisfactorilywemustdetermine,inthefirstinstance,whatmeaningoughtrightlytobeattachedtothetermreligion.Incommonparlance,itisoftenusedwithreferencetomereexternals,areligiouspersonbeingonewhoconformstotheritesandusagesofsomeparticularchurch.Ontheotherhand,everyinnovationinthesphereofdoctrineisbrandedasirreligious.ThusLutherwasdeemedirreligiousbytheCatholics;St.BonifacebytheheathenGermans,JesusbytheJews,ElijahbytheservantsofBaal.Thereisnotanysingleform,norevenasinglefundamentalprinciplecommontoallreligions.Religionisnotidenticalwiththeology.ItisindeedoftenmaintainedthatthebeliefinapersonalGodshouldberegardedasthefoundationandcriterionofreligion;butuponthisassumption,twofactsremaininexplicable,theexistenceofreligion

beforeevertheideaofadeityhadarisenamongmen,andtheexistenceofwhatmaybetermedanatheisticalreligion,inconsciousantagonismtothedoctrineofapersonalGod.Amongthelowerraceswefindmenworshipping,sacrificingandutteringtheirinvocationstomountains,fountains,rivers,rocksandstones:theyknownotadeity--sometimestheyhavenotevenidols,andyettheycertainlyhave,afterafashionoftheirown,areligion.Again,Buddhism,whilepossessingasubtlesystemofphilosophyandanadmirablecodeofethics,startswiththepropositionthatthereneverwasacreation,andinconsequence,neveracreator,andyetmorethanfourhundredmillionsoftheearth's



inhabitantscallittheirreligion!

Thequestionreturnstous,Whatisreligion?Itisnotcreed;itisnotsacrifice;itisnotprayer;itisnotcoveredbythedogmasofanyspecialformofbelief;ithasactedasacontrollingforceinallages,ineveryzone,amongallmannerofmen.Arewedevoidofit?Ofit?Ofwhat?

ThefeelingwhichthepresenceoftheInfiniteinthethoughtsofmanawakenswithinhim,iscalled,thefeelingofthesublime._Thefeelingofthesublimeistherootofthereligioussentiment._Itassumesvariousphases,andtothesecorrespondthevariousreligions.Letusendeavortoenumeratesomeofthemostprominent.

Thefeelingofthesublimeisawakenedbythemysterious.Theindefinitegivesusourearliestpresentimentoftheinfinite;thereligionofmysteryisfetishism.Thefeelingofthesublimeisawakenedbyexhibitionsofsuperhumanpower.Thereligionofpowerispaganism.Thefeelingofthesublimeisevokedbyvastness;thereligionsofvastnessareBrahminismandBuddhism.Theloftiesttypeofsublimityistobefoundinthemorallyinfinite.Judaism,ChristianityandIslamhavesoughttogiveitexpression.*

*Wedonotpretendthattheabovescheduleisatall

exhaustive.Variouselementsofthesublime,notmentionedinthetext,haveenteredintothecompositionofeachofthegreatreligions.Wehavemerelyattemptedtoseizethemoresalientfeatureofafewleadingtypes.

LetusdiscussinthefirstplacetheoriginofFetishism.Therearecertainnaturalphenomenathatfilluswithalarm,withoutourbeingabletoattributetheeffecttoanydefinitecause.Thedarknessofnight,therustlingofleaves,themoaningofthewindthroughtheforest,thewailingcryofcertainbirds,andthepeculiareffectsofagatheringfog,areofthiskind.Ihavehadoccasiontoobservealittlechildsuddenlystartingfromitsplaywitheverysignoffeardepicteduponitscountenance;thespasmpassedawayasquicklyasithadcome,

butwasrepeatedatvariousintervals,untilatlastthechildranuptomeinuncontrollablealarm,andthrewupitsarmsforprotection:itwasarawwintryday,agustywindblewfitfullyagainstthewindows;andthedrearysoundoftherattlingpanescouldbedistinctlyheardinthestillnessoftheroom;oncloserobservationInoticedthatthesignsofalarminthechildrecurredwithgreatregularity,asoftenasthissoundwasrepeated.Inasimilarwaywemayimagineourearliestancestorstohavebeenaffectedbywhateverwasvagueandmysteriousinnature.Thesenseofuncertaintyoccasionedinthismanner,gaveriseintheprimitivemantothefirstconceptionsofmysteriouspowersbeyondhim.

Theinvention,orratherthediscovery,offiretendedstillfurtherin

thesamedirection.Tousitisbarelypossibletoimaginelifewithoutthismostusefuloftheelements.Thewildbeastfleesfireandfearsit,manusesit,anditbecomesthechiefinstrumentofcivilization.Butifwestrivetopicturetoourselvesthestateofthesavage'smindonhisfirstacquaintancewithfireanditspropertiesweshallfindhimutterlyatalosstoaccountfor.Howwillheregardthisnimble,playfulbeing,sobrightandyetsofearfulinitsravages.Ofthelawsofchemicalactionhehasofcoursenoconception,buthehassometimesseenthelightningstrikeintothewoodofthetree,andnowfromthesamewoodheevokesthesemblanceofthelightning.Heistwirlingtwo



drysticksbetweenhishands;ofasudden,alambentflameshootsforth,seizesthewood,makesawaywithit,andleavesnothingbutblackenedcindersbehind.Whencediditcome,whitherhasitvanished?Herewasanewmystery;aspiritualpresence,latentintreesandstones;kindlyandbeneficentattimes,thenagainhostileandfiercelydestructive.

ThemysteryofthepreparationoffireiscelebratedintheancienthymnsoftheVedah.Wetherefinditsbirthfromthefrictionofthedoublesticksdescribed,anditspropertiesrehearsedinreverentlanguage.Itisinvokedlikeanysuperiorspirittoblessitsvotaries,andtoprotectthemfromharm.Theimportantroleascribedtofireinthesacredusagesoftheancients,iswell-known,andtheoriginoffireworshipapparent.

Thetheoryofdreams,towhichwehavereferredonapreviousoccasion,contributedinlikemanner,toextendtheboundariesoftheworldofmystery.Convincedthatheborewithinhimselfanairycounterfeitofself,thesavageattributedthesamespeciesofpossessiontothingsanimateandinanimatealike.Whyshouldnotbeastsandriversandstoneshavetheirghostslikeman?Moreover,astotheghostsofthehumandead,noonecouldtellwheretheymighttakeuptheirabode.Theymightbeanywhereandeverywhere.Theircountlesslegionssurroundedthelivinginallplaces.Theywereheardshoutingintheechoamongthehills;theywereseentoridepastonthemidnightgale.Often

theyassumedtheshapeofbirdsandreptilesandbeastsofprey.Thosecreaturesweresingledoutwithapreference,whosemovementsandhabitssuggestedtheideaofmystery.Thustheowlwassupposedtoharboranevilspirit,andtheserpentwasworshippedbecauseofitsstealthy,glidingmotion,itsvenomousbite,andthefascinationinitseye.Serpentworshipexistedtheworldover.TracesofitarepreservedintheliteratureoftheGreeksandRomans,anditwaspractisedevenamongtheHebrews,astheBooksofKingsattest.AmongcertainAfricantribesitisstillcustomarytokeephugeserpentsintemples,andpriestsarededicatedtotheirservice.Powerfulanimalsalso,suchasthebear,thelionandthetiger,weresometimessupposedtocontaintheghostsofdepartedchieftains,andwerereveredaccordingly.

Ifweremembertheunfriendlyrelationssupposedtosubsistbetweenthelivingandthedead,wemayconceivethestateofalarminwhichourprimitiveancestorsmusthavepassedtheirlivesonbeholdingthemselvesthusbesetoneveryside,withghostsordemonsindisguise.Athousandfabulousterrorshauntedtheirimagination.Wherevertheyturnedtheysuspectedlurkingfoes;spiritswereintheearth,intheair,inbirds,inanimals,inreptiles,intrees.Theycouldnotmoveastepwithoutinfringingontheboundariesofthespiritrealm.Everyobjecttheleastextraordinaryinsize,orshape,orcolor,appearedtothemthetokenofsomedemon'spresence,andwasworshippedinconsequence,notonitsownaccount,butbecauseofthemysterywhichitsuggested.

InthismannerFetishismarose.Thefetishworshipperleaveshishutin

themorning,seessomebrightpebbleglisteningonhispath,liftsitfromthegroundandsays,thisshallbemyfetish.Ifhesucceedsinthebusinessoftheday,heplacesthelittleobjectinashrine,gildsit,bringsitfood,addresseshisprayerstoit;ifitfails,itiscastaside.Again,ifafteralittletimethefetishceasestofulfilhiswishes,hebreaksitanddragsitinthemirebywayofpunishment.

Suchareafewofthegrossandgrotesqueconceptionstowhichthereligionofmysteryhasgivenbirth.Itistrue,totheeducatedmindofthepresentdaytheywillappeartheveryreverseofsublime.But



greatnessisrelative,andourownloftierconceptionsofthesublimearebuttheslowresultofalongprocessofgrowthanddevelopment.

THERELIGIONOFPOWER

Ithasoftenbeensaidthatfearisthebeginningofreligion;astatementofthiskindhowever,cannotbeaccepted,withoutseriousqualification.Thereisasenseofkinshipwiththegreat,inwhateverformitmayappear,ofwhicheventhemeanestaresusceptible.Anationworshipstheherowhoruinsit;andslaveswilltakeacertainprideinthesuperiorityoftheirmasters.Itisnotfearsomuchasadmirationofmightwhichmakesmenservantsofthemighty.Thefirsttyrantsonearthwere,inalllikelihood,strong,agile,andbravemen,possessinginanextraordinarydegree,thequalitieswhichallotherscoveted.Theywonapplause,theywerelookeduptoasnaturalleaders,andthearmofforcemaintainedwhattheesteemoftheirfellowshadaccordedinthefirstinstance.Thereisatouchofthesublimeevenintherudestadorationofforce.

Inthesecondstageofreligiousdevelopment,whichwearenowapproaching,thetheoryofpossessiondiscussedintheabove,wasextendedtotheheavenlybodies,andthesun,moonandstarswereendowedwiththeattributesofpersonalbeings.Hencetheoriginofthe

greatgods.Asthesunisthemostconspicuousbodyintheheavens,thesungodfiguresasthecentraldeityineverypantheon.Thevariousphasesthroughwhichtheluminarypassesarerepresentedindistinctpersonalities.Wefindgodsoftherisingsunandofthesettingsun;godsofthesunofspring,summerandwinter,godsalsoofthecloud-enshroudedsun,thatbattleswiththestormgiants.

Sincethehostsofheavenweresupposedtobebeingsalliedinnaturetoourselves,theactionandinteractionofthemeteoricphenomenawasascribedtopersonalmotives,andtheingenuityoftheprimitivephilosopherswasexhaustedinfindingplausiblepretextstoexplaintheirattractionsandrepulsions,theirseemingfriendshipsandhostilities.Thusarosethequaintandfancifulmythswithwhichthe

traditionsofantiquityabound.Thoseproblemswhichthemodernmindseekstosettlewiththehelpofscientificinvestigation,thelimitedexperienceofanearlieragewasbarelycompetenttoattack,anditcoveredwithsomeprettyfiction,thedifficultieswhichitcouldnotsolve.Thegenealogyandbiographyofthesun-godformedthemainthemeofallmythologies.

Thedailyprogressofthesunthroughtheheavens,isdescribedasfollows:EachmorningthegoldencrownedgodleaveshisgoldenpalaceintheEast,deepdownbelowtheocean'swaves;hemountshisgoldenchariot,drawnbyfierysteeds.Arosyfingeredmaidenopensthepurplegateofday,upwardrushthesteedsthroughblindingmistalongthesteepascentofheaven,downtheyplungeateveningintothecooling

watersofthesea;thenaiadsawaitthedeityandbearhimbackwardtohisorienthome.

AgainthefairyouthAdonisissaidtocomeoutoftheforest,wherenymphshadnurturedhim.Venusandhehuntinjoyouscompanythroughwoodanddale.OnedayAdonisisslain;thebloodthattrickledfromhiswoundshasturnedtherosesred,andthetenderanemoneshavesprungfromthetearsthatloveweptwhenshebeheldhisfall.TheyounggodwhocomesoutoftheforestisSpring;foratimehedisportsjoyouslyonearth,withloveforhiscompanion,buthistermoflifeisquickly



ended.Springdies,buteverreturnsanew.AmongtheSyrianwomenitwascustomaryforalongperiodtoobservethefestivaloftheAdoneiah;witheverysignofgrieftheyfirstbemoanedthegod'suntimelydeath;theybeattheirbreasts,cutofftherichluxurianceoftheirhair;showeduponhiseffigythemarksofthewoundshehadreceived;boundhimwithlinenbands,anointedhimwithcostlyoilandspices,andthenburiedhim.Ontheseventhdaythecrywasheard,Adonislives,Adonisisresurrectedfromthegrave.ThestoryofayounggodtypicaloftheSpringwhosuffersaprematuredeath,andafteratimeresurrectsfromthegraveiswellknowninthemythologiesofothernations.

Theprogressofthesunthroughtheseasonsisthuspersonified.Theraysofthesunaredescribedasthelocksofthesun-god'shair.Whenthesun'sheatwaxes,theselocksincreaseinabundance,whenitwanestheydiminish,untilinmid-wintertheheadofthesun-godisentirelybald.Atthisseasonthegodissupposedtobeexceedinglyweak,andhiseye,brightinthesummer,isnowbecomeblind.Heisfarfromhishome,andsubjecttothepowerofhisenemies,thewintrystorms.ThesetraitsrecurinthefamiliarHebrewmythofSamson.ThewordSamsonmeanssun;heisboundwithropes,asisalsothesun-godamongthePolynesians.Thesecretofhisstrengthisinhishair.Shornofthisthegiantbecomesfeebleasachild,andisblindedbyhisfoes.

Butitisthesuninitsconflictwiththedemonsofthestorm,thesun

asawarriorandahero,thatchieflyattractsthe_religious_reverenceoftheheroicage.Innaturethereisnomorestrikingexhibitionofpowerthanisrevealedinthephenomenaofthethunder-storm.Eventousithasnotlostitssublimity,andasenseofaweovercomesuswheneverthemightyspectacleisenactedintheheavens.Primitivemanhadafardeeperinterestintheissueofthetempestthanwearenowcapableofappreciating.Tohimthecloudsappearedtobeferociousmonsters,andwhentheycrowdedaboutthecentralluminary,hefearedthattheymightquenchitslightineverlastingdarkness.Theveryexistenceoftheuniverseseemedtobethreatened.Thesun-god,thetruefriendofman,howeverarisestowagewaragainstthedemons:aterrificuproarfollowsandthecontendingforcesmeet.DoyouhearThor'sfar-soundinghammer,Jove'sboltfallinginthethunderclap:doyouseeIndra's

lightning-spearflashingacrossthesky,andpiercingthesidesofthestormdragon?Thelighttriumphs;thetempestrollsaway,butpresentlyreturnstobeagaindefeated.InthiswayarosethetransparentstoriesofJupiter'sconflictwithTyphon,hisprecipitateflight,andhisfinalvictory;thestoryofIndra'swarfareagainstthewrithingserpent,Vritra,andnumerousothersthatmightbementioned.Itisthesun-godwhoflashesthelightningandhurlsthethunder.Tohimmenowethemaintenanceoftheorderofexistence.Heisthemightiestofthegods.Fightingtheirbattlesonhigh,heisinvokedbythewarriorstoaidthemintheirearthly-conflicts;hetakesprecedenceofalltheotherdeities;hethestrongestgodisraisedtothethroneofthecelestialstate.

Nowifwestudythehistoryofthesedeities,theirintercourseamongthemselvesandwithmen,wefindthemtobenomorethancolossalimagesofourselvescastonthemistsoftheunknown.ItisourfaceandformthatJupiterwears;theechoofourwishescomesbacktousinhisoracles."Ifhorsesandcowscoulddrawtheirgods,"anancientphilosopherhaspointedlysaid,"ashorsesandcowswouldtheydrawthem."Thegodsshareourpassions,thegoodandtheevil,distinguishedonlyinthis,thatwhatwefeeblyattempt,theycanexecuteonascaleofgiganticmagnitude.Theyloveandblessandshowerathousandgiftsupontheirworshippers;buttheycanhatealso;arevain,vindictive,



cruel.

Thegodsdemandtribute.Likethekingsofearth,theyreceivedthebestshareofthespoilsofwarandofthechase;andgoldandsilveralsowasdepositedintheirsanctuaries.Perfumedincenseanddaintycakeswereplacedupontheiraltars.Thegodsarehungry,theymustbefed.Thegodsarethirsty,andcertainstrongnarcoticbeverageswerebrewedespeciallyfortheirbenefit.ForthisamongtheHindoosthejuiceofthesomaplantwasmixedwithpuremilk.

Thegodsdemandblood.Thewideprevalenceofhumansacrificeisthesaddestfactthatstainstheannalsofreligioushistory.AmongtheFijiansthenewboatofthechieftainwasnotpermittedtoventureuponthewavesuntilithadbeenwashedwithhumanblood,inordertosecureitagainstshipwreck.AmongtheKhondsofIndia,welearnthatthebodyofahumanvictimwasliterallytorninpiecesandhisbloodmixedwiththenewturnedclod,inordertoinsureaplentifulharvest.Itisestimatedthatatleasttwenty-fivehundredhumanbeingswereannuallysacrificedinthetemplesofMexico.HumansacrificewasknownamongtheGreeks,anditspracticeamongtheHebrewsisrecordedintheHebrewBible.

Whenthemannersofmenameliorated,andgentlercustomsbegantosupplantthebarbaroususagesofanearlierday,thetyrannyofthe

godswasstillfeared,butvariousmodesofsubstitutionwereadoptedtoappeasetheirjealousyofhumanhappiness.InIndiawearetold,thatthegodoflightbeingdispleasedwiththeconstanteffusionofblood,commandedabuffalotoappearfromoutthejungle,andavoicewasheardsaying,sacrificethebuffaloandliberatetheman.

Anothermodeofsubstitutionwastogiveapartforthewhole.Someonememberofthebodywasmutilatedorcurtailedinordertoindicatethattheperson'slifewasinrealityforfeittothegod.AmongcertainoftheaboriginaltribesofAmerica,theyouth,onreachingtheyearsofmaturity,wasforcedtoplacehishanduponabuffalo'sskull,andoneormorejointsofthefingerwerethencutoffanddedicatedtothegreatspirit.TherewereothermodesofmutilationofwhichIdarenot

speak,butIwillbrieflyaddthattheso-calledriteofthecovenant,whichispractisedamongtheJewsevenatthepresentday,roseinexactlythesamemanner.Ofcoursetheoriginalsignificationofthecustomhasbeenforgottenandapurelysymbolicalmean-inghasbeenattachedtoit.Nevertheless,itscontinuanceisadisgracetoreligion.Thegroundsofsanityonwhichitisurged,arenotinthemselvestenable,andiftheywere,religionwouldhavenoconcernwiththem.Itisbutafreshinstanceofthestubbornvitalitywhichseemstoinhereinthehoarysuperstitionsofthepast.

Occasionally,whenawholepeoplewasthreatenedwithdestruction,someprominentandbelovedindividualwasselectedforsacrifice,inorderthatbyhisdeathhemightsavetherest.Thesamefeaturewasalso

introducedintothelegendsofthegods.PhilotellsusthatthegreatGodElwhomtheHebrewsandPhoeniciansworshiped,oncedescendedtoearth,andbecameaking.ThisElwasthesupremedeity.Hehadanonlysonwhomheloved.Onedaywhengreatdangersthreatenedhispeople,thegoddeterminedtosacrificehisonlybegotten(--Greek--)sonandtoredeemhispeople:andyearbyyearthereafterasolemnfestivalwascelebratedinPhoeniciainhonorofthatgreatsacrifice.

Thereligionofforcehasleftitsdarktracesinthehistoryofmankind.Eventhehigherreligionsaccepted,whiletheyspiritualized,



itsdegradingconceptionsintotheirsystems.Slowlyonlyandwiththegeneralspreadofintelligenceandmorality,canwehopethatitslastvestigeswillbepurgedfromthemindsofmen.

Vastnessisanelementofthesublime.InthereligiousconceptionsoftheHindooswefinditillustrated.ItenteredalikeintothesystemoftheBrahminandoftheBuddhist,anddeterminedtheirtoneandquality.Acertainfondnessforthegigantic,ispeculiartoHindoocharacter.Witnessthealmostboundlessperiodsoftheirancientchronology;thecolossalformswithwhichtheremainsoftheirmonumentsandarchitectureabound.AgreatAryannationhavingadvancedfromthewatersoftheIndustotheshoresofthesacredGangesandhavingsubduedthenativesbytheforceofsuperiornumbersorbravery,hadlearnedtoforgettheactivepursuitsofwar,andyieldedtothelassitudeengenderedbytheclimateoftheirnewsettlements.Aroundthemtheybeheldarichandluxuriantvegetation;birdsofrareandmanycoloredplumage,statelytreesrisingfrominterminablejungles.Ravishingperfumeslulledtheirsensesastheyreposedintheshadeofthesefairy-likeforests.Itwasalandsuitedtodreamycontemplation.HerethephilosophicpriestsmightdwelluponthevastnessoftheUniversal,andtheimaginationbewilderedbytheevershiftingphenomenaofthescenemightwellseeksomeprincipleofunitywhichcouldconnectandexplainthewhole.BrahmawasthenametheygavetothepervadingSpiritofAllthings.FromBrahmatheentireorderofexistencehas

emanated;theelementsofmaterialthings,plants,birds,beastsandmen.Thelowercastescameforthfirstandarenearestthebrutes;thecastesoffree-bornworkmen,andofwarriorsnext,thepriestsandsaintslast,inwhomtheworld'ssoulfounditsloftiestexpression.

ToBrahmaallthingsmustreturn.Passingthroughanendlessseriesoftransformations,andpayinginthelongandpainfulintervalthepenaltyofeverycrimeithascommitted,themigratingspiritofmanisledbackatlasttoitsprimalsource,andisresolvedintheBrahmawhenceitarose.Theconnectionbetweenindividualanduniversallifewasthuskeptconstantlyinview.Thesoulinthecourseofitswanderingsmightpassthrougheveryconceivablemodeofexistence;mightassumetheshapeofcreepingplantsandworms,andwildanimals;mightrisetothe

possessionofmiraculouspowersintheheavensoftheRishis,whileitsfinaldestinywastobereunitedwiththeOneandAll.

TheBuddhistNirvanaresemblestheBrahmainbeingaccountedtheultimateprincipleoftheworld.WheninthesixthcenturyB.C.theroyalHermitoftheCakyasrevoltedagainstthecrueldespotismofthepriesthood,thelegendrelatesthatthesightofsufferingintheformsofsickness,oldageanddeath,rousedhimfromalifeofindolentpleasure,andimpelledhimtoseekaremedyfortheillsofhumanlife.Hiscounselsweresweetandkindly;hetaughtself-controlandwisemoderationintheindulgenceofthepassions,andbrotherlyhelpandsympathytolessentheevilswhichforesightcannotavert.HeliftedthedegradedmassesoftheIndianlandfromouttheirdulldespair;he

warredagainstthedistinctionsofcaste,hetookwomenandslavesforhiscompanions,hewasaprophetofthepeople,whomthepeopleloved.Buteventohimtheillsofthismortalconditionseemedlittlewhencomparedwiththeendlesspossibilitiesoffutureillthatawaitedthesoulinthecourseofitsceaselesstransmigrations.Heyearnedtoshortenitswearypathtothegoal;andthemysticmethodsbywhichhesoughttoenterNirvanawereameansadaptedtothisend.Nirvanaisthebeginningandtheendofthings.Nirvanainwhichthereisneitheractionnorfeeling;inwhichintelligenceandconsciousnessaresubmerged,appearedtothispessimistpreacherthelast,theonly



reality.Lifeisadelusion,realonlyinitspains:theentirecessationofconsciousexistence,isthesolutionheofferstohumansuffering.

Nirvanaistheuniversal--itsconceptionisvastanddim;ithoversinthedistancebeforethepilgrimoftheearth;therewillhefindrest.

UnliketheWesternnations,theHindoosregardedtheideaofimmortalitywithdreadandterror,ratherthanpleasedanticipation.Thehighestpromisesoftheirreligion,wereintendedtoassurethemthattheywouldceasetocontinueasindividualbeingsorceasetocontinuealtogether.Peaceinthetombwhenthispresenttoilisoverseemedtothemthemostdesirableofgoods,andadreamlesssleepfromwhichnoangeltrumpshouldeverwakethesleeper.

"Twothings,"saysKant,"fillthesoulwithevernewandincreasingadmirationandreverence;thestar-litheavensaboveme,andthemorallawwithinme."*

*Kant'sWorks(Rosenkranzedition)vol.viii.p.312.

TheHebrewswerethefirsttolendtothemoralideasacontrollinginfluenceinthesphereofreligion.LetmeattempttobrieflysketchtheoriginofMonotheismamongstthem,asnumerousconsiderations

elsewhererecitedindetail,haveledmetoconceiveofit.ThereligionsoftheSemiticnationswhosurroundedancientIsraelwereintenselyemotionalincharacter,andtheirgodsweregodsofpleasureandpain.Inthetemplesunboundedlicensealternatedwithselfsacrificingasceticism.Thelewdritesofthegoddessoflovemustberegardedastypicaloftheone;theslaughterofsonsinhonorofMoloch,oftheother.NowtheHebrewshavebeendistinguishedforthepurityoftheirhomelifefromaveryearlyperiodoftheirhistory.Thehighvaluewhichtheysetonmaleoffspring,thejealousvigilancewithwhichtheyguardedthevirtueoftheirwomenarealikeillustratedinthenarrativesoftheBible.Themoregiftedandnoblemindedamongthem,beholdingtheirdomesticfeelingsoutragedbytheprevailingreligions,rebelledagainstthegrossconceptionsofidolatry.Howcould

theyofferuptheirbelovedsonsforsacrifice,howcouldtheygiveovertheirwivesanddaughterstoshame?Thecontrollingforceoftheircharacterdeterminedthedoctrinesoftheircreed.Judaismbecame,sotospeak,afamilyreligion.Jehovahisconceivedofasthehusbandofthepeople.Israelshallbehistrueandloyalspouse,thechildrenofIsraelareHischildren.TheimageofJehovahisthatoftheidealpatriarch.Likethepatriarch,heistheheadofthespiritualfamilyofman.Likethepatriarchinancienttimes,heisthelawgiverandthejudge;Heistheguardianofdomesticpurity.ThewordforfalsereligioninHebrewsignifiesfornication."Contendagainstyourmother,"saysJehovah,"forIamnotherspouse,norshemywife.""Mypeoplelustafterfalsegods,forthespiritofimpurityhasseducedthem."Andthedayofthetriumphofthetruereligionisthuspredicted:"Onthat

daythoushaltnotcallmeanymoremyBaal,(paramour)butthoushaltcallmemyhusband,andIshallwedtheeinjustice,etc."ThustheideaofJehovahsprangfromthesoilofthefamily,andtheconceptionofadivinefatherinheavenwasderivedfromtheanalogyofthenoblestofmoralinstitutionsonearth.ThespiritualGodoftheHebrewswasthepersonificationofthemoralIdeal.

Likehisrelationstothechosenpeopleandtomankindingeneral,therelationsoftheDeitytotheexternalworldweredescribedinaccordancewiththedemandsoftheEthicalLaw.Twothingsmorality



insistsupon;first,thatthenaturalinitscoarseracceptationshallbesubordinatetothemoral.Secondly,thatinthescaleofvaluesitselfshalloccupythehighestrank,andthatthepurposehumanlifeonearthcanonlybeamoralpurpose.Asthemechanismofnatureisnotofitselfcalculatedtoharmonizewiththepurposesofspirit,itbehoovesthatthespiritualGodshallpossessapowerovermatteradequatetoenforcetheclaimsofthemoralideal,suchpowerasonlythecreatorcanexertoverhiscreatures.Hencethedoctrineofthecreation.Andagainthestateofperfectiontowhichthehumanheartaspirescanonlybeattainedthroughtheinstrumentalityofsupremewisdom,powerandlove,inamillennialagewhentheschemeoftheuniversewillbeperfectedinthereignofabsolutejusticeandpeace.HencethedoctrineoftheMessiah.Bothdoctrinesarethetypicalexpressionofamoralneed.

IntheopeningofGenesiswereadadescriptionofthemakingoftheworld.Allwaswildvastchaos,anddarknessbroodedovertheabyss,whentheSpiritofJehovahbreathedonthewaters;asinglewordofcommandandlightpenetratedthegloom,thewatersdivided,thegreatluminariesstartedforthontheircourse;theearthclothedherselfinverdure,andtheformsoflivingbeingssprangintoexistence.Thewords"Godsaweverythinghehadmadeandbeholditwasverygood,"containthegistofthenarrative.InZephaniahandIsaiahweread:"OnthatdayIwillturntothepeopleapurelanguagethattheymayallcallupon

thenameoftheLordtoservehimwithoneconsent.""Nooneshallthendoevil,noonehurtinallmyholymountain,fortheearthshallbefulloftheknowledgeofGodasthewaterscoverthesea."

Thesevisionsarenottrueinthesenseofhistoricaloccurrencespastorfuture.Thattheworldwasevercreatedoutofnothing,whathumanunderstandingcanconceiveofit?Thatatimewillcomewhensocietyshallbesotransformedthatthepurelanguageoflovealoneshallbespoken,whothatisinstructedinthefailingsofourfinitenaturecancreditit?Theyaretrueinthesenseofideals;true,withthetruthofpoetry,bodyingforthinconcreteshapetheuniversalyearningsofmankind.

ThereisalsoanotherelementofbeliefassociatedwiththedoctrineoftheMessiah,whichstillmoreplainlyillustratesthetypicalvalueofreligioustenets.InthecomingweekthechurchesthroughoutChristendomwillrehearsethestoryofthepassionandthedeathoftheirfounder.MournfulchantsandlamentationswillrecalleverycircumstanceofthedarkdramathatclosedonCalvary.Thattaleofharrowingagonystillmovestheheartsofmillionsasthoughitwereataleofyesterday.Itisthesymbolofthesufferingandthecrucifixionofthewholehumanrace."Ah,butourgriefshehasborne,oursorrowshehascarried,hewaswoundedforourtransgressions,hewasbruisedforouriniquities."HundredsofyearsbeforethebirthofChrist,theauthoroftheselinestranscribedinthemthesadexperienceofthereformersofhisday.HedoesnotrefertoanyoneMessiah;hespeaksofthatlegacyofsacrifice

whichistheheritageofthegreatandgood,theworldover.Forwhocanhelpuswhenweareplungedindeepestanguish,whenitseemsasthoughwemustsinkundertheloadoftrouble,butonewhohasenduredliketrials,enduredandtriumphedoverthem?Itisthemartyrdomofthepurethathasredeemedmankindfromguiltandsin?Thereisthisconstantatonementofthestrongfortheweak,ofthegoodfortheevil.AsoldPaulGerhardhasitinhisseventeenthcenturyhymn:

"Whenutmostdreadshallseizeme,Thathumanheartcanknow,



Dothoufrompainreleaseme,Bythygreatpainandwoe."

Theteachingsofreligionthenhavetheirsourceintheaspirationsofthehumanheart;aretheechoesofourwishesandourhopes.Notvaluelessonthataccount,butvaluableonlyinsofarastheyexpressinnobletypes,nobleaspirationsofoursouls.Itweresadindeedifmoralitydependeduponthecertaintyofdogma.Onthecontraryitistruethatallthatisbestandgrandestindogma,isduetotheinspirationofthemorallawinman.Thetimewillcomewhenthetenetsoffaithwillnolongerbenarrowlyunderstoodasnow;andwhiletheirinfluencewillstillbegreat,theywillceasetobeharmfulandconfining.Theywillbeusedasrareimagery,todeckthesublimemeaningswhichtheysymbolize;notasvesselsthatcontaintheabsolutetruth,butaschoiceandbeautifulvases,fittoholdtheeverfreshandeverbloomingflowersoftheideal.

Thedogmaticassertionofreligiousteachingsweholdtobeaseriousevil,anddogmaassuchwecannotaccept.Itsinfluenceinthepasthasbeenpernicious,andissoatthepresentdaynoless.Ithasinflamedthehatredofmanagainsthisbrotherman,ithasledtothefatalerrorofdutiestowardapersonalCreator,distinctfromourdutiestowardourfellows:ithaspervertedthemoralsense,bygivingtotheconcernoffuturesalvation,adegreeofprominencebeforewhichtheinterests

ofthepresentlifesinkintocomparativeinsignificance;itdoesnotaffordusacommonbasiswhereonwecouldunite,foritisbynatureuncertainandcalculatedtoprovokedissensions.Ontheotherhandwebeholdinconsciencetherootofwhatevergoodreligionhasachieved,andthelawofconsciencemustsufficetoguideandelevateourlives.Torefreshthemoralsentimentistheonethingneedfulinourtime,andindeedpresentsataskonwhoseaccomplishmentthehighestinterestsofsocietydepend.Timewillshowthatasimpleappealtodutywillsurelysufficetoleadmentomoreearnestexertionstowardthegood.Timewillshowthatthosewhoknownoothermodeofsalvationthanthesalvationwhichisattainedbyworksoflove,willbeatleastasactiveinthepursuitofvirtueasthosewhoputtheirtrustinfaith.

Thegoldofmoralityhasbeenvariouslycoinedintheworld'sreligioussystems.Varioushavebeenthesymbolsthatwerestampedthereon,andvarioustheimagesoftheKinginwhosenameitwasissued,buttheirvaluesofarastheyhadvaluewasinthemoralgoldthattheycontained,andinnaughtelse.LetLiberalismstampitscoinwiththeEagleofLibertyonly,initsethicalteachingsitwillstillretainthesubstanceofallreligion.

Dogmawewillkeepinabeyance,--thisisourpointofdeparture,andthedeedsuperiortothecreed.Beitourstoholdhighthemoralideal,whetherweclotheitwithpersonalityornot.Beitourstoactdivinethings,nomatterhowweregarddivinemysteries.Beitourstohelpinliftingupthefallen,tolendfreeutterancetothecomplaintsof

theoppressed,tobrandthesocialiniquitiesofourtime,togiveourheartswarmthandthelaborofourhandstothecauseoftheirredress,andtopushonwithwhateverpowerwemay,theprogressofourracetowardthosehighandholygoalsofwhichthedreamersdream,theprophetsprophesy.

III.THENEWIDEAL



Theoldreligionsandscienceareatwar.Withpitilessconsistencysciencedirectsitsattackupontheirvulnerablepositions.Theconceptionofinexorablelawsubvertsthetestimonyofmiracles;thefondbeliefintruthsdivinelyrevealedfailstowithstandthesearchinganalysisofhistoricalcriticism;thebattleofscienceisyetfarfrombeingwon,butfromourstandpointtheissuecannotappeardoubtful.Itbehoovesusthereforetoinquireintothemoralbearingsofthegeneralresultthusfarachievedandtoreviewwhatwehavelostandwon.Shallwesucceedtherebyinallayingthesenseofalarmthatiswonttoagitatethetimidheartwhenitbeholdssomuchthatitconfidentlybelievedapartoftheeverlastingveritiesoflife,sinkbackintothegulfofuncertaintyanddoubt?

Wearestandingattheportalsofanewage,andnewconceptionshavearisenofthepurposewhichweareheretoaccomplishandofthemeansofhelpwecancommandintheattempttorealizeourdestiny.ThesenewconceptionswecallTheNewIdeal.Itisthepurposeofourpresentdiscoursetocomparesomesalientfeaturesoftheoldandnew.

TheoldandnewIdealsagreeinlookingtoanInfinitebeyondthebordersofexperience,foritisinthenatureoftheidealtoliftusabovethemerelyreal.Theydifferinthedirectioninwhichtheyseektheirobject,andthebiaswhichtheyconsequentlygivetomen's

thoughtsandactions.Theology,perceivingtheinabilityofreasontosolvetheproblemsofthebeginningandtheend,yetunabletorestrainadesiretoknowwhatisreallyunknowable,hasimpressedtheimaginationintoitsservice,anddrawnapictureofthetranscendentalworld,conformingindeedtotheanalogiesofman'sterrestrialexistence,butonthisaccountallthemoreadaptedtoanswerthewishesofthemassesofmankind.Enoughforthemthattheyfeeltheneedofbelievingthepicturetrue.WeoftheNewSchoolare,ifpossible,evenmoreprofoundlyconvincedofthelimitationsofhumanreason.Wecheerfullyaccordtothereligiousconceptionsofthepastapoeticvalue;theyarepoetry,oftenofthesublimestkind;butwecannotdeceiveourselvesastothenobleweaknessofthehearttowhichtheyowetheirorigin;wecannotforgetthatintheircasealasthewish

hasbeenfathertothethought.Tousthemysteryisstillmystery--theveiledarcanaarenotrevealed,theriddleisunread.Butwearenotthereforefilledwithterrorordismay.Inthemoralnatureofmanwediscoveradivineelement.Inthevoiceofconsciencewehearthevoiceofthepresentdivinitywithinus,andwelearntoregardthismortalstateofoursasachannelthroughwhichthecurrentsofEternityebbandflowceaselessly.Thedivinenatureisnotfaroff,norbeyondthesea;inourownheartsonourownlips!

Butletusseektoscrutinizethedistinctivefeaturesoftheoldandnewmoreclosely.Theoldidealwassupernaturalincharacter,ittaughtmantoregardhislifeonearthasabrief,temporarytransit,himselfanexilefromtheKingdomonhigh.Theconcernsofthepresentworld

wereinconsequencedeemedofsecondaryimportance,andtheeyedweltwithanxiouspreferenceonthedimchancesofthehereafter.Wherethehopeofimmortalityhasbeenprominentlyputforwardbyanyreligion,theeffecthasthusbuttoooftenproveddisastroustotheprogressandsecurityofsociety.Itiswell-knownbywhatpainfulpenancesthemonksoftheMiddleAgessoughtreleasefromthetrammelsoftheflesh,howtheyaffectedtodespisethetiesofdomesticaffection,howtheyretardedtheadvancementofknowledge,howthepassionswhichtheysoughtinvaintosuppressoftenrecoileduponthemwithfearfulretribution,andgaverisetodisorderswhichseriouslyundermined



publicvirtue.

Butnotonlyhassupernaturalismtendedindirectlytoweakenthespringsofvirtue,ithascalledintobeinganorderofmenwhoseveryexistenceisastandingmenacetothefreedomofintellectandtherightsofconscience.ThedistancebetweentheCreatorandhiscreaturesissogreat,thattheinterventionofsomethirdpartyisdeemednecessarytomediatebetweenthefiniteandtheInfinite.Theprieststepsintoperformthisoffice,andhisinfluenceisgreatinproportiontothevalueoftheserviceswhichheissupposedtorender.Furthermoreitisbelievedthatthepersonaldeityrequirestheperformanceofcertainactionsinhishonor,andwhattheseactionsareisagainlefttothepriesttodetermine.Inthismannertheceremonialpartofreligiongrowsup,andacquiresadegreeofimportancefataltothemorallife.ThedutiestowardGodtranscendthedutiestowardman,andbuttoooftenusurptheirplace.

TheBiblelikenstherelationsofmantoGodtothoseofachildtoitsfather.Itistruesupernaturalismhasoftenprovedavaluablestaytothosealreadymorallystrong,anditwereabsurdtodenythatunderitsfosteringcaremanyofthenoblestqualitiesthatdistinguishthefilialrelationhavebeendevelopedinthelivesofreligiousmen.Itisfromnolackofappreciationonourpartthatwehavedweltontheevilsratherthantheblessingsithasbrought.Butinacknowledgingthatwe

havereallylostthesenseofprotection,thechildliketrustwhichlendsuchrarebeautytothecharacterofmanyancientmodelsofpiety,wedeemeditimportanttopointtotheshadesthatdarkenthepictureofthe*supernaturalreligions,itslightsaremadethethemeofathousanddiscoursesweekafterweek,andarehardlyinanydangerofbeingspeedilyforgotten.

Fromtheback-groundoftheoldIdealstandsoutinboldreliefthenew.Itisthereverseofsupernatural;ifittakesprideinanything,itisinmarkingareturntonature.Trammelsoftheflesh,contaminationofthebody?Thereisnothingittellsusinitselfcontaminating.Thebodyisnotalientothemind,itistheseedplotfromwhichmindflowersoutineverypart.Regardtheformofman,observethequickplayofthe

features,theexpressivesmile,thespeakingglance,everyattitude,everygesturefullofmeaning,thewholebodyirradiatedasitwere,withtheindwellingintelligence.Andsothepassionstoowhichwearewonttoassociatewithourcorporealnaturearebuttheroughmaterialfromwhichtheartistsoulbehindthemfashionsitsimmortaltypesofbeautyandofholiness.Thereisagracelessinnuendointhetermnature,asofsomethinghard,gross,material.Intruth,natureisthesubtlest,mostetherealpresenceofwhichwecatchagleamonlyatrareintervals,thereflexofahiddenlightthatglimmersthroughthefactsandmotionsoftheworld.Takethenatureofwaterforinstance.Isitinthehydrogen,intheoxygen,inthesingleatom?Notthere,yetthere!somewherehovering,imponderous,elusive.Itcomesnighesttothesenseswhentheatomsactandreactuponeachother,intheflowofmighty

rivers,intheleapofcataracts,intheturmoilofthesea.Orthenatureofthetree;isitintheroots,inthetrunk,inthespreadingbranches,theleafycrown?Perhapsinthefruitmorethanelsewherethehiddenbeingofthetreecomesforthintoexternalreality,andopenstotheeyeandtouch.Inactionandfruitionthedeepernatureappears.Thusintheoutwardworld,andthusinman.Oursoul-life,too,isaflowingstream,whosepowerisnotinanypartbutintheceaseless,changefulmotionofthewhole,thatformsastrongspiritualcurrentonwhichourthoughtsandsentimentsmovelikeswimmerstowardaninfinitesea.Andlikeatreearewe,withthemightytrunkofintellect,the



spreadingbranchesofimagination,thefibrousrootsofthelowerinstincts,thatbindustotheearth.Butthemorallifeisthefruitwebear;initourtruenatureisrevealed;initweseethepurposeofourbeingfulfilled.Sowhenwespeakofareturntonature,itisthishighernaturetowhichwerefer,whoseoriginweknownot,butwhoseworkingswefeel,andknowthembythetokenofthesweetsatisfactiontheyaffordustobethecrownandgloryofourlives.TheoldIdealemphasizestheEternalthatiswithoutus;thenewtheEternalthatiswithinourselves.Theoldstylesusexilesfromthekingdomoftruth;thenewsummonsustobethebanner-bearersoftruth;theoldpointstoaheavenbeyondtheearth,thenewtellsusthatourearthtooisapartoftheheaven,alight-world,amongendlessworldsoflight.

Ifsecondlyweconsiderthemeansofsupportatourdisposalinthepursuitoftheideal,wefindprayerinuniversaluseamongtheadherentsoftheold.Prayerinthesenseofsupplication,hasbeendefinedas"arequestmadetotheDeityasifhewereaman."Andtrulythelanguageofprayeroftentallieswiththisdescription."Letmesucceedinthisundertaking,"praystheIndian,"thatImayslaymyenemyandbringhomethetokensofvictorytomydearfamily,inorderthattheymayrejoicetogether.Havepityonmeandprotectmylife,andIwillbringtheeanoffering."Somesuchinducementasthelastisfrequentlycoupledwiththepetition,"Hereisanofferingforyou,OGod!Lookkindlytowardsthisfamily,letitprosperandincrease,and

letusallbeingoodhealth.""Letmecomeuponmyenemiesspeedily,letmefindthemsleepingandnotawake,andletmeslayagoodmanyofthem.""Iprayforcattle,Iprayforcorn,Iaskalsoforchildren,inorderthatthisvillagemayhavealargepopulation,andthatyournamemaynevercometoanend,forofoldwehavelivedbyyourfavor,letuscontinuetoreceiveit.Rememberthattheincreaseofourproduceistheincreaseofyourworship,andthatitsdiminutionmustbethediminutionofyourrites."AmongtheHindoostheefficacyascribedtoprayerwassuchthatthegodsthemselvesweredeemedpowerlesstoresistit,andthemysticinvocationsofthepriestsexertedafatefulinfluenceonthedestiniesoftheworld.TheancientandmodernliteratureoftheHebrewslikewisetestifiestotheirfaithinprayer,andChristianityhashereinfollowedifnotoutstrippedtheirexample.Incaseofdrought

thefollowingprayerisofferedinmanyofourchurches:"Sendus,webeseechthee,inthisournecessity,suchmoderaterainandshowersthatwemayreceivethefruitsoftheearthtoourcomfortandtothyhonor."Incaseofstorms:"Wehumblybeseechtheetorestraintheseimmoderaterains,wherewithforoursinsthouhastafflictedus,andwepraytheetosendsuchseasonableweatherthattheearthmayinduetimeyieldherincreaseforourbenefit."Incaseoffamine,"Increasethefruitsoftheearthbythyheavenlybenediction,andgrantthatthescarcityanddearthwhichwenowmostjustlysufferforoursins,throughthygoodnessmaybeturnedintoplenty."Incaseofsickness,prayersareofferedfortherecoveryofthesufferer.

Againstalltheseformsofpetitionthemodernviewoflifeemphatically

protests.Itstartswiththegrandestofscientificgeneralizations,thatoftheuniversalityofnature'slaws.Theselawscannotbebroken;theygovernthecourseoftheplanetsastheyrevolvethroughspace,theyappearintheslightesteddyofdustthatrisesonourstreets.TheworldisaKosmos;toprayforachangeinitsarrangementsistoprayforitsdestruction.Therainscomewhentheymustcome,andtheearthyieldsorwithholdshercrop,asasystemofcausesdeterminedfromimmeasurableaeonsoftimeprescribes.IstheGodtowhommenpraysopooraworkmanthathewillchangethemechanismoftheUniverseattheirbidding?Ifallthatis,ishiswork,whythenthedroughtis



hiswork,andthefamine,andthesicknessarehiswork,andtheyare,becausehehaswilledthattheyshouldbe."Thegodshelpthemthathelpthemselves."Weareplacedinaworldwithwhichwearebuthalfacquainted;ourbusinessistoknowitthoroughly.Allthehistoryofmankindfromthebeginninghasbeenaseriesoftentativestrugglestoacquirethispreciousknowledge,andwehavemadeindeedsomeheadway.Webeganbydefendingourselvesagainsttheattacksofwildbeasts;wetilledthesoil;weinventedtools,weformedcommunities,wemoderatedthefrictionofsocialintercourse;wediscoveredthetalismanofscience,andtheAladdin'slampofart.Inthetreatmentofdiseasealsoagreatadvancehasbeenmade.WhentheMayflowerreachedtheAmericancontinent,shefoundableakandbarrenshore,fullonlyofgraves.AgreatepidemichadsweptovertheIndiantribes,andthenativesfelllikedeadfliesbeforethescourge.Theyhadcharmsandprayers;thesedidnothelpthem.Wehaveaccomplishedalittle;weareboundtoaimatmore.Whythencallinthesupernatural?Itwillnotcome,thoughwecallneversoloudly.Thevainattemptdoesbutkeepusfromthatwhichismoreneedful,activeexertionandstrenuouseffortsatself-help.Butwearetoldthatoursuccessispooratbest,andthatinthevastmajorityofcases,allourexertionsavailnothing:moreoveritissaidthatmanistoofrailandfeebleacreaturetodependuponhimselfaloneintimesoftrial,andthatprayer,whetheritbeansweredornot,isvaluableasameansofconsolationthatsoothesandstillstheheart.Itisbuttootruethatourachievementsfallfarshortofourdesires.Let

thosethatdonot,cannotpray,seeksupportinthesympathiesoftheirkind,andwhereself-helpfails,mutualhelpwillofferthemaninexhaustiblesourceofstrengthandcomfort.AsforthatspeciesofprayerwhichisnotaddressedtoapersonalGodatall,butclaimstobeanaspiration,anoutpouringofthespirit,wedofailtoseehowitdeservesthenameofprayerinanysense.Theuseofthevocative,andofthepronounthouiscertainlycalculatedtomislead,andtheappearanceofinconsistencyishardlyavoidable.

Lastly,theoldIdealwasstationary,retrospective;itplaceditsparadiseatthebeginningofhumanhistory.Inthefaroffpastitbeheldourbestandloftiesthopesanticipatedandrealized.Thenthefullsignificanceoflifehadbeenreached;thentheoracleshadspoken

loudlyandclearlywhosefaintechoesnowfloatlikememoriesofhalfforgottenmelodiestoourear;thentheimperishabletruthswererevealedinthoseolden,goldendays.Notso,saysthenewIdeal.Rudeandwretchedwerethebeginningsofmankindonearth,poorthemind,andvoidtheheart.Farfrombeingexemplary,theideasofrightandwrongentertainedbyourearliestprogenitorswereinfinitelybelowourown.Notindeed,thatthesubstanceofthemoralsentimenthaseverperceptiblychanged.Theinherentprincipleofrightremainsthesame,butitassumeshigherformsandisappliedonawiderscaleastheraceadvances.Thusthecommandmentnottokillabeinglikeourselveswasrecognizedfromthefirst,butintheearliesttimes,onlymembersofthesamefamilywereesteemedbeingslikeourselves;tokillaneighborwasnotwrong.Thefamilywidenedintotheclan,theclanintothe

people,andallthenationsarenowembracedinthecommonbondofhumanity.Thusstepbystepthelifeoftheclansman,thefellowcitizenandatlastofeveryhumanbeingcametoberegardedassacred.Fromacommoncentremoralityhasdeveloped_outwardinconcentriccircles_.Indifferentagesalsodifferentvirtuespredominated.PatriotismwasesteemedhighestintheRomanworld;self-sacrificeandchastityinthefirstChristiancommunities.Butwhateverhadthusbeengainedwasnotthereafterlost.Eachageaddeditsowntothestockofvirtue;eachcontributeditssharetoswellthetreasureofmankind.Thestruggleforexistencethatragedfiercelyonthelowerlevelsofculture,losesits



harsheraspectsasweadvanceuponthepathofcivilization.Themethodsofforcebywhichtheunfitwereeliminatedaregraduallyfallingintodisrepute,ifnotintodisuse.Atlastthegoodwillsurvivebecauseofitsownpersuasiveexcellency.Theconflictwillbecomeoneofideasmerely,anemulouspeacefulcontestfortheprizeoftruth.

Thatthemannersofthemodernworldhaveindeedbecomeameliorated,ourownbriefexperienceasasocietyservestoillustrate.Afewcenturiesago,suchanenterpriseasourswouldneverhavebeenattempted,orifundertaken,wouldhavebeenspeedilycrushedbythearmofauthorityortheweightofprejudice.Wewillnotsaythatbigotryisdead;thefiresofpersecutionstillslumberbeneaththeirashes,andnowandthenstartupintoprettybonfirestoamusetheidlecrowd;butthetimehasgonebywhentheycouldmountonfuneralpyres--theycankindleconflagrationsnomore.

ThenewIdealisprogressive.Whateverwehaveachieved,ittellsustherearelargerachievementsyetbeyond.Asweriseinthescaleofmoralworth,theeyebecomesclearerandwiderofvision.Weseeinremoteagesaraceofmenfreerandstrongerbecauseofourtoils,andthatisourdearesthopeandoursweetestrecompensethattheyshallreapwhatwehavesown.

TheoldandthenewIdealswillstruggleforthemastery;thatwhichis

strongerwillconquerasofold,inthestruggleforexistence.Butthenewhopefillsuswithtrustandgladnessthatthatwhichistruewillbestrong.

IV.THEPRIESTSOFTHEIDEAL

Itiswithgoodreason,thattheverynameofthepriesthood,hasbecomeodioustothemodernmind.Howhastheirfanaticismdrenchedtheearthwithblood,howhastheirunbridledambitionsownseedsofdiscordamongthenations;howlamentableacommentaryistherecordoftheir

frailtiesupontheassumptionofsuperiorsanctityandGod-givenauthority.Yetitisnotthepriestlyoffice,butitsabuse,whichhasprovedofevil,norhasthetimeyetcome,whentheministryofpriestscanbesafelydispensedwith.ThereshallcomeanewIdealtoattractmen'sreverenceandanewserviceoftheInfiniteandanewpriesthoodalsotodoitsministry.Itisofthismodernpriesthood,Iwouldspeak.

FearnotthatIamabouttoadvocateareturntothatsystemofspiritualbondage,fromwhichwehavebutjustescaped.Theprieststowhomwealludeshallnotbeknownbycassockorsurplice.Itisnotatthealtartheyshallserve,leastofallshalltheyhavedogmastocommunicate.Theyshallnotbemorethanhuman,onlyifpossiblemorehuman.Priestshaveweofscience,wenamethemso;menwhosewholesoul

iswrappedupinthepursuitofknowledge:priestsofart,whodedicatetheirlivestotheserviceoftheBeautiful,priestsalsooftheMoral,artistsoftheGood,sagesinthescienceofVirtue,teachersoftheIdeal.

Letusconsiderforamoment,inordertoillustrateourmeaning,thelifeofonesuchpriest,whosefamehascomedowntousundimmedbythecorrodinginfluenceoftime--thelifeofSocrates.Heheldnooffice,heministeredatnoshrine,yethewasinthetruesenseapriest.Aplainunpretentiousman,contenttoliveoncoarsefare,inuredtowant,



homelyinappearance,usinghomelylanguage;nothinghadheinappearancetoattract;yetthegayyouthslefttheirfeastsandfrolicswhenheapproached,andthebusymarket-placewashushedtolistentothestrangewisdomofhissayings;therewasindeedasingularandpotentcharminthisman'ssoul.Hehadagreatneedofrighteousness,wonderful,howheawakenedthesameneedintheheartsoftheAthenianburghersofhisday.Hewasthereverseofdogmatic.Incomparisonwiththevastnessoftheunknown,hewaswonttosay,allhumanknowledgeislittleeventonothingness,hedidnotassumetoknowthetruth,butstrovetoassistmeninfindingtruthsforthemselves.Hehadhisownenlightenedviewsonquestionsoftheology.Butfarfromdesiringtoconvertotherstohisconvictions,herathersoughttodiverttheirattentionfromthosemysteriousproblems,inwhichmencanneverbewise,problemsthatarenonearertheirsolutiontoday,thantheyweretwothousandyearsago.Tothosewhoquestionedhimconcerningreligionhereplied:Areyethenmastersofthehumanities,thatyeseektopryintodivinesecrets?Hisfatherhadbeenafashionerofstatuesbeforehim,hewasafashionerofsouls!ThisSocrateswascondemnedtosufferdeathonthechargeofatheism,andmethisfatewiththecalmnessofthephilosophicmind.Ifdeath,hesaid,isprogresstountriedspheres,thenwelcomedeath!Ifitissleeponly,thenalsowelcomedeathanditsdeeprepose.Allthetokensofthepriestwerefulfilledinhim.Hewastruetohimselfandunbaredtootherstheveiledtruthsoftheirownhighernature.Hewasaloftierpresenceonearth,alivingflamefed

fromitsowncentralbeing,asuntowhichtheworldturnedandwastherebyenlightened.Weperceivethen,thatwhatwedesireisnotanewthing.TherehasbeenthisserviceoftheIdealfromtheearliesttimes.Onlyanewpleawouldweurgeforlargerfidelitytothatwhichthebesthavestrivenfor,andwhichundernewconditionsitwillbethegloryofouragetoapproachmorenearly.

Thepriestshallbeateacherofthe"Ideal,"butwhatistheIdealandhowdistinguishitfromtheReal.Regardthetrees,beholdtheirnumber,thewondrousplenitudeoftheirkinds..Thereisthelitheandslenderpine,themightyoak,thestatelypalm,thetenderwillow.Alikeyetmostunlike.Andwhohaseverseentheperfecttree!Observetheexpressivefeaturesofthehumanface.Howmanythousandsofsuchfaces

arebornintotheworldeachyearandyetnotwoalike.Bywhatfineshades,whatscarceperceptiblecurves,whatdelicatetoucheshasnature'schiselmarkedthemeachapart.Gracefulformsandlovelyfacesthereare,yetperfectnone.NowtheIdealistheperfectionoftheReal.TofinditwemustgobeyondtheRealities.Westudythenatureofthetree,ofman.Wenotethesuggestionsofthevariousparts,completeandproducetheminutmostharmony,eachperfectinitself,eachservingbyitsownperfection,theroundedsymmetryofthewhole.Intheimagethuscreatedwegrasptheidealform.Artwithitsgenialenchantments,createssuchimagesandgivesthempermanenceinpuretypesofimmortalsignificance.Artisidealismofform.

Theintellectalso,whichlooksoutfrombehindthefeatures,the

indwellingman,exhibitsthesametwofoldaspectoftheRealandIdeal.Ourrealthoughtsareincompleteandinadequate.Weareledastrayathousandtimesbyfalseanalogies,wearedecoyedintothelabyrinthsoffancy,webecomethevictimsofimpression,thetoysofcircumstance.Butdeepdowninthebasicstructureofthemindaretruelaws,unerringguides.Logicexpressesthem,logicistheidealismofintellect.

Andlastlywerecognizethesamedistinctionintherealmoffeeling.Totheuntutoredcaprice,theovermasteringimpulse,inbrieftotherealismofthepassionsisopposedthelawofrightfeeling,which



ethicsexpresses.Ethicsistheidealismofcharacter.Wecallthislastthecapitalrevelationofman'snature.Themorallawisnotderivative,itcannotbeproven,itcannotbedenied.Itistherootfromwhichspringseveryvirtue,everygrace,allwisdomandallachievement.Anattempthasindeedbeenmadetobasemoralityuponacertaincommonplaceutility,buttruemoralityscornsyoursadutilities.Thatisuseful,whichservesanobjectbesidesitself,whilemoralityisitselfanend,andneedsandadmitsnosanctionsaveitsownexcellency.Asitdelightsthemanofsciencetoexpandhisjudgmentineverwiderandwidergeneralizations,asthelargerthoughtiseverthetruerthought,soisthereanexquisitepleasureandanunspeakablerewardinexpandingthenarrowconsciousnessofselfintheunselfish,andthelargeremotioniseverthenobleremotion.WespeakofthemoralIdeal,asTheIDEAL,becauseitexpressesthecentralideaofhumanlife,#thepurposeofourexistenceonearth.Toexpoundandillustrateitsbearingsonourdailyduties,ourjoys,ourgriefsandouraspirations,isthescopeandlimitofthepriestlyoffice.

Themoralidealwouldembracethewholeoflife.Beforeitnothingispettyorindifferent,ittouchestheveriesttriflesandturnsthemintoshininggold.Weareroyalbyvirtueofit,andlikethekingsinthefairytale,wemayneverlayasideourcrowns.Ittellsus,thatnothingshallbeforitsusesonly,butallthingsshalltaketheirtoneandqualityfromthecentralidea.

Whenwebuildahouse,itshallnotbeforitsusesonly.Weshallhavekitchensanddrawingroomsandlibrariesandpicturesandflowers,ifpossible.Butthehouse,withallitscomfortsandluxuries,ismereframework,andourwordsanddoingsconstructthetrue,thespiritualhome.Whenwesitdowntotable,itshallnotbefortheuseofthefoodandtheflavorofthewineonly,butmoralityshouldpresideatthefeastandlenditgraceanddignity.Moralitydoesnotmopeincorners,isnotsournorgloomy.Itlovesgenialfellowship,lovestoconvertourmeanestwantsintogoldenoccasionsforjoyandsympathyandhappycommunion.Mannerstooaretheoffspringofcharacter.Wedonotratehighlythedryandcheerlessconventionalismsofetiquette,butintheirorigin,theywerethefruitoftruth,andlove.Therulesofgood

breedingmaybereducedtotwo;self-possessionanddeference.Aswhenapublicspeakerloseshisself-control,hisownuncertaintyisquicklycommunicatedtohisaudience,andheforfeitshisinfluenceoverhishearers;sothesamecauseproducesthesameeffectineverylesseraudiencethatgathersinourparlors.Societysaystoyou:IfIshalltrustyou,youmustbeginbytrustingyourself.Themanoftheworldwillenterthepalaceoftheprinceandthecottageofthepeasantwiththesameequipoiseofmanner.Ifherespectshimself,thereisnoreasonwhyheshouldstandabashed.Self-possessionisessentiallyself-respect.Deference,too,isaprimaryconditionofallcourtesy.Itteachesustoconcedetootherswhateverweclaimforourselves;itleadsusinstinctivelytoavoidloudness,andself-complacency.Itisexpressednotonlyinthepolishedphrase,butinmien,attitude,every

movement.Self-possessionanddeferenceofmannerareboththeoutgrowthofmoralqualities,theonedependingontheconsciousnessofpersonalworth,theotherinspiredbyanunselfishregardforthewell-beingofothers.Fromthesetwoitwerepossibletodeducetherulesofanew'Chesterfield,'whichshouldbefreefromalltheconceitandaffectationoftheold.Unfortunately,mannersarenolongerthenaturaloutpouringofheart-goodness.Menattirethemselvesinpolitenessastheydoinrichapparel;theymaybeasrudeastheyplease,theyearround,theyknowtheycanbefineonoccasion.Moreoverinthehomecircle,wheretheformsofcourtesyarequiteindispensabletoprevent



unduefriction;tosendthelightofgraceandpoetryintoaworldoflittlecares;tofilltheatmosphereofourdailysurroundingsaswiththefragranceofapervadingperfume;theyareyetmostcommonlyneglected.Thewordmannershasthesamemeaningasmorals.Whenweshallhavebettermorals,weshallhavetruerandsweetermanners.

TheIdealwhichthusseekstointerpenetratethemostordinaryaffairsofprivatelife,standsoutalsointhemarketplace,intheforum,inthehallsoflegislation,andsettingasidethemerelyuseful,exhortsmentoreturntopermanentvalues.Thatistheidealviewofpoliticswhichteachesustoholdtheideaofcountrysuperiortotheutilitiesofparty,toexactworthinessofthepublicservants,toplacethecommongoodabovesectionalanimositiesandjealousies.Thatistheidealviewofcommerce,whichimpelsthemerchant,whileseekingprosperitybylegitimatemeans,toputconscienceintohiswaresanddealingsandtokeepeverinsightthelargerpurposesofhumanlife.Thatistheidealviewoftheprofessions,whichleadstheirrepresentativestosubordinatetheclaimsofambitionandmaterialgaintotheenduringinterestsofscience,justice,andofallthegreattruststhatareconfidedtotheirkeeping.AndhethereforeshallbecalledapriestoftheIdeal,whobypreceptandexamplewilldivertusfromtheabsorbingpursuitoftherealitiesandmakeplaintousthattherealistransitory,whileinthepursuitoftheIdealalonewecanfindlastinghappiness.Fortherealitiesareconstantlydisconcerting

usinoursearchforthebetter.Theyaresopowerful,soinsistent;wethinkthemeverythinguntilwehaveprovedtheirattractionsandfindthemnothing.Wehavethatonlywhichweare.Butthecommonjudgmentholdstothereverse;weareonlywhatwehave.Andsotheturbulentcrowdplungesmadlyintotherace--foracres,forequipage,forwell-stockedlarders,foroffice,forfame.Goodthingsarethese,asscalesontheladderoflife,butlifeissomewhatmorethanacresandequipageandofficeandfame.Seldomindeeddowetrulylive.Oftenarewebutshadowsofotherlives.Weaffectthefashionsnotonlyindressbutalsointhoughtandopinion.Wearegoodorbad,aspublicopinionbidsus.Thestateisruined,thechurchiscorrupted,andtheworld'sgiddymasqueraderushesheedlesslyon.GivemeonewhowillthinkHavingandSeeminglessthanBeing;whowillbecontenttobehimselfanda

lawuntohimselfandinhimIwillreveretheidealman.Beforehimtheshamsandmockeriesofexistenceshallsinkaway.Hewilllookintohisownsoulandtellyoutheoracleshehasreadthere,andyouwillhearandbeholdyourownheart.HewillplantthesignoftheEternalonahighstandardandcalluntoapeoplethatstraysinthewildernesstolookuptothatandbesaved.Theoldandtheyoungwillheinstruct,andtheyshalllovehim,forhiswordswillbeanarticulatecrytothedumbvoicesintheirownbreasts.Thisisthebe-allandend-allofhismission,--tomakethemacquaintedwiththemselves.Doyouknowhewillsay,whatapowerisinyou,whatalightishiddeninthedeeprecessesofyournature.Artistsareyealltowhomyourownsoulisgiventomolditintobeauty.Happy,happyindeedifyouseeknootherrewardbuttheartist'sjoyinhisworkandknowthattobeyourgloryandyour

recompense.

Itiswell,thatthereshouldbepriestsappointedtobearsuchmessagestousfromtimetotimeaswerestfromourtoil;tobringusfacetofacewiththeinnerlife.Buttherearespecialoccasionsinthesepassingyearsofours,whentheidealbearingsoflifecomehometouswithpeculiarforceandwhenwerequirethepriesttobetheirproperinterpreter.

Marriageisoneofthem.Weoftenhearitsaidthatmarriageisamere



legalcompact.Thestate,itistrue,hasavitalinterestinprotectingthepurityoftheconjugalrelationandmayprescribecertainformstowhichitscitizensareboundtoconform.Buthasthemeaningofthenewbondbeenindeedfullyexpressed,whenthemagistrateinthecourtroomhaspronouncedtheyoungmanandthemaidentobenowhusbandandwife?AmongtheancientHebrewsyouthsandyounggirlswerewonttomeetontheDayofAtonement,themostsolemndayoftheyear,thedayofpurificationfromsin,tocementtheiraffectionsandplighttheirtroth.Formarriageitselfwasesteemedanactofpurification.Marriageisthefoundationofallmorality.Itscelebrationdoesnotendwiththeweddingday:itisaconstantcelebration,aperpetualintermarryingoftwosoulswhilelifelasts.

Notthestateonly,buthumanityalso,thatidealstateofwhichweareallcitizens,hasaninterestinthecontract.Anewsanctuaryistoberearedsacredtotheineffablemysteriesofthehome-life;inthehomewithallthetenderandholyassociationsthatclusteraboutitletitbededicated.Thesupremefestivalofhumanityismarriage.Thereshallbemusicandjoyandawhite-robedbridewithmyrtlewreath;andsolemnwordstoexpressthesolemnmeaningsoftheact.

Atthegravealsoistheofficeofthepriest,Whensomedearfriendhasbeentakenfromus,whenthewholeearthseemsemptyforthelossofoneandthepillarsofexistenceseembroken,heshallsaytothe

grievingheart:Arise,bestrong.Heshallbidyourbroodingsorrowpause.Heshallspeakoflargerduties,whichtheyyoumournhaveleftyou,astheirlegacy.Largerduties:thisishismedicine.Youarenotfree,youpoorandsadlystrickenfriendstostandasideinidlewoe,butyoushallmakeforthedepartedamemorialinyourlivesandassumetheirhalfcompletedtasks.Sotheloss,thoughlossitbe,willpurifyyou,andvimandvigorbefoundintheconsolationsoftheIdeal.Wetrustthatwehaveusedthetermpriestinnonarrowrestrictedsense.Itisnotthehierarchiesofthepastorthepresentofwhomwehavespoken.Thepriestisnotsuperiortohisfellowmen,norhasheaccesstothosetranscendentalregionswhichareclosedtoothers.Hispowerisinthis,thathespeakswhatallfeel.Andheshallbecountedanacceptableteacher,thenonly,whentheslumberingechoeswithinyou

wakentothemusicthatmovesandmastershim.

Therehavebeenthose,whoselivesweremoldedonsuchapatternamongtheclergyatalltimes,anditisthiscircumstance,thathasattractedthereverenceofmankindtothepriestlyoffice.

Noblemenweretheywhoseloveburstthroughthecrampingfettersoftheircreeds,apostlesofliberty,missionariesofhumanity.

Butthereisoneothertraitnecessarytocompletethepicture.ThepriestoftheIdealmusthavethegiftoftonguesandkinglywordstoutterkinglythoughts.InthephilosophyofAlexandriaitwasheld,thatbeforetheworldwas,thewordwas,andthewordcreatedauniverseout

ofchaosandthewordwasdivine.Withthatheaven-bornenergymusthebefilled,andwithabreathofthatcreativespeechmustheinspire.Notawdryeloquencebehis,noglitteringgiftofphraseorfantasy,butwordsofthesoul'sownlanguage,wordsofthepithandcoreoftruth.

TheimageoftheIdealpriestwhichIhaveattemptedtodrawisitselfanidealimage,nowhererealized,nevertobefullyattained.Butitistoitthatthepriestsofthenewagewillstrivetocomenearandnearer,andthatwillbetheirprideandtheirhappiness,iftheycanbecomeinthissensefriendsandhelpersoftheirkind.



Intheeyesofthedogmatisttheyarestrangersoutofastrangelandofthought.Ifyouaskthemfortheirpassword,itisfreedom,ifyouaskfortheircreed,itisboundless.Themultitudeseekingtocompresstheinfinitewithinthenarrowlimitsofthesenses,mustneedshavetangibleshapestolayhandson,namesifnothingbetter.ButtheIdealinthehighestisvoidofformanditsnameunutterable.Wewillascendonthewingsofthemorning,wewillletourselvesdowntotheuttermostdepthsofthesea,andknowitthere.Butchieflywithinourselvesshallweseekit,inourselvesisitsshrine.Thetimewillcomewhensinglemenshallnomorebeneededtodoitsministry,wheninthebrotherhoodandsisterhoodofmankindallshallbepriestsandpriestessesonetoanother,foralltheirlifeshallbeasongofpraisetothehighest,andtheirwholebeingshallbeconsecratedandglorifiedintheimmortalserviceofdeathlessIdeals.

V.THEFORMOFTHENEWIDEAL

ANEWORDER.

IAMawarethatthereexistsadeepseatedprejudiceinthemindsofmanyofmyhearersagainstwhatarecalledtheformsofreligion.Wehavetoolongexperiencedtheirlimitationsandrestraints,nottobejealousnowofourhardwonliberties.Butletusaskourselveswhatitisthatalienatesoursympathiesfromtheritualandceremonialobservancesofthedominantcreeds?Isittheformsassuch?Isitnotratherthefactthattoustheyhavebecomedeadforms:thattheynolongerappealtooursentiments,thattheyfailtostir,toinvigorate,toennobleus?Wehavenotcastthemasidelightly.Oftenhaveweenteredthehouseofworship,preparedtobedrawnbackintotheinfluenceofitsoncefamiliarsurroundings:webeheldagainthegreat

assembly,weheardthesolemnmusic,welistenedtothepreacherashestrovetoimpressuponasilentmultitude,thelessonsofthehigherlife.Butintheprayerswecouldnotjoin,andthewordstowhichthemusicmovedwecouldnotsing,andthemaximsofthepreacherwerecouchedinlanguage,andenforcedwithdoctrinalargumentsthattouchednochordinourhearts.Weleftdisappointed,wehadreceivednohelp:ifthiswerereligion,wefeltourselvesmoredistantfromreligionthaneverbefore.

OnthebanksoftheEuphratesthereflourishedofoldanextensivecolonyofJews.A"PrinceoftheCaptivity"revivedthememoryofthevanishedgloryofKingDavid'shouse.HighschoolswereerectedthataffordedacommoncentretothescatteredmembersoftheJewishFaith.

Inthesethepeoplebeheldatoncetheirbondofconnectionwiththepast,andthepledgeoffuturerestorationtotheirpatrimony.Intheearlypartofthemiddleages,aprayerforthehealthandprosperityofthepresidentsofthehighschoolswasinsertedintotheliturgy.Wellnigheighthundredyearshaveelapsedsincethesedignitaries,andtheschoolsthemselves,haveceasedtoexist,yettheprayerisstillretained,andmaybeheardrepeatedonanySabbathinthesynagoguesoftheorthodox--aprayerforthehealthofthePrinceandthehighschoolsontheEuphratesthatvanishedfromthefaceoftheeartheighthundredyearsago.Thusdoreligiousformscontinuetomaintainthemselveslong



aftertheirvitalityisperishedandtheirverymeaningisforgotten.Butiftheprevalentformshaveceasedtosatisfyus,canwethereforedispensewithformaltogether?Ifthehousethathasgivenusshelterisinruins,shallwethereforeliveinthewoodsandfields,orshallwenotrathererectanewmansiononabroaderfoundation,andwithfirmerwalls?Ithasbeenthebaneofliberalism,thatitwassimplycriticalandnotconstructive.Yourthoughtmusthavenotwingsonly,buthandsandfeettowalkandwork,toformandreform.Liberalismmusthaveitsorgans,mustentertheracewithitsrivals;mustnotcriticiseonly,butdobetter.Liberalismmustpassthestageofindividualism,mustbecomethesoulofgreatcombinations.WhatthenshallbetheformadequatetoexpressthenewIdeal?

Theformofanyreligionistheimageofitsideal.Toillustratewhatthismeans,letusconsiderforamomenttheoriginofthesynagogueandthechurch.

TheorthodoxopinionthatJudaismwasrevealedtoMosesfourteenhundredyearsB.C.iscondemnedbymoderncriticsoftheBible.Thefollowingaresomeoftheconsiderationsthathaveinfluencedtheirverdict.First,wereadinscripturethatsolateasthereignofDavid,idolatrywasstillrampantamongtheHebrews,andtheattempttoexplainthisfactuponthetheoryofarelapse,iscontrarytothetestimonyoftheBibleitself.

Secondly:ThenameofMosesisunknowntotheprophets,hisostensiblesuccessors,acircumstancewhichwouldremaininexplicableifMoseshadindeedbeenthefounderofmonotheism.

Thirdly:LargeportionsofthePentateuchwereprobablynotcomposedbeforethesixthorfifthcenturyB.C,thatistosayaboutathousandyearsafterthetimeofMoses.Theaccounttheygiveoftheearlyhistoryofthepeopleisthereforeopentoseriousandjustdoubt.Theprophetsweretherealauthorsofmonotheism.ThepriestlycodeofthePentateuchdoesnotrepresenttheformofJudaismwhichtheytaught.Theyarenotchargeablewiththetechnicalitiesanddryformalismofthe"BooksofMoses."Theyweretheavowedenemiesofthepriesthoodandfor

alongtimeengagedinfiercestruggleswiththerulinghierarchy.Theirdoctrineswereintheessencethese:ThatthereisaCreator,thatheisjustandmerciful,thatthesamequalitiesinmanarethemostacceptablespeciesofdivineservice,thatGoddirectsallevents,whethergreatorsmall;andthatitisthedutyofmantoaccepttheguidanceoftheDeity,andtofollowwithtirelessdiligencetheclewsoftheDivineWill.Jehovahistobereverencednotonlyasaspiritual,butalsoasatemporalsovereign,andtheprophetsarehisministerscommissionedtotransmithisdecreestomen.ThusMonotheismfoundexpressionintheformofTheocraticgovernment.ItistruetheheathenworldwasnotyetpreparedtoenterintosoneararelationshipwiththeCreator.OnthisaccounttheJewswereselectedtobeatypicalpeople,andtheKingdomofGodwasforthetimebeingconfinedtothem.It

isevidentfromtheabovethattheorderoftheprophetswastheverymainstayoftheTheocraticfabric.Whentheseinspiredmessengersceasedtoappear,theconclusionwasdrawnthattheWillofGodhadbeenfullyrevealed.Thewritingsoftheprophetswerethencollectedintosacredbooks,andwereregardedastheconstitutionofthedivineempire.WhenJerusalemwasdestroyed,thesacrificeswerediscontinuedandJudaismwaspurgedofmanyheathenishelementswhichhadbeenallowedtomarthesimplicityofthepropheticreligion.ThesynagoguetooktheplaceoftheTemple,andanintricatecodeofceremonieswasgraduallyelaborated,intendedtoremindthepiousJewatallhoursand



seasonsofhisdutiestowardGod,andthepeculiarmissionaccordedtohispeople.Thesynagoguewasasingleprominentpeakintherangeofthereligiouslife,arallyingpointforthemembersoftheJewishcommunity,ameetinghousewheretheyassembledtoconfirmtheirallegiancetotheirheavenlyKing.

NowthecardinalpointofdifferencebetweenprimitiveChristianityandJudaismrelatedtotheallegedabrogationoftheancientconstitutionsetforthintheoldTestament.Christianitysaid:TheMessiahhascome;thelawofMosesisfulfilled;theKinghasissuedanewconstitution,andsenthisownSontoputitinforce.ThetimehasarrivedwhentheKingdomofGodneednolongerberestrictedtoasinglepeople.Jesuswhoperishedonthecrosswillpresentlyreturn,andtheuniversaltheocracywillthenbeproclaimed.ButJesusdidnotreturn,hisfollowerswaitedlongandpatiently,buttheywaitedinvain.Astimerolledon,theylearnedtodwelllessupontheexpectedMillenniumonearth,andtodeferthefulfilmentoftheirhopestothelifebeyondthegrave.Intheintervaltheyperfectedtheorganizationofthechurch.TheChristianIdealoftheKingdomofHeavenisthatofacommunionofallsaintsunderthesovereigntyofGodthroughChrist.TheChristianChurchisdesignedtobeanimageofthisIdeal,acommunionofsaintlymenonearth,acceptingChristastheirMaster.Christianityaspiredtobetheuniversalreligion;thereshouldbenobarriersanymorebetweenmanandman;theexclusivenessofancientJudaismshouldbebrokendown;

yetwithalthebarriersofanewcreedsoonaroseinplaceoftheold;theportalsoftheKingdomofHeavenwererigidlyclosedagainstallwhorefusedtobowtothedespotismofdogma;andthevirtuesofpagansweredeclaredtobeshiningvices.ThemoralteachingsofChristaregentleandkindly,butinthedoctrinalcontentionsoftheChristiansthespiritoftheMasterwasforgotten,andtheearthwasdelugedwithblood.AndnowthenewIdealdiffersfromChristianityinthis,thatitseekstoapproachthegoalofaKingdomofHeavenuponearth,notbythemiraculousinterferenceoftheDeity,butbythelaboriousexertionsofmen,andtheslowbutcertainprogressofsuccessivegenerations.WehavenamedtheformofreligionanimageoftheIdeal,yetanimagepoorandincompleteatbest,ratherasymbol,asuggestionofwhatcanneverberealized.Intherealmofartwedonotfindthesoulofbeautyin

thecoloredcanvasorthemarblestatue;thesearehelpfulhieroglyphicsonly,teachingthosethatcanreadtheirmutelanguagetocreateanewtheidealasitlivedintheartist'ssoul,inthedivinehourofconception.Thusallformhasitsvalueonlyinwhatitsuggests.OurIdealisthatofthefellowshipofhumanityinhighestwisdom,highesttruthandhighestlove.Theformofthisidealthereforecanbenoneotherthananewfellowshipunitedbythehighertruthsandpurerlovethatmakeitsbondtobeasymbolofthehighest!Wearewearyoftheunrealanduntrueexistenceweareforcedtolead;wearewearyoftheemptinessofroutine,wearyofthefalsecoinofreputationthatpassescurrentinthemarketofvanityfair;wearewearyofthelowstandardsbywhichactionsarejudged,andtowhich,toourdismay,weperceiveouractionsinsensiblyconform.Butthepressureofsocialinfluences

aboutusisenormous,andnosinglearmcanresistit.Wemustneedsbandtogetherthen,ifwewouldachieveahigherlife;wemustcreateforourselvesapureratmosphere,ifanyrarervirtuesaretoflourishinourmidst;wemustmakeourownpublicopinion,tobuoyusupineveryloftieraspiration.Unionswewantthatwillhold,notreligionasaduty,butdutyasareligion;uniontoachievealargermorality.Threethingsmoralitydemandsofusasinterpretedinthelightofourpresentsocialconditions:greatersimplicityinmanners,greaterpurityinthepassions,greatercharity.Thehabitofluxuriouslivingiseatingintothevitalsofsociety,isdefilingthefamily,and



corruptingthestate.Letmenotbefalselyunderstood.Allthatisluxurywhichpoliticaleconomistsarewonttoclassasunproductiveconsumption.Inthissense,books,musicandpicturesareluxuries,andwhowouldbewillingtoforegothem.Itbecomesustotheutmostofourpowerstosatisfythethirstforknowledge,andtoeducatethesenseofharmony:itiswisetoexpendgenerouslyuponeverymeansofcultureandrefinement.Butthiswemustbearinmind,thatthereshouldbearankandapropersubordinationamongourtastesanddesires.Nowthatisluxuryintheevil,inthedebasingsenseoftheterm,thatwesubvertthenaturalorderofourtastes,thatwemakethemeregratificationoftheanimalpassions,themerepursuitofwealth,themereadornmentofourclay,mainobjects,whilethegracesofintellectperish,andtheadornmentofthesoulisneglected.Saynot,wewilldotheone,andnotleaveundonetheother;fortheinordinatedegreetowhichthemeanerpassionsaredeveloped,dullsoursenseofloftierneeds.Wecannotservethesetwomasters.Frivolousinprosperity,webecomehelplessinadversityandperishinwardly,ourgrowthstunted,ournoblersympathiesblunted,longbeforewearebeddedinourgraves.Whatsingleeffortcanachieveachange?Fellowship,friendsareneeded,andapublicopiniononbehalfofsimplicity.

Andpurityinthepassionsisneeded.Anuglysoreishereconcealed,askeletonintheclosetofwhichmenspeakwithbatedbreath.Istherenotsuchathingassanctityoftheperson!Didyounotrebelagainst

humanslaverybecauseyousaiditwaswrongthatanybeingbornintheimageofmanshouldbethetoolofanother?Andnoargumentscoulddeceiveyou--notiftheslaveofferedhimselfwillinglytotheyoke,andrejoicedinhisbondage.Youdarednotsosinagainsthumannature,andacceptthatoffer.AndyetNewYorkhasitsslaves,Bostonitsslaves,andeverylargetownonthefaceofthewideearthhasthissinful,outcastarmyofslaves--tools,whomwehaverobbedofthatwhichnohumanbeinghasarighttobarter,therighttovirtueatleast,ifnottohappiness.Callnotthatalawofnature,whichisthelawlessnessofnature!Saynot,ithaseverbeenthus,andevershallbe!Fromdepthsofvicewhichtheimaginationdarenotrecall,humanityhasslowlyrisentoitspresentlevel,andhigherandhigherwillittakeitscoursewhentheconscienceisquickenedandtrueloveexpands.Fellowshipisneeded

tosupportthisdifficultvirtueandapublicopiniononbehalfofpurity.

Andcharity,friends;notthatwhichwecommonlycalledcharity;butcharitythatpreventsratherthancures.Youpassthroughthelowerquartersofourcity,youseethemisery,thefilth,thegaunt,grimpoverty,thecarewornfaces,thecandidatesforstarvation.Starvation!whoeverhearsofit?Thenewspapersrarelyspeakofit;hereorthereanexceptionalcase.Naytruly,thesepeopledonotstarve;theydieofacoldperhaps;thesmall-poxcameandcarriedthemoff:diphtheriamakesitsravageamongthem.Ah,butwasitnotwantthatsappedtheirstrength,andmadethempowerlesstoresistdisease?Wasitnottheirlifeofpinchedpauperismthatripenedthemforthereaper'sscythe?

ThenpassfromthesesorrowfulsightstoourstatelyAvenue.Beholdthegayworldoffashion,itspaintedpomp,itsgildedsinfulness,itsheartlessextravagance.Isnotthisanintolerablecontrast?Shallwerestquietunderthetalkofirremediableevils?Isitnottruethatsomethingmustbedone,andcanbedonebecauseitmust?Thedistributionofwealththeysay,isgovernedbyeconomiclaws,andsentimenthasnorighttobeconsideredinaffairsofbusiness.ButwhereIprayyouisthesentimentofbrotherlyloveconsideredasitshouldbe?Educatethemasses!Butdoweeducatethem?Stimulatetheirself-respectandteachthemself-help!Butwhatlargeoreffective



measuresarewetakingtothismostdesirableend?Youcannothelp,goodfriend,norI.Butadozenmightaidsomewhat,andathousandbraveunselfishheartsknittogetherforsuchapurpose,whoshallsaywhatmightychangestheycouldwork.Surelyfellowshipisneededhere,andapublicopiniononbehalfofcharity.

The"finephrase,"humanityhaspregnantmeanings.Theystandforthegrandest,thesternestrealitiesofthetimes.Purity,charityandsimplicity,theseshallbethewatchwordsofanewfellowship,whichshallpracticetheteachingsofhumanity,thatarevainastheemptywind,ifheardonlyandapproved,butnotmadeactualinourdeeds.

Andyetsomewillsmileincredulouslyandask,wherearethemenandwomenpreparedtoundertakesuchatask?Itistrue,wemustbeginatthebeginning.Fromearliestchildhoodtheyoungmustbetrainedonanoblermethod,andintheethicalschoolliesthemainworkofpreparation.Thereeverystepinthecourseofdevelopmentmustbecarefullyconsidered,vigilantlywatchedandwiselydirected,totheonecrowningpurposeofripeningtheyoungmindsandheartsforthatfellowshipofloveandhope.

Anewfellowship,aneworder,Isayboldly,whosemembersshallnotbeboundbyanyvows,whichshallhavenoconvents,nomysteries,butshallmakeitselfanexemplarofthevirtuesitpreaches,aformoftheideal.

Theperilsthatattendsuchorganizationsaregreat;wewillnotattempttounderratetheirgravity,butwebelievetheycanbeovercome.Thespiritofco-operationlendsmightymomentumtoeverycause;itdependsuponthecauseitselfwhethertheinfluenceexertedshallbeforgoodorevil.AndtherehasbeeninhistoryasingleorderatleastofthekindwhichIdescribe:"Thebrotherhoodofthecommonlife,"itwascalled;anordercomposedofearnest,studiousmen,towhomtheupheavalofEuropeinthesixteenthcenturywaslargelydue;anoblebrotherhoodthatpreparedthewayforthegreatReformation.TheCatholicordersarededicatedtotheworldtocome;theorderoftheIdealwillbededicatedtotheworldoftheliving:todeepenandbroadentheconscienceofmenwillbeitsmission.

ThepropagandaofLiberalisminthepasthasbeenweakandbarrenofgreatresults.Strongpersonalitiesithasbroughtforth;aroundthesesocietieshaveclusteredandfallenasunderwhenthepersonalmagnetwaswithdrawn.Whatweneedisinstitutionsofwhichpersonsshallbemerelytheexponents;institutionsthatmustbegroundedontheneedsofthepresent,andthatshalllastbytheirownvitality,tofutureagesandtotheincreaseoffuturegood.

Itistheopeningofthespring.*Afteritslongwintersleep,theearthreawakens,andamidthefiercestormsoftheEquinoxnatureushersintheseasonofflowersandofsummer'sgoldenplenty.ItisthedayofEaster.Loudlythebellsarepealingandjoyoussongscelebrateinthelegendof"Christrisenfromthegrave,"themarveloftheResurrection.

Whatwecannotcreditofanindividual,istrueofthenations.Afterlongperiodsofseemingtorporanddeath,humanityeverarisesanewfromthedust,shakesoffitsslumbers,andclothesitselfwithfreshervigoranddivinerpowers.

*TheabovediscoursewasdeliveredonEasterSunday,April1st.

Letthehopeoftheseasonanimateus.Letitfilloursoulswithconfidenceinourgreaterdestinies;letitteachustotrustinthem



andtolaborforthem,thatanewIdealmayvivifythepalsiedheartsandanewspringtidecome,andanewEasterdawnariseoverallmankind.

VI.THERELIGIOUSCONSERVATISMOFWOMEN.

Nothoughtfulpersoncanfailtoappreciatetheenormousinfluencewhichwomenareconstantlyexercisingforgoodandeviluponthedestiniesoftheworld.Thecharmsandgracesofexistence,whateverennoblesandembellisheslife,weowemainlytothem.Theyarethenaturalguardiansofmorality,andfromagetoagethemothersofhouseholdshavepreservedthesacredfireonthedomestichearth,whereateveryvirtueiskindled.Buttheyhavealsobeenthemostformidableenemiesofprogress.Theirconservatismisusuallyofthemostunreasoningkind,andthetenacitywithwhichtheyclingtofavoriteprejudicesisrarelyovercomeeitherbyargumentorappeal.Theyhavebeenfromtimeimmemorialthedupes,thetools,andthemosteffectivealliesofpriestcraft.TheirhostilitytothecauseofReformhasbeensofatal,notonlybecauseofthedirectinfluenceoftheiractions,butbecauseofthatsubtlepowerwhichtheyexertsoskilfullyoverthemindsofhusbands,brothersandfriends,bytheartsofremonstrance,entreaty

andthecontagionoftheirfeeblealarms.Thequestionwhethertheirhostilitycanbeturnedintofriendship,isoneofmomentousimportancefortheleadersoftheLiberalmovementtoconsider.

Inthefollowingweshallendeavortomakeplainthatthesubordinatepositionhithertoassignedtowomen,istheprincipalcausethathasimpelledthemtotakesidesagainstreligiousprogress.

Amongtheprimitiveraceswomanwasreducedtoaconditionofabjectslavery.Affectionofthedeeperkindwasunknown.Thewifewasrobbedorpurchasedfromherrelations;wastreatedasamenialbyherhusband,andoftenexposedtothemostbrutalabuse.Ascivilizationadvanced,themarriagebondbecamemorefirm,andcommoninterestintheoffspring

oftheunionservedtocreatecommonsympathies.AmongtheGreeks,theidealofdomesticlifewaspureandelevated.ThetalesofAndromache,PenelopeandAlcestesillustratethestrengthofconjugalfidelityandthetouchingpathosoflovethatoutlastsdeath.TheGrecianhomewasfencedaboutwithscrupulouscareandstrictestprivacyprotecteditsinmatesfromtemptation.Itwasthedutyofthewifetosuperintendtheinternaleconomyofthehousehold,tospinandweave,todirecttheslavesintheirvariousoccupations,tonursethemwhensick,towatchovertheyoungchildren,andchieflytoinsurethecomfortandsatisfactionofherlord.Hiscaresandambitionsindeedshehardlyshared.Sheneveraspiredtobehisequal,andsimpleobediencetohiswisheswasthesupremevirtueimpresseduponherbyeducation,andenforcedbyhabit.AmongtheRomans,thecharacterofthematronis

describedinthemostlaudatoryandreverentialterms.StillthelawsoftheRepublicmadewomanpracticallythebondswomanofman.Itiswell-knownthatourEnglishwordfamilyisderivedfromtheLatinwhereitoriginallymeansthehouseholdofslaves.Thematrontoo,wascounted,atleasttheoretically,amongtheseslaves,andtherightofdecidingherfateliterallyforlifeordeath,belongedexclusivelytoherhusband.Itistrueinthecordialintimacyofthemonogamicbond,theausterityofusage,andtheharshnessofthelawsareoftentemperedbyaffectionandmutualrespect;yetweareaptlyremindedbyamodernwriteronthissubject,thatthelawwhichremainsadeadletterto



therefinedandcultivatedbecomestheinstrumentofthemostheartlessoppressioninthehandsofthevulgarandthepassionate.

AmongtheHebrews,apositionofgreatdignityandconsequencewassometimesaccordedtotheirwomen.ThewivesofAbraham,IsaacandJacobplayedanimportantpartindirectingtheaffairsofthePatriarchalhouseholds.Awomanperformedthefunctionsofjudgeandleaderofarmies,womensatuponthethrone,prophetesseswereconsultedingravemattersoftheStateandofreligion;intheabsenceofsons,theMosaiclawguaranteestodaughterstherightofsuccessiontothefamilyestate.ThelaterwritingsoftheJewsarelikewiserepletewithnoblesentimentstouchingthesanctityoftheconjugaltie.ManyoftheordinancesoftheTalmuddependuponwomenfortheirexecution,andthiscircumstancealonemusthavecontributedtoraisetheminthepopularestimation.Ineverymarriagecontractacertainsumwassetapartforthewife,incaseofherhusband'sdeathorofdivorce.Stilltherightofdissolvingthematrimonialconnectionbelongedexclusivelytothehusband,althoughundercertainconditionshecouldbeforcedbythecourttoissuethe"writofseparation."Howeverthewifemightbehonoredandloved,shewaseverregardedasman'sinferior.

TheinfluenceofChristianityuponthepositionofwomen,wastwofold,andinoppositedirections.OntheonehandwomenhadbeenamongthefirstandmostdevotedfollowersofJesus;womenwerelargely

instrumentalineffectingtheconversionoftheRomanEmpire,andinthelistofmartyrs,theirnamesshinepreeminent.Ontheotherhand,thechurchintheearlycenturiescastanunpardonablesluronthemarriagerelation.Wereadofyoungmaidensfleeingthesocietyofdearcompanionsandfriends,toescapethetemptationoftheaffections,offaithfulwives,filledwithinexpressibleloathingataconnectionwhichtheydeemedcontrarytothedictatesofreligion,anddesertinghusbandsandchildren.Thedesireoflovewaspoisonedwithasenseofguilt.Thecelibacyoftheclergy,finallyenforcedbyPopeHildebrand,gaverisetothemostshockingirregularities.Allthistendedtodegradethefemalesex.

Atthetimeofthecrusadesapartialrevulsionoffeelingtookplace.

Thespiritofchivalryenteredthechurch,thecharacterofwomanwastransfigured,andtheworshipoftheVirginMaryspreadinconsequencethroughoutEurope.AchangeintheeducationofgirlswasoneoftheresultsoftheriseofChivalry.Musicandpoetrybecameitschiefelements;womenwerefedonintellectualsweetmeats,butstrongandhealthynourishmentwasstilldeniedthem.

Inallthedifferentstagesofprogresswhichwehavethusrapidlyscanned,theassumptionofman'ssuperioritytowomanwasheldasanincontestiblearticleofbelief,andeventhechivalricidealisonlyamoreamiableanddisguisedexpressionofthesameview.

Whateffectthedisabilitiesunderwhichtheylaboredmusthavehadupon

thereligiouslifeofwomenwillreadilybeperceived.Therearetwoattitudesofmindpeculiarlyfavorabletoorthodoxy;theoneatendencytoleanonauthority,theotheradispositiontogivefreeswaytothefeelingswithoutsubmittingthemtothechecksofreason.Nowitisplainthattheconditionofdependencetowhichsocietyhascondemnedwomaniscalculatedtodeveloptheseveryqualitiestoanabnormaldegree.Fromearlychildhoodshereceivescommandsandistaughttodistrustherownjudgment.Whensheentersthebondsofmatrimonyshebecomesdependentonherhusbandforsupport,andinthevastmajorityofcases,hisriperjudgmentshamesherinexperience.Inallgraver



mattersshemustperforcedefertohisdecision.Accustomedtorelyonauthority,isitsurprisingthatinmattersofreligion,whereevenmenconfesstheirignorance,sheshouldrejoiceintheauthorityofthepriest,whosedirectionsrelieveherofdoubtandsupplyareadychannelforherthoughtsandacts.Againthefeelingsarehernaturalweapons,shallshenottrustthem!Thestabilityandsecurityofsocietyaretheconditionsonwhichherdearesthopesdependfortheirrealization.Canshewelcomethestrugglesofinnovation.Allherfeelingsclusteraboutthereligioustraditionsofthepast;allawoman'sheartpleadsfortheirmaintenance.

Nowtoconfinethefeelingsofwomanwithintheirproperbounds,itisnecessarytogivewiderscope,andamoregenerouscultivationtoherintellect;inbrieftoallowherthesamefreedomofdevelopmentasisuniversallyaccordedtoman.Freedommakesstrong,andtheconfidenceofothersgeneratesanindependentandself-reliantspiritinourselves.Itisindeedoftenurgedthatwomanisbynaturetheinferiorofman.Buttheappealtophysiologyseemstobeatleastpremature;therelationofthesizeofthebraintointellectualcapacitybeingbynomeansclearlydetermined;whiletheappealtohistoryis,ifpossible,evenmoretreacherous,becauseitcitestheevilsengenderedbyanancientandlongcontinuedsystemofoppressioninfavorofthesystemitself.Countingallthedisadvantagesagainstwhichwomanhasbeenforcedtocontend,andwhichhavehamperedhereveryefforttoelevateher

condition,itistrulymarvelous,notthatshehasdonesolittle,butthatshehasaccomplishedthatwhichshehas.Eveninthedifficultartofgovernmentshehasearnedwellmeriteddistinction,andwomenarenamedamongthewisestandmostbeneficentrulersofancientandmoderntimes.*Whatthepossibilitiesofwoman'snaturemaybe,noonecantell;leastofallsheherself.Asitissheiscreditedwithasuperiorpowerofintuition,areadierinsightintocharacter,amorecompletemasteryofdetails.Whatlargerpowersnowlatentabroaderculturewillbringtolight,remainsforthefuturetoshow.

*J.S.Mill,TheSubjectionofWomen,p.100.

Butwearetoldthatthesphereofwoman'sworkisinthehome,andthat

properlytoperformhervocationthere,shedoesnotneedthevigoroustrainingrequiredformen.Thatwoman'smissionoughttobeandhappilyisinthemajorityofcasesinthehome,noonewillgainsay.Atthesametime,weshouldnotcloseoureyestopatentfacts,factssuchasthese;thatthenumberofwomenwhosemissionactuallydoesnotlieinthehome,isexceedinglygreat;thataccordingtothelastcensusoftheUnitedStates,forinstance,thefemalepopulationoftheStateofNewYork,isfifty-sixthousandinexcessofthemale;thatwellnightwomillionsofwomeninthiscountryareengagedinworkingfortheirlivelihood.Isitnotcruelmockerytosaytothesewomenthattheirbusinessisinthehousehold?Iftheconditionofthingsissuchthattheymustseekoutsidelabor;ifwepermitthemtotoilbyhundredsofthousandsinthefieldsandfactories,onwhatpleaofrightorreason

canwedenythemadmissiontothehighergradesofservice?Isitnotsimplejusticetoadmitthemtoalltheprofessions,andtoallowthemthesameadvantagesincollegesandprofessionalschoolsasareenjoyedbymen?

Weneednotfearthattheprivilegewillbeabused.Ifwomenundertaketoengageinpursuitsforwhichtheyarephysicallyormentallyunfit,theeffectofcompetitionwillquicklydiscouragethem,andhereaselsewhere,onlythefittestwillsurvive.



Butasidefromthosewhoaredestinedtoremainsingle,andconsideringthesevenmillionsofwomen,ormore,whowillbecomewivesandmothersoffamilies;isnotthedemandforhighereducationequallyimperativeintheircase?Younggirlsarebuttooofteneducatedtobetheagreeablecompanions,ratherthanthepartnersoftheirfuturehusbands.Theyreceivesufficientinstructiontogivethemageneralacquaintancewiththesurfaceofthings,butnotsufficienttodevelopwhatoughttobethechiefendofeveryschemeofeducation--apermanentintellectualinterestinanyonedirection.Muchtimeiswastedonminoraccomplishments.Atanagewhentheyounggirlisstilltotallyimmature,sheisoftenwithdrawnfromtheinfluenceofherpreceptors,andhurriedfromdissipationtodissipation,totreadtheroundofsociety'sgayeties,andtoinhalethepoisonousatmosphereofflatteryandconventionalfalsehoods.Sheentersanewworld.Thecontrastbetweentherestraintsofschoollife,andhernovelsenseofconsequenceintoxicatesher;thedesireforpleasurebecomesapassion;thebooksofusefulinformation,thatneverpossessedarealcharmforher,arecastaside,andtheliteratureofthesentimentsaloneretainsitsattractionsduringtheremainderoflife.Itisnotastonishingthatthosewhosemindsarethusleftbarren,shouldemploytheirleisurehoursinfrivolousorviciousoccupations;thatanexorbitantluxury,thesignatalltimes,ofdeficientculture,shouldhaveinfectedthecommunity.Itisnotwonderfulthatwhenthetrialsoflifeapproach,thesewomengraspwildlyatthenearestsuperstition,andprostrate

themselvesbeforeanyidolofthevulgar,intheirblindignoranceandcredulity.

Ihavesaidthathighereducationcanalonemakemarriagewhatitoughttobe,foritisnotfancyortheglowofpassionthatcanbindtheheartstogetherinlastingwedlock.Themarriagebondhasdeepermeanings.Twosoulsareunited,eachtobeallinalltoeach.Hereshallbetheveryconsummationoflove;love,thatpreciousboonthatassuageseverypang,andstillseverygrief,andtriumphsoversickness,sorrow,andthetomb.Allnature'ssymbolsfailtoexpressitsfulness;ithasthehopeofthedawningday;ithasthetenderpathosofthelightofthemoon;ithasthemelodyofbirds,themysticstillnessoftheforest,theinfinityofthefathomlesssea!Bounteouslove,

howinexhaustibleareitstreasures!Thefiresofthepassionskindleaffection,butcannotsecureit.Iftherebeonlythestubbleofdesireintheheart,thatwillquicklybeconsumed;iftherebeveinsoftruegoldthere,thatwillbemeltedandrefined.Yearspass,youthfades,theattendanttrainofthegracesvanishes,lovelinessfallslikeamask,buttheuniononlybecomesfirmerandtrustier,becauseitisaunion,notofthesentimentsmerely,butofthesouls.Thewifebecomesthetruesharerofherhusband'sthoughts;mutualconfidencereignsbetweenthem;theygrowbymutualfurtherance;eachseesineachthemirrorofhisnoblerself;theyarethetruecomplementonetotheother.Whodoesnotknowthatsuchunionsarerare!Commonsympathies,commondutiesdoindeedcreateatolerableunderstandinginmosthouseholds;butthatisnotwedlockthatmenandwomenshouldjogon

tolerablywelltogetherforthebetterpartofalifetime.

Themodernmindisconstantlybroadening;newfacts,newdiscoveriesareconstantlycomingtolight,andloftierproblemsengagetheattentionofthinkers.Ifwomanwouldnotbeutterlyleftbehindintherace,thenmustshemakeanefforttoacquiremoresolidknowledge,andeducationalreformisthefirststepinthecauseofwoman'semancipation.Theelectoralfranchise,andwhateverothermeasuresmaybeincludedinthepopularphraseof"Woman'srights"shouldbereservedforfuturediscussion.Ifpracticableatall,theyareassuredlyforthepresentof



secondaryimportance.

Permitmetoclosebybrieflyformulatingafewpointsthatseemtometodeservespecialconsiderationinthisconnection.

Woman,likeman,shouldcomprehendtheageinwhichshelivesandthegreatquestionsbywhichitisagitated.Tothisendaknowledgeofhistory,andchieflythehistoryofherownnation,isrequisite.Sheshouldlearntounderstandtheprinciplesofthelanguageshespeaks,andtheliteratureinwhichitispreserved,notfromdrytext-books,butfromthelivingworksoftheauthorsthemselves.Sheshouldbeabletopassanintelligentjudgmentuponthepoliticalissuesoftheday,thattakeupsolargeashareofmen'sconversation,andtothisendtherudimentsofpoliticalsciencemightprofitablybetaughther.Sheshouldpossesssufficientfamiliaritywiththenaturalsciencestocomprehendatleastthemainresultsofscientificinvestigations,andatrainingofthiskindwouldhavethefurtheradvantageofaccustominghermindtothemethodsofaccuratethinking.Sheshouldgainsomeknowledgeofthehumanbodyandofthelawsuponwhichitshealthdepends.Isitnotstrangethatthisimportantbranchofknowledgeissogenerallyneglectedinthetrainingofthosewhoaretobemothersofthefuturegeneration?Howoftenwouldproperattentiontoafewsimplerulesofhygienepreventsickness;howoftenwouldmoreefficientnursingavertdeath,whereitisnowfreelyallowedtoenter.Thentoo

theoutlinesofpedagogyshouldbeincludedinacourseofadvancedinstructionforwomen.Mothersaretheeducatorsofthechildren,buttheeducatorsthemselvesrequiretobeeducated.

Iftheintellectofgirlswerebracedandstimulatedinthismanner,theywouldexhibitgreaterself-possessionandself-relianceintheirlaterlives;theywouldbelessapttobedeludedbyfalseappealstothefeelings:"thewoman'sview"wouldbenolongerproverbialfortheweakerview;thewholeofsocietywouldfeelthebeneficentchange,andtheproblemwhichwesetouttodiscussinthebeginningwouldinduetimesolveitself.

Wedonotforamomentapprehendthattheincreasedcultivationof

theintellectwouldentailanylossofsweetnessorofthosegraciousqualitiesthatmakethecharmofwomanhood.Whereversucharesulthasbeenapparentlyobserved,itissafetoascribeittoothercauses.Truthandbeautyarefartoocloselyakinintheirinmostnaturetoexcludeeachother.Nordowefearthattheintensityofmoralfeeling,forwhichwomenaredistinguished,wouldsufferundertherestraininginfluenceofreason'sguidance.Themoralfeelingswouldindeedbepurified,elevatedanddirectedtotheirproperobjectsbythejudicioususeofreason;theywouldnotthereforebeenfeebled.Inthepast,theconservatismofwomenhasbeenamightyobstacleinthepathofprogress.Itisbutjusttoaddthatatthedawnofeverygreatreligiousmovementwhichpromisedthemoraladvancementoftherace,giftedwomen,risingabovetheweaknessoftheirsisters,havebeen

amongtheearliesttowelcomethenewhopeforhumanity;havebeenamongthemostardent,themostself-sacrificingofitsdisciples.TheLiberalmovementofourdayalsoisessentiallyamovementforlargermorality,andmoreandmoreasthisfeaturewillbeclearlydeveloped,mayithopetogainthesympathiesofbraveandgoodwomentoitsside.Intheirsupportitwillbeholdatoncethecriterionofitsworthiness,andthesurestpledgeofitsultimatetriumph.



VII.OURCONSOLATIONS

{AdiscoursedeliveredonSunday,April29,1877.}

Wegooutinthesebalmydaysofspringintotherevivingfields,andtheeyedrinksinwithdelightthefreshandsucculentgreenofthemeadows;thewillowsbegintoputforththeirverdantfoliage,thebrookspurlandbabbleofthenewlifethathaswakedintheforest:beglad,allnaturecries,summeriscoming.Andthefreshnessoftheseasonentersintoourownhearts,ourpulsesbeatmorequickly,ourstepismorebuoyant.Werememberallthatisjoyfulinexistence;theartsthatembellish,theaspirationsthatennoble,theaffectionsthatendearit.Goldenthefutureliesbeforeus;ourverycareslosetheirsombrehues;likethegoldenislandsofcloudthatglowinthegloryofsunsetskies.

Butbeneaththefairsemblanceofnaturethatforatimedeludesoursenses,adarkandterriblerealityisconcealed.Observehowpitilesslythedestructiveelementspursuetheirpath,theearthquakethetornado,theepidemic.Afewmonthsagoariseoftheseasweptawaytwohundredthousandhumanlivesinthecourseofafewhours.Myriadsofsentientbeingsaredailycastupinthesummertoperishwiththefirstbreathofcold.Intheanimalworld,thestrongfeedupontheweak,andthe

remorselessstruggleforexistenceextendsevenintothesphereofhumanactivity.AtthisverymomentthewholeofEuropeisfilledwithanxiousalarminviewofanimpendingwarofconquest.Whileindustryisparalyzed,whiletradeisatastand-still,whileavirulentdiseasegeneratedbystarvationhasbrokenoutinSilesia,andtheworkmenofLyonshavebecomedependentonthepubliccharityofFrance,theresourcesofnations,alreadywellnighexhausted,aredrainedtopreparefortheemergenciesofconflict.WithasecretthrillofterrorwereadthatbedsforthewoundedandmillionsofroublesforhospitalappliancesarebeingvotedbythemunicipalitiesofRussia.Readilytheimaginationcanpicturetoitselfwhattheseghastlypreparationsmean.Itistrue,solongasalliswellwithus,thelargerevilsoftheworlddonotgreatlydisturbourequanimity.Manhasthehappyfaculty

ofabstractinghisattentionfromthingsremote.Theaccumulatedwoesofacontinentaffectuslessthansometriflingaccidentinourimmediatevicinity.Butwhenthemessengersofevilhavecasttheirshadowsacrossourthreshold,whencalamityhaslaiditsheavyhanduponourshoulder,itisthenthatthegeneralunsatisfactorinessofliferecurstouswithaddedforceinviewofourownexperience;thesplendorfadesfromthesurroundingscene;everydarkstaintakesonadeeperblackness,andthegloomthatcomesfromwithinfillsandobscurestheentirefieldofourvision.Wehavesustainedfinancialloss,perhapsweareharrowedbydomesticdiscord,wearesuddenlystrickeninthemidstofhealth,anddragonlongyearsashopelessinvalids,orworsestill,westandatthebedsideofsomedearfriendorkinsman,seehimstretchedupontherackofpain,andcandonothingtoalleviatehissufferings;weseetheend

slowlynearing;butoh,thewearywaiting,thepatient'sagonizingcryfordeath,thecruelstrugglethatmuststillintervene.Andwhenatlast,itisover,andwehavelaidhimawayunderthesod,andreturnedtoourdesolatehomes,whathoperemains!Whithernow,weask,shallweturnforconsolation?Istherenooutlookfromthisnightoftrouble?Istherenowingedthought,thatwillbearusupwardfromoutthedepths;istherenosolacetoassuageourpangs?

AmongthemeansofconsolationcommonlyrecommendedthedoctrineofImmortalityseemstoberegardedasthemostappropriateandeffective.



Itisneedlesstolament;thedeceasedhasenteredabetterlife.Yetalittleandyouwilljoinhimtobenomoreparted.Norcanwedenythattothosewhocordiallyentertainit,thebeliefinthesoul'simmortalcontinuancebecomesasourceofpureandinexpressiblytendersatisfaction.Butwithacertainclassofminds--andtheirnumber,Ibelieve,isontheincrease--theconsolinginfluenceofthisdoctrineismarredbythefataluncertaintyinwhichthewholequestionisinvolved,andwhichnoeffortsofmanhaveeveryet,noreverwill,availtoremove.Christianityindeedclaimstohavesettledthepoint.TheDeityhimself,itavers,intervenedbydirectrevelationfromonhigh,tosetourdoubtsatrest,andJesuswhenhearoseonthethirddayforeverdeprivedthegraveofitsstingandtookawayourfearsofthetomb.Buttothosewhoreadthebooksofrevelationswithunbiasedmind,thefactoftheirhumanauthorshipbecomessadlyapparent,andtheresurrectionitselfisasdifficulttoproveasthedoctrinewhichitisdesignedtosubstantiate.

Inmoderntimesspiritualismhaslikewiseendeavoredtodemonstratetothesensestheexistenceofaworldofsoulsbeyondourown.Butthephenomenaonwhichitliesareinpartdisputed,inparttheinterpretationputuponthem,must,tosaytheleast,beregardedaspremature.

Moreoverweshouldrememberthatevenifbysomeunknownmeansthefact

ofimmortalitycouldbeestablished,thequestionofourre-unionwithfriendsinthehereafter,inwhichalonetheheartofthemournerisinterested,wouldstillremainanopenoneandmightbeansweredinthenegative.Thebeliefinimmortalityhasbeenheldinthiswaybysomeofthegreatestintellectsofthehumanrace,Spinozaamongtherest.Ifweknewthatweshallcontinuetolive,weshouldnotthereforeknowhowweshallcontinuetolive.Perhapsitmightprovethatallourpreviousconnectionswouldbesevered;andwhocantellwhatnewphasesofexistence,whatendlessmetamorphosesmightawaitusamongtheinfinitepossibilitiesofEternity.

Sodeepseatedisthesenseofuncertaintyconcerningourfatebeyondthetomb,thatnoreligion,howevergreatthecontrolwhichitexerted

overmen,haseverbeenabletobanishitentirelyfromtheirhearts.ThemostardentChristianishardlylessanxiousthantheinfideltoretainthosewhoaredeartohiminlife.Hepraysasferventlyfortheirhealthasthoughtheirpresentstatewerethesumtotaloftheirexistence.Andyetheshouldratherhailthedayofdeathasadayofthanksgiving,andrejoicethatthosewhomheloveshavebeentranslatedtoasphereeverywaysomuchmoredesirablethanourown.No,thenaturalfeelingcannotbesuppressed,lossisfelttobeloss,anddeathremainsdeath.Nohopeofahappierconditionintheworldtocome,noconfidenceinthepromisesandprophesiesoffaith,caneffacethesenseofpresentbereavement,andasweallalikefeelit,soareweall,believersandunbelievers,interestedinseekingthemeansofitspresentrelief.

Someofthemostfervid,religiousnaturesofthepastendeavoredtoescapethesorrowsoftheworldbyhavingrecoursetothecruelremedyofasceticism.Theasceticponderstheoriginofsuffering;heseesthatthedesireforpleasureisthecauseofpain.Werewenoteagertopossessweshouldnotregrettolose.Hecutsthegordianknotsaying,abjuredesire!Whenyouceasetowant,youshallnolongerbebruised.Therearecertainwantsinherentinthebody--thewantoffood,drink,sleep;thehearthasitsneeds--friendship,sympathy;themind--knowledge,culture.Alltheseshouldbesubdued.Weshouldeat



anddrinkthecoarsestinqualityandtheleastpossibleinquantity;weshouldavoidtheattachmentsoflove;weshouldbepoorinspirit,anddespisewisdom.TheasceticidealtookfirmrootinChristianityatanearlyperiodofitshistory.TheextravaganceoftheEgyptiananchoritesiswellknown.The"pillarsaint,"St.Simeon,whoissaidtohavepassedsomethirtyyearsofhislifeonthesummitofacolumntwentyyardsinheight,takingonlythescantiestnourishment,eschewingablutions,coveredwithfilthandsores,wasworshippedasaholymanbythemultitudeandhisexamplewasfollowedbyothers,thoughwithlessrigor,duringaperiodofnearlyathousandyears.AmongtheHindoos,too,theasceticidealacquiredabanefulascendency.Wecanhardlycreditthetalesthathavecometousconcerningtheinsanefanaticismwhichragedamongstthispeople.Towhattorturesofbodyandsouldidtheysubjectthemselves,whatcruelordealsdidtheyinventinordertosteelthemselvesagainsttheinevitablesufferingsoflife.Itwastheirbeau-idealtoachieveastateborderinguponabsoluteunconsciousness,inwhichthepowerofsensationmightbeentirelyblunted,andeventheexistenceofthephysicalmanbeforgotten.

This,indeed,isacapitalremedy,aspeciesofheroictreatmentthatattainsitsend.Manbecomespassiveinpain,incapableofsorrow,unmovedbyanyloss.Butwiththepains,thejoysofexistencehavelikewisefled.Thehumanbeingwalksasashadowamongshadows,asoullesssubstance,thewretchedsemblanceofhisformerself.Whowould

notratherbeartheheaviestillsthatfleshisheirto,thanpurchasehisreleaseatsuchacost.

Andnowinsettingforthourownviewofthismightyproblemofhumansorrow,letusbearinmindthatourprivatehardshipsandthosegeneralevilswhichweseeenactedonascaleofsuchappallingmagnitudeintheworldaroundus,mustbeconsideredtogether,forthesamecauseconstantlygivesrisetoboth.Itisoftheutmostimportancethatweshouldweighwellwhatwehavearighttoexpect,andpondertheconditionsonwhichhumanityholdsthetenureofitsexistence.Perhapsourdeepestdisappointmentsareoftenduetothefactthatweaskmorethanwehaveanylegitimatetitletoreceive,andjudgetheschemeoftheUniverseaccordingtofalseanalogiesandpreconceivednotionswhich

theconstitutionofthingsdoesnotbearout.Wearesubjecttotwolaws,theonethelawofnature,theotherthatofmorality:thetwoclashandcollide,andaconflictensues.Theologylaborstoshowthatthisconflictisapparentratherthanreal,toadmititwouldseemtoimpugnthejusticeoftheDeity.ThuswereadintheOldTestamentthatwhenthesuffererJobprotestedhisinnocence,hisfriendsassailedhisveracity,andpersistedinholdingthebarefactofhismisfortuneasunimpeachableevidenceofhissinfulness.AndthusthePsalmistassuresus,thathehasgrownoldandneverseentherighteousmaninwant.TheexperienceofthePsalmistmusthavebeenlimitedindeed!Theconflictexists,howeveritmaybedenied.Natureisindifferenttomorality,goesonregardless.ThegreatlawsthatruletheKosmos,actuponthisplanetofours,norheedourpresence.Ifwechancetostandintheway,

theygrindustopieceswithgrimunconcern:theearthopens,thevolcanosendsforthitssmolderingfires,populouscitiesareoverwhelmed,locustsdevastatethecountry;theydonotpausebeforethefieldoftherighteous;theyhavenomoralpreference.Theseedsofdiseasealsoarescatteredbroadcastovertheland,andthebest,oftenthosewhomwecanleastaffordtolose,aretaken.Thesearethehostileforces,andagainstthesemanmustcontend.Tothemheopposeshisintellect,hismoralenergy;heseekstoadapthimselftohisplaceintheuniverse.Hediscoversthatthesefoesareblind,notnecessarilyhisenemies,ifhecantracetheirpath.Ifhecanreadthesecretof



theirworking,theyceasetothreatenhim;heholdsthemwiththereinsofintellect,andbindsthemtohischariot,andbeholdlikeswiftsteedstheycarryhimwhithersoeveritpleaseshim,andon,on,theydrawhiscarofprogress.Inthismannertheswayofman'sgeniusisextendedonearth.Alreadylifeisfareasierthanitwasamongourancestorstenthousandyearsago;theepidemicischeckedbywisesanitaryregulations,greaterjusticeprevailsingovernment,andthemeansofhappinessareextendedoverwiderareasofthepopulation.Whatwethusbeholdrealizedonapartialscale,weconceiveinourvisionsofthefuturetobeindefinitelyprolonged,thecourseofdevelopmentleadingtohigherandhigherplanes,healthierconditions,wiserlaws,noblermanners.Themoralorderwillthusincreaseonearth.Themoralorderneveris,butiseverbecoming.Itgrowswithourgrowth,andtobringonthetriumphofintellectovermechanism,ofresponsiblemoralityoverirresponsibleforce,isourmission.Thepurposeofman'slifeisnothappiness,butworthiness.Happinessmaycomeasanaccessory,wedarenevermakeitanend.Thereisthatstrivingfortheperfectwithinus:initwelive,byitweareexaltedabovetheclod;itistheoneandonlysolacethatneverfailsus,andtheexperienceofprogressinthepast,thehopeofgreaterprogressinthefuture,istheredeemingfeatureoflife.Buttheconditionofallprogressisexperience;wemustgowrongathousandtimesbeforewefindtheright.Westruggle,andgropeandinjureourselvesuntilwelearntheusesofthings.Painthereforebecomesanecessity,butitacquiresinthisview

anewandnoblermeaning,foritisthepricehumanitypaysforaninvaluablegood.Everypainfulsickness,everyprematuredeath,becomesthemeansofavertingsicknessanddeathhereafter.Everyformofviolence,everysocialwrong,everyinmosttribulation,istheresultofgeneralcausesandbecomesagoadinthesidesofmankind,pressingthemontocorrectthehoaryabusesithastolerated,theviciousprinciplesofgovernment,educationandeconomytowhichithasconformed.Wideastheearthisthemartyrdomofman,butthecryofthemartyristhecreakingofthewheelwhichwarnsusthatthegreatcarofhumanprogressisinmotion.

Ifwekeepdulyinmindthepositionwhichthehumanraceoccupiesoveragainstnature,weshallnotaccusefate.Fateisouradversary;we

mustwrestlewithit,weareheretoestablishthelawofourownhighernatureindefianceoffate.Andthisistheprerogativeofman,thatheneednotblindlyfollowthelawofhisbeing,butthatheishimselftheauthorofthemorallaw,andcreatesiteveninactingitout.Weareallsoldiersinthegreatarmyofmankind,battlinginthecauseofmoralfreedom;sometofightascaptains,otherstodovaliantserviceintheranks;sometoshoutthepaeanofvictory,otherstofallonthebattlefieldortoretirewoundedorcrippledtotherear.Butasineverybattlesotoointhis,thefallenandthewoundedhaveashareinthevictory;bytheirsufferingshavetheyhelped,andthegreenestwreathbelongstothem.

Itisstrictlyinaccordancewiththeviewwehavetaken,thatwebehold

intheperformanceofdutythesolaceofaffliction.Allofushavefelt,aftersomegreatbereavement,thebeneficentinfluenceofmerelabor:eventhemechanicalpartofdutyaffordsussomerelief.Theknowledgethatsomethingmustbedonecallsusawayfrombroodingoverourgriefs,andforcesusbackintotheactivecurrentsoflife.Thecultivationoftheintellectalsoisapartofman'sduty,andstandsusingreatsteadintimesoftrouble.Weshouldseektoaccustomthemindtotheaspectoflargeinterests.Inthepursuitofknowledgethereisnothingofthepersonal:intothecalmandsilentrealmofthoughtthefeelingscangainnoentrance.There,afterthefirstspasmsofemotion



havesubsided,wemayfindatleastatemporaryrelief,--thereforhourswedrinkinahappyoblivion.Butmoreisneeded,andthedischargeofthedutiesoftheheartalonecanreallyconsoletheheart.Thereisthissecretintheaffections,thattheyconstantlyaddtoourstrength.Constantcommunionbetweenalliednaturesleadstotheirmutualenrichmentbyallthatisbestineither.Butwhentherudehandofdeathinterferes,weareasastreamwhoseoutletisbarred,asacreeperwhosestayisbroken.Alargerchannelisneededthenintowhichthewatersofourlovemayflow,afirmsupport,towhichthetatteredtendrilsofaffectionmayclinganew.True,thecloseandintimatebondthatunitesfriendtofriendcanhavenosubstitute,butthewarmlovethatobtainsinthepersonalrelationsmaybeexpandedintoawiderandimpersonallove,which,iflessintense,isbroader,which,iflessfond,isevenmoreennobling.Theloveyoucannolongerlavishonone,themanycallforit.Thecherishingcareyoucannolongerbestowuponyourchild,theneglectedchildrenofthepoorappealforit;thesympathyyoucannolongergiveyourfriend,thefriendlesscryforit.Inalleviatingthemiseryofothers,yourownmiserywillbealleviated,andinhealingyouwillfindthatthereiscure.

ThisremedyissuggestedinanancientlegendrelatedoftheBuddha,thegreatHindooreformer,whowassodeeplyaffectedbytheillsofhumanlife.*Therecametohimonedayawomanwhohadlostheronlychild.Shewaswildwithgrief,andwithdisconsolatesobsandcriescalled

franticallyontheprophettogivebackherlittleonetolife.TheBuddhagazedonherlongandwiththattendersympathywhichdrewallheartstohim,said,"Gomydaughter,getmeamustardseedfromahouseintowhichdeathhasneverentered,andIwilldoasthouhastbiddenme."Andthewomantookupthedeadchild,andbeganhersearch.Fromhousetohouseshewentsaying,"Givemeamustardseed,kindfolk,amustardseedfortheprophettorevivemychild."Andtheygaveherwhatsheasked,andwhenshehadtakenit,sheinquiredwhetherallweregatheredaboutthehearth,fatherandmotherandthechildren;butthepeoplewouldshaketheirheadsandsigh,andshewouldturnonherwaysadderthanbefore.Andfarasshewandered,intownandvillage,inthecrowdedthoroughfare,andbythelonelyroadside,shefoundnotthehouseintowhichdeathhadneverentered.Thengraduallyasshewenton,

themeaningoftheBuddha'swordsdawneduponhermind;graduallyasshelearnedtoknowthegreatsorrowoftheraceeverywherearoundher,herheartwentoutingreatyearningsympathytothecompanionsofhersorrow;thetearsofherpityfellfreeandfast,andthepassionofhergriefwasmergedincompassion.Shehadlearnedthegreatlessonofrenunciation;hadlearnedtosinkselfintheunselfish.

*WehaveventuredtoofferthisinterpretationofthelegendinanarticlepublishedintheAtlanticMonthlyforJune,1875,fromwhichtheaccountinthetextistaken.

Fromthedepthsoftheheartthestreamofgriefrisesresistless,thedamsanddykesofreasonareimpotenttostayitscourse.Preparea

channelthereforetoleadoutitsswellingtideawaytothegreatoceanofmankind'ssorrow,whereincomminglingitshallbeabsorbed.

TheconsolationsoftheIdealarevigorous:theydonotencourageidlesentiment:theyrecommendtothesufferer,action.Thelossindeedaswesetoutbysaying,remainsaloss,andnopreachingorteachingcanevermakeitotherwise.Thequestionis,whetheritshallweakenandembitterus,orbecometheverypurificationofoursouls,andleadustogranderanddivinerdeeds,leadustoraiseuntothedeadwemourn,amonumentinourlivesthatshallbebetterthantinypillaredchapelorstoried



marbletomb.

Thusfromwhateverpointwestart,wearriveatthesameconclusionstill:"notinthecreedbutinthedeed!"Inthedeedisthepledgeofthesacrednessoflife;inthedeedistherewardofouractivitiesinhealth;inthedeedoursolace,andoursalvationevenintheabysmalgulfsofwoe.Inhoursofgreatsorrowweturninvaintonatureforaninspiringthought.Wequestionthesleeplessstars;theyarecoldanddistant:thewindsblow,theriversruntheircourse,theseasonschange;theyarecarelessofman.Intheworldofmenalonedowefindanansweringechototheheart'sneeds.Letusgrasphandscordiallyandlookintoeachother'seyesforsympathy,whilewetraveltogetheronourroadtowardtheunknowngoal.Tohelponeanotherisourwisdom,andourrenown,andoursweetconsolation.

VIII.SPINOZA.

TwocenturieshaveelapsedsinceSpinozapassedfromtheworldoftheliving,andto-daythathighandtranquilspiritwalkstheearthoncemoreandmenmakewidetheirheartstoreceivehismemoryandhisname.Thegreatmenwhomthepasthaswronged,receiveatlasttime'stardy

recompense.

OnthedaythatColumbussetsailforAmerica,theJewsleftSpaininexile.Manyoftheirnumber,however,whocouldnotfinditintheirheartstobidadieutotheirnativeland,remainedandsimulatedthepracticeofdevoutCatholicswhileinsecrettheypreservedtheirallegiancetotheirancestralreligion.Theyoccupiedhighplacesinthechurchandstate,andmonks,prelatesandbishopswerecountedintheirranks.ErelongthesuspicionsoftheInquisitionwerealarmedagainstthesecovertheretics,andtheirpositionbecamedailymoreperilousandinsecure.Somewerecondemnedtothestake,otherspinedforyearsindungeons;thosethatcouldfindthemeans,escapedandsoughtindistantlandssecurityandreposefrompersecution.ItwasespeciallytheFree

StatesofHollandwhoseenlightenedpolicyofferedanasylumtothefugitives,andthitheraccordinglyingreatnumberstheydirectedtheirsteps.Theirfrugality,theirthriftandenterprise,contributednotalittletobuilduptheprosperityoftheDutchmetropolis.

IntheopeningoftheseventeenthcenturyaconsiderablecongregationoftheJewshadcollectedinthecityofAmsterdam.Thereintheyear1632,thechildofSpanishemigrants,BenedictSpinozawasborn.Ofhischildhoodweknowlittle.AtanearlyagehewasinitiatedintothemysteriesofHebrewlore,wasinstructedintheHebrewgrammar,andlearnedtoreadandtranslatethevariouswritingsoftheOldTestament.HewastaughttothreadhiswaythroughthemazesoftheTalmud,anditssubtlediscussionsprovedanadmirabledisciplineinpreparinghimfor

thefavoritepursuitsofhisafteryears.LastlyhewasintroducedtothestudyoftheJewishphilosophers,amongwhomMaimonidesandIbnEzraengagedhisespecialattention.Maimonides,oneofthemostprofoundthinkersofthemiddleages,strovetoharmonizetheteachingsofAristotlewiththedoctrinesoftheBible.IbnEzraontheotherhand,wasaconfirmedsceptic.Inhisbiblicalcommentariesheanticipatesmanynoteworthydiscoveriesofmoderncriticism,andhisorthodoxyinotherrespectsalsoismorethandoubtful.

InallthesedifferentbranchesoftheologytheyoungSpinozamaderapid



progressandsoongainedastonishingproficiency.Hewasthefavoriteofhisinstructors,andtheypredictedthathewouldonedaybecomeashininglightofthesynagogue.Notcontent,however,withthiscourseofstudy,SpinozaaddressedhimselftothestudyofRomanliterature,andwiththeassistanceofacertainDr.VandenEnde,whohadatthattimegainedconsiderablereputeasateacherofliberallearning,hesoonbecameanaccomplishedLatinscholar.HealsotookupthestudyofGeometryandofPhysics,andacquiredconsiderableskillintheartofsketching.Hismindbeingthusstoredwithvariousknowledge,hewaspreparedtoenterthevastrealmofmetaphysicalspeculationandheretheworksofReneDescartes,preeminentlyengagedhisattention.Descartes,whosemotto,_Deomnibusdubitandumest_,sufficientlyindicatestherevolutionarycharacterofhisteachings,wastheleaderofthenewschoolofthoughtonthecontinent.HisinfluenceproveddecisiveinshapingthecareerofSpinoza.BrunoalsodeservesmentionamongthosewhodeterminedthebiasofSpinoza'smind.ImeanthatBrunowasamongthefirstfollowersofCopernicus,proclaimedthedoctrineoftheinfinityofworldsandwhohimselfinculcatedaspeciesofpantheismforwhichhepaidthelastpenaltyatRomeintheyear1600,thirty-twoyearsbeforeSpinozawasborn.Byalltheseinfluencesthemindoftheyoungphilosopherwaswidenedbeyondthesphereofhisearlyeducation.Inthepursuitoftruthhesoughtthesocietyofcongenialminds,andfoundamongthecultivatedChristiansofhisdaythatintellectualsympathyofwhichhestoodinneed.Fromthehighplaneofthought

whichhehadnowreached,theritesandpracticesofexternalreligiondwindledinimportance,andthequestionsofcreedforwhichthemassofmencontendappearedlittleandinsignificant.Hisabsencefromtheworshipofthesynagoguenowbegantoberemarked;itwasrumoredthatheneglectedtheprescribedfastsandhewasopenlychargedwithpartakingofforbiddenfood.Atfirsthewastreatedwithgreatleniency.SohighwashiscreditwiththeRabbis,soimpressedweretheywithhissingularabilities,thattheystrovebyeverygentlemeanstowinhimbacktohisallegiance.Theyadmonishedhim,heldoutprospectsofhonorandemolument;itisevenstatedthatatlastindespairofreclaiminghimtheyofferedanannualpensionofathousandflorinstopurchasehissilence.Spinozahimselfwaskeenlyalivetothegravityofhisposition.Ithadbeenfondlyhopedthathewouldshednewlustre

uponthereligionofIsrael.Hewouldbeaccusedofvileingratitudefordesertinghispeople.Heforesawtheinevitablerupturethatwouldcuthimoffforeverfromfriendsandkinsmen,fromtheopportunitiesofwealthandhonorableposition,anddeliverhimovertoprivationandpoverty.Hehimselftellsusintheintroductionofaworkwhichhadlongbeenforgottenandhasbeenonlyrecentlyrescuedfromoblivion,thathesawrichesandhonorandallthosegoodsforwhichmenstrive,placedbeforehimontheonehand,andasincerelifeserenelytruetoitselfontheother;butthattheformerseemedveritableshamsandevilscomparedwiththatonegreatgood.Nay,hesaid,thoughhemightneverreachtheabsolutetruth,hefeltasonesickuntodeath,whoknowsbutonebalmthatcanhelphimandwhomustneedssearchforthatbalmwherebyperchancehemaybehealed.

GreatwasthecommotionstirredupagainsthimintheJewishcommunityofAmsterdam.Oneeveningafanaticassaultedhimonthestreetandattemptedhislife.Thestrokeoftheassassin'sdaggerwassuccessfullyparried.ButSpinozafeltthatthecitywasnownolongersafeforhimtodwellin.Hefledandforsometimefrequentlychangedhisplaceofresidence,untilatlasthesettledattheHaguewhereheremaineduntilhisdeath.InthemeantimethelenientspiritoftheJewishleadershadchangedintostern,uncompromisingrigor.Observenowhowpersecutionbreedspersecution.IthadbeentheprideofJudaismfromofoldthat



withinitspalethepracticeofreligionwasdeemedmoreessentialthanthetheory;thatitpermittedthewidestdivergenceinmattersofbelief,andgrantedampletolerancetoall.ButtheseJewsofAmsterdam,freshfromthedungeonsandthetorturechambersoftheInquisition,hadthemselvesimbibedthedarkspiritoftheiroppressors.Urield'Acostatheyhaddriventothevergeofinsanityandtoatragicdeathbytheircruelbigotry.Andnowthesamemethodswereemployedagainstawiserandgreaterandpurerman,farthanhe.

Onthe27thofJuly,1656,inthesynagogueofAmsterdam,thesacredark,containingthescrollsofthelaw,beingkeptopenduringtheceremony,theedictofexcommunicationwassolemnlypromulgated.Itreadssomewhatasfollows:

"Bythedecreeoftheangelsandtheverdictofthesaintsweseparate,curseandimprecateBaruchdeSpinozawiththeconsentoftheblessedGodandofthisholycongregation,beforetheholybooksoftheLawwiththecommandmentsthatareinscribedtherein,withthebanwithwhichJoshuabannedJericho,withthecursewithwhichEliascursedtheyouths,andwithalltheimprecationsthatarewrittenintheLaw.Cursedbehebydayandcursedbynight;cursedwhenheliesdown,andcursedwhenherises;cursedinhisgoingforth,andcursedinhiscomingin.MaytheLordGodrefusetopardonhim;mayhiswrathandangerbekindledagainstthisman,andonhimrestallthecursesthat

arewritteninthisbookoftheLaw.MaytheLordwipeouthisnamefromundertheheavens,andseparatehimforevilfromallthetribesofIsrael,withallthecursesofthefirmamentthatarewritteninthebookoftheLaw.AndyethatholdfasttotheLordGodarealllivingthisday!wewarnyouthatnoneshallcommunicatewithhimeitherbywordofmouthorletter,norshowhimanyfavor,norrestunderthesameroofwithhim,norapproachhispersonwithinfouryards,norreadanywritingthathehaswritten."

WhenSpinozaheardofthisanathemahecalmlyreplied:"TheycompelmetodonothingwhichIwasnotpreviouslyresolvedupon."Heretiredfromthecommerceoftheworld.Hecovetedsolitude.Withinhissilentchamberhemovedinaworldofhisown.Thereintwentyyearsofpatient

passionlesstoilhebuiltupthemightyedificeofhissystem.Itrisesbeforeusasifhewnofgraniterock.Itssimplicity,itsgrandeur,itsstructuralpowerhavebeenthewonderofmen.Icanofferonlythebarestoutlineofitsdesign.

Man'squestioningspiritseekstopenetratetotheheartofNature,wouldgrasptheoriginofthings.Thereisthismightyriddle:whowillsolveit?Variousattemptshavebeenmade.Pantheismisone.SpinozawasthegreatphilosopherofPantheism.

Beneathalldiversitythereisunity.InallofNature'smyriadformsandchanges,thereisasubstanceunchangeable.Itisuncreated,undivided,uncaused,theAbsolute,Infinite,God.Thoughtandextension

areitsattributes;itistheOneinAll,theAllinOne.Godisnotmatter,isnotmind;isthatdeeperunityinwhichmatterandmindareone;GodorNature,Spinozasays.ThisisnottheGodoftheology.Godisinthetree,inthestone,inthestars,inman.Goddoesnotlive,norlaborforanypurpose,butproducesfromthenecessityofhisBeinginendlessvariety,inceaselessactivity.Heistheinnercauseofallthings,theultimateReality,andallthingsareasintheirnaturetheypartakeofhim.

ManalsoisofGod.Theessenceofmanisinthemind.Manisalogical



being.Godaloneownstruth;insofarasmanthinkstrulyandclearly,heisapartoftheinfiniteGod.Logicisthebasisofethics.Spinozaignoressentiment,ignoresart.Goodandevilarebutothernamesforusefulandnotuseful.Butthataloneisusefulthatwefollowthenecessaryanduniversallaws,seekingbythedepthandreachofintellecttoknowandunderstand.

Virtueisthepursuitofknowledge.Therearethreekindsofknowledge:theblurredperceptionsofthesenses,thelightoftheunderstanding,theintuitionofintellect.Thelastisthehighest.

Virtueisthesenseofbeing;whateverheightensthejoyousconsciousnessofouractivefacultiesisthereforegood.Thewisemandelightsinthemoderateenjoymentofpleasantfoodanddrink,inthecolorandlovelinessofgreenshrubs,intheadornmentofgarments,inmusic'ssweetness.Butourtruebeingistobefoundonlyinintellect;hence,virtuethejoyofbeing,isthejoyofthought;hence,theboldassertion--thatismoralwhichhelps,andthatimmoralwhichhindersthought.

Manisasocialbeing.Asadropisraisedupwardinthegreatoceanbytheonflowingofthewave,sotheindividualmindisexaltedbythepresenceandcommunionofcongenialmindsmovinginthesamecurrent.

'TisthusthatSpinozadeducesthesocialvirtues.Hateisevilatalltimes,forhateimpliestheisolationandtheweaknessofthepowersofreason.Weshouldrewardhatredwithloveandrestorethebrokenaccordofintellect.Loveisthesenseofkinshipinthecommonsearchforreason'sgoal--wisdom.Thatallmenshouldsoliveandacttogetherthattheymayform,asitwere,onebodyandonemind,istheidealoflife.Friendshipthereforeheprizesasthedearestofearth'spossessions,andwedlockheesteemsholybecauseinitiscementedtheunionoftwosoulsforthecommonsearchoftruth.Weshouldbesereneatalltimesandshunfear,whichisweakness,andhopealsowhichisthechildofdesire,andhaughtinessandhumblenessandremorseandpityshouldweavoid.Butinstillnessandwithcollectedpowershallwepossessoursoulsobedienttothelawsofmindthatmakeourbeingandhelpingwhen

wehelpforreason'ssake.Thepassionsbindustopassingphenomena.Whentheybecometransparenttoourreason,whenweknowtheircausesthenournatureconquersoutwardnatureandwearemasters,wearefree.

Thustheemotionallifeisextinguished.Thefeelingslosetheircolorandvitality,becomeblank"aslinesandsurfaces,"andman,freedfromtheconstraintsofpassion,dwellsinthepurerealmofintellect,andinconstantintercoursewiththemindofGod,fulfillsthepurposeofhisexistence--toknowandunderstand.

Againsttheblowsofmisfortunealsoreasonsteelsus.Sorrowisbutthelurkingsuspicionthatallmighthavebeenotherwise.Whenwecometoknowthatallthingsarebynecessity,weshallfindtranquillityin

yieldingtotheinevitable.ForsoGodworksbynecessity.Forallthingsareinhishandsasclayinthehandofthepotter,whichthepottertakethandfashioneththerefromvesselsofdiversevalue,sometohonorandsometodisgrace.Andnoneshallrebukehim,forallisbynecessity.

Whenthebodypassesawaytheminddoesnotwhollyperish,butsomethingremainsthatisinfinite,aneternalmodusdwellinginthedepthsoftheeternalmind.Butthoughweknewnotthatsomethingofthemindremained,yetweregoodnessandstrengthofsoultobesoughtforabove



allelse.Forwho,foreseeingthathecannotalwaysfeedonhealthynourishment,wouldthereforesatehimselfwithdeadlypoison?orwho,thoughheknewthatthemindisnotimmortal,wouldthereforeleadanemptylife,devoidofreason'sgoodandguidance?Thewisdomofthewiseandthefreedomofthefreeisnotintheaspectofdeathbutoflife.Religionandpietyleadustofollowthelawsofnecessityintheworldwheretheyaremanifest,todwellontheintellectofGod,ofGodtheirfountandorigin.

ButIforbeartoenterfartherintothiswonderfulsystem.Weseeagiantwrestlingwithnature,seekingtowrestfromherhersecret.Mysteriousnaturebaffleshimandtheriddleisstillunread.Thatsubstanceofwhichhespeaksisnomorethananabstractionofthemindwhoserealityintheoutwardworldhehasfailedtoprove.Hehasalsoerredinturningasidefromtherichandmanifoldlifeoftheemotions,fortheemotionsarenotinthemselvesevil,theyaretheseminalprincipleofallvirtue.

Onpillarsofintellect,Spinozarearedhissystem.Still,solemn,sublimelikehighmountainsittowersupward,butisdevoidofcolorandwarmth,andeventhemomentaryglowthatnowandthenstartsupinhiswritings,passesquicklyawayliketheflushofeveningthatreddensthesnowysummitsofAlpineranges.

Spinoza'snamemarksaloftypeakinhumanhistory.Hewasatrueman;nomanmorefullylivedhisteachings.Ifhedescribesthepursuitofknowledgeasthehighestvirtue,hewashimselfanobleexampleoftirelessdevotioninthatpursuit.Hewaswellversedinthenaturalsciences,skillfulintheuseofthemicroscope,andhiscontributionstothestudyoftheinnerlifeofmanhaveearnedhimlastingrecognition.JohannesMueller,thedistinguishedphysiologist,hasincludedthethirddivisionofSpinoza's_Ethics_inhiswellknownworkonphysiology.

Religion,however,wasSpinoza'sfavoritetheme,thatreligionwhichisfreefromallpassionatelongingsandaversetosuperstitionofwhateverkind.Hewasamongthefirsttohurlhismightyargumentsagainst

theinfallibleauthorityoftheBible,argumentsthatstillcommandattentionthoughtwohundredyearshavesincepassedby.Miracles,hesaid,arepastbelief,thebeautyofCosmosisfarmoredeservingofadmirationthananysocalledmiraclecouldpossiblybe.Hedemanded--thiswasagreatandnovelclaim--thatthemethodsofnaturalsciencebeappliedtothestudyofscripture,thatthecharacteroftheageandlocalsurroundingsbeconsideredindeterminingthemeaningofeachscripturalauthor.Inbriefthatanaturalhistoryofthebible,sotospeak,shouldbeattempted.Heclaimedthatthepriesthoodhadfalsifiedtheverybookwhichtheyprofessedtoregardmostholy.HedeniedtheMosaicauthorshipofthePentateuch,andsetforthinsingularlyclearandlucidlanguagethediscrepanciesinwhichthatworkabounds.Heclosedthetreatiseinwhichtheseviewsarelaiddown--the

Theologico-politicalTract--withamagnificentpleaforlibertyofconscienceandofspeech.Thatstatealone,hesays,canbefreeandhappywhichrestsonthefreedomoftheIndividualcitizen.Wheretherightoffreeutteranceiscurtailed,hypocrisyandshamefulconformanceflourish,andpubliccontumelyanddisgracewhichoughttoserveasametepunishmentforthevicious,becomeahaloabouttheheadofthemostnobleofmen.Religionandpiety,heconcludes,thestatehasarighttodemand,butnothinghereaftershallbeknownasreligionandpietysavethepracticeofequityandofawiseandhelpfullove.



Itwasaboldawakeningnotewhichthusrangoutintotheseventeenthcentury,andtheologianswerebitterintheirreplies.ThebookwasconfiscatedandChristiancurseswereaddedtoJewishanathemas.ButtheyfailedtoaffectSpinoza.

Fewmenhavesufferedashedid.Fewhavepreservedthesameequanimityofsoulinthefaceofadversefortune.Twentyyearshedweltalone.Fordayshedidnotleavehisstudent'scloset,drawinghismightycircles,intentonthosehighthoughtsthatformedthecompanionshipheloved.Thosethatknewhimwellreveredhim.DeWittthenoblestatesman,DeWittwhoendedhisdayssomiserably,torntopiecesbyamaddenedmob,soughthiscounsel.Youngardentdisciplesfromadistancesenthimwordsofcheerintohissolitude.Hissoulwaspureassunlight,hischaractercrystalclear.Hewasfrugalintheextreme:afewpenceadaysufficedtosustainhim.Notthatheaffectedaustereviewsingeneral,butthedeepmeditationsthatoccupiedhismindlefthimlittletimeorinclinationforthegrosserpleasures.Hissenseofhonorwasscrupulouslynice.Againandagaindidherejectthemunificentpensionswhichhisfriendspresseduponhim;hewouldbefreeandself-sustainedinallthings.Inhisleisurehourshebusiedhimselfwiththegrindingandpolishingofopticallenses,anexercisethatofferedhimatoncethemeansofsupportandawelcomerelaxationfromtheseverestrainofmentaleffort.Histemperwasrarelyruffled;hewasplacid,genial,childlike.Whenweariedwithhislaborshewoulddescendtothefamily

ofhislandlord,thepainterVanderSpeke,andenteringintotheaffairsofthesesimplepeople,hefound,intheirunaffectedconverse,thereliefhesought.

Hevaluedthepeaceofmindwhichhehadpurchasedsodearly.WhentheElectorofthePalatinateofferedhimthechairofphilosophyattheUniversityofHeidelbergonconditionthathewouldsoexpoundhisphilosophyasnottointerferewiththeestablishedreligion,hedeclined,replyingthathecouldteachthetruthonlyashesawit,andthatevilanddesigningmenwoulddoubtlessaddpointandpoisontohiswords.Yethewasfearless.Whentowardthecloseofhiscareer,hislifewasagainimperiled,thegravetranquillityofhisdemeanorinspiredhisagitatedfriendswithcalmnessandconfidence.

Hehadgainedhisforty-fourthyear.Forhalfalifetimehehadbeenfightingatreacherousdisease,thatpreyedinsecretuponhishealth.Hislifewasslowlyebbingawayamidstconstantsuffering,yetnocomplaintcrossedhislipsandhisnearestcompanionswerehardlyawareofwhatheendured.Intheearlypartoftheyear1677onedayinFebruary,whilethefamilyofthepainterwereatchurchtheendapproached.Onlyasinglefriendwaswithhim.Calmlyashehadlived,inthestillnessoftheSundayafternoon,Spinozapassedaway.

Hehasleftanameinhistorythatwillnotfade.Hispeoplecasthimout,Christianityrejectedhim,buthehasfoundawiderfellowship,hebelongstoallmankind.Greatheartshavethrobbedresponsivetohis

teachingsandmanyasorrowfulsoulhasownedtherestfulinfluenceofhiswords.Hewasahelperofmankind.Notsurelybecausehesolvedtheultimateproblemsofexistence--whatmortaleverwill--butbecausehewaswiseinthesecretoftheheart,becausehetaughtmentoappeasetheirfretfulpassionsintheaspectoftheinfinitelawsinwhichweliveandare.

SacredisthehourinwhichwereadhisEthics.Fromtheheatandglareoflifeweenterintoitsprecinctsasintothecoolinteriorofsomehallowedtempleofreligion.Butnoidolstandsthere;thespiritof



truthalonepresidesandsanctifiestheplaceandus.Thegreatmenofthepastwewillreverence.Theyaremile-stonesonthehighwayofhumanity,typesoftheInfinite,thathasdawnedinhumanbreasts.SuchanonewasheofwhomIhavespoken.Andmoreandmoreasthelightincreasesamongmenwillallthatwasgoodandgreatinhimshineforthtoirradiatetheirpath.Andaswestandhereto-dayonthisdayofremembrancetorecallhisteachingsandhisexample,sowhenothercenturiesshallhaveelapsed,thememoryofSpinozawillstilllive,posteritywillstillownhim,anddistantgenerationswillnamehimanew:Benedictus--Blessed!

IX.THEFOUNDEROFCHRISTIANITY

{AdiscoursedeliveredonSunday,December31,1876.}

"Iamnotcometodestroy,buttofulfil,forverilyIsayuntoyoutillheavenandearthpassawayonejotoronetittleshallinnowisepassfromthelawtillallbefulfilled.""Resistnotevil,***blessthemthatcurseyou,dogoodtothemthathateyou."

InthesesayingsofJesusthekeynoteofearlyChristianityisstruck.

ItwasnotarevoltagainstJudaism,itwasbutareiteratedassertionofwhatotherandolderProphetsoftheHebrewshadsooftenandsoferventlypreached.Thelawwastoremainintact,butthespirituallawwasmeant,thedeeperlawofconsciencethatunderliestheformsoflegislationandthesymbolsofexternalworship.

ThereisarareandgraciousqualityinthepersonalityofJesusasdescribedintheGospels,whichhasexerciseditscharmuponthemostheterogeneousnationsandperiodsofhistorywideapartintheorderoftimeandofculture.

Tograspthesubtleessenceofthatcharm,andtherebytounderstandwhatitwasthathasgivenChristianitysopowerfulaholdupon

theaffectionsofmankind,wereataskwellworthytheattentionofthoughtfulminds.Wedesiretoapproachoursubjectinthespiritofreverencethatbefitsathemewithwhichthetenderestfibresoffaitharesointimatelyinterwoven;atthesametimeweshallpaynoregardtothedogmaticcharacterwithwhichhislaterfollowershaveinvestedJesus,forwebeholdhistruegrandeurinthepureandnoblehumanitywhichheillustratedinhislifeandteachings.

TheNewTestamentpresentsbutscantmaterialforthebiographyofJesus,andtheauthenticity,evenofthelittlethatremainstous,hasbeenrenderedextremelyuncertainbythelaborsofmoderncritics.Afewleadingnarratives,however,aredoubtlesstrustworthy,andthesewillsufficeforourpurpose.Abriefintroductiononthecharacterofthe

peopleamongwhomthenewprophetarose,thecharacteristicsoftheageinwhichhelived,andthebeliefsthatobtainedinhisimmediatesurroundings,willassistusinourtask.

TheexpectationoftheMessiahhadlongbeenrifeamongtheJews.HoldingthemselvestobetheelectpeopleofGod,theybelievedthetriumphofmonotheismtobedependentuponthemselves.TheprophetsofJehovahhadrepeatedlyassuredthemthattheirsupremacywouldfinallybeacknowledged.Eventshoweverhadturnedoutdifferently.Insteadofsuccesstheymetwithconstantdefeatanddisaster;Persia,Egypt,Syria



hadsuccessivelyheldtheirlandinsubjection;theveryexistenceoftheirreligionwasthreatened,andtheheathenworld,farfromshowingsignsofapproachingconversion,insisteduponitserrorswithincreasedobstinacyandassurance.AndyetJehovahhaddistinctlypromisedthathewouldraiseupinhisowngoodtime,anewrulerfromtheancientlineofIsrael'sKings,asonofDavid,whoshouldleadthepeopletoVictory.Tohissceptreallthenationswouldbow,andinhisreignthefaithoftheHebrewswouldbeacknowledgedastheuniversalreligion.Everynaturalmeansforthefulfilmentofthesepredictionsseemednowcutoff,nothingremainedbuttotakerefugeinthesupernatural;itwassaidthattheoldorderofthingsmustentirelypassaway;anewheavenandanewearthbecreatedandwhatwascalledtheKingdomofHeavenmightthenbeexpected.The"KingdomofHeaven,"aphrasethatfrequentlyrecursintheliteratureoftheJews,isused,nottodescribealocality,buttodenoteastateofaffairsonearth,inwhichthewillofheavenwouldbegenerallyobeyedwithoutthefurtherinterventionofhumanlawsandgovernment.TheagencyoftheMessiahwaslookedto,fortheconsummationofthesehappyhopes.Torewardthosewhohadperishedbeforehiscoming,manymoreoverofthosethatsleptinthedustwouldawaken,andthegeneralresurrectionofthedeadwouldsignalizetheapproachofthemillennium.

AttheendofthefirstcenturyB.C.theseexpectationshadcreatedawildfermentamongthepopulationofPalestine.Nowifever,itwas

fondlyurged,theymustbefulfilled.Theneedwasatitshighest,helpthenmustbenighest.Formattershadindeedgrownfrombadtoworse,thepoliticalsituationwasintolerable,afterthebriefspellofindependenceinthedaysoftheMaccabees,theRomanyokehadbeenfasteneduponthenecksofthepeople,andtheweightofoppressionbecametenfoldmoredifficulttosupportfromthesweettasteoflibertythathadprecededit.TherapacityoftheRomanGovernorsknewnobounds.Alandimpoverishedbyincessantwarsandthefrequentfailureofthecrops,wasdrainedofitslastresourcestosatisfytheenormousexactionsofaforeigndespot,whiletoallthiswasaddedthehumiliatingconsciousnessthatitwasanationofidolatorswhichwasthuspermittedtogrindthechosenpeople.

Norwastheconditionofreligionatallmoresatisfactory.ItistruethesplendidritesofthepublicworshipwerestillmaintainedattheTemple,andHerodwaseventhenre-buildingtheSanctuaryonascaleofunparalleledmagnificence.Brightwasthesheenandglitterofgolduponitsportals,solemntheceremoniesenactedinitshalls,andgrandandimpressivethevoicesoftheLeviticchoirsastheysangtothetunefulmelodyofcymbalsandofharps.Butthelessonsofhistoryteachusthatthetimesinwhichlavishsumsareexpendedonexternals,arenotusuallythoseinwhichreligionpossessestruevitalityandpoweranddepth.Herewasabrandflickeringnearextinction;herewasabuilderwhobuiltfordestruction;theTemplehadceasedtosatisfytheneedsofthepeople.

InthecitiesanattempttosupplythedeficiencywasmadebythepartyofthePharisees.Theysoughttobroadenandtospiritualizethemeaningofscripture--theylaiddownnewformsofreligiousobservancebymeansofwhicheveryeducatedmanbecame,sotospeak,hisownpriest.ThereligionofthePhariseeshoweverassumedanotinconsiderabledegreeofintellectualabilityonthepartofitsfollowers.Sofarasitwentitansweredverywellfortheintelligentmiddleclasses.Butoutinthecountrydistrictsitdidnotansweratall;notfortheherdsmen,notforthepoorpeasants,notforthosewhohadnoteventherudimentsoflearningandwhocoulddonothingwithalearnedreligion.Andyetthese



verymenbeforeallothersneededsomethingtosupportthem,somethingtoclingto,evenbecausetheyweresomiserablypoorandilliterate.Theydidnotgetwhattheywanted--theyfeltverystronglythattheburdensuponthemwereexceedinglygrievous;thatwhiletheysufferedandstarved,religiondweltinpalaces,andhadnoheartfortheirmisfortunes.Theyfeltthatsomethingwaswrongandrotteninthethenstateofaffairs,andthatanewstatemustcome,andaheaven-sentking,whowouldlendavoicetotheirneeds,andliftthemwithstrongarmsfromouttheirdespairanddegradation.NowherewasthisfeelingmoremarkedthaninthedistrictofGalilee.Abeautifullandwithgreen,grassyvalleys,grovesofsycamores,broadbluelakes,andvillagesnestlingpicturesquelyonthemountainslopes,itnourishedanardentandimpulsivepopulation.Theirimpatiencewiththeexistingorderofthingshadalreadyfoundventinfuriousrevolt.Judah,theirfamousleader,hadperished;histwosons,JamesandSimon,hadbeennailedtothecross;theMessiahwasdailyandhourlyexpected;variousimpostorssuccessivelyaroseandquicklydisappeared;whenwouldthehourofdeliverancecome;whenwouldthetrueMessiahappearatlast?

Itwasatsuchatimeandamongsuchapeople,thattherearoseJesusofNazarethinGalilee.Whatwasthestartlingtruthhetaught?Whatwasthenewrevelationhepreachedtothesonsofmen?Anoldtruth,andanoldsermon--Righteousness;nomore,meaningnothingatall,ameretritecommon-place,onthelipsofthetime-serverandtheplausiblevendorof

moralphrases.Meaningmightychangesforthebetter,wheninvokedwithaprofoundersenseofitssanctity,andanewsacrednessinlife,andlargerimpulsesforeverandforever.Righteousnesshetaught,andthechangethatwastocomebyrighteousness.Yes,sodeepwashisconviction,soprofoundlyhadthecurrentconceptionsofthedayaffectedhim,thathebelievedthechangetobenearathand,thathehimselfmightbeitsauthor,himselfMessiah.

ThenoveltyofJesus'workhasbeensoughtinvariousdirections.Ithasbeensaid,forinstance,toconsistintheoverthrowofphariseeism;anditistruethatherebukesthephariseesinthemostsevereterms;thesereproaches,however,werenotdirectedagainstthepartyasawhole,butonlyagainstitsmoreextravagantandunworthymembers.Thepharisees

werecertainlynota"raceofhypocrites,andagenerationofvipers."LetusrememberthatJesushimself,inthemain,adheredtotheirprinciples;thathiswordsoftentallystrictlywiththeirs;thateventhegoldensayingswhicharecollectedinthesermononthemount,maybefoundinthecontemporaneousHebrewwritings,whoseauthorswerepharisees.Thirtyyearsbeforehistime,Hillelaroseamongthepharisees,renownedforhismarvellouserudition,belovedandreveredbecauseofthegentlenessandkindlinessofhisbearing,themeeknesswithwhichheenduredpersecution,thelovingpatiencewithwhichheovercamemaliceandhate.Whenaskedtoexpressinbrieftermstheessenceofthelaw,hetothephariseereplied,"Donotuntootherswhatthouwouldstnotthatothersdountothee;"thisistheessence,alltherestiscommentary,--"goandlearn."Jesusfullyadmitstheauthority

ofthepharisees."Thepharisees,"hesays,"sitinMoses'seat;allthereforewhatsoevertheybidyouobserve,thatobserveanddo."IfwereadthegospelofMatthew,wefindthathedoesnotattempttoabrogatethepharisaiccommandments,butonlyinsistsuponthegreaterimportanceofthecommandmentsoftheheart."Woe,"hecries,"oryepaytitheofmint,ofaniseandcumin,butyehaveomittedtheweightiermattersofthelaw,judgment,mercyandfaith,theseoughtyetohavedone,_andnottoleavetheotherundone_,"--andagain,"Ifthoubringthygifttothealtar,andthererememberestthatthybrotherhathaughtagainstthee,leavetherethygiftbeforethealtarandgothyway;firstbe



reconciledtothybrother,andthen_comeandofferthygift_."Theleperalsowhomhecuredofhisdisease,headvisestobringthegiftprescribedbytheJewishritual.WecannotfullyunderstandtheconductofJesusinthisrespect,unlesswebearinmindthathebelievedthemillenialtimetobenearathand.AtthattimeitwassupposedtheancientceremonialofJudaismwouldcometoanendbyitsownlimitation;untilthattimearrived,itshouldberespected.Hedoesnotwagewaragainstthereligioustenetsandpracticesofhisage;onlywhentheyinterferewiththesuperiorclaimsofmoralrectitudedoeshebitterlydenouncethem,andeverinsiststhatrighteousnessberecognizedastheonethingaboveallothersneedful.

NoristhenoveltyofJesus'worktobefoundintheextensionofthegospeltotheheathenworld.Itseems,onthecontrary,highlyprobablethatheconceivedhismissiontoliewithinthesphereofhisownpeople,anddevotedhischiefcareandsolicitudetotheirwelfare."IamnotsentbutuntothelostsheepofthehouseofIsrael,"hesays;andthushechargeshisapostles,"GoyenotintothewayoftheGentiles,andintoanycityoftheSamaritansenteryenot.GorathertothelostsheepofthehouseofIsrael,andasyego,preach,sayingthekingdomofheavenisathand."AndyethisexclusivedevotiontotheinterestoftheJewsisnotatvariancewiththeworld-embracinginfluenceattributedtotheMessianiccharacter.Incommonwithallhispeople,hebelievedthatupontheapproachofthemillennium,the

nationsoftheearthwouldcomeoftheirownaccord,totheholymountofIsrael,acceptIsrael'sreligion,andthenceforthliveobedienttotheMessianicKing.Themillenniumwasnowbelievedtobeactuallyinsight."VerilyIsayuntoyoutherebesomestandingherewhoshallnottasteofdeathuntiltheyseetheSonofmancominginhisKingdom."FromtheJewishstandpoint,therefore,whichwastheonetakenbyJesusandtheearliestChristians,themissiontotheheathenwasunnecessary.

AndagainithasbeensaidthattheevangelofJesuswasnew,inthatitsubstitutedforthesternlawofretributionthemethodsofcharityandthelawoflove;thatwhiletheelderprophetshadtaughtthepeopletoconsiderthemselvesservantsofatask-master,hetaughtthemfreedomandbrotherhood.Butisthistrue?WillanyonewhohasreadtheHebrew

Prophetswithattention,venturetoassertthattheyinstilaslavishfearintotheheartsofmen;theywhoseeverylinespeaksaspiration,whoseeverywordbreathesliberty?Itistruetheirlanguageisoftensternwhentheydwellonduty.Anditisrightthatitshouldbeso,forsoalsoisdutysternandinmattersofconsciencesentimentalismisoutofplace,harmful.Simpleobediencetothedictatesofthemorallawisrequired,imperatively,unconditionally,notforpity'ssake,norforlove'ssake,butfortheright'ssake,simplyandsolelybecauseitisright.Buttheemotionsthatareneverthesufficientsanctionsofconductmayennobleandglorifyrightconduct.Andhowtenderlydotheancientprophetsalsoattunetheirmonitionstothepromptingsoftherichestandpurestofhumansympathies."Thyneighborthoushaltloveasthyself,"waswrittenbythem,and"HavewenotalloneFather,hasnot

oneGodcreatedusall."Thypoorbrothertooisthybrother,andinsecretshaltthougivecharity.Intheduskoftheeveningthepooraretocomeintothecornfieldsandgatherthere,andnomanshallknowwhohasgivenandwhohasreceived.Theancientprophetswereidealists,preachersoftheSpiritasopposedtotheformthatcrampsandbelittles.InJesuswebeholdarenewaloftheirorder,alivingprotestagainsttheformalismthathadintheintervalbecomeencrustedabouttheirteachings,onlydifferingfromhispredecessorsinthis,thatthehopeswhichtheyheldoutforadistantfuture,seemedtohimnightheirfulfilment,andthathebelievedhimselfdestinedtofulfilthem.



IfwecandiscovernothingthathadnotbeenpreviouslystatedinthesubstanceofJesus'teachings,thereisthatinthemethodhepursued,whichcallsforgenuineadmirationandreverence,themethodofrousingagainsttheoffenderthebetternatureinhimself:ofseemingyieldingtooffencebasedonanimplicittrustintheresilientenergyofthegood;ofconqueringothers,bythestrengthofmeeknessandthemightoflove.Hilleltoowasendowedwiththisstrengthofmeekness,andBuddhahadsaid,longbeforethedaysofJesus:"Hatredisnotconqueredbyhatredatanytime,hatredisconqueredbylove;thisisanoldrule."Butinthestoryofnootherlifehasthismethodbeenappliedwithsuchsingularsweetness,withsuchconsistentharmonyfromthebeginningtotheend.Whetherwefindhimintheintimatecircleofhisdisciples,whetherheisinstructingthemultitudealongthesunnyshoresofLakeGennesareth,whetherhestandsbeforethetribunalofhisjudges,orinthelastdireagoniesofdeath--heiseverthepatientman,thelovingteacher,themanofsorrows,wholooksbeyondmenandtheircrimestoanidealhumanity,andconfidesinthat;whogiveslargely,andforgivesevenbecausehegivessomuch.

Butweshallnottouchthetruesecretofhispoweruntilwerecallhissympathywiththeneglectedclassesofsociety;thatqualityofhisnaturewhichcausedthepoorofGalileetohailhimastheirdeliverer,whichproducedsolastinganimpressionuponhiscontemporaries,and

madethedevelopmentofhisdoctrinesintoagreatreligionpossible.Hisgospelwaspreeminentlythegospelforthepoor:hesatdownwithdespisedpublicans,hedidnotshunthecontaminationoflepers,naynorofthemoralleprosyofsin--hevisitedthehovelsofpaupersandtaughthisdisciplestopreferthemtothemansionsofthefortunate;heappliedhimselfwithpeculiarfervortothosedumbilliteratemassesofGalilee,whoknewnotwhithertheymightturn,towhattheymightcling.Hegavethemhope,hebroughtthemhelp.AndsoitcameaboutthatintheearlyChristiancommunitieswhichwerestillfreshfromthepresenceofthemaster,theappealtoconsciencehehadmadesopowerfully,resultedinsolidhelpfulness;soitcameaboutthatinthosepristinedays,theChurchwasarealinstrumentofpracticalgood,withfewforms,andlittleparade,butwithlovefeastsandthecommuniontable

spreadwithrepastsfortheneedy."ComeuntomeallyethatlaborandareheavyladenandIwillgiveyourest.Takemyyokeuponyouandlearnofme,***formyyokeiseasyandmyburdenislight."Itisfromsuchparticularsthattherewasdrawnthatfascinatingimagewhichhascaptivatedthefancyandattractedtheworshipofmankind.Theimageofthepalemanwiththedeep,earnesteyes,whorousedmentonewexertionsforthegood,wholiftedupthedown-trodden,wholovedlittlechildrenandtaughttheolderchildreninriddlesandparablesthattheymightunderstand,andthebriefcareerofwhoselifewashallowedallthemoreinmemory,becauseofthemournfultragedyinwhichitclosed.Allthenoblestqualitiesofhumanitywereputintothispictureandmadeitlovely.Itwasthehumanity,notthedogmaofJesus,bywhichChristianitytriumphed.Likearefreshingshowerintheperfumedspring,

hisgladtidingsofanewenthusiasmforthegoodcameuponthearidRomanworld,sickeningwiththedryrotofself-indulgence,andthirstingforsomeprincipletogiveapurposetotheemptywearinessofexistence.LikeamessagefromasphereoflightitspreadtotheGermanictribes,temperedtheharshnessoftheirmanners,taughtthemahigherlawthanthatofforce,andconqueredtheirgrimstrengthwiththemildpleadingsoftheMasterofmeeknessinfar-offGalilee.

Itisthemoralelementcontainedinitthatalonegivesvalueanddignitytoanyreligion,andonlythenwhenitsteachingsserveto



stimulateandpurifyouraspirationstowardthegood,doesitdeservetoretainitsascendancyovermankind.Claimingtobeofcelestialorigin,thereligionshavedrawntheirsecretspellfromthehumanheartitself.Thereisaprincipleofreverenceinbornineverychildofman,--thishewouldutter.Heseesthefirmamentabovehim,withitsuntoldhosts;hestandsinthemidstofmightyworkings,heisfilledwithawe;hestretchesforthhisarmstograsptheInfinitewhichhissoulseeketh,hemakesuntohimselfsignsandsymbols,saying,letthesebetokensofwhatnowordscanconvey.Butalittletimeelapses,andthesesymbolsthemselvesseemmorethanhuman,theypointnomorebeyondthemselves,andmanbecomesanidolator,notofstoneandwoodmerely.Thenitisneedfulthatherememberthedivinepowerwithwhichhissoulhasbeenclothedfromthebeginning,thatbytheforceofsomemoralimpulsehemaybreakthroughthefettersofthecreeds,andcastasidetheweightofdoctrinesthatexpresshisbestidealsnomore.Andsowefindinhistorythateverygreatreligiousreformationhasbeenindebtedforitstriumphs,nottothedoctrinesthatswamuponthesurface,buttotheswellingcurrentsofmoralenergythatstirreditfrombelow;nottothedoctrineoftheLogosinJesus'day,buttothetidingsofreleasewhichhebroughttotheoppressed,notto"justificationbyfaith,"inLuther'stime,buttothemightyreactiontowhichhisthunderousprotestlentavoice,againstthelewdnessandthelicenseofacorruptandcankerouspriesthood.Theappealtoconsciencehaseverbeentheleverthatraisedmankindtoahigherplaneofreligion.

Conscience,righteousness,whatistherenewinthese--theirmaximsareasoldasthehills?Truly,andasbarrenoftenastherocks.Thenoveltyofrighteousnessisnotinitself,butinitsnovelapplicationtotheparticularunrighteousnessofaparticularage.ItwasthusthatJesusappliedtothesinsandmocksanctitiesofhisday,theancienttruthsknowntotheprophetsandtootherslongbeforehim.Itisthusthateverynewreformerwillseektobringhometothemenofhisgenerationwhatitisthattheancientstandardofrightandjusticenowrequiresattheirhands.Thatallmenarebrothers,whodidnotconcedeit?Butthattheenslavedmantooisourbrother,whataconvulsiondidthatnotcause,whatvastexpenditureofbloodandtreasureuntilthatwasmadeplain.Thatweshouldrelievethenecessitiesofthepoor,who

willdenyit?Butthatasocialsystemwhichyearbyyearwitnessestheincreaseofthepauperclass,andtheincreaseoftheirmiseries,standscondemnedbeforethetribunalofReligion,ofjustice,howlongwillittakebeforethatisunderstoodandtakentoheart?Thefactsofrighteousnessarefewandsimple,buttoapplythemhowmighty,howdifficultatask.Thetimeisapproachingwhenthisstupendousworkmustbeattemptedanew,andwe,asmallphalanxinthearmyofprogress,wouldaid,withwhatpowerinusresides.Letthisinspireusthatwehavetheloftiestcauseoftheageforourown,thatwearehelpingtopavethewayforastrongerandfreerandhappierrace.Forbysolaboring,alonecanwefeelthatourlifehasameaningundertheskyandthesacredstars.

Theyearinwhichwehaveentereduponourjourneyispassingaway.To-nightwhenthemidnightbellssendforththeirclamorousvoices,weshallgreetthenewyear,andtheworkitbrings.Nopeacefultaskdareweexpect,butsomethingofgoodaccomplishedmayitsee.

"Ringoutwildbellstothewildsky,Theflyingcloud,thefrostylight,Theyearisdyinginthenight,Ringoutwildbellsandlethimdie.



"Ringouttheold,ringinthenew,Ringhappybellsacrossthesnow,Theyearisgoing,lethimgo,Ringoutthefalse,ringinthetrue."

X.THEFIRSTANNIVERSARYDISCOURSE.

ItisMay,thegladdestseasonoftheyear.Lifeisinthebreezes,lifeinthevernalgloryofthefields,lifeintheearthandintheskies.Ofold,menwerewonttogoforthatthistimeintotheforest,towreaththefountainswithgarlands,tocovertheirhouseswithgreenbranches,withsongsanddancestocelebratethetriumphoftheSpring.Happyfestivals,happyomens.

Ayearhasnowpassedsincewebeganourwork,andformanymonthswehavemetinthishallweekafterweek.Wehavereachedthefirstrestingplaceuponourjourney,anditbehoovesustolookbackoncemoreuponthepathwehavetravelled,andforwardintotheyetuntriedfuturethatawaitsus.

Whatwasitthatinducedustoenteruponsoperilousandformany

reasonssouncertainanenterprise?

Wefeltagreatneed.Religionwhichoughttostandforthehighesttruth,hadceasedtobetruetous.Wesawitatwarwiththehighestintelligenceoftheday;religionandconsciencealsoseemednolongerinseparablyconnected,astheyshouldbe.Wesawthatmillionsareannuallylavisheduponthemereluxuriesofreligion,gorgeoustemples,churchesandontheelaborateapparatusofsalvation;wecouldnotbutreflectthatifonetitheofthesumsthussetapartwerejudiciouslyexpendeduponthewantsofthemanywhoarefamishing,distressmightoftenberelieved,sicknessaverted,andcrimeconfinedwithinmorenarrowboundaries.Wesawaroundusmanywhohadlapsedfromtheirancientfaithbutstillpreservedtheoutwardshowofconformance,

encouragedinsoequivocalacourse,bytheadviceandexampleofnotedleadersinthechurchesthemselves.Wesawthatthegreattidesofbeingareeverywheresweepingmankindontolargerachievementsthanwereknowntothepast;onlywithinthechurchesallisstillandmotionless;onlywithinthechurchestheobsoleteformsofcenturiesagoareretained,orifconcessionstothepresentaremade,theyaretardy,ungraciousandinsufficient.Webeheldthattheessentialsofreligionareneglected,evenwhileitsaccessoriesareobservedwithgreaterpunctiliousnessthanever.

Wewerepassingmoreoverthroughaperiodofmomentousimportinourcountry'shistory.Thenationhadjustentereduponthesecondcenturyofitsexistence,andthegreatrecollectionsofwhatthefathershad

doneanddesignedfortherepublic,werefreshinourminds.WerecalledthememorablewordsofWashingtoninhisfirstinauguraladdress:"Thatthenationalpolicywouldbelaidinthepureandimmutableprinciplesofprivatemorality."Butwewerestartledtoobservehowgreatlyrecenteventshadfalsifiedthesehopesandfeltitourduty,withinourownlimitedsphere,torestoresomethingofthatnoblesimplicity,somethingofthathighfidelitytorighteousnesswhichitissaidadornedtheearlierdays,andonwhichalonethefortunesofthestatecanrestsecurelyhereafter.



Thenalsothequestion,howbesttoeducatethechildrentoaworthylife,confrontedus.Thedoctrinesofreligionascommonlyinterpreted,wecouldnolongerimparttothem;didweattempttodoso,theywouldbelikelytodiscardtheminlateryears,andwouldinthemeantimebeseriouslyinjuredintheirmoralestatebythestruggleanditsprobableissue.Ontheotherhandwewereawarethatthetemptationswhichsurroundtheyounginthiscomplexandhighlywroughtcivilizationofours,arepeculiarlydangerousandalluring,andbyalltheholiestinstinctsofhumanity,weconceivedourselvesboundtoprovidemoreeffectivelyfortheirmoralwelfare.Afewofusthereforetookcounselhowtheseobjectsmightbeattained,andwedeterminedtotakeastepinanewdirection.Wedidnotconcealfromourselvesthedifficultiesthatwouldattendwhatwewereabouttoundertake.Wemightexpecthonestopposition.Therewouldbenoneedtoshrinkfromthat.Wemightexpectmisconstruction,unintentionedorwithmaliceaforethought;wemightexpectalsocoldcomfortfromthoseilliberalliberals,whoareeagerenoughtoasserttheprinciplesoffreedomforthemselves,butrelaxaliketheirprinciplesandtheirtemperswhenthelimitsaretranscendedwhichtheyhavethemselvesreached,andwhich,onthisaccount,theyarbitrarilysetupasthebarriersoffutureprogress.Therewereotherobstaclesinherentinthenatureoftheworkitself.Butalltheseweighedlightlyinthescales,whenopposedtothesternconviction,thattherearecertainhideousshamsallowedtoflourishinourpubliclife;thattherearecertaingreattruthswhichoughttobebroughthome

withnewenergytotheconscienceofthepeople.

Uponwhatplatformcouldweunite.Toformulateanewcreedwasoutofthequestion.Howevercomprehensiveinitsstatementsitmightbe,naythoughithadbeenthecreedofabsolutenegation,fromwhichindeedwearefarremoved,itwouldneverhavecombinedoureffortsinpermanentunion.Andyetitwasplainthattobestrongandtoexertinfluence,wemusteffectafirm,cordial,enthusiasticagreementuponsomegreatprinciple.TheweaknessoftheLiberalPartyhadhithertobeen,asweknew,itsdreadoforganization.Itensuredtherebyforitsmembersagreatermeasureoffreedomthaniselsewhereknown,butitpurchasedthisadvantageatanimmenseexpenseofpracticalinfluenceandcoherency.Itsforcesarescattered,andineveryemergency,itfinds

itselfparalyzedforwantofunityinitsownranks.TheCatholicChurchhaspursuedtheoppositepolicy,andpresentsthemostnotableinstanceofitssuccessfulprosecution.Itissoformidable,mainlybecauseofitssplendidschemeoforganization,andthehighexecutiveabilityofitsleaders.Butitspowerismaintainedatacompletesacrificeoffreedom.Couldwenotsecureboth?Couldwenotbefreeandstrong?Thiswastheproblembeforeus,anditseemedtouswecould.

Whattheexigenciesofthemodernagedemand,morethanaughtelse,isanewmovementforthemoralelevationoftherace.Nowthebasicfactsofman'smoralnature,thoughinsufficientlyillustratedinpractice,areuniversallyadmittedamongcivilizedhumanbeings.Concerningthemthereisandcanbenodispute.Herethenappearedthesolidprincipleofour

union.Themoralidealwouldpointthewayofsafety,themoralidealwouldpermitustopreservethesacredrightofindividualdifferencesintact,andyettocombinewithourfellow-menfortheloftiestandpurestends.Takingthetermcreedthereforeinitswidestapplication,westartedoutwiththewatchword,DiversityintheCreed,UnanimityintheDeed.Thisfeature,ifanyatall,lendscharactertoourmovement,andbyitwouldwebejudged.Weclaimtobetherebydistinguished,aswellfromthosereligiouscorporationsthatbasetheirorganizationupondefinitetheologicaldogmas,asalsofromthegreatmajorityofLiberalswhomeetforpurposesofcontemplationandpoeticalaspiration,inthat



weputthemoralelementprominentlyforwardandbeholdinitthebondofourunion,thepledgeofourvitality.

Butattheverythresholdofourenterprise,weweremetbytheobjectionthatourmainpremiseisfalse;thatmoralityisimpossiblewithoutdogma,andthatinneglectingtheonewewerevirtuallyneutralizingoureffortstowardtheother.Itbecameourfirstandmostserioustaskthereforetoshowthefutilityofthisobjection,andtomakeclearbyanappealtophilosophyandhistorythattheclaimsofdogmaareconditional,whilethedictatesofmoralityareimperative.Then,havingestablishedthepriorityandsupremacyofthemorallaw,toexaminewhatmannerofsubstitutetheethicalidealcanofferustoreplacetheofficesofthedoctrinalreligions;whatarethehopesitholdsout,whatitsconsolations,whatitcangiveusforthepriesthoodandthechurch.Withthistaskwehavebeenoccupiedduringtheyearthathasgoneby,andnow,attheclose,weproposetoreviewoncemore,thechiefstepswhichwehavetakeninthecourseofourenquiry.

Wediscussedinthefirstplacethedoctrineofimmortality,andsomeofthemainargumentsuponwhichitiscommonlyfounded.

WenextproceededtotakeupthestudyoftheHebrewBible;foritisevidentthatsolongasthisbookisclothedwithinfallibleauthority,argumentsbasedonfactandlogicavailnothing,andreasonishelpless

beforeanyrandomscripturalquotation.Weexaminedthecompositionofthework:welearnedthatmanyofthoseportionsthatareesteemedmostancient,areofcomparativelyrecentorigin;thatthetextisstuddedwithdiscrepancies,andthatthemarksofsavageandcruelcustomssuchastheofferingofhumansacrificestotheDeity,arestillclearlyindentedonthesacredvolume.Theconclusionfollowedthatabooksofullofcontradiction,sodeeplytingedwiththeevidenceofhumanfallibility,couldnothavebeentheworkofadivineauthor.Theinspirationtheorybeingthusdivestedofitssupport,weconsideredhowbaneful*hadbeenitsinfluenceonthecourseofhumanhistory;howithadretardedtheprogressoftheJewsamongwhomitarose;howithadcheckedtheintellectualdevelopmentofEurope,howithadhamperedtheadvancementofscience;howithadofferedaspeciouspleaforthe

despotismofkings,andoftheholyInquisition;howinourowndaysithadbecomeinthehandsoftheSouthernslaveholdersamostformidablemeansofperpetuatingtheirinfamousschemeofoppression.Weconcludedthatwhateverisfalseandworthlessinthebookweshouldfeelatlibertytoreject,whilewhatisgreatandholywouldnotthereforebecomelessgreatorlessholytous,becauseitwasproventobeman'swork,man'stestimonytothedivinepossibilitiesinherentinthehumansoul.

Wewentonstrivingtopenetratemoredeeplytheoriginofthatmysteriouspowerwhichwecallreligion.Tousitappearedthatthefeelingofthesublimeistherootofthereligioussentimentinman.ThattheVedahs,Avesta,Koran,Biblearethesongsofthenationson

thethemeoftheinfinite;andthatthemoralideal,whetherweendowitwithpersonalityornot,presentstousthehighesttypeofsublimityandisthesoleobjectworthyofreligiousreverence.

"WhodareexpresshimAndwhoprofesshimSaying,'Ibelieveinhim?'Whofeeling,seeing,denyhisbeingSayingIbelievehimnot?

"Callitthenwhatthouwilt



Callitbliss,heart,love,God;Ihavenonametogiveit.Feelingisallinall,Thenameissoundandsmoke."

Wemaintainedlastly,thattheentranceofthemoralintothesphereofreligionhasendowedthelatterwithwhateverexcellenceitnowpossesses.

Weshowedinanothercourseoflectures,thateverygreatreligiousmovementhasbeenintheessence,aprotestagainsttheformalismandmockholinessofitstime,andderiveditsvitalimpulsesfromthemoralelementswithwhichitwassuffused.Weinstancedthecaseofmonotheism,which,aswebelieve,aroseinthestruggleoftheprophetsagainsttheimmoralritesofBaal:WementionedBuddha,thereformeroftheHindoos,whosesermonofunselfishnesswonforhimtheaffectionsofthepeople.WereferredonfrequentoccasionstothefactthatChristianitylikewisetriumphedbecauseofthehumanityofJesus:becausehewastheMasterofmeekness;becausehisgospelwasagospelforthepoor.Theresultofallwhichwastoconfirmthepriorityofmorality,andtoshowthatitisindeedthesourceofwhateverisdurableandvaluableintheCreeds.

TowardtheendofFebruarythetwohundredthanniversaryofthedeath

ofBenedictSpinoza,affordedusawelcomeopportunitytodwelluponthelifeandphilosophyofthatillustriousthinker.

Lateron,weendeavoredtocomprehendthecauseswhichhaveproducedthatremarkablechangethereligiousopinionsofmodernmen,thatisdailybecomingmorewidelyapparent.WefoundthemtobethecriticalinvestigationoftheBible,theprogressofthenaturalsciences,andindirectly,theinfluenceofcommerceandofindustry.Weattemptedtosetforthhowtheintroductionofmachinerybecamethemeansoffosteringthegrowthofscepticismevenamongthoseclassestowhomtheargumentsofscholarsandmenofsciencedonotappeal.Wespokeoftheenlightenmentofthemasses,andconsideredthetheoryofthosewhoholdthatareligion,evenwhenitisfoundtobefalse,shouldstill

bemaintainedasasalutarycurbuponthepassionsofthemultitude.Weinsistedthatthisviewofreligionisasunsoundasitisdegrading;thatwhileallmenmaynotbecapableofthehighestorderofintellectualaction,allmenarecapableofheartgoodness,andgoodnessisthebetterpartofreligion;thatagenerousconfidenceisthehighestprincipleofeducation,andthattotrustmenisthesurestmeansofleadingthemtorespondtoourconfidence;thatweshouldceasethereforetopreachthedepravityofhumannatureandpreachratherthegrandeurwhichispossibletohumannature;thatinfreedomalonecanwebecomeworthyofbeingfree.

AndagaininadistinctgroupoflectureswesoughttounfoldourconceptionoftheNewIdeal,andtopointoutthatwhichdistinguishes

itfromwhathasgonebefore.Wespokeofitsappealtothehighernature,ofitsteachingsconcerningtheInfinitewithinourselves.Wespokeoftheprieststhatshalldoitsservice;ofthesolaceitaffordsusbyitssummonstolargerduties;oftheethicalschoolsthatshallbeerectedforitsculture;ofthemannerinwhichwomenmaybepreparedtoaidinitspropaganda;lastlyoftheformwhichitmayassumeinthefuture,inourdiscourseontheOrderoftheIdeal.Thusfarhaveweproceeded.Weissuedourappeal,atfirst,asmenuncertainwhatthefortunesoftheirenterprisemightbe.Butwhileweavowedittobeanexperiment,weweredeeplyconvincedthatitwasanexperimentwhich



deservedtobetried.Andmoreandmoreasweekfollowedweek,theresponsefromyoursidecamebackfullandcordial;andmoreandmoreasthescopeandtheultimatetendenciesofourworkweredeveloped,newfriendscametouswhomwehadnotknown,anditbecameapparentthatthereisadeep,downrightpurposeinyourmidstwhichwillformabondofunionforusthatshallnoteasilybesnappedasunder.Untilatlastafteraperiodhadgoneby,youthoughtittimetoexchangeyourtemporaryorganizationforonemorestable,andyoudeclaredtoallwhomightbeinterestedinlearningit,thatitisyourintentionandyourhopetobecomeapermanentinstitutioninthiscommunity.

Wehavemadeabeginningonly.Ifwelookahead,dangersanddifficultiesstillliethicklyonourpath.Thelargerworkisstillbeforeus.Butwewillconfideinthegoodnessofourcause,andbelievethatifitbegoodindeed,intheenditmustsucceed.

Thecountryinwhichweliveismostfavorableforsuchexperimentsasours.Therearelandsofolderculture,andmen'thereofwidervisionandmaturerwisdom,butnowhere,asinAmerica,isatruthonceseen,soreadilyapplied,nowheredoeventhecommonorderofmensofeeltheresponsibilityforwhattranspires,andtheimpulsetoseethebestaccomplished.Herenoheavyhandofrulerscrushestheincipientgood.WhenthePilgrimssetoutontheirvoyageacrosstheunknownAtlantic,Robinson,theirpastor,theirleader,addressedthemoncemorebefore

theyembarked,andinthatsolemnhourofparting,warnedthemagainsttheself-sufficiencyofafalseconservatism,anddedicatedthemandthenewstatestheymightfound,totheincreaseandtheserviceoflargertruths.TolargertruthsAmericaisdedicated.

O,ifitwerethine,America,Americathathastgivenpoliticallibertytotheworld,togivethatspirituallibertyforwhichwepant,tobreakalsothosespiritualfettersthatloadthysonsanddaughters!Alloverthislandthousandsaresearchingandstrugglingforthebetter,theyknownotwhat.Ohthatwemightaidtheminthestruggle,andtheyus;andtheheartsofmanybeknittogetheroncemoreinacommonpurposethatwouldliftthemabovetheirsordid,wearycares,andennobletheirlivesandmakethemglorious!Thecropsarewaiting;maythereapers

come!

APPENDIX.

I.THEEVOLUTIONOFHEBREWRELIGION.

"Dansl'opiniondupeuplepourquicesliyresonteteecrits

lepointcapitaletessentieln'estcertespaslanarrationhistoriquc,maisbienlalegislationetl'idificationreligieuse."

In1795,FrederickAugustusWolfpublishedamodestoctavovolumeentitled"ProlegomenatoHomer,"fromwhoseappearanceisdatedthebeginningofaneweraofhistoriccriticism.ThecompositionofthepoemsofHomerformeditssubject.Forwellnightwentyyearstheauthorhadcollectedevidence,weighedarguments,andpatientlytestedhisresultsbyconstantrevision.Hisownwisheswereengagedonthesideof



theunityofthegreatGrecianepic.Buttheresultsofhisresearchescontinuedtopointintheoppositedirection,andatlasthisearnestdevotiontotruthcompelledhimtoadoptatheorythesoundnessofwhoseconstructionseemedtobenolongerquestionable.Hewasthusworthytobecomethe"founderofthescienceofphilologyinitspresentsignificance."**TheinfluenceofWolfsdiscoverywasnotconfinedtothestudyofclassicliteratureonly.

*"Intheestimationofthepeopleforwhomthesebookswerewritten,thecapital,essentialpointsurelywas,notthehistoricnarrative,butratherlegislationandreligiousedification."(Noldeke,'HistoireLitte'rairedel'AncienTestament,'p.19.)

**Bonitz,"UeberdenUrsprungderHomerischenGedichte."

Itquicklyradiatedthrougheverydepartmentofhistory."Ineverysingingage,"hesaid,"asinglesaeculumisalmostlikeasingleman.Itisallonemind,onesoul."*Thisconceptioninvolvedanewsociallaw,andradicallyalteredthecurrentopinionsconcerningtherelationofindividualefforttothelargerforcesthataffectthedevelopmentofnations.Thecreativeenergyofremarkablemindswasnot,indeed,lessenedinimportance,butspontaneity,inthisconnection,acquiredanewmeaning;andforthe_Deusexmachina_oftheoldentime

wassubstitutedthecumulativeforceofcenturiesofprogressiveadvancement,culminating,itistrue,atlastinthetriumphantsynthesisofgenius.ThecommotionwhichtheWolfiantheoryhasstirredupintheliteraryworldislargelyduetothewiderangeofideaswhichitaffected.Yetitwasitselfbutapartofthatgeneralmovementwhich,towardthecloseofthelastcentury,becameconspicuousinitseffectsoneveryfieldofhumaninquiry.Everywheretheshacklesofauthoritywerethrownoff,and,inplaceofblindlyacceptingthetestimonyofthepast,menturnedtoinvestigateforthemselves.Anewprincipleofresearchwaseverywhereacknowledged,anewmethodwascreated,andscience,naturalandhistorical,entereduponthatastonishingcareerofdiscoverywhoserichpromiseforthefuturewehavebutbeguntoanticipate.**

*InalettergiveninKttrte's"LebenundStudienF.AWolfs."i.,p.307.

**Scientificpursuitsaredistinguishedfromothers,notbythematerial,butbythemethodofknowledge.Themerecollectionofdata,howevermultipliedindetail,howeverabstrusethesubjectstowhichtheymayrefer,doesnotofitselfdeservethenameofscience.Thetermproperlyappliesonlywhenphenomenaareplacedincausalrelation,andthelawswhichgoverntheirdevelopmentaretraced.Measuredbythisstandard,everyattempttoexplainthegrowthofhumanthoughtandinstitutions,andtoelucidate

thelawswhichhaveactedintheprocessoftheirevolution,hasajustclaimtobeclassedundertheheadofscientificinquiry.

TotheimpetusgivenbyWolf,andtothenew-bornspiritofsciencewhichhecarriedintothesphereofphilology,weoweamongothervaluableresultsthebeginningsofamorecriticalinquiryintotherecordsoftheancientHebrewreligion.Indeed,theauthorofthe"Prolegomena"himselfclearlyforesawtheinfluencewhichhisbookwasdestinedtoexertonHebrewstudies.Inaletter,fromwhichwehave



alreadyquotedabove,hesays:"ThedemonstrationthatthePentateuchismadeupofunequalportions,thatthesearetheproductsofdifferentcenturies,andthattheywereputtogethershortlyafterthetimeofSolomon,may,erelong,beconfidentlyexpected.Ishouldmyselfbewillingtoundertakesuchanargumentwithoutfear,fornowheredowefindanyancientwitnesstoguaranteetheauthorshipofthePentateuchtoMoseshimself."*

*LetterinKorte's"LebenundStudienF.A.Wolf,"i.,p.309.

Thepredictionembodiedinthesewordssooncametrue.AhostofcompetentscholarstookupthestudyoftheHebrewBible,and,profitingbyWolf'sexampleandsuggestions,appliedtoitselucidationthesamecarefulmethods,thesamescrupuloushonestyofinterpretation,thathadprovedsosuccessfulintherealmofclassicalphilology.Theologiansbyprofession,theysetasidetheirpredilections,andplacedtheascertainmentofthetruthaboveallotherinterests.Theybelievedintheindestructiblevitalityofreligion,andwerewillingtoadmitthefulllightofcriticismuponthescripturalpage,confidentthatanylosswouldbetemporaryonly,thegainpermanent.Inthecourseoftheirresearchestheyarrived,amongothers,atthefollowingimportantconclusions:

ThattheeditorofthePentateuchhadadmittedintohisvolumeseveralaccountstouchingthemainfactsofearlyHebrewhistory;thattheseaccountsareoftenmutuallyatvariance;thatminuteanalysisandcarefulcomparisonalonecanleadtoanapproximatelytrueestimateoftheircomparativevalue;and,lastly,thatthetransmissionofhistoricalinformationhadinnowisebeentheobjectoftheHebrewwriters.Thehistoryoftheirpeopleserved,itistrue,toillustratecertainoftheirdoctrinesconcerningthedivinegovernmentoftheworld,andespeciallythepeculiarrelationsoftheDeitytothechosenrace;butitwasemployedmuchinthesenseofamoraltale,beingdesigned,nottoconveyfacts,buttoenforcelessons.HadtheacceptanceofanyparticularschemeofHebrewhistorybeendeemedessentialtotheintegrityofreligiousbelief,theBible,theyargued,

wouldcertainlynothaveincludeddiscrepantaccountsofthathistoryinitspages.Inthelightofthisnewinsight,itseemedadvisabletodrawadistinctionbetweenthebiblicalnarrativeproperandthedoctrineswhichitwasdesignedtoillustrate.Thelatterbelongtotheprovinceoffaith,andtheirtreatmentmaybelefttotheexpoundersoffaith.Theformerisadepartmentofgeneralhistory,andindealingwithitweareatlibertytoapplythesamecanonsofcriticismthatobtainineveryotherdepartment,withoutfearingtotrespassuponsacredground.ItisourpurposeinthefollowingpagestopresentsomeofthemoreinterestingresultsthathavebeenreachedinthestudyofthePentateuch,sofarastheyillustratetheevolutionofreligiousideasamongtheHebrews.Weshallbeginbysummarizingafewinstancesofdiscrepanttestimonytointroduceoursubject,and,inparticular,to

showhowlittletheordinarypurposesofhistoryhavebeenconsideredinthecompositionofthebiblicalwritings;howlittlethebaretransmissionoffactswasanobjectwiththesacredauthors.*

TheScripturesopenwithtwodivergentaccountsofthecreation.InGenesisi.,theworkofcreationproceedsintwograndmovements,includingtheformationofinanimateandanimateNaturerespectively.**Onthefirstdayadiffusedlightisspreadoutoverchaos.Thenaremadethefirmament,thedryearth,thegreenherbs,andfruit-bearingtrees;onthefourthdaythegreatluminariesarecalledintobeing;on



thefifth,thefishesandbirdsoftheair;onthesixth,thebeastsofthefield;and,lastly,crowningall,man,hisMaker'smasterpiece.Thehumanspeciesentersatonceuponitsexistence_asapair_."Maleandfemaledidhecreatethem."Inthesecondchapterthesamemethodicalarrangement,thesamedeliberateprogressfromthelowertothehigherformsofbeing,isnotobserved.Man,hisinterestsandresponsibilities,standintheforegroundofthepicture.ThetreesofthefieldarenotmadeuntilafterAdam;and,subsequentlytothem,thecattleandbeasts.Moreover,manisasolitarybeing.AcomparisonbetweenhislonelyconditionandthedualexistenceoftheremainderoftheanimalworldleadstheDeitytodetermineuponthecreationofwoman.AprofoundslumberthenfallsuponAdam,aribistakenfromhisside,andfromitEveisfashioned.*WemayobservethatthenameJehovah,asappertainingtotheDeity,isemployedinthesecondchapter,whileitisscrupulouslyavoidedinthefirst.Therecognitionofthisdistinctionhasledtofurtherdiscoveriesoffar-reachingimportance,buttoocomplicatedintheirnaturetobeheredetailed.Theconflictingstatementsofthetwoaccounts,whichwehavejustindicated,haveinducedscholarstoregardthemastheworkofdifferentwriters.InGenesisiv.welearnthatinthedaysofEnoch,Adam'sgrandson,menbegantocallonthenameofJehovah;inExodusvi,onthecontrary,thatthenameJehovahwasfirstrevealedtoMoses,beingunknowneventothepatriarchs.

*Manyofthefollowingexamplesarefamiliarlyknown.Afew,however,aredrawnfromrecentinvestigations.Compare,especially,Kuenen,"TheReligionofIsrael."

**Tuch's"Genesis,"p.3,secondedition,Halle,1871.

Gen.xvi.,Hagarisdrivenfromherhomebythejealousyofhermistress;escapesintothedesert;beholdsavisionofGodatawellinawilderness.Gen.xxi.,theflightofHagarisrelatedasecondtime.Thegeneralschemeofthenarrativeisthesameasabove;butthereareimportantdivergenciesofdetail.Asnarratedinchapterxvi.,theescapetookplaceimmediatelybeforethebirthofIshmael.Fifteenyearselapsed,**andIshmael,nowapproachingtheyearsofmaturity,isonce

moredrivenforthfromthehouseofAbraham.But,tooursurprise,inchapterxxi.theladisdescribedasamereinfant;heiscarriedonhismother'sshoulders,andlaidaway,likeahelplessbabe,undersomebushesbythewayside.Itappearsthatwehavebeforeustwoaccountstouchingthesameevent,agreeinginthemainincidentsoftheescape,butshowingadisagreementoffifteenyearsastothedateofitsoccurrence.ThenarrativesaredistinguishedasabovebytheemploymentofdifferentnamesoftheDeity:Jehovahintheoneinstance,Elohimintheother.

*ForanaccountofthecloseanalogybetweenthebiblicalnarrationandthePersianstoryofMeshjaandMeshjane,theirtemptationandfall,videibid.p.40.Itisof

specialimportancetonotethatreferencetotheaccountofGenesisii.ismadeonlyinthelaterliteratureoftheHebrews,ibid.,p.42.

**Gen.xvii.25.InquotingfromtheOldTestament,wefollowtheorderoftheHebrewtext.

Gen.xxxii.,JacobatthefordsofJabbok,afterwrestlingduringthenightwithadivinebeing,receivesthenameofIsrael.Gen.xxxv.,withoutreferencetothepreviousaccount,thenameIsraelisconferred



uponJacobatadifferentplaceandunderdifferentcircumstances.

Gen.xlix.,thedispersionoftheLevitesamongthetribesischaracterizedasapunishmentandacurse.Theyaretobeforeverhomelessandfugitive.Deuteronomyxxxiii.andelsewhere,itisdescribedasablessing.TheLeviteshavebeenscatteredasgoodseedovertheland.Theyareapostles,commissionedtopropagateJehovah'slaw.

PassingontothesecondbookofthePentateuch,wepausebeforetheaccountoftheRevelationonMountSinai,beyondadoubtthemostimportanteventofIsrael'sancienthistory.Exodusxxiv.2,Mosesaloneistoapproachthedivinepresence.Exod.xix.24,Aaronistoaccompanyhim.Exod.xxiv.13,AaronistoremainbelowandJoshuaistogoinhisstead.Again,Exod.xxxiii.20,instantdeathwillovertakehimwhobeholdsGod.Exod.xxiv.9-11,Moses,Aaron,twoofhissons,andseventyeldersofIsrael"ascended,andtheysawtheGodofIsrael....Also,theysawGod,anddideatanddrink."Oncemore,Exod.xxiv.4-7,Moseshimselfwritesdownthewordsofrevelationinabookofcovenant.Exod.xxiv.12,notMosesbutGodwritesthem;and,elsewhere,"TwotablesofstoneinscribedbythefingerofGod."

Exod.xx.enjoinstheobservanceofthesabbath-dayasamemorialofthereposeoftheMakerofheavenandearthonthesabbathofcreation.

Deut.v.,thefourthcommandmentisenjoinedbecauseoftheredemptionofIsraelfromEgyptianbondage.Exod.xxxiv.,anewversionofthedecalogue,differinginmostrespectsfromtheonecommonlyreceived,ispromulgated.*Thefirstcommandmentistoworshipnostrangegod;thesecond,tomakenogravenimages;thethird,toobservethefeastofunleavenedbread;thefourth,todeliverthefirst-bornuntoJehovah;thefifth,toobservethesabbath,etc.

*CompareDeWette's"EinleitungindasalteTestament"(Schrader'sedition),p.286,note53.

InExod.xx.wereadthattheguiltofthefatherswillbeavengeduponthechildrendowneventothethirdandfourthgeneration;inDeut.

xxiv.,thechildrenshallnotdiefortheirfathers.Everyoneforhisownsinshalldie.

InDeut.xxv.themarryingofadeceasedbrother'swifeisundercertainconditionsenjoinedasaduty.InLevit.xviii.itisunconditionallyprohibitedasacrime.

Exod.xxxiii.,Mosesremovesthetabernaclebeyondthecamp.Num.ii.,thetabernaclerestsintheveryheartofthecamp,withallthetribesofIsraelgroupedroundaboutit,accordingtotheirstandardsanddivisions.

Num.xvi.,thesonsofKorah,theleaderofthegreatLeviti-cal

sedition,perishwiththeirfather.Num.xxvi.,thesonsofKorahdonotperish.*

OfthefortyyearswhichtheIsraelitesaresaidtohavedweltinthedesert,notmorethantwoarecoveredbytheeventsofthenarrative.Theremainderarewrappedindenseobscurity.Thereis,however,asignificantfactwhichdeservesmentioninthisconnection.ThedeathofAaronmarks,asitwere,thecloseofIsrael'sjourney.Now,whileinNum.xxxiii.thedeathofthehigh-priestisdescribedasoccurringinthefortiethyear,inDeut.x.itisactuallyreferredtothesecond



yearoftheExodus.**

*Num.xxvi.11.Indeed,hadthesonsofKorahandeveryhumanbeingrelatedtohimperished,asNum.xvi.avers,howcouldweaccountforthefactthatKorah'sdescendantsfilledhighofficesintheTempleatJerusalemlateron?Thecelebratedsinger,Heman,himselfwasalinealdescendantofKorah.TothedescendantsofKorahalsoareascribedthefollowingPsalms:Ps.xlii.,xliv.-xlix.,lxxxiv.,lxxxv.,lxxxvii.,lxxxviii.

**InconnectionwiththissubjectitisofinteresttocompareGoethe'sargumentinthe"WestoslicherDivan"onthedurationofthedesertjourney.Here,asinsomanyotherinstances,theintuitiveperceptionofthegreatpoetanticipatedthetardyresultsofsubsequentinvestigation.

AbriefdigressionbeyondthebordersofthePentateuchwillshowthattheconflictoftestimonywhichwehavethusfarnoticed,affectingasitdoessomeoftheleadingeventsofancientHebrewhistory,doesnotdiminishasweproceedinthenarrative.InISamuelvii.itissaidthatthePhilistinesceasedtoharassthelandofIsraelallthedaysofSamuel.ImmediatelythereuponwereadofnewPhilistineincursionsmoredirefulthaneverintheirconsequences.*Thepopularproverb,"IsSaul

amongtheprophets?"isvariouslyexplained,ISam.x.andxix.TwodiscrepantaccountsaregivenofSaul'srejectionfromthekingdom,ISam.xiii.andxv.;ofDavid'sintroductiontoSaul,iSam.xvi.andxvii.ThecharmingstoryofDavid'sencounterwiththegiantGoliathtoldinISam.xvii.iscontradictedin2Sam.xxi.19,where,notDavid,butsomepersonotherwiseunknowntofame,isreportedtohaveslainthegiantGoliath,andalsothetime,place,andattendantcircumstances,aredifferentlyrelated.**

*Compare1Sam.vii.13,and1Sam.xiii.19.

**In1Chron.xx.5,weread,"thebrotherofGoliath."Thepurposeofthechangeisclear,andaccordswellwiththe

apologeticaltendenciesoftheauthorofChronicles.VideDeWette,"Einleitung,"etc.,p.370.Geiger,"Urschrift."

ItthusappearsthatthecompilerofthePentateuchhasadmittedavarietyofviews,notonlyontheancienthistoryofhispeople,butalsoonthegeneralsubjectofreligionandmorals,intohiswork;andthatthediscordantopinionsofdiverseauthorsandofdiversestagesofhumanprogressarereflectedinitspages.Itisthemonumentofagrandreligiousmovementextendingovermanycenturiesofgradualdevelopment.Itistheimageofanation'sstrugglesandgrowth.AscontainedinthebooksofthePentateuch,theMosaicreligionisareligiousmosaic.

Intheforegoingsketchwehaveobservedhowdeepamistofuncertainty

hangsovertheearliestperiod,thegoldenageofthehistoryoftheHebrews.Allisinastateofflux,andwhatappearedcompactandcoherentatadistanceyieldstoourtouchuponclosercontact.Togain _terrafirma_letusturntotheperiodwhichimmediatelysucceededthesettlementoftheIsraelitesinPalestine;aperiodinwhichtheoutlineofhistoricaleventsbeginstoassumeamoredefiniteandtangibleshape.

Itwasadismalandsorrowfulage.Thebondsofsocialorderwereloosened;thecurrentconceptionsoftheDeityandtheritesofhis



worshipweregrossandoftendegrading.Mutualjealousieskindledthefirebrandofwaramongthecontendingclans.AlmostthewholetribeofBenjaminwasextirpated.Abimelechslewseventyprincesupononestone.Lustandtreacheryranriot.Awilderdeedhasneverbeenchronicledintheannalsofmankindthanthatrelatedinchapterxix.ofJudges,noreverhasaterribledeedbeenmoreterriblyavenged.Now,lookingbackward,weask,IsittobebelievedthatinthefourteenthcenturyB.C.notonlytheleaderofIsrael,butalsotheirelders,theirpriests,nay,largenumbersoftheverypopulace,sharedinthemostexalted,themostspiritualconceptionsofGod,andnourishedthemostrefinedsentimentsinregardtohumanrelationships,whileimmediatelythereupon,andcenturiesthereafter,violenceandbloodshed,andidolatry,donotceasefromtherecords?Ithasbeenargued,indeed,thattheworshipofidolswasbuta_relapse_fromthepurityofaprecedingage;andthat,thoughthetraditionoftheMosaictimemayhavebeenlostinthesucceedingperiodamongthepeopleatlarge,itwasstillpreservedinthecircleofaselectfew,thejudges,KingDavid,andothers.These,itisbelieved,continuedtoremainfaithfuldisciplesofthegreatlawgiver.Buttheseverymen,thejudges--KingDavidhimself--allfallimmeasurablybelowthestandardthatissetupinthePentateuch.Iftheywereesteemedthetruerepresentativesofthenationalreligionintheirday,iftheverypointsinwhichtheytransgressedtheprovisionsoftheMosaiccodearedistinguishedbytheapprovalofGodandman,weareforcedtoconcludethatthat

standard--bywhichtheystandcondemned--didnotyetexist;that,inthedaysofDavid,thelawsofMoses,aswenowhavethem;wereasyetunwrittenandunknown.Letusillustratethisimportantpointbyafewexamplestakenfromtherecords.Gideonnosoonerreturnsfromvictorythanhemakesagoldenidolandsetsitupforworship.JephthahslayshisdaughterasanofferingofthanksgivingtoJehovah.InthePentateuchtheadorationofimagesisbrandedasthegravestofoffences.Davidkeepshouseholdgodsinhisownhome(Sam.xix).InthePentateuch,onitsopeningpage,Godisproclaimedasapurespirit,makerofheavenandearth.IntheeyesofDavid(1Sam,xxvi.19),theswayofJehovahdoesnotextendbeyondthebordersofPalestine.*InthePentateuchthearkofthecovenantisdescribedasthetreasuryofallthatisbrightestandbestintheworshipoftheoneGod.Nonebut

theconsecratedpriestdareapproachit,andevenheonlyundercircumstancescalculatedtoinspirepeculiarvenerationandawe.In2Sam.vi.,DavidabandonsthearktothekeepingofaheathenPhilistine.Inanearlyageofculture,whenfearandterrorinthepresenceofsuperiorforceenteredlargelyintothereligiousconceptionsoftheHebrews,thetakingofthecensuswasdeemedanactofgravetransgression.Itappearedavauntingofone'sstrength;itseemedtoindicateadefiantattitudetowardtheloftierpoweroftheDeity,whichhewouldcertainlyvisitwithcondignpunishment.Atalaterperiodthepriesthoodfounditintheirinteresttooverridethesescruples,andthetakingofthecensusbecameanaffairofhabitualoccurrence.InthelastchapterofSamuelthemoreprimitiveviewstillpredominated.SeventythousandIsraelitesaremiserablyslaintoatoneforKing

David'spresumptionincommandingacensusofthepeople.InthefourthbookofMoses,ontheotherhand,thenumberingofthepeoplenotonlyproceedswithouttheslightestevilresultingtherefrom,butattheexpresscommandofGodhimself.

InthebookofDeuteronomytheserviceofJehovahissaidtoconsistmainlyinthepracticeofrighteousness,inworksofkindnesstowardourfellows,insincereandholylovetowardtheDeity,whoisrepresentedasthemercifulfatherofallhishumanchildren.SecondSam.xxi.,afaminecomesuponthelandofIsrael.TheangerofJehovahiskindled



againstthepeople.Toappeasehim,Davidofferssacrifice--humansacrifice.ThesevensonsofSaulareslain,andtheirbodieskeptexposedonthehill,"insightofJehovah,"andthehorridoffering_isaccepted_,andthedivinewrathistherebypacified.**Truly,intheageofinthebeginningofthebarley-harvest.ThiscircumstanceseemstothrowlightontheprimitivemodeofcelebratingthePassover.Thattheriteofhumansacrificewasoriginallyconnectedwiththisfestivalisgenerallyacknowledged.Vide,e.g.,Exod.xiii.,2.Bysuchofferingsitwasintended,nodoubt,tosecurethefavorofthegodduringthecontinuanceoftheharvest.

*Banishmentbeingdescribedasatransferofallegiancetostrangegods.

**ItisimportanttonotethatthesevensonsofSaulweresacrificed

David,theHebrewswerefar,farremovedfromthehighstateofcultureinwhichtheidealconceptionofreligionthatpervadesDeuteronomybecamepossible.Andlongafter,whencenturieshadgonebyandthekingdomofJudahwasalreadyapproachingitsdissolution,thedirefulpracticesofDavid'sreignstillsurvived,andtherootofidolatryhadnotbeenpluckedfromtheheartofthepeople.StilldowehearofhumansacrificeperpetratedinthemidstofJerusalem,andsteedsandchariots

dedicatedtothesun-god,andimagesofthePhallus,andalltheabominationsofsensualworship,filledtheveryTempleofJehovah.

ButinthemeantimeanewforcehadenteredthecurrentofHebrewhistory.TheconvictionthatoneGod,andheanall-just,almightybeing,ruledthedestiniesofIsrael,begantotakeroot.IntheeighthcenturyB.C.authenticrecordsprovethatmonotheism,asaformofreligiousbelief,obtained,atleastamongthemoreillustriousmembersofthepropheticorder.Wehaveelsewhereattemptedtotracethecauseswhichledtotheriseofmonotheismatthisparticularepoch,andcandonomorethanbrieflyalludetothemhere.

WhenthemountaineersofSouthernPalestine,aftercenturiesof

protractedstruggles,hadsecuredthesafepossessionofindividualhomes,theendearmentsofdomesticlifewereinvestedwithasanctityintheireyesneverbeforeknown.TheattachmentoftheHebrewtowardhisoffspringwasintensified;hisdevotiontothewifeofhisbosombecamepurerandmoreenduring.Now,theprevailingformsofSemiticreligionoutragedthesefeelingsateverypoint.Thegodsofthesurroundingnationsweregodsofpleasureandofpain;andintheirworshipthesternpracticesoffanaticasceticismalternatedwiththewildestorgiesofsensualenjoyment.TheworshipofBaalMolochdemandedthesacrificeofchildren;thatofthelasciviousBaaltisinsultedthemodestyofwoman.ThenoblerspiritsamongtheHebrewsrebelledagainstboththesedemands.And,asthelatterwereputforthinthenameofthedominantreligion,theinevitableconclusionfollowedthatthatreligionitself

mustberadicallywrong.Thespiritofoppositionthusawakenedwasarousedintopowerfulactivitywhen,inthedaysofAhab,thequeen,supportedbyaninfluentialpriesthood,determinedtointroducetheformsofPhoenicianreligioninIsraelbymeasuresofforce.Theroyaledictswereresisted,butforawhiletheruleofthestrongerprevailed.Theleadersoftheoppositionwerecompelledtoflee,and,avoidingthehabitationsofmen,totakerefugeinwildandsolitaryplaces.Thustherupturewaswidenedintoschism,andpersecutioninflamedthezealandkindledtheenergiesofthatneworderofmenofwhomElijahisthewell-knowntype.



ThroughtheiragencytheemotionalnatureoftheSemiticracenowfoundexpressioninaformofreligiousworshiploftierbyfarthananythathadeverarisenamongmen.IfBaalwastheembodimentofSemiticasceticismandBaaltisthetypeofsensualorgiasticpassion,thenationalGodofIsraelnowbecamethetypeofanobleremotion,theguardianofdomesticpurity,thesourceofsanctity,theidealFather.Itisindeedtheimageofajustpatriarchthatfillsthemindandwingsthefancyoftheeldestprophets,whentheydescribethenatureofJehovah,theirGod.Jehovahisthehusbandofthepeople.Israelshallbehistrueandloyalspouse.ThechildrenofIsraelarehischildren.Unchastityandirreligionaresynonymousterms.Andthus,ifweerrnot,thepeculiarfeatureofHebrewcharacter,theirfaithfulattachmenttokithandkin,thestrengthandpurityoftheirdomesticaffections,servestoexplainthepeculiarcharacter,theoriginanddevelopmentoftheHebrewreligion.AndbecausetheessentialelementsofthenewreligionweremoralelementsitcouldnottoleratetheNature-worshipoftheheathens:andthewaywaspreparedforthegradualascendencyofthepurelyspiritualinreligion,whichafteragesofgradualprogressconstitutedthelast,thelastingtriumphofprophecy.

Afteragesofdevelopment!Forwearenottosupposethat,inthecenturiessucceedingHosea,thedoctrinesofthepropheticschoolshadbecomeinanysensethepropertyofthepeopleatlarge."Thepowers

thatbe"werearrayedagainstthem,andtheannalsofthekingsarerepletewithevidenceoftheirsufferings.ItwasinthelatereignofJosiahthattheyatlastreceivednotonlythecountenanceofthereigningmonarch,butalsoadecisiveinfluenceuponthedirectionofaffairs.InthatreignascrollwasfoundinthetempleimbuedwiththedoctrineoftheunityofGod,andbreathingthevigorousspiritoftheprophets.Initwasemphasizedtheheart'sreligioninpreferencetotheemptyceremonialofpriestlyworship.TheallegianceofthepeoplewasdirectedtowardtheGodwhohadelectedthemfromamongthenationsoftheearth,anddiredisasterwaspredictedincaseofdisobedience.Whenbroughttothekingandreadinhispresence,hewaspowerfullyaffected,anddetermined,ifpossible,tostemthetideofimpendingruinbysuchsalutarymeasuresofreformastheinjunctionsofthe

newly-foundScriptureseemedmosturgentlytocallfor.Theconcurrenceofmanycriticshasidentifiedthisscroll,writtenandpublishedatoraboutthetimewhentheyouthfulJosiahsucceededtothethroneofhisancestors,withDeuteronomy,thefifthofthebooksofMoses.ItdiffersmateriallyfromthemorerecentwritingsofthePentateuch.ThefamilyofAaronarenotyetexclusivelyendowedwiththepriesthood.ThepriestsareallLevites,theLevitesallpriests.Thereare,moreover,othervitaldifferences,intowhichthelimitsofthisarticledonotpermitustoenter.*ThedateofthecompositionofDeuteronomyisthusreferredtotheclosingdecadesoftheseventhcenturyB.C.**

*E.G.,therebellionofKorahisunknowntotheauthorofDeuteronomy.

**ThelanguageofDeuteronomyattestsitslateorigin.Sixty-sixphrasesofDeuteronomyrecurinthewritingsofJeremiah.VideZunz,ZeitschriftderDeutschenMorgenlandischenGesellschaft,xxviii.,p.670.

TheprinceswhosucceededJosiahfellbackintotheoldcourse,andquiteundidtheworkwhichhadbegunwithsuchfairpromise.Indeed,littlepermanentgoodwastobehopedforinsodisorderedaconditionofpoliticalaffairs,andfromthedegeneraterulerswhothenswayed



thehelmofstate.ThefortunesofthekingdomofJudahwereswiftlydeclining,andnotfullyaquarterofacenturyafterthepiousJosiahhadbreathedhislast,NebuchadnezzarburnedtheTempleofJerusalem,andcarrieditsinhabitantscaptivetoBabylon.

Heretofore,withbutabrief,brilliantinterlude,idolatryhadbeenthecourtreligionofJudah.Earlytraining,longusage,theexampleofreveredancestors,hadendeareditsformsandsymbolstotheaffectionsofthepeople.Resistancetotheinnovatingprophetswasnatural;menbeingthen,asever,loathtoabandonthesacredusageswhichhadcomedowntothemfromthedistantgenerationsofthepast.But,inthelongyearsofthecaptivity,aprofoundchangecameoverthespiritoftheHebrewpeople;"byBabel'sstreamstheysatandwept;"byBabel'sstreamstheyrecalledthememoriesoftheirnativeland,thatlandwhichtheyhadlost.ItwasthenthatthevoicesofJehovah'smessengers,whichhadsoearnestlywarnedthemoftheapproachingdoom,recurredtotheirstartledrecollection.Theyrememberedthemessage;theybehelditsfulfillment;thetestimonyoftheprophetshadbeenconfirmedbyevents;theoneGodtowhomtheytestifiedhadrevealedhisomnipotenceinhistory;andwithreadyassenttheexilespromisedallegiancetohiscommandmentsinthefuture.Theloveofcountry,thedreadoffurtherchastisement,thedearhopeofrestoration,combinedtowinthemtothepurerworshipoftheirGod,and,inthecrucibleofBabylon,thenationalreligionwaspurgedofthelastdregsofheathendom.

WiththepermissionofCyrus,theJewsreturnedtoPalestineandtheTempleatJerusalemwasrebuilt.Thequestionnowaroseinwhatformstheceremonialofthenewsanctuaryshouldbeconducted.Thetime-honoredfestivals,thesolemnandjoyfulconvocations,thesacrificesandpurificationsoftheoldentime,wereallmoreorlessinfectedwiththetaintofpaganism.Prophecywouldhavenoneofthem--prophecy,freechildofgenius,contemnedsacrifice,denouncedthepriesthood,eventhetempleanditsritual;*proclaimedhumblenessandloving-kindnessasthetrueserviceinwhichJehovahtakesdelight.Therewasformalismontheonehand,idealismontheother.Asisusualinsuchcases,whenthetimehadarrivedforturningtheoryintopractice,itwasfoundnecessarytoeffectacompromise.

*Jeremiahvii.4;Isaiahlxvi.1;Micahvi.6.

AsChristianityinlaterdaysadoptedtheyule-treeintoitssystem,andlitthelampsoftheheathenfestivalofthe25thofDecemberinhonorofthenativityofitsfounder,sotheleadersoftheJews,inthefifthcenturybeforeourera,adoptedthefeastsandusagesofanancientNature-worship,breathedintothemanewspiritinformedthemwithaloftiermeaning,andmadethemtokens,symbolsoftheeternalGod.Theoldfoeswerethusreconciled;priesthoodandprophecyjoinedhands,andwerethenceforthunited.Asanoffspringofthisunion,webeholdanewcodeoflawsandprescriptions,whosemarkedandinharmoniousfeaturesatoncebetraythedualnatureofitsprogenitors."Aroughpreliminary

draft,asitwere,"ofthiscode,ispreservedinthebookofEzekiel,composedprobablyaboutthemiddleofthefifthcentury.Initsfinishedandfinalshape,itformsthebulkofastilllaterwork--ofLeviticus,namelythethirdofthebooksofthePentateuch:ofallthediscoveriesofcriticismnonemorenoteworthy,nonewearepermittedtoconsidermoreassured.Whatlendsadditionalcertaintytotheresultisthecircumstancethatitwasreachedindependentlybytwoofthemostesteemedscholarsofourday,theoneaProfessorofTheologyintheUniversityofLeyden,*theotheraveteranofthought,whosebrowiswreathedbytheripehonorsofmorethanfourscoreyears.**Letus



brieflyadverttothelineofargumentbywhichthisastonishingconclusionwasreached:

*Prof.A.Kuenen.

**ThevenerableDr.Zunz,ofBerlin.

TheauthorofthebookofEzekielwasapriest,andoneconfessedlyloyaltothesanctuaryofJerusalem.Now,hadthelawsoftheLeviticalcode,whichminutelydescribetheritualofthatsanctuary,existed,orbeenregardedasauthoritativeinhisday,hecouldnot,wouldnothavedisregarded,muchlesscontradicted,theirprovisions.Hedoesthis,and,beitremarked,inpointsofcapitalimportance.Inchapterxlv.ofEzekielarementionedthegreatfestivals,withthesacrificesappropriatetoeach;butthefeastofPentecost,commandedinLeviticus,isentirelyomitted;alsothatoftheeighthdayoftabernacles.Thesecondofthedailyburnt-offerings,uponwhichthelegislatorofthefourthbookofMosesdwellswithsuchmarkedemphasis,isnotcommanded.TheorderofsacrificesappointedinEzekielisatvariancewiththatinthemorerecentcode.Ezekielnowherementionsthearkofthecovenant.Accordingtohim,thenewyearbeginsonthetenthoftheseventhmonth,whilethefestivalofthetrumpets,ordainedinLeviticusforthefirstofthatmonth(thepresentnewyearoftheJews),isnowherereferredto.Wearenottosuppose,however,thatthefestivals,theark,etc.,

didnotyetexistinthetimeofEzekiel.Theyexisted,nodoubt,butwerestilltoointimatelyassociatedwithpagancustomsandsuperstitionstoreceiveormeritthecountenanceofapropheticwriter.InLeviticustheprocessofassimilationabovedescribedhadreacheditsclimax.Thenewmeaninghadbeensuccessfullyengraftedupontheritesandsymbolsoftheoldentime;andtheywerethenceforthfreelyemployed.ThelegislationoftheLeviticalcodeexhibitsthefamiliarfeatureswhichineveryinstancemarktheascendencyorconsolidationofthehierarchicalorder.Thelinesofgradationanddistinctionbetweenthemembersoftheorderamongthemselvesarepreciselydrawnandstrictlyadheredto.Theprerogativesofthewholeorderasagainstthepeoplearefencedaboutwithstringentlaws.Therevenuesoftheorderarelargelyincreased.IntheoldercodeofDeuteronomy,theannual

tithesweresetapartforafestivaloccasion,andgivenovertotheenjoymentofthepeople.Inthenewcode,thehierarchyclaimsthetithesforitsownuse.Newtaxesareinvented.ThebestportionsofthesacrificialanimalarereservedforthebanquetsoftheTemple.Thefirst-bornofmenandcattlebelongtothepriesthood,andmustberansomedbythepaymentofasumofmoney.InnoperiodpriortothefifthcenturyB.C.wasthehierarchypowerfulenoughtodesignsuchlaws.Atthattime,however,whenintheabsenceofatemporalsovereignthey,withthehigh-priestattheirhead,weretheacknowledgedrulersofthestate,theywerebothpreparedtoconceiveandabletocarrythemintoeffect.ThelanguageofLeviticuscontributesnotalittletobetrayitslateorigin.*TheperiodinthehistoryoftheJews,whenthefearoftakingthenameoftheLordinvaininducedmentoavoid,

ifpossible,mentioningitatall.WefindhaShemintheabovesenseinLev.xxiv.11.authorshipofMosesattributedtotheLeviticalcodeissymbolical.ThenameofMosesisutterlyunknowntotheelderprophets.

*Tomentiononlyasingleinstance,haShem(meaningthename,i.e.theineffablenameofGod)wasnotemployeduntilverylate.

Inalltheirmanifoldwritingsitdoesnotoccurasingletime,thoughtheymakefrequentreferencetothepast.Therecannowbelittledoubt



thatthecompositionofthebulkofLeviticus,andofconsiderableportionsofthebooksofNumbers,Exodus,andevenpartsofGenesis,belongstotheepochofthesecondTemple,andthatthedateofthesewritingsmaybeapproximatelyfixedataboutonethousandyearsafterthetimeofMoses.AstothestoryofIsrael'sdesertwanderings,itrestsuponancienttraditionswhosecharacteritisnotourpresentbusinesstoinvestigate.Itwassuccessivelyworkedupinvariousschoolsofpriestsandprophets,andthisaccountsforthehostofdiscrepanciesitcontains,someofwhichhavebeennoticedinthebeginningofthisessay.Itwasfinallyamplifiedbytheinventivegeniusofthesecond-Templepriesthood,whosucceededinheighteningthesanctityoftheirowninstitutionsbytracingthembacktoarevered,heroicperson,whohadlivedinthedimdaysofremoteantiquity.

Intheprecedingpageswehaveindicatedthemoreimportantphasesofthatconflictwhichendedintheestablishmentofmonotheism,aconflictwhosetraces,thoughsometimesbarelylegible,arestillpreservedinourrecords.WesawinthefirstinstancethattheMosaicageisshroudedinuncertainty.Wepointedoutthatpuremonotheismwasunknowninthetimeoftheearlykings.Webrieflyreferredtotheriseofmonotheism.Finally,weendeavoredtoshowhowthepropheticideahadbeensuccessivelyexpressedinvariouscodes,eachcorrespondingtoacertainstageinthegreatprocessofevolution.Fromwhatwehavesaid,itfollowsthatthepropheticidealofreligionistherootandcore

ofallthatisvaluableintheHebrewBible.Thelaws,rites,andobservances,inwhichitfoundatemporaryandchangefulexpression,maylosetheirvitality;itwillalwayscontinuetoexertitshighinfluence.Itwasnottheworkofoneman,norofasingleage,butwasreachedinthelongcourseofgenerationsongenerations,evolvedamiderrorandvice,slowly,andagainstalltheoddsoftime.IthasbeensaidthattheBibleisopposedtothetheoryofevolution.TheBibleitselfisaprominentexampleofevolutioninhistory.Itisnothomogeneousinallitsparts.Thereareportionsfilledwithtalesofhumanerrorandfallibility.Thesearetheincipientstagesofanearlyage--thedarkanddreadbeginnings.Thereareothersthrillingwithnoblestemotion,freightedwitheternaltruths,breathingcelestialmusic.Thesearethetriumphandthefruitionofalaterday.Itis

thusbydiscriminatingbetweenwhatisessentiallyexcellentandwhatiscomparativelyvaluelessthatweshallbestreconcilethediscordantclaimsofreasonandoffaith.TheBiblewasneverdesignedtoconveyscientificinformation,norwasitintendedtoserveasatext-bookofhistory.Initsethicalteachingsliesitstruesignificance.Onthemitmayfairlyrestitsclaimstotheimmortalreverenceofmankind.

TherewasatimeintheoldendaysofGreecewhenitwasdemandedthatthepoemsofHomershouldberemovedfromtheschools,lestthemindsoftheyoungmightbepoisonedbytheweedsofsuperstitiousbelief.Plato,thepoet-philosopher,itwaswhourgedthisdemand.Thattimeispast.Thetalesofthegodsandheroeshavelongsinceceasedtoenticeourcredulity.ThestoryofAchilles'swrathandthewanderingsofthesage

Ulyssesarenotbelievedashistory,butthebeautyandfreshnessandthegoldenpoetryoftheHomericepichavearealityalltheirown,andareadelightandaglorynow,astheyhaveeverbeenbefore.TheBiblealsoisaclassicalbook.Itistheclassicalbookofnobleethicalsentiment.Initthemortalfear,theoverflowinghope,thequiveringlongingsofthehumansoultowardthebetterandthebest,havefoundtheirfirst,theirfreshest,theirfittestutterance.Inthisrespectitcanneverbesuperseded.

ToGreekphilosophyweowetheevolutionofthelogicalcategories;to



Hebrewprophecy,thepurecanonofmoralprincipleandaction.Thatthisresultwastheoutcomeofalongprocessofsufferingandstrugglecannotdiminishitsvalueinourestimation.WhenwecomparethedegradingofficesoftheHebrewreligioninthedaysofthejudgeswiththeloftyaspirationsofthesecondIsaiah,whenweremembertheutterabyssofmoralabasementfromwhichthenoblerspiritsoftheHebrewsrosetothefreeheightsofprophecy,ourconfidenceinthedivinepossibilitiesofthehumansoulisreinvigorated,ouremulationiskindled,andfromthegreatthingsalreadyaccomplishedwegatherthecheeringpromiseofthegreaterthingsthatareyettocome.Itisinthismoralincentivethatthepracticalvalueoftheevolutionarytheorychieflylies.*

*MostaptlyhasthisthoughtbeenexpressedinthelineswithwhichGoethewelcomedtheappearanceofF.A.Wolfs"Prolegomena."

"ErstdieGesundheitdesMannes,der,endhchvomNamenHomerosKuhnunsbefreiend,unsauchflihrtindievollereBahn.DennwerwagtemitGetterndenKampf?undwermitdemEinen?--DochHomeridezuseyn,auchnuralsletzter,istschon."

TheElegyofHermannundDorothea

II.REFORMEDJUDAISM.

TheJewsarejustlycalledapeculiarpeople.Duringthepastthreethousandyearstheyhavelivedapartfromtheirfellow-men,inastateofvoluntaryorenforcedisolation.ThelawsofthePentateuchdirectedthemtoavoidcontactwithheathens.Christianityinturnshunnedandexecratedthem.Proudandsensitivebynature,subjectedtoeveryspeciesofhumiliationandcontempt,theyretireduponthemselves,andcontinuedtobewhattheseerfromAramhaddescribedthemintheolden

time,"Apeoplethatdwellsinsolitude."*Itfollowedthat,intheprogressoftime,idiosyncrasiesofcharacterweredeveloped,andhabitsofthinkingandfeelinggrewupamongstthem,whichcouldnotbutcontributetoalienatethemstillmorefromthesurroundingworld.Theyfeltthattheywerenotunderstood.Theyweretooshytoopentheirconfidencetotheiroppressors.Theyremainedanenigma.AtwideintervalsbooksappearedpurportingtogiveanaccountoftheJewsandtheirsacredcustoms.Buttheseattemptswere,inthemain,dictatedbynojustorgenerousmotive.Theirauthors,narrowbigotsorrenegadesfromJudaism,ransackedthevastliteratureoftheHebrewpeopleforsuchscatteredfragmentsasmightbeusedtotheirdiscredit,andexhibitedtheseassamplesofJewishmannersandJewishreligion.Theimagethuspresented,itisneedlesstosay,wasextremely

untrustworthy.Andyetthewritingsofthesepartialjudgeshaveremainedalmosttheonlysourcesfromwhichevenmanymodernwritersareaccustomedtodrawtheirinformation.ThehistorianisyettocomewhowilldispelthedensemistsofprejudicethathavegatheredaboutJewishhistory,andrevealtheinwardlifeofthiswonderfulpeople,whoseperennialfreshnesshasbeenpreservedthroughsomanycenturiesofthemostseveretrialsandpersecution.Inonerespect,indeed,letushastentoadd,thepopularjudgmentconcerningtheJewshasneverbeendeceived.



*Numbersxxiii.9.

Theintenseconservatisminreligionforwhichtheyhavebecomeproverbialisfullyconfirmedbyfacts.Thereexistsnootherraceofmenthathasapproveditsfidelitytoreligiousconvictionforanequalperiod,underequaldifficulties,andamidequaltemptations.Antiochus,Titus,Firuz,Reccared,EdwardI.ofEngland,PhilipAugustusofFrance,FerdinandofSpain,exhaustedtheresourcesoftyrannyinvaintoshaketheirconstancy.Theirpowerofresistancerosewiththeoccasionthatcalleditforth;andtheirfervidloyaltytothefaithtransmittedtothembythefathersneverappearedtogreater,advantagethanwhenitcostthemtheirpeace,theirhappiness,andtheirlifetomaintainit.Sincethecloseofthelastcentury,however,agreatchangehasapparentlycomeovertheJewishpeople.Notonlyhavetheyabandonedtheirformerattitudeofreserveandmingledfreelywiththeirfellow-citizensofwhatevercreed,notonlyhavetheytakenaleadingpartinthegreatpoliticalrevolutionsthatsweptoverEurope,butthepassionforchange,socharacteristicoftheageinwhichwelive,hasextendedeventotheirtime-honoredreligion;andamovementaimingatnothinglessthanthecompletereformationofJudaismhasarisen,andrapidlyacquiredthelargestdimensions.Theveryfactthatsuchamovementshouldexistamongsuchapeopleisrightlyinterpretedasasignofthetimesdeservingofcarefulandcandidconsideration;andgreatinteresthasaccordinglybeenmanifestedoflateonthesubject

ofJewishReform.Inaseriesofarticlesweshallundertaketogiveabriefsketchoftheoriginandbearingsofthemovement.ButbeforeaddressingourselvestothistaskitwillbenecessarytoreviewafewofthemaincausesthathaveenabledtheJewstoperdureinhistory,andtoconsiderthemotivesthatimpelledthemtoresistchangesolong,ifwewouldproperlyappreciatetheprocessoftransformationthatisevennowtakingplaceamongthem.AmongtheefficientforcesthatconducedtothepreservationoftheJewishpeoplewerankhighest:

THEPURITYOFTHEIRDOMESTICRELATIONS

Thesacrednessofthefamilytieistheconditionbothofthephysicalsoundnessandthemoralvigorofnations.Thefamilyistheminiaturecommonwealth,uponwhoseintegritythesafetyofthelargercommonwealthdepends.Itistheseedplotofallmorality.Inthechild'sintercoursewithitsparentsthesentimentofreverenceisinstilled--theessenceofallpiety,allidealism;alsothehabitofobediencetorightfulauthority,whichformssoinvaluableafeatureinthecharacteroftheloyalcitizen.Inthecompanionshipofbrothersdeferencetotherightsofequalsispracticallyinculcated,withoutwhichnocommunitycouldexist.Therelationsbetweenbrotherandsistergivebirthtothesentimentofchivalry,--regardfortherightsoftheweaker,--andthisformsthebasisofmagnanimity,andeverygenerousandtenderquality

thatgraceshumanity.Reverenceforsuperiors,respectforequals,regardforinferiors,--theseformthesupremetrinityofthevirtues.Whateverisgreatandgoodintheinstitutionsandusagesofmankindisanapplicationofsentimentsthathavedrawntheirfirstnourishmentfromthesoilofthefamily.Thefamilyistheschoolofduties.Butithasthisdistinguishingexcellency,thatamongthosewhoarelinkedtogetherbythestrongtiesofaffectiondutyisfoundedonlove.Onthisaccountitbecomestypicaloftheperfectmoralityinalltherelationsoflife,andweexpressthenoblestlongingsofthehumanheartwhenwespeakofatimetocomeinwhichallmankindwillbe



united"asonefamily."NowthepreeminenceoftheJewsinpointofdomesticpuritywillhardlybedisputed."Inthisrespecttheystandoutlikeaboldpromontoryinthehistoryofthepast,singularandunapproached,"saidthephilosopherTrendelenburg.*AccordingtotheprovisionsoftheMosaicCode,thecrimeofadulteryispunishedwithdeath.Themostminutedirectionsaregiventouchingthedressofthepriestsandthecommonpeople,inordertocheckthepruriencyoffancy.Thescaleofforbiddenmarriagesiswidelyextendedwiththesameendinview.

*VidetheessayontheOriginofMonotheisminJahrbuchdesVereinsfurWissenschaftlichePadagogik,VolIX.1877,bytheauthorofthisarticle.

AlmosttheentiretribeofBenjaminisextirpatedtoatoneforanoutrageuponfemininevirtuecommittedwithinitsborders.Theundutifulsonisstonedtodeathinthepresenceofthewholepeople.Thathusbandandwifeshallbecome"asoneflesh,"isaconceptionwhichwefindonlyamongtheJews.AmongthemthepictureofthetruehousewifewhichisunrolledtousinProverbshaditsoriginal,--thepictureofherwhounitesallwomanlygraceandgentleness,inwhoseenvironmentdwellcomfortandbeauty,"whosehusbandandsonsriseuptopraiseher."ThemarriagetiewasheldsosacredthatitwasfreelyusedbytheprophetstodescribetherelationsbetweentheDeityandthechosenpeople.

Jehovahiscalledthehusbandofthepeople.Israelshallbehistrueandloyalspouse.ThechildrenofIsraelarehischildren.TheworshipoffalsegodswasdesignatedbytheHebrewwordthatsignifiesconjugalinfidelity.ThisfeatureofJewishliferemainedequallyprominentinlatertimes.IntheageoftheTalmudmarriagewascalledHillula,--asongofpraise!Themostholydayoftheyear,thetenthoftheseventhmonth,adayoffastingandtheatonementofsins,wasdeemedaproperoccasiontocollecttheyoungpeopleforthepurposeofchoosinghusbandsandwives.OnthatdaythemaidensofJerusalem,arrayedinpurewhite,wentoutintothevineyardsthatcoveredtheslopesoftheneighboringhills,dancingastheywent,andsingingasthebandsofyouthcameuptomeetthemfromthevalleys."Youth,raisenowthineeyes,"sangthebeautifulamongthem,"andregardherwhomthou

choosest.""Looknottobeauty,"sangthewell-born,"butrathertoancientlineageandhighdescent."Lastly,thosewhowereneitherbeautifulnorwellborntookupthestrain,andthustheysang:"Treacherousisgrace,andbeautydeceitful;thewomanthatfearsGodaloneshallbepraised."TheappropriatenessofsuchproceedingsontheAtonementdaywasjustifiedbytheremarkthatmarriageisitselfanactofspiritualpurification.ThehighvalueattachedtotheinstitutionofthefamilyisfurtherillustratedbymanytenderlegendsoftheTalmudwhichwecannotherestoptorecount.Aseparategate,itissaid,wasreservedinSolomon'sTemplefortheuseofbridegrooms,beforewhichtheyreceivedthefelicitationsoftheassembledpeople.Themarriagecelebrationwasessentiallyafestivalofreligion.Sevendaysitlasted.TheTalmudiclaw,usuallysounbendinginitsexactions,relaxed

itsausterityinfavoroftheseauspiciousoccasions,andrecommendedtoalltorejoicewiththejoyful.OntheSabbathofthemarriage-week,theyounghusbandwasreceivedwithpeculiarhonorsinthesynagogue,andtheliturgyofthemediaevalJewsiscrowdedwithhymnscomposedinhonorofthesesolemnreceptions.Ifawholecongregationthusunitedtomagnifyandsanctifytheerectionofanewhome,thecontinuedpreservationofitssanctitymightsafelybelefttothejealouswatchfulnessofitsinmates.CasesofsensualexcessorofunfilialconducthavebeenextremelyinfrequentamongtheJews,downtomoderntimes.Howevermeantheoutwardappearanceoftheirhomesmightbe,



themoralatmospherethatpervadedthemwasrarelycontaminated.Ifthequestionbeasked,howitcameaboutthatsofeebleapeoplecouldresistthemalevolenceofitsfoes;thatanation,deprivedofanyvisiblerallying-point,withnopoliticalorreligiouscentretocementtheirunion,hadnotlongsincebeenwipedoutfromtheearth'ssurface,weanswerthatthehearthwastheirrallying-pointandthecentreoftheirunion.Therethescatteredatomsgainedconsistencysufficienttowithstandthepressureoftheworld.Thithertheycouldcometorecreatetheirtornandlaceratedspirits.Therewasthewell-springoftheirpower.

THESCHOOLS.

IftheJewishpeoplewerepreservedinmoralvigorbytheinfluenceoftheirdomesticlife,thecaretheybestowedontheeducationoftheyoungkeptthemintellectuallyfresh.Schoolswereerectedineverytownandcountrydistrict.ItwasforbiddenaJewtoresideincitieswherenoprovisionhadbeenmadefortheinstructionofchildren.Teacherswerecalledtheguardiansofcities.ThedestructionofJerusalemwasattributedtothefactthattheschoolshadbeensufferedtofallintoneglect.Synagogueswereoftenusedforpurposesofprimaryinstruction.

"Asageisgreaterthanaprophet,"saidtheproverb.Toincreaseinknowledge,atleastinacertainkindofknowledge,wasapartoftheJew'sreligion.AccordingtothetheoryoftheRabbiestherevelationofGodtomanisfullyembodiedinthebooksoftheOldTestament,especiallyinthebooksofthePentateuch,commonlycalledtheTora,--theLaw.Theycontain,eitherbydirectstatementorbyimplication,whateveritisnecessaryformentoknow.Theyanticipateallfuturelegislation.Thoughapparentlyscantyinsubstance,theyarerepletewithsuggestionsofprofoundandinexhaustiblewisdom.Topenetratethehiddenmeaningsof"theLaw"became,onthisaccount,theprimaryobligationofthedevout;andignorancewasnotonlydespisedonitsownaccount,butwas,inaddition,brandedasasignofdeficientpiety.TheordinancesoftheJewishsagesareallostensiblydeduced

fromthewordsoftheSacredLaw.Withoutsuchsanctionnoenactmentofanylaterlawgiver,howeversalutaryinitself,couldaspiretogeneralrecognition.Thecivilandcriminallaw,theprinciplesofscience,sanitaryandpoliceregulations,eventherulesofcourtesyanddecorum,arealikerestedonscripturalauthority.TheentireTalmudmayberoughlydescribedasanextendedcommentaryontheMosaicLaw.*TheauthorsoftheTalmudledastudiouslife,andreliedingreatmeasureuponthehabitofstudytopreservethevitalityoftheirfaith.Amongthesayingsofthesages**wereadsuchasthese.JosebenJoesersays:"Letthyhousebetheresortofthewise,andletthedustoftheirfeetcoverthee,anddrinkinthirstilytheirwords."JoshuabenPerachiasays:"Gettheeaninstructor,gainacompanion[forthystudies],andjudgeallmenuponthepresumptionoftheirinnocence."Hillelsays:

"Whogainsnotinknowledgeloses....Saynot,'WhenIamatleisureIwillstudy';'tislikelythouwiltneverbeatleisure....Hewhoincreasesfleshincreasescorruption;hewhoincreasesworldlygoodsincreasescare;hewhoincreasesservantsincreasestheft;buthewhoincreasesintheknowledgeoftheLawincreaseslife."JochananbenSakkaisays:"IfthouartwiseintheknowledgeoftheLaw,takenotcredittothyself,fortothisendwastthoucreated."

*ForaconcisebutcomprehensiveaccountoftheoriginoftheTalmud,videtheart.TalmudinJohnson'sEncyclopaedia.



**CollectedintheTractAboth(Fathers).

AfterthedestructionoftheTemplebyTitus,academiessacredtothestudyoftheLawwereerectedindifferentcitiesofPalestine,andsimilarinstitutionsflourishedonthebanksoftheEuphrates.IntheeleventhcenturythechiefseatsofJewishlearningweretransplantedtotheWest;andsincethattimetheEuropeanJewshaveexcelledtheirbrethrenoftheEastinalltheelementsofmentalculture.InthecourseoftheirmanifoldwanderingstheJewscarriedtheirlibrarieseverywherewiththem.Whereverasynagoguearose,aschoolforyoungchildrenandahighschoolforyouthswereconnectedwithit.Inthedarknightoftheghettotheflameofknowledgewasneverquenched.WhilethenationsofEuropewerestillsunkinbarbarismtheJewszealouslydevotedthemselvestothepursuitofmedicine,mathematics,anddialectics,andtheloveoflearningbecameanhereditaryqualityintheirmidst.Theeffortsofmanygenerationshavecontributedtokeeptheirintellectualfacultiesbright;and,unlikemostoppressedraces,theyhaveemergedfromalongepochofsystematicpersecutionwellfittedtoattacktheproblemsofthepresentwithfreshinterestandundiminishedcapacity.

THEDEMOCRATICORGANIZATIONOFTHESYNAGOGUE.

Thespiritofmonotheismisessentiallydemocraticbothinpoliticsandreligion.Thereistobebutoneking,andhethespiritualLordinheaven.Allthepeopleareequalbeforehim.WhentheHebrewsclamorouslydemandedakingtheprophetchargedthemwithtreasonagainsttheirproperruler.Theprophetandpriestwerehostilepowers;andtheirantagonismwasclearlyfelt,andsometimesenergeticallyexpressed.TheLordtakesnodelightintheslaughterofanimals.ThebloodysacrificesareanoffencetoHim.WhatHerequiresispurityofheart,righteousjudgment,andcareforthewidowandthefatherless.Theideaofpriestlymediation--ofmediationinanyshape--wasrepugnant

totheJews."Thewholepeoplearepriests,"itwassaid.WhenthesanctuaryatJerusalemhadbeenlaidinashes,anythingresemblingahierarchicalcastewasnolongertoleratedamongthem.TheLawandtheScienceoftheLawwereopentoall;andeachonewasexpected,accordingtothemeasureofhiscapacity,todrawdirectlyfromthefountain-headoffaith.Theautonomyofthecongregationswasstrictlyguarded.Entireuniformityintheritualwasneverachieved.*Thepubliclectorofprayerswascalled"thedelegateofthecongregation."TheRabbies(thewordmeansMasters,inthesenseofteachers)weremendistinguishedforsuperioreruditionandtheblamelessnessoftheirlives,andthesequalitiesformedtheironlytitletodistinction.**TheirdutiesdifferedradicallyfromthoseoftheCatholicpriestortheProtestantclergyman.Theynevertookuponthemselvesthecareofsouls.

Theirofficewastoinstructtheyoung,andingeneraltoregulatethepracticeofreligionaccordingtotheprinciplesandprecedentslaiddowninthesacredtraditionsoftheirpeople.Theseveralcongregationswereindependentofeachother.Therewerenogeneralsynodsorcouncils,nogradedhierarchyculminatinginaspiritualhead,nooligarchyofministersandelders;butratherafederationofsmallcommunities,eachbeingasovereignunit,andconnectedwiththeotherssolelybythetiesofacommonfaith,commonsympathies,andcommonsufferings.Anytenmenwerecompetenttoformthemselvesintoacongregation,andtodischargeallthedutiesofreligion.Thefactthat



thiswassoprovedoftheutmostconsequenceinpreservingtheintegrityofJudaism.TheJewswereparcelledoutoverthewholeearth.Thebodyofthepeoplewasagainandagaindivided.Butineverycasethebaresthandfulthatremainedsufficedtobecomethenucleusofneworganizations.HadthesystemofJudaismrequiredanyonecentralorgan,ablowaimedagainstthiswoulddoubtlesshaveprovedfataltothewhole.Butbythewiseprovisionsofthefederativesystemthevitalpowerseemstohavebeenequallydisseminatedovertheentirecommunity.Likethewormthatistroddenunderfoot,towhichIsraelsooftenlikensitselfintheHebrewprayers,thedividedmemberslivedanewlifeoftheirown,andthoughapparentlycrushedbeneaththeheeloftheiroppressors,theyeverroseagaininindestructiblevitality.

*VideZunzDieRitus.

**Manyofthemsupportedthemselvesbyfollowingsomehumblecalling,refusingtoreceiveremunerationfortheirteachings,ontheprinciplethattheLaw"shouldnotbemadeaspadetodigwith."

THEINFLUENCEOFPERSECUTION.

InsurveyingthehistoryoftheJewishpeoplewefindastrangeblendingofnationalismandcosmopolitismillustratedintheiractionsandbeliefs.TheyproudlystyledthemselvestheelectpeopleofGod,theylookeddownwithacertaincontemptupontheGentilenations,yettheyconceivedthemselveschosen,notontheirownaccount,butfortheworld'ssake,inordertospreadtheknowledgeofthetrueGodamongmen.Theyrepudiatedheathenism,andregardedTrinitarianismasanaberration.Incontradistinctiontothesetheirmissionwastoprotectthepurityofthemonotheisticreligionuntilinthemillennialageallnationswouldgatherabouttheir"holyMount."TheyconsideredtheirowncontinuedexistenceasapeopleforeordainedintheDivinescheme,*becausetheybelievedthemselvesdivinelycommissionedtobringabout

theeternalhappinessofthehumanrace.Thecentripetalandcentrifugalforcesofcharacterwerethusevenlybalanced,andthiscircumstancecontributednotalittletoenliventheircourageinthefaceoflong-continuedadversity.WhentheindependenceofGreecewaslost,theGreeksceasedtoexistasanation.ButthelossoftheTempleandthefatherlandgavebarelymorethanapassingshocktothenationalconsciousnessoftheJews.Easilytheyacclimatizedthemselvesineveryquarteroftheglobe.ThefactoftheirdispersionwascitedbyChristianityasasignoftheirrejectionbyGod.Theythemselvesregardeditasapartoftheirmissiontobescatteredasseedoverthewholeearth.Thattheyshouldsufferwasnecessary,theybeingtheMessianicpeople!Theirprayerswerefilledwithlamentationsandtherecitaloftheircruelwoes.Buttheyinvariablyendedwithwordsof

promiseandconfidenceintheultimatefulfillmentofIsrael'shope.Thusintheverydepthsoftheirdegradationtheyweresupportedbyasenseofthegrandeuroftheirdestinies,andbytheproudconsciousnessthattheirsufferingswerethepricepaidfortheworld'sspiritualredemption.

*"Letitnotseemstrangetoyouthatweshouldregainourformercondition,eventhoughonlyasingleoneofuswereleft,asitiswritten,'Fearnot,thouworm,Jacob!'"--JudaHA-Levi,inthebookCusari(twelfthcentury),iii.ii.



IntheearlierhalfoftheMiddleAgestheJewswerestillpermittedtoenjoyacertainmeasureofliberty.InSpain,FranceandGermanytheylivedonamicabletermswiththeirneighbors,theyengagedintradeandmanufacture,andwereallowedtopossesslandedproperty.InthetenthandeleventhcenturiesagreatpartofthecityofPariswasownedbyJews.ButatthetimeoftheCrusadesaterriblechangeintheaspectoftheiraffairstookplace.TheprinciplesembodiedinthecanonicallawhadbythistimeenteredintothepracticeoftheEuropeannations.Fanaticismwasrampant.ThebanksoftheRhineandtheMosellebecamethetheatreofthemostpitilesspersecution.AmongtheCrusadersthecrywasraised,"WegotoPalestinetoslaytheunbelievers;whynotbeginwiththeinfidelJewsinourownmidst?"Worms,Spires,Mayence,Strassburg,Basle,Regens-burg,Breslau,witnessedtheslaughteroftheirJewishinhabitants.TowardthecloseofthethirteenthcenturyonehundredthousandJewsperishedatthehandsofRindfleisch,andthemurderoushordesofwhomhewastheleader.Toaddfueltothepassionsofthepopulacethemostabsurdaccusationswerebroughtforwardagainstthem,andtheirreligionwasmadeodiousbyconnectingitwithchargesofgravemoralobliquity.Jewishphysiciansbeingingreatrequest,especiallyatthecourtofkings,itwasgivenoutthatwithfiendishmalicetheywerewonttoprocurethedeathoftheirChristianpatients.*TheywereaccusedofkillingChristianchildren,andusingthebloodofChristiansincelebratingthePassoverfestival,andthismonstrous

falsehoodwasrepeateduntilnoonedoubteditssubstantialtruth.Letitberememberedthatthischargewasoriginallypreferred,inasomewhatdifferentshape,againsttheChristiansthemselves.Itfloateddown,assuchrumorswill,fromagetoage,until,itsauthorshipbeingforgotten,itwasfinallyusedasaconvenienthandleagainstthehatedJews.InthismannertheEaster-tidewhichwastoannouncethetriumphofareligionoflovebecametotheJewsaseasonofterrorandmortalagony,andtheEasterdawnwasoftenreddenedwiththeflamesthatrosefromJewishhomes.

*ThusinthecaseofCharlestheBald,andothers.

Itisimpossibletocalculatethenumberoflivesthathavebeenlost

inconsequenceofthissingleaccusation.Ithaslivedonevenintothepresentcentury.*InthefourteenthcenturytheBlackDeathdevastatedtheContinentofEurope.SoontheopiniongainedgroundthattheJewswereresponsiblefortheravagesoftheplague.ItwasclaimedthattheRabbiofToledohadsentoutavenomousmixtureconcoctedofconsecratedwafersandthebloodofChristianheartstothevariouscongregations,withorderstopoisonthewells.ThePopehimselfundertooktopleadfortheirinnocency,butevenpapalbullswerepowerlesstostaythepopularmadness.InDekkendorfachurchwasbuiltinhonorofthemassacreoftheJewsofthattown,andthespotthusconsecratedhasremainedafavoriteresortofpilgrimsdowntomoderntimes.ThepreachingfriarsoftheFranciscanandDominicanorderswereparticularlyactiveinfanningtheembersofbigotrywhenevertheythreatenedtodiedown.In

England,FranceandSpainthehorrorsenactedinGermanywererepeatedonascaleofsimilarmagnitude.ThetragicfateoftheJewsofYork,thefuryofthePastoureaux,themiserablescenesthataccompaniedtheexodusoftheJewsfromSpainarefamiliarfactsofhistory.InPoland,intheseventeenthcentury,theuprisingoftheCossacksunderthechieftainshipofChmielnickibecameoncemorethesignalofdestruction.Itisestimatedthatintenyears(1648-1658)upwardsoftwohundredandfiftythousandJewsperished.**EvenwhenthelivesoftheJewswerespared,theirconditionwassoextremelywretchedthatdeathmightoftenhaveseemedthepreferablealternative.



*Intheyear1840itwassimultaneouslyrenewedinRhenishPrussia,ontheIsleofRhodos,andinthecityofDamascus.InthatcitythemostrespectedmembersoftheJewishcommunitywerearrested,withtheassistanceoftheFrenchConsul,RattiMenton,andunderwentcrueltorture.TheintenseexcitementcausedthroughoutEuropeatthetimeis,doubtless,stillfreshinthememoryofmanywhowillreadthesepages.Theutterfalsityofthechargewasatlastexposed,thankstotheeffortsoftheAustrianConsulMerlatoandtheenergeticactionofLordPalmerston.

**Graetz,Gesch.derJuden,X.p.78.

ThetheorypropoundedbytheChurchandactedoutbythetemporalrulersoftheMiddleAgesisexpressedinthewordsofInnocentIII.,"Quospropriaculpasubmisitperpetuaeservituti,quumDominumcrucifixerint--pietasChristianareceptetetsus-tineatcohabitationemillorum."*

BythecrucifixionofJesustheJewshadforfeitedforthemselvesandtheirposteritytherighttoexistinChristianstates.Theylivedonsufferancemerely.Inthefeudalsystemtherewasnoroomforthem.Theywerealiens,wereregardedasthepropertyoftheEmperor,andhewas

freetodealwiththemassuitedhisconvenience.Hencethename_servicamera_--servantsoftheimperialchamber--wasappliedtothem.Theycouldbesold,purchased,givenawayatpleasure.CharlesIV.presented"thepersonsandpropertyofhisJews"tothecityofWorms.Inascheduleoftoll-duesdatingfromtheyear1398weread:"ahorsepaystwoshillings,aJewsixshillings,anoxtwoheller."**Theywerecompelledtowearabadgeofshameupontheirgarments;***wereconfinedtonarrowandfilthyquarters,---_ghetto,juderia_,--debarredfromallhonorableemployments.Theschoolsanduniversitieswereclosedagainstthem.Theguildsshutthemoutfromthevarioustrades.Togainthemeansofsubsistencenothingremainedforthembuttoengageinthepettytrafficofthepeddlerorthedisreputablebusinessofthemoney-lender.Theyhadabsolutelynochoiceinthematter.Thelawsof

Mosescertainlydiscountenancethelendingofmoneyatinterest.TheauthoritiesoftheTalmudseverelycondemnthepracticeofusury,andrefusetoadmitthetestimonyofusurersincourtsoflaw.****

*Cassel,art.Juden,p.83,inErschundGruber;videalsop.85,"adperpetuamJudaiciscelerisultionemeisdemJudaeisinduxeritperpetuamservitutem."

**Ibid,p.91

***The_signumcirculate_wasborrowedfromIslam.Ithasbeeningeniouslyconjecturedthatthecircularformwasselectedincontradistinctiontothesignofthecrescent.

Ibid,p.75.

****MishnaSanhedrin,III.3.

ButallscruplesonthepartoftheJewshadnowtobesetaside.Goldtheymusthave,andinabundance.Itwastheonlymeansofbuyingtheirpeace.Thetaxesleviedbytheimperialchamberwereenormous.*Thecities,thebaroniallords,inwhoseterritorytheytookrefuge,constantlyimposednewburdensasthepriceoftoleration.TheJewshaveoftenbeenhelduptocontemptfortheiravariceandrapacity.



Thereproachisunjust.ItremindsoneoftheancientPhilistines,who,havingshorntheHebrewofhisstrengthandblindedhim,calledhimwithjeersfromhisprison-housetoexhibithimtothepopulargazeandtomakesportofhisinfirmity.

UnderthesecircumstancestheconservatismoftheJewsinmattersofreligioncannolongerastonishus.Rejectedbytheworld,theylivedinaworldoftheirown.Theyhadinheritedfromtheirancestorsanextendedcodeofceremonialobservances,dietarylaws,andminuteandmanifolddirectionsfortheconductoflife.Inthesetheybeheldthebulwarkoftheirreligion,thecommonbondthatunitedthescatteredmembersoftheirrace.TheJewofPersiaorPalestinecouldcomeamonghisGermanbrethren,andhearthesameprayersexpressedinthesamelanguage,andrecognizethesamecustomsaswerecurrentamonghisco-religionistsintheEast.Thepasswordsofthefaithwereeverywhereunderstood.Topreservecompleteunanimitywithrespecttoreligioususagewasameasuredictatedbythecommandinginstinctofself-preservation.TheJewsofallcountrieswerefurthermoreunitedbythecommonyearningswithwhichtheylookedbacktothepast,andtheircommonhopeofultimaterestorationtotheheritageofthepromisedland.**

*AgeneraltaxpaidinrecognitionoftheEmperor'sprotection;theTempletaxclaimedbytheHolyRoman

EmperorinhiscapacityasthesuccessorofVespasian;theso-called_aurumcoronarium_,orcoronationtax,byvirtueofwhicheverynewemperor,uponhisaccessiontothethrone,couldconfiscatethethirdpartofthepropertyoftheJews.Besidesthese,extraordinarylevieswerefrequent.

**Ontheeveofthe9thofthefifthmonthitwascustomaryatJerusalemtoannouncethenumberofyearsthathadelapsedsincethefalloftheTemple.Zunz,DieRitus,p.84.

Howeverprolongedtheirabodeinthelandofthestrangermightbe,they

neverregardeditotherwisethaninthelightofatemporarysojourn,andPalestineremainedtheirtruefatherland,"IfIforgetthee,Jerusalem,withermyrighthand,"wassungasplaintivelyonthebanksoftheDanubeandtheRhineasithadresoundedofoldbyBabel'sstreams.TheJewishpeoplewalkedthroughhistoryasinadream,theireyesfixedonZion'svanishedglories.Empiresfell;warsdevastatedtheearth;newmanners,newmodesoflife,arosearoundthem.Whatwasallthistoilandturmoilofthenationstothem!Theywerenotadmittedtothefellowshipofmankind,theypreservedtheirironstability,theyaloneremainedchangeless.Solongastheworldmaintaineditshostileattitudetowardthem,therewaslittlelikelihoodthattheywouldabandontheirtime-honoredtraditions.Buttowardthecloseofthelastcenturythefirsttokensofpolitical,social,andspiritual

regenerationbegantoappearamongthedespondentpeopleoftheHebrews.ThespiritoftheReformation,whichhadslumberedsolong,awoketonewvitality.Thevoiceofloverebukedtheselfishnessofcreeds;PhilosophyinthepersonofKantemphasizedthedutiesofmantoman;PoetrysentitswarmbreaththroughtheGermanland,andwithitssweetstrainsinstilledbroad,humanitariandoctrineintotheheartsofmen.Lessingcelebratedthevirtuesofhisfriend,MosesMendelssohn,in"NathantheWise,"andintheparableoftheringsshowedhowthetruereligionistobesoughtandfound.TheRoyalAcademyatBerlinnominatedthesameMendelssohnformembershipinitsbody.Jewish



scholarswerereceivedwithdistinctionintheAustrianandPrussiancapitals.EminentstatesmenandwritersbegantoexertthemselvestoremovethefoulblotthathadsolongstainedtheconductoftheChristianstatesintheirdealingswiththeJews.InFrancethegreatRevolutionwasrapidlysweepingawaytheaccumulatedwrongsofcenturies.WhentheemancipationoftheJewscameupfordiscussionintheConvention,theablestspeakersroseintheirbehalf.TheAbbeGregoireexclaimed:"Anewcenturyisabouttoopen.Mayitsportalsbewreathedwiththepalmofhumanity!"Mirabeaulenthismightyeloquencetotheircause."Iwillnotspeakoftolerance,"hesaid;"thefreedomofconscienceisarightsosacredthateventhenameoftoleranceinvolvesaspeciesoftyranny."*

*VidetheaccountofthedebatesintheofficialMoniteur.

Onthe28thSeptember,1791,theNationalConventiondecreedtheequalityoftheIsraelitesofFrancewiththeirChristianfellow-citizens.ThewavesoftheRevolution,however,overflowedthebordersofFrance,andtheagitationtheycausedwasquicklycommunicatedtoallGermany.WhereverthearmiesoftheRepublicpenetrated,thegatesoftheghettoswerethrownopen,andinthenameofFraternity,LibertyandEqualitywereannouncedtotheirinhabitants.WhenNapoleonicmisruleatlastexasperatedGermanyintoresistance,theseedswhichFrenchinfluencehadsownhadalreadytakenfirmrootinthe

Germansoil.Onthe11thMarch,1812,FrederickWilliamIII.issuedhisfamousedict,removingthemaindisabilitiesfromwhichtheJewsofhisdominionshadsuffered,grantingthemtherightsandimposinguponthemthehonorabledutiesofcitizenship.Theywerenolongertobeclassedasforeigners.Thestateclaimedthemasitschildren,andexactedofthemthesamesacrificesasallitssonswerecalledupontobringinthetroubloustimesthatsoonfollowed.WithwhateageralacritytheJewsrespondedtotheking'scalltherecordsoftheGermanwarsforindependenceamplytestify.OnthebattlefieldsofLeipzigandWaterlootheystoodsidebysidewiththeirChristianbrethren.ManysonsandfathersofJewishhouseholdsyieldedtheirlivesinthecountry'sdefence.Inthebloodofthefallenthenewcovenantofequaljusticewassealedforalltimetocome.Howeverprejudicemightstilldogtheir

footsteps,howevershamefullythegovernmentmightviolateitssolemnpledgestotheJewishsoldiersontheirreturnfromthewars,theJewsofGermanyhadnowgainedwhattheycouldnomorelose.Theyfeltthatthelandforwhichtheyhadadventuredtheirall,inwhosebehalftheyhadlostsomuch,wasindeedtheirfatherland.Forthefirsttime,aftermany,manycenturies,thefugitiveshadgainedahome,acountry.Theyawokeasfromalongsleep.Theyfoundtheworldgreatlychangedaroundthem;vastproblemsengagingtheattentionofthinkers,scienceandphilosophyeverywheresheddingnewlightuponthepathofmankind.Theywereeagertoapprovethemselvesworthyandloyalcitizens,eagertojoininthegeneralworkofprogress.Theydweltnomorewithanxiouspreferenceonthepast.Thepresentandthefuturedemandedtheirexertions,andthemotivesthathadsolongcompelledtheirexclusion

fromthefellowshipoftheGentilesweregraduallydisappearing.Astheirreligionwasmainlyretrospectiveincharacterandexclusiveintendency,greatchangeswereneededtobringitintoharmonywiththealteredconditionofaffairs.Thesechangeswereaccordinglyattempted,andtheirhistoryisthehistoryofJewishReform.

III.REFORMEDJUDAISM.



ReformedJudaismoriginatedinGermany;itsleadingrepresentativeshaveinvariablybeenGermans.ThehistoryofGermanyduringthepastonehundredyearsisthebackgrounduponwhichouraccountofthemovementmustbeprojected.

TheJewsofGermanyhadwaitedlongandpatientlyfordeliverance.Atlast,towardthecloseoftheeighteenthcenturyitcame,andonewhomtheydelighttocalltheir"SecondMoses"arosetoleadthemintothepromisedlandoffreedom.ThiswasMosesMendelssohn.Hisdistinguishedmeritsasawriteronphilosophyandaestheticsweneednotherepausetodilateupon,butshallproceedatoncetoconsiderhiminhisrelationstothepolitical,social,andreligiousemancipationofhispeople.Ineachofthesedifferentdirectionshisexampleandinfluenceuponothersservedtoinitiateaseriesofsalutarychanges,andhemaythusappropriatelybetermedthefatheroftheReformmovementinitswidestacceptation.ItwasMendelssohnwho,in1781,inspiredChristianWilhelmDohmtopublishhisbook"OntheCivilAmeliorationoftheJews,"aworkinwhichanearnestpleafortheirenfranchisementwasforthefirsttimeputforth.TheauthorpointstothethriftandfrugalitythatmarktheJewishrace,theirtemperatehabitsandloveofpeace,andexposesthefollyofdebarringsovaluableaclassofthepopulationfromtherightsofthecitizen.Heappealstothewisdomofthegovernmenttoredeemtheerrorsandinjusticeofthepast;hedefends

theJewsagainsttheabsurdchargeswhichwerestillrepeatedtotheirdiscredit,andstrenuouslyinsiststhatlibertyandhumanetreatmentwouldnotonlyaccruetotheirownadvantage,butwouldultimatelyredoundtothehonorandlastingwelfareofthestate.Dohm'sbookcreatedaprofoundimpression,andthoughitfailedtoproduceimmediateresults,materiallyaidedthecauseofemancipationatalaterperiod.

AgainMendelssohnwasthefirsttobreakthroughthesocialrestraintsthatobstructedtheintercourseofJewsandChristians,andthustriumphedoveraformofprejudicewhichiscommonlythelasttoyield.Hisfameasawritergreatlyassistedhiminthisrespect.Thegraceandfreshnessofhisstyle,theapparenteasewithwhichhedivestedthesternproblemsofphilosophyoftheirharsheraspects,hadwonhimmany

andsincereadmirers.His"Phaedon"waseagerlyreadbythousands,whomthewritingsofLeibnitzandKanthadrepelled.OntheafternoonoftheJewishSabbathhewasaccustomedtoassemblemanyofthechoicespiritsofthePrussiancapital,amongwhomwemaymentionLessing,Nikolai,andGleim,inhishome.Theconversationturneduponthegravestandloftiesttopicsthatcanoccupythehumansoul.Thehosthimselfskilfullyguidedthestreamofdiscussion,andthewavesofthoughtflowedeasilyalonginthatplacid,restfulmotionwhichisadaptedtospeculativethemes.ThespiritthatofoldhadhallowedtheshadesofAcademepresidedoverthesegatherings.MendelssohnemulatedtheplasticidealismofPlatoandthedivinehilarityofSocrates.Thesingularmodesty,thetruthfulnessandquietdignitythatadornedhischaracterwerereflecteduponthepeoplefromwhomhehadsprung,andproduceda

salutarychangeintheirfavorinthesentimentsofthebetterclasses.

ButitisastheauthorofaprofoundrevolutionintheJewishreligion,thatMendelssohnattractsourespecialinterest.Not,indeed,thathehimselfeverassumedthecharacterofareligiousreformer.Hewas,onthecontrary,sincerelydevotedtotheorthodoxformofJudaism,andevenhadachangeappearedtohimfeasibleordesirable,hewouldinallprobabilityhavedeclinedtheresponsibilityofpubliclyadvocatingit.Hiswasthecontemplativespiritwhichinstinctivelyshrinksfromtherudecontactofreality.Hehadneithertheaggressivetempernorthe



boldself-confidencethatstamptheleaderofparties.Andyet,withoutintendingit,hegavethefirstimpulsetoJewishReform,whosesubsequentprogress,couldhehaveforeseenit,hewouldassuredlyhavebeenthefirsttodeprecate.

THEBIBLE.

TheconditionoftheJewsatthecloseofthelastcenturywasinmanyrespectsunlikethatofanyotherracethathaseverbeenledfromastateofsubjectiontooneofacknowledgedequality.Longoppressionhadnot,onthewhole,eitherbluntedtheirintellectsordebasedtheirmorals.Iftheywereignorantinmodernscienceandliterature,theyweredeeplyversedintheirownancientliterature,andthisspeciesoflearningwasnottheprivilegeofasingleclass,butthecommonpropertyofthewholepeople.Whattheylackedwassystem.IntheramblingdebatesoftheTalmudthetrueprinciplesoflogicalsequencearebuttoooftenslighted,andthestudentisencouragedtovaluethesubtleplayofdialecticsonitsownaccount,withoutregardtoanyultimategaininpositiveandusefulknowledge.Impatienceoforderlyarrangementbeingallowedtodevelopintoahabit,becamecontagious.Itimpresseditselfequallyonthethought,themanners,thelanguage*

oftheJews,andcontributednotalittletoalienatefromthemthesympathiesoftherefined.Such,however,wasthepreponderatinginfluenceoftheTalmudthatitnotonlyengrossedtheattentionoftheJewishyouthtotheexclusionofsecularknowledge,butevenpervertedtheexegesisoftheBibleandcausedthestudyofScripturetobecomparativelyneglected.

*TheGermanJewsspokeamixeddialectofGermanandHebrew,whichhasbeenlikenedtotheso-calledPennsylvaniaDutch.

ToweakenthecontrollinginfluenceoftheTalmudbecamethefirstneedfulmeasureofReform,andtoaccomplishthisitwasnecessaryto

givebacktotheBibleitsproperplaceintheeducationoftheyoung.Itwasanevent,therefore,ofnomeansignificancewhenMendelssohn,inconjunctionwithafewfriends,determinedtoprepareaGermantranslationofthePentateuch,andthus,bypresentingtheteachingsofScriptureinthegarbofamoderntongue,torendertheirtruemeaningapparenttoeveryreflectingmind.Theworkwasfinishedin1783.ItholdsalikerelationtotheJewishReformmovementthatLuther'stranslationheldtothegreatProtestantmovementofthesixteenthcentury.Itwasgreetedwithastormofabuseuponitsappearance,andwasloudlyexecratedbytheorthodoxasthebeginningoflargerandfar-reachinginnovations.Itsauthormightsincerelyprotesthisentireinnocencyoftheradicaldesignsimputedtohim,butsubsequenteventshaveprovedthekeenerinsightofhisopponents.Theinfluenceofthe

newtranslationwastwofold.Inthefirstplaceitfacilitatedamorecorrectunderstandingofthedoctrine,theliteratureandlanguageofScripture;secondly,--andthisisworthyofspecialremark,--itservedthepurposeofatext-bookoftheGermanforthegreatmassoftheJews,whowereatthattimeunabletoreadabookwritteninthevernacular,andthusbecamethemeansofopeningtothemthetreasure-houseofmodernthought.*

*TheGermanofMendelssohn'stranslationwaswritteninHebrewletters.



IntheveryyearinwhichMendelssohn'sworkappearedwenoticeamongtheyoungergenerationageneralrevivalofinterestintheHebrew,themother-tongueoftheirrace.TwostudentsoftheUniversityofKonigsbergbegantheissueofaperiodicaldevotedtothecultureoftheHebrew,whichwaswidelyreadandattractedgreatattention.Poems,originalessays,Hebrewversionsofmodernwritings,appearedinitscolumns;thestyleoftheProphetsandofthePsalmistswasemulated,theworksoftheancientmastersofthelanguageservedasmodels,andintheaspectofthenobleformsemployedinthedictionofthebiblicalauthorstheaestheticsenseofthemodernJewsrevived.WeareinclinedtodoubtwhethertheHebrewBible,consideredmerelywithaviewtoitsaestheticvalue,isevenyetfullyappreciated.Theextravaganceofreligiouscredulityandtheviolentextremeofscepticismhavealiketendedtoobscureitspropermerits.Theoneaccustomedtobeholdinthe"holybook"amessagefromtheCreatortohiscreaturesshrinks,asarule,fromapplyingtotheworkofaDivineauthorthecriticalstandardofhumancomposition.Thescepticsontheotherhand,impatientoftheexorbitantclaimswhichareurgedforthesacredwritingsoftheJews,andresentingtheswaywhichtheystillexerciseoverthehumanreason,arehardlyinaproperframeofmindtoestimatejustlyitsintrinsicandimperishableexcellences.Andyet,settingasideallquestionsofthesupernaturaloriginoftheBible,andregardingonlythestyleinwhichitsthoughtsareconveyed,howincomparablyvaluabledoesitstill

remain!Itwouldbedifficulttocalculatetheextenttowhichmanyofourstandardauthorsareindebtedforthegrandestpassagesoftheirworkstotheirearlyfamiliaritywiththebiblicalstyle.Thosewhoareabletoreadthetextintheoriginalbecomeawareofevensubtlerbeautiesthatescapeintheprocessoftranslation.Purityofdiction,powerofstrikingantithesis,simpleandyetsublimeimagery,amarvellousfacilityintheexpressionofcomplexstatesoffeeling,andthosethedeepestofwhichthehumansouliscapable,arebutafewoftheobviousfeaturesthatdistinguishthegoldenageofHebrewliterature.Neverperhapshasthesymbolismofnaturebeenusedwithsuchsupremeeffecttoexpresstheunspeakableemotionsthataredeepdownintheheartofman.SuchmusicasthatwhichswellsthroughthepagesofIsaiah'spropheciescannotbeforgotten;suchringing,rhythmic

periods,inwhichtheeloquenceofconvictionburstsforthintotheroundedfulnessofperfectoratory,canneverfailtotouchandtoinspire.Weknowofnonoblerpatternonwhichthemodernoratorcouldmouldhisstyle.Andthus,too,theexquisitepoetryoftheSongofSongs,theidyloftheBookofRuth,theweirdpathosofJeremiah'slament,thegranddescriptionsofJob,willeverbecountedamongthemasterpiecesofhumangenius.WhateverwemaythinkofthedoctrinesoftheBible,itissafetopredictthatthebookwilllivelongafterthemythsthatsurrounditsoriginshallhavebeendispelled;nay,allthemore,whenitshallceasetobeworshippedasafetishwillmenappreciateitsabidingclaimstotheirreverence,anditwillcontinuetoholditshonoredplaceinthelibrariesofthenations.TherefininginfluenceofthestudyoftheBiblesoonbecameevidentamongthe

contemporariesofMendelssohn.Butinanotherwayalsohistranslationtendedtotheirimprovement.Wehavesaidthatitbecamethemeansofacquaintingthemwiththelanguageoftheland.Awidefieldofknowledge,embracingtherichresultsofmodernscience,philosophy,andart,wasthuslaidopentotheirindustry.Eagerlytheyavailedthemselvesoftheprofferedopportunity;schoolswereerected,inwhichtheelementsofliberalculturewereimpartedtotheyoung,anderelongwefindanewgenerationoftheJewsengaginginhonorablecompetitionwiththeirChristianbrethrenfortheprizeoflearningandtherewardsofliterarydistinction.ItwasatthistimethatKant's"Critiqueof



PureReason"appeared,aworkwhichmarksanewepochintheworld'sthought.Itsprofoundreasoningandtechnicalstylemadeitdifficultofcomprehensiontoallbuttheinitiated.ThreeJewishscholars--Dr.Herz,SalomonMaimon,andBen-David--undertookthetaskofpopularizingitsmainresults,andwereamongthefirsttocallattentiontothetranscendentimportanceofthenewsystem.PlainlynewvitalenergywascoursingthroughtheveinsoftheJewishpeople.

SOCIALSTANDING.

Butatthisverytime,whiletheywererapidlyassimilatingthebestresultsofmoderncultureandwinningtherespectandconfidenceofthelearned,theJewsofGermanywerestilllaboringunderanodioussystemofspeciallaws,andbeheldthemselvesexcludedfromthecommonrightsofcitizenship.ThemanlyeffortofDohmintheirbehalfhadasyetavailednothing;thevoiceofbigotrywasstillsupremeinthecouncilsofthesovereign.Andyettheyfeltthemselvestobetheequalsofthosewhomthelawunjustlyrankedtheirsuperiors,andlongedtoseethebarriersdoneawaythatstilldividedthemfromtheirfellow-men.Manyoftheirnumberhadamassedfortunes,andexpendedtheirwealthwithcommendableprudenceandgenerosity.Theysupportedneedystudents,

foundedlibraries,extendedtheirknowledge,andrefinedtheirtastes.EventheJewishmaidensfollowedthegeneralimpulsetowardself-culturethatwassettingwithsuchforceintheJewishcommunity.InparticulartheworksofSchillerandGoethe,astheysuccessivelyappearedatthisperiod,inflamedtheirenthusiasm,andnoneweremorezealousthantheyinspreadingthefameandinfluenceofthenewschoolofGermanliterature.Stilltheyweretaughttoconsiderthemselvesaninferiorclass,andweredespisedassuch.Thepositionofequalitywhichthenarrownessofthelawsdeniedthemtheywereresolvedtoachievebytheweightolcharacterandtheforceofspiritualattractions.HenriettadeLemos,ayounggirlofsingularbeautyandattainments,hadatthistimebecomethewifeofDr.Herz,ofwhomwehavecasuallyspokenaboveinhisconnectionwithKant.Sheisdescribedastall,graceful,possessing

afaceinwhichthefeaturesofHellenicandOrientalbeautywereblendedinexquisiteharmony;whilethesobriquetofthe"TragicMuse,"bywhichshebecameknown,denotedthemajesticnoblenessofherpresence.Undertheguidanceofcompetentmastersshehadacquiredconsiderableproficiencyinmanyofthemodernandancientlanguages,andtoamindstoredwithvariousknowledgewasaddedthemellowcharmofamostsweetandlovingdisposition.Attractedbyherfameandcaptivatedbyhergenius,themosteminentmenofthedaysoughttheprivilegeofhersociety.Theartofconversation,whichhadtillthenreceivedbutlittleattentioninthePrussiancapital,wasforthefirsttimecultivatedinthe_salon_ofHenriettaHerz.Sparklingwitandprofoundphilosophywerealikeencouraged.Statesmenhighintheserviceoftheircountrysoughttheamenitiesofthesedelightfulgatherings.

AlexanderandWilhelmvonHumboldt,Gentz,Schleier-macher,FriedrichvonSchlegel,Mirabeau,Dorothea,thedaughterofMendelssohn,Rahel,afterwardswifeofVarnhagenvonEnse,wereamongtheintimatesofhercircle.ChristiansandJewsmethereontermsofmutualdeference,andforgotforawhilethepaltrydistinctionswhichstillkeptthemasunderintheworldwithout.Andyetthesedistinctions,senselessinthemselves,werefullofominousmeaningtothosewhofelttheirburden.Youngmeneagerforadvancementinlifefoundtheirreligionaninsuperableobstacleintheirway.Theprofessions,thearmy,theofficesofthegovernment,wereclosedagainstthem.Onthethresholdof



everyhighercareertheywererudelyrepulsed,unlesstheyembracedthebasealternativeofchangingtheircreedtosatisfytheirambition.UnderthesecircumstancesthatfidelitytothefaithofthefatherswhichhadsolongmarkedtheconductoftheJewsbeganseriouslytowaver,andinmanyinstancesgaveway.Not,indeed,thatthenewconvertsbecametrueandloyalChristians.Onthecontrary,theyconsideredtheriteofbaptismamerehollowform,andleftittothestate,whichhadinsistedupontheirconformance,tojustifythedeepdisgracethatwasthusbroughtupontheChristiansacraments.Moreover,acertainlaxityintheinterpretationofdogmahadatthistimebecomewidelyprevalent,whichgreatlyassistedtheminsettingtheirconscienceatease.Rationalismhadstrippedthepositivereligionsofmuchoftheirsubstanceandindividuality.Tononeofthemwasanabsolutevalueallowed.Theywereregardedasformsinwhichaprinciplehigherthanallformshadfoundanimperfectandtemporaryexpression.EventheinfluenceofSchleiermachertendedrathertoobliteratethantodefinetheoutlinesofthecontendingcreeds.Schleiermacher,theauthorofaProtestantrevivalinGermany,spokethelanguageofPantheism,andhisopinionsaredeeplysuffusedwiththespiritofPantheisticteachings.HedefinesreligiontobethesenseofdependenceontheInfinite,theUniversal.TothefactthatdifferentmenindifferentageshavebeenvariouslyaffectedbytheconceptionoftheInfiniteheascribestheoriginofthedifferentcreeds.Theologicaldogmas,accordingtohim,cannotclaimtobetrueinthesenseofscientificor

philosophicalpropositions.Theyapproachthetruthonlyinsofarastheytypicallyexpresscertainemotionalprocessesofoursoul,andthosedogmasarenearestthetruthwhichtypifyemotionsofthemostnobleandexaltedcharacter.AllowingChristianitytobewhatitslearnedexpoundershaddefinedit,intelligentJewscouldhardlyfinditdifficulttoassumetheChristianname.ItisestimatedthatinthecourseofthreedecadesfullonehalfoftheJewishcommunityofBerlinwerenominallyChristianized.

Howthoroughlyconventional,atthesametime,theuseofthetermChristianhadbecomemaybejudgedfromaletteraddressedbyDavidFriedlander,afriendofMendelssohn's,toCouncillorTelleroftheConsistory,inwhichheoffered,onbehalfofhimselfandsome

co-religionists,toacceptChristianityincasetheymightbepermittedtoomittheobservanceoftheChristianfestivals,torejectthedoctrineoftheTrinity,ofthedivinityofJesus,and,infact,whateveriscommonlyregardedasessentiallyandspecificallyChristian.ItistruethereplyoftheCouncillorwasnotencouraging.

PARIS,THENEWJERUSALEM.

WhiletheveryexistenceofJudaismwasthusthreatenedinGermany,itseemedabouttoregainitspristinevigorinFrance.Morethanseventeen

centurieshadelapsedsincetheSanhedrin,theHighCourtofJerusalem,hadpassedoutofexistence.QuiteunexpectedlyitwasrecalledtomomentarylifebythecapriceofthegreatCorsican,whothenruledthedestiniesoftheworld.Intheyear1806NapoleonconvenedaparliamentofJewishNotablesatParisinordertodefinitelysettletherelationsofFrenchIsraelitestothestate.SoonafteranimperialdecreeconvokedthegrandSanhedrinforthepurposeofratifyingthedecisionsoftheNotables.ThegloriesofJerusalemweretoberenewedin"modernBabylon"ontheSeine.OnFebruary9,1807,theSanhedrinmetintheHoteldeVille.Carewastakentoinvestitssittingswithdue



solemnity;theseatsofthememberswerearrangedincrescentshapeabouttheplatformofthepresidingofficers,ashadbeencustomaryatJerusalem;thepresidentwassalutedwiththetitleofNassi(Prince),asintheoldentime;theancienttitlesandformswerecopiedwithscrupulousexactness.Two-thirdsofthememberswereRabbis,theremainderlaymen.TheopeningoftheSanhedrinattracteduniversalattention,butitsproceedingswerevoidofinterest.Infact,itssoletaskwastolendtheauthorityofanancienttribunaltotheactionoftheNotables,andthishavingbeenaccomplisheditwasadjournedafterabriefsession.Inconnectionwiththeseconventionsoftheyears1806and1807itbehoovesustomentionthecreationofanewconstitutionfortheFrenchsynagogueelaboratedbythejointeffortsoftheimperialCommissionersandtheNotables.Theformofgovernmentadoptedwasmouldedonthepatternofthesecularpower.AsystemofconsistorieswasorganizedthroughoutFrance,culminatinginacentralconsistoryatPariswithaGrand-Rabbinatitshead.Theofficersoftheconsistoriesweretreatedasofficersofthestate,thechargeoftheirmaintenancewasinpartdefrayedatthepublicexpense,and,inthecourseoftime,theywereplacedonafootingofalmostcompleteequalitywiththedignitariesoftheChristianchurches.TheunionoftheteachersofJudaisminaspeciesofgradedhierarchy,dependentupontemporalrulersfortheirsupport,wasashavehavebeenexpected,fruitfulofevilresults.Ifitistruethatthesupremacyofthechurchoverthestatedisturbsthepeaceofnationsandendangerstheveryexistenceof

governments,itisequallycertainthatnoreligioncanlongcontinuetomaintainitspuritywhenthechurchbecomesthesubservientvassalofthestate.Whatevertheapparentgaininstabilitymaybe,itismorethancounterbalancedbythelossofspontaneityandsincerity.Hypocrisyflourishes,thelibertyofconscienceisabridged,andaspiritofbasetime-servingeventuallypreparesthedownfallofinstitutionswhoseperfectsafetyisconsistentonlywithperfectfreedom.

TheFrenchSynagogue,aswehaveindicated,presentsacaseinpoint.Duringthepastseventyyearsithasstagnated.Nosingleluminousthoughtlightsupitsdrearyrecord,nosinglewhole-souledefforttoappropriatethelargertruthsofourtimedignifiesitsannals.InthehistoryoftheReformmovementitmeritsnofurthermention.

THELITURGY.

ReturningtoGermanywebeholdtheleadingJewsatlastawakenedtothenecessityofenergeticmeasurestocheckthewide-spreaddisaffectionthatwasthinningouttheirranks.Hithertotheliturgyofthesynagoguehadnotbeenaffectedbythegrowingtendencytochange.AnattemptinthisdirectionwasinitiatedbyIsraelJacobsohn,thefinancialagentoftheDukeofBrunswick,amanofwealth,culture,andgenerousdisposition.Hewasshockedbythescenesofdisorder,theutterlackof

decorum,thatdisgracedthepublicworship;hewasresolvedasfarasinhispowerlaytocorrecttheabuseswhichhadbeenallowedtogrowupunrestrainedinthegloomyperiodofmediaevalpersecution,andtowinbacktothefaiththosewhoseaffectionshadbeenestrangedbythebarbarousforminwhichitappearedtoview.Heerectedathisownexpense,anddedicatedonJuly17,1810,inthetownofSeesen,anewtemple,*atthesametimeintroducingcertainradicalmodificationsintotheservicewhichweshallpresentlytakeoccasiontoconsider.

*ThetermTemplehassincebeenusedbytheReformersin



contradistinctiontotheorthodoxSynagogue.

BeingappointedtothePresidencyoftheConsistoryofCassel,duringthereignofJeromeBonaparte,hetookadvantageofhisofficialpositiontourgehisinnovationsuponthecongregationsunderhischarge.In1815hetransplantedthe"newfashioninreligion"toBerlin,andin1818assistedinfoundingthetempleatHamburg,whichsoonbecameoneoftheleadingstrongholdsofReform.AprovisionalserviceonthesameplanwaslikewiseinstitutedatLeipsic,*duringtheperiodoftheannualfair,andtidingsofthereformwerethusrapidlytransmittedtodistantpartsofGermany.ThemainchangesintroducedbyJacobsohn,andcopiedbyothers,maybebrieflysummedupasfollows:Theintroductionofregularweeklysermons,whichhadnotpreviouslybeencustomary;ofprayersinthevernacularbythesideoftheHebrew;ofchoirsingingwithorganaccompaniment,andtheconfirmationofyoungchildren.Theseinnovationsimpliedarevolutioninthecharacterofthepublicworship.

*Dr.Zunzwasappointedpreacher,andthecomposerMeyerbeerdirectedthemusicalservices.

TheJewishpeoplehadbeenwonttoregardthemselvesindividuallyandcollectively,assoldiersinthearmyoftheirGod,commissionedtowagewarfareagainsteveryspeciesoffalsereligion.Aspiritofmartial

discipline,asitwere,pervadedtheirranks.Therepetitionofprayersandbenedictionsbydayandnightintheprivacyofdomesticlife,onthepublicsquareandbytheroadside,wasaspeciesofdrillintendedtokeepaliveinthemtheconsciousnessoftheirmission,andtopreparethemfortheemergenciesofactualconflict.Thriceadaytheymusteredintheirsynagogues,andrenewedtheiroathofallegianceinthepresenceoftheirspiritualking.ThetermJewishChurch,thoughinfrequentuse,isamisnomerbaseduponfalseanalogy.ThedifferencebetweenthesynagogueandthechurchisasclearlymarkedasthatbetweenJudaismandChristianitythemselves.Thesentimentalelement,usingthewordinitsnoblersignification,whichisdistinctiveofthelatter,isalmostentirelylackingintheformer.Bothmakeittheiraimtoelevatethemorallifeinman,butwhileJudaismactsthrough

thewillupontheaffections,Christianityplacestheaffectionsintheforegroundandseeksbytheirmeanstopersuadeandcaptivatethewill.

ItcannotbedeniedthattheReformershadinsomemeasuremodifiedthetraditionalcharacterofJewishworship.Thepurelyemotionalelementacquiredaprominencewhichithadneverhadbefore,theverywordemployedtodesignatethepurposeofthetempleservice--"Erbauung,"edification--wasforeigntotheancientvocabularyofJudaism.Inanotherdirection,too,theytransgressedthelimitsprescribedbytime-honoredusage.Wehavereferredabovetotheceremonyofconfirmation,whichhassincebeengenerallyadoptedbycongregationsoftheReformschool.OnsomefestivalorSabbath--theFeastofWeeks,celebratedaboutWhitsuntide,beingcommonlypreferred--boysandgirls

ofthirteenorfourteenareassembledinthetemple,where,afterhavingundergoneanexaminationinthechieftenetsoftheirreligion,theyarerequiredtorepeataloudaconfessionoffaith.Theceremonyusuallyattractsalargecongregation,andisoneofthefewinstitutionsintroducedbytheReformersthathavestronglyseizeduponthepopularheart.

Thenaturalconcernofparentsforthewelfareoftheiroffspringlendsasolemninteresttotheoccasion.Atanagewhenthechild'scharacterbeginstoassumedefiniteoutlines,whenthereasonunfolds,andthe



perilsandtemptationsthatattendeverypilgrimonthevalleyroadoflife,approachnear,aninstinctivepromptingofthehumanheartleadsustoforecastthefutureofsonsanddaughters,andtoembracewithjoywhatevermeansareplacedatourdisposaltoguardthemagainstaberrationandmisfortune.Toutilizetheimpressivenessofagreatpublicgathering,thesympatheticpresenceofparentsandfriends,theearnestmonitionsofawiseandreveredteacher,inordertoconfirmthemineveryvirtuousendeavorandhighresolve,isthereforefitandproper.*

*ItdeservestobenotedthattheceremonyofconfirmationamongtheJewstookitsoriginintheschoolsofSeesen,Frankfort-on-the-Main,etc.Indeed,thefirstReformedcongregationswereformedbynaturalaccretionabouttheseschools.Theinfluenceofschoolsingivingcharacterandstabilitytonewreligiousmovementsisasubjectofsufficientimportancetodeserveseparatetreatment.

Theproprietyofexactingaformalconfessionoffaith,however,hasbeenhotlydisputedbothbytheorthodoxandthemoreadvancedliberals.ItisurgedthatJudaismisapractical,ratherthanadogmaticalreligion.EventheexistenceofaGodisratherpresupposedasafactthanassertedasamatterofbelief.Apartfromthisitisclaimedthatachildatthirteencanhardlybepreparedtocomprehendthefundamental

questionsofreligion,muchlesstoexpressconvictionsonproblemssograveanddifficult.Theageofreflectionandconsequentlyofdoubtisyettocome,norcananychildonthedayofitsconfirmationanswerforitsconvictionstenyearsthereafter.

TheprogressoftheReformmovementwasthusofacharactertoawakendistrustandfiercecontentionateverystep.Theconservativepartywereenragedatwhattheyconsideredunwarrantableencroachmentsuponthetraditionsofanimmemorialpast.TheradicalsweredissatisfiedwiththelackofsubstanceandvitalityintheteachingsoftheReformers,theshallowmoralizingtoneoftheirpreachers,thesuperficialviewsofJudaismwhichtheyscatteredamongthemultitude.

Itmayindeedbeaskedhowcouldbetterthingshavebeenexpectedatthattime.ThegreatfactsofJewishhistorywerenotyetclearlyknown,thephilosophyofJudaismwasproportionatelyvagueanduncertain.NoJewishauthorhadeverundertakentowriteouttheannalsofhispeople;chaoticconfusionreignedintheirchronicles.ToknowwhatJudaismmightbeitseemednecessarytoascertaininthefirstinstancewhatithadbeen;thepastwouldprovetheindexofthefuture.Untowardeventsthathappenedatthisperiodgaveapowerfulimpulsetohistoricalresearch,andledtofruitfulinvestigationsinthedomainofJudaism.

"HEP-HEP."

Thegreatbattlesof1813and1815,inwhichtheGermanpeopleregainedtheirindependence,effectedamarvellouschangeinthespiritsandsentimentsofthenation.

Accustomedforalongtimetoendureinsilencetheinsultsandarroganceofaforeigndespot,theyhadlearnedtodespairofthemselves;adeadlylethargyheldtheirenergiesinbondageandinthefairyvisionsofpoetryandthedaringdreamsofmetaphysical



speculationtheysoughtconsolationforthepainsandburdensofreality.ThevictoriesofLeipsicandWaterloocompletelyalteredthetoneoftheirfeelings.Itisanotuncommonfactthatindividualsusuallythereverseofself-assertingexhibit,onoccasions,anoverweeningself-consciousness,whichisallthemorepointedandaggressivebecauseoftheirsecretandhabitualself-distrust.Wenotewithcuriousinteresttherecurrenceofthesameobnoxioustraitinthelifeofagreatnation.Thenovelsenseofpowerintoxicatedthem,theGermanmindforthemomentlostitspoise;Romanticismflourished,theviolenceoftheMiddleAgeswasmistakenformanhood,andhelduptotheemulationofthepresentgeneration.WhateverwasGermanwasthereforeesteemedgood;whateverwasforeignwasthereforedespised,oratbestignored.

TheJewsweremadetofeelthesharpstingofthisfeverishvanity;theirAsiaticoriginwascastupagainstthem,thoughitmighthavebeensupposedthataresidenceoffifteencenturieshadgiventhemsomeclaimtodwellatpeacewiththechildrenofthesoil.Intheyear1819theassassinationofKotzebueaddedfreshfueltothefervorofTeutonicpassion.InAugustofthatyearaprofessorofWurzburg,whohadwrittenindefenceoftheJews,waspubliclyinsultedbythestudents.Atumultensued,thecry"Hep-Hep"*aroseoneveryside,and"DeathtotheJews"wasthewatchword.OnthenextdaythemagistrateorderedthemtoleaveWurzburg,andfourhundredinnumbertheyweredrivenbeyondthecity's

limits.SimilarexcessesoccurredinFrankfort-on-the-Main,Meiningen,Carlsruhe,andelsewhere.Inflammatorypamphletscontributedtoincreasetheexcitement.

*"Hep-Hep"hasbeenexplainedasanabbreviationofthewords"Hierosolymaestperdita"(Jerusalemisperished).Probablyitisnomorethanoneofthosemeaninglessexclamationswhicharenotinfrequentincollegejargon.

Grattenauer,Runs,Fries,hadwrittentogoodeffect.Alltheoldfalsehoodswererevived,thefableoftheuseofChristianbloodatPassoveramongtherest.ItseemedasthoughthegeniusofchivalrywhichtheRomanticschoolhadinvokedhadreturnedwithitsgrim

attendanttraintorenewtheorgiesofmediaevalpersecutioninthefulllightofthenineteenthcentury.InNovemberappearedthe"Judenspiegel,"byHundt-Radowsky.InthistheauthorarguesthatthemurderofaJewisneithercriminalnorsinful.Inordertoavoidunnecessarybloodshedhowever,heproposesamorepeacefulmeansofriddingtheGermanpeopleof"thesevermin."Hispropositions,couchedinplainlanguageanddeliveredinsoberearnest,aresimplythese:thementobecastrated,andsoldasslavestotheEastIndies;thewomen--butthepenrefusestorecordthefiendishsuggestion.Itismortifyingtoreflectthatthisinfamouspublicationwaswidelycirculatedandeagerlyread.*

THESCIENCEOFJUDAISM.

ThesolereplywhichtheseoccurrenceselicitedfromtheintelligentmembersoftheJewishcommunitywasamorestrenuouseffortontheirparttocompletetheworkofinwardpurification,andrenewedzealinthestudyoftheirhistoricpast.TheytrustedthattheimageofJudaism,ifpresentedinitsproperlight,wouldremovetheodiumwhichrestedupontheirpeople,andwouldfurthermorebecometheirsureguide



intheworkofreconstructingthereligionoftheirancestors.

Lateintheyear1819a"SocietyfortheCultureandScience*oftheJews"wasfoundedatBerlin.Itsobjectwastwofold:firsttopromoteamoreeffectiveprosecutionofthe"ScienceofJudaism";secondly,toelevatethemoraltoneofthepeople,tocounteracttheirprevailingbiastowardcommerce,andtoencouragetheminthepursuitsofagriculture,thetrades,andsuchoftheprofessionsastheyhadaccessto.

*Graetz,GeschichtederJuden,X.p.361.

**Throughoutthisarticleweusetheword"science"inthesenseoftheGermanWissenschaft.

ThescienceofJudaismembracesthedepartmentsofhistory,philosophy,andphilology,thelastbeingofspecialimportance,sinceitpresentsthekeytothecorrectunderstandingofthetwoformer.Themeansadoptedtosecuretheseobjectswerechieflythree,--ascientificinstitute,ajournalwhosecolumnswereenrichedbymanycontributionsofenduringvalue,andaschoolinwhichinstructionwasimpartedgratistopoorstudentsandPartisans.AmongthemembersofthesocietywementionEdwardGans,thePresident,afterwardsProfessorofJurisprudenceattheUniversityofBerlin;theeminentcritic,Dr.Zunz;

thepoet,HeinrichHeine;*Moser;thenobleWholwill;andothers.

*Heinewasforsometimeaninstructorinthesociety'sschool.ForanaccountoftheCultur-Verein,andofthepoet'scordialinterestinitssuccess,videStrodtmann,"Heine'sLebenundWerke,"p.237.

Unfortunately,thepublicmindwasnotyetpreparedtoappreciatethelaborsofthesemen;thesocietylanguishedforwantofsupport,andafterafewyearsitsformalorganizationwasdissolved.Butinthebrieftermofitsexistenceithadaccomplisheditsmainobject;thescienceofJudaismwassecurelyestablished,anditcouldsafelybelefttotheindustryofafewgiftedindividualstocultivateandpropagate

it.Thetenyearsfollowingthe"Hep-Hep"excitementwitnessedaseriesofliteraryachievementswhoseimportanceitwouldbedifficulttooverrate.ZunzandRappoport,thepioneersofthenewscience,discoveredthethreadbywhichtheywereenabledtopushtheirwaythroughthelabyrinthofJewishliterature.Profounderudition,criticalacumen,andasubtleinsightamountingalmosttointuition,aredisplayedintheirwritings.Abandofworthydisciplesfollowedtheirlead.Thechainoftradition,whichhadseemedhopelesslytangled,wasunravelled;manyofitsmissinglinkswereingeniouslysupplied,andthesequenceofevents,onthewhole,satisfactorilydetermined.ThedimnessandvaguenessthathadhungoverthehistoryoftheJewswasgivingway,andtheleadingfiguresintheprocessionofpastgenerationsassumedclearanddistinctoutlines.AtthistimeJostwasemployedinwriting

thefirstconnectedhistoryofhispeoplewhichhadeveremanatedfromJewishsources.

SCIENTIFICTHEOLOGY.

WhilescholarswerethusbusypreparingthewayforanewtheoryofJudaismbasedonthefactsofitshistory,noeffortsweremadetopress



theneedfulworkofpracticalreform.Indeed,thehostileattitudeofthetemporalrulersdiscouragedanysuchundertaking.TheinfluenceofMetternichswayedthecouncilsoftheGermanprinces.TheKingofPrussiahadbrokenthepromiseofconstitutionalgovernmentwhichhehadgiventohispeopleinthehourofneed.ThepoweroftheTripleAlliancewaspreparedtocrushoutthefainteststirringsofpoliticalorreligiouslibertywherevertheyappeared.

In1830,however,therevolutioninFrancesweptawayasecondtimethethroneoftheBourbons,andchangedthefaceofaffairs.Thecourageoftheliberalpartyrevivedeverywhere;thebondsofdespotismwererelaxed;aspiritofresistancetooppressionarose,andgrewinintensityfromyeartoyear,untilitatlastfoundventintheconvulsionsof1848.TheJewsfeltthepropheticpromiseofabetterorderofthings,androusedthemselvestorenewedexertions.

Wehaveindicatedinapreviousarticlethatthecauseofpoliticalandofreligiousemancipation,sofaratleastasGermanywasconcerned,advancedinparallellines.In1831GabrielRiesseraddressedamanifestototheGermanpeopleonthepositionoftheJewsamongthem.*Itwasaclearandforciblepresentmentofthecase.Thestyleisdignified,freefromthetaintofundueself-assertion,andequallyfreefrommisplacedmodesty.Hedidnotpetitionforafavor;hedemandedaright.Hedisdainedallmeasuresofcompromise;hedaredtotreatthe

questionasoneofnationalimportance;heaskedforsimplejustice,andwouldbecontentwithnothingless.TheGermanpeoplerewardedhismanlinesswiththeirconfidence,**andunderhisableleadershipthestruggleforemancipationwasfinallybroughttoatriumphantclose.

*UeberdieStellungderBekennerdesMosaischenGlaubensandieDeutschenallerConfessionen.Riesser'sWorks,II.

**HewaselectedVice-PresidentofthefirstGermanParliamentthatmetinthePauls-KircheinFrankfort.

In1835AbrahamGeiger,thenRabbiofWiesbaden,beganthepublicationofa"ScientificJournalforJewishTheology,"andwiththeappearance

ofthisperiodicaltheReformmovemententeredintoitspresentphase.ItwasthepurposeofGeigerandhiscoadjutorstoprosecutetheworkofreligiousrenovationonthebasisofthescienceofJudaism.ThisisthedistinguishingfeatureofthemodernschoolofJewishReform.But,beforeweproceedtosketchtheprinciplesofthese"scientifictheologians,"letusrapidlyadverttothebriefseriesofeventsthatmarktheoutwarddevelopmentofthenewschool.

AroundthestandardwhichGeigerhadunfurledabodyofearnestmensooncollected,whoagreedwithhiminthemainindesiringtoreconcilescienceandlife(_WissenschaftundLeben_).Theyweremostlyyoungmen,freshfromtheuniversities,profoundlyversedinHebrewandrabbiniclore,zealousloversoftheirreligion,equippedwiththeelementsof

ancientandmodernculture,andanxioustoharmonizetheconflictingclaimsofbothintheirprivatelivesandpublicstation.Manyofthemunderwentsevereprivationsfortheirconvictions'sake.Theyweredistrustedbythevariousgovernments,withoutwhosesanctionnoJewishclergymancouldenteruponhisfunctions,andweremadetofeel,incommonwithotherLiberals,thedispleasurewhichtheirmeasures,moderatethoughtheywere,hadprovokedinhighquarters.Theyweresubjectedtonumberlesspettyannoyances,andevendownrightforcewasemployedtochecktheirgrowingpopularity.WiththeaccessionofFrederickWilliamIV.,theUltramontanesandthepartyofretrogression



intheProtestantChurchcompletelygainedtheascendant.Coveredbytheshieldofroyalfavortheyofferedthemostaudaciousinsultstotheconscienceandcommon-senseofthepeople,therightoffreespeechwasimpaired,thepresswasshackled,whilethemostabjectsuperstitionswereopenlyencouraged.TheholycoatofJesus,exhibitedatthecathedralofTreves,attractedhundredsofthousandsofpilgrims,andthefameofthemiraculouscuresithadeffectedwasdiligentlyspread.Buttheveryviolenceoftheextremistsprovokedadeterminedoppositionamongtheintelligentclasses.Nationalunityandindividuallibertywereloudlydemanded,aGermanCatholicpartywasformedwiththeavowedobjectofreorganizingCatholicismonthebasisofthemodernState.Freereligiouscongregationsbegantocropuphereandthere,which,thoughfeebleasyetintheirorganization,wereproperlyregardedassignificantofthespiritofthetimes.OnthewavesoftheturningtidetheyoungRabbiswerecarriedalong.Theywereardentpatriots;theytoo,wereeagertoseetheirreligionweddedtotheprogressivetendenciesoftheage.Thesympathiesofthemostenlightenedoftheirbrethrenwerecheerfullyextendedtothem,andhighhopeswerefoundedontheirsuccess.

In1844theyweresufficientlystrongtomeetinconvention.Disclaimingthefunctionsofareligioussynod,theyassumedthecharacterofascientificbody,assembledtopromotetheobjectsoftruthintheirspecialdepartment.Thediscussionswereindeedintendedtosecure

harmonyofsentimentandaction,buttheresolutionsadoptedwerebindingneitheruponthemembersthemselvesnoruponthecongregationstheyrepresented.ThreetimestheseconventionswererepeatedatBrunswick,Frankfort,andBreslau.

In1845anewcongregationwasformed,called"TheReformAssociationofBerlin,"whichwasrecruitedfromtheextremeleftwingoftheliberalJewishparty.ThiscongregationbecamenotedfortheintroductionofaSundayservice,ameasurewhicheventuallycompelledthemtoentirelyabandontheJewishSabbath.SamuelHoldheim,theablestexponentofradicalJudaism,wasselectedtobetheirpreacher.

ThusfarhadtheReformmovementproceeded,when,in1848,the

incidentsofagreatpoliticalrevolutioncrowdedeveryotherissueintocomparativeinsignificance.ThefallofMetter-nichbeforetheintriguesofthecamarillaandthefuryofapopularuprising,thehumiliationofthekingofPrussia,theconvocationofthenationalparliament,theBadeninsurrection,--theseweretheeventsthatabsorbedtheinterestofthepublic.Politicalincompetencyonthepartoftheleadersprecipitatedthecatastropheoftherevolution,andthehopesoftheGermanpeoplewereagaindoomedtodisappointment.Soonthereactionsetin,adrearyperiodofstagnationfollowed,andtheeffortsofthefriendsoffreedomwereparalyzed.

TheJewishReformerswerestrickendownbythegeneralreversethathadovertakentheliberalparty,norhavetheysincebeenabletorecover

fromitsstunningeffects.Tworevolutions,thoseof1830and1848,markthegrowthandthedeclineof"scientificreform."Withinthepastthirtyyearsanumberofprominentreformershavebeencalledtothiscountry,andtothemisduethespreadofthemovementintheUnitedStates.

Thedifficultieswhichconfrontedthemherewereofthemostformidablekind.ThegreatbulkoftheJewishemigrationtotheUnitedStateswereoriginallydrawnfromthevillagecongregationsoftheFatherland,andwerebynomeansfairspecimensoftheintelligenceandcultureofthe



Jewishrace.Whiletheydisplayedthequalitiesofenergy,perseverance,andthrift,andsoonacquiredwealthandinfluenceinthecommercialworld,fewonlywerefittedtoappreciateamovementsothoroughlyintellectualinitsbearingsasthatwhichthereformerscametopropagateamongstthem.Themereexternalsofreformwerereadilyadopted,butitsspiritualessenceescapedthem.Accordingly,thedevelopmentofReformedJudaismonAmericansoilpresentsnonovelorstrikingfeaturesforourconsideration,anditmayappropriatelybetreatedasamereoffshootoftheGermanstock.

PRINCIPLES.

EversincetheappearanceofGeiger's"ScientificJournal,"JewishphilologyandJewishtheologyhavebeeninseparablyconnected.Toattemptadetailedaccountofthelatterwouldinvolvethenecessityoffrequentreferencetotheformer,anattemptinwhichwecanhardlyassumethereader'sinterestwouldbearusout.Unwillingtotesthispatiencebysuchacourse,weshallcontentourselveswithstatingthemainprinciplesofReformedJudaism,andbrieflyindicatingthesuccessivestepsbywhichitadvancedtoitspresentpositions.

TheonegreatfactwhichtheScienceofJudaismhasindisputablyestablishedwasthefactofevolutioninthesphereoftheJewishreligion.Eachgenerationhadlegislatedforitself.TheauthoritiesoftheMiddleAgeshadintroducedchangesintheritual;theTalmuditself,thatcorner-stoneoforthodoxy,wasastupendousinnovationonthesimplicityofBiblereligion.*Applyingthetheoryofevolutiontotheirowncase,themodernRabbisassumedontheirparttherighttoinstitutewhateverchangestheexigenciesoftheagehadrenderedimperative.

*ThetheoryofanOralLaw,deliveredtoMosesonSinaiandhandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,untilitwasfinallyembodiedintheordinanceoftheTalmudicalacademies,isapalpablefiction,inventedbytheTalmudists

inordertolendtotheirowndecisionsthesanctionofDivineauthorship.

Theveryfactofchange,itistrue,presupposestheexistenceofasubstratumthatremainsunchangeable.WhatthatsubstratuminthecaseofJudaismisclaimedtobe,weshallpresentlydiscover.ThemeasuresoftheReformerswereinthemaindictatedbythesentimentofpatriotismandthedesiretoremovethebarriersthatinterposedbetweenthemandtheirfellow-men.Theywouldceasetobea"statewithin-thestate,"ceasetoseparatethemselvesfromthefellowshipoftheGentiles.HencetheleadingpropositionuponwhichReformedJudaismisfounded._TheJewishpeoplehaveceasedtobeanationalunit,andwillexisthereafterasaconfederationofreligioussocieties._

IftheJewshaveceasedtobeanation,thentheReformersmustabandontheideaofanationalrestoration.Theydidso.Iftheyhaveceasedtobeanation,theymustgiveupthehopeofapersonalMessiahwhoshouldleadthembacktothepromisedland.Theydidso>Iftheydesirednolongertodwellinseclusiontheymustabolishthedietarylaws,whichforbidthemtotasteofthefoodofChristians,thoughcommandedbytheTalmudandfoundedapparentlyontheauthorityofMoses.This,too,theywerewillingtodo.Otherchangeswereinspiredbythephilosophicteachingsoftheday,andwereundertakenwithequalreadiness.Thus



thedoctrineofresurrectioninthefleshwassetaside.Thefabricofceremonialobservanceshadbeenrudelyshaken,andsoongavewayaltogether.Changesintheritualfollowed.Theprayer-bookreflectedthegloomyspiritofapeoplewhoselifewasembitteredbyconstanttrialsanddangers.NaturallytheyhadturnedtothepastandthegloriesofZion;thepompofthesacrifices,theadventoftheMessiah,thefuturerestorationofthekingdomofDavid,werethethemesonwhichtheylovedtodwell.AllthiswasnolongersuitedtothetemperofthemodernJews,andradicalalterationsbecamenecessary.Manyofthefestivalsandfast-daysalsowerestruckfromthecalendar.OneofthemostdistinctivecustomsoftheJews,theso-calledriteofAbraham'sCovenant,wasboldlyattacked,andthoughtheabolitionofthisancientpracticeisstillstrenuouslyresisted,thereislittledoubtthatitwillultimatelygowiththerest.SamuelHoldheimadvocatedtheproprietyofintermarriagebetweenJewsandChristians.

Themannerinwhichtheseconclusionswerereachedmaybedescribedasfollows.AtfirstanattemptwasmadetofoundeachnewmeasureofReformontheauthorityoftheTalmud.TheTalmudwasattackedwithitsownweapons.Thefallacyofsuchamethodbecomingapparent,theauthorityoftheTalmudwasentirelysetaside.AreturntotheBiblewasnextinorder.ButeventhelawsoftheBibleprovedtobenolongercapableoffulfilmentintheirtotality.AdistinctionwasthereforedrawnbetweentheletterandthespiritoftheBible.Theletteris

man'shandiwork,thespiritaloneoughttoberegardedastheDivineruleoffaith.The"spiritoftheBible"istheessenceofJudaism,whichcannotchange.Intheprocessofevolutionitconstantlyassumesnewforms,butremainssubstantiallythesame.Norcouldanymotivesofexpediency,norcouldeventheardentdesireofpoliticalemancipationhaveinducedtheReformerstopursuethecoursetheydid,hadtheyforonemomentbelieveditcontrarytothesubstantialteachingsoftheBible.ThespiritoftheBibleisexpressedintwofundamentalpropositions:theexistenceofoneGod,theauthorandgovernoroftheuniverse;andtheMessianicmissionofthepeopleofIsrael.TheformerisnolongertheexclusivepropertyofJudaism,thelatterisdistinctivelyitsown;bothtogetherexpressthesimplecreedoftheReformers.

PROSPECTS.

IfnowwecastaglanceuponthepresentaspectofReformedJudaismweareconfrontedbyastateofaffairsthatbynomeanscorrespondstothegreatanticipationswhichwereconnectedwiththemovementinitsearlierstages.Theancientinstitutionshavebeenclearedaway,--thatwasunavoidable;theyhadlongbeentotteringtotheirruin,--butanadequatesubstituteforwhatwastakenhasnotbeenprovided.Theleadershavepenetratedtothefoundationsoftheirreligion,but

uponthesebarefoundationstheyhaveerectedwhatisatbestameretemporarystructureincapableofaffordingthempermanentshelterandprotection.ThetemperoftheReformschoolhasbeencritical.Itsmemberswereadmirablyfittedtoanalyzeandtodissect;theirscholarshipisunquestionablygreat;thestainlesspurityoftheirliveshaselevatedthecharacteroftheirpeopleandentitledthemtosincererespectButtheylackedtheconstructivegeniusneededforthecreationofnewinstitutions.Intheyear1822Wholwilldeclaredthat"theJewsmustraisethemselvesandtheirprincipletothelevelofscience.Scienceistheonebondthatalonecanunitethewholehumanrace."The



emphasisthusplacedonsciencehascontinuedtodistinguishtheReformmovementdowntothepresentday.Inthesphereofreligion,however,itisnotsufficienttoapprehendtheabstracttruthofideaswiththehelpofintellect,butitisnecessarytoarraytheseideasinconcreteforms,inorderthattheymaywarmtheheartandstimulatethewill.

Weholditerroneoustobelievethattheageofsymbolismispassed.TheprovinceofreligionistobringthehumansoulintocommunionwiththeInfinite.InthelowerreligionstheconceptionoftheInfinitewasmeagreandinsufficientandthesymbolsinuseproportionatelygross.Atthepresentdayitistheidealofmoralperfectionthataloneiscapableofexcitingourdevotionandkindlingourenthusiasm.Nowitistruethatthematerialsymbolismofthechurchesandthesynagogues,thevenerable,thebreadandwine,thescrollsofthePentateuchtrickedoutinfancifulvestments,failtoappealtothesympathiesofmanyeducatedmenandwomenofourtime;not,however,becausetheyaresymbols,butbecausetheyareinadequatesymbols,becauseofanalmostpainfuldisparitybetweentheirearthyoriginandthevastnessofthespiritualideaswhichtheyareintendedtosuggest.Thereis,ontheotherhand,aspeciesofsymbolismpeculiarlyadaptedtotheneedsofthepresentgeneration,andwhich,ifproperlyunderstood,mightbeemployedtoincalculableadvantageintheinterestofarevivalofthereligioussentiment.Wealludetothesymbolismofassociation.

Thetendencytoassociatetheeffortsofindividualsincorporateactionhasneverbeenmoremarkedlydisplayedthaninourownday.Solongassuchassociationsconfinethemselvestocertainfiniteobjects,theyaremeresocialenginesorganizedwithaviewtoutilityandpower,andwithsuchwearenotconcerned.Thecharacteristicofsymbolsistheirsuggestiveness.Theyhaveameaninginthemselves,buttheysuggestillimitablemeaningsbeyondtheirscope.Nowaformoforganizationisnotonlyconceivable,buthasactuallybeenattempted,thatfullymeetstherequirementsofthesymboliccharacter.TheChristianChurchisdesignedtobesuchanorganization.Notonlydoesitproposetouniteitsmembersandtosatisfytheirspiritualneedsduringthetermoftheirsojournonearth,butitaspirestotypifytheunionofallsaintsunderthesovereigntyofJesus,andthustogivetothebelievera

presentimentofthefelicityandperfectionofthehigherworld.InlikemannertheHebrewshavebeenacquaintedwiththesymbolismofassociationfromaveryearlyperiodoftheirhistory.Iftheydelighttostylethemselvesthechosenpeople,themeaningofthatphrase,sooftenmisunderstood,ispurelysymbolical.

Recognizingthefactthatthemajorityofmankindareatnotimepreparedtoentertaintheidealsofthefew,theyundertooktoworkoutamongthemselvesanoblerconceptionofreligionandaloftiermorality,trustingthattheforceoftheirexamplewouldintheendbringabouttheuniversaladoptionoftheirfaithandethicalcode.InthissensethechoiceofIsraelwasinterpretedbytheProphets.TheybelievedthattheirselectionbytheDeityimposeduponthemheavierresponsibilities,

andregardeditinthelightofanobligationratherthanaprivilege.Whatthestatueistotheidealofbeauty,awholepeopleresolvedtobeinrelationtotheidealofthegood.ThesameconceptionstilldominatesthethoughtsoftheReformers,andisexpressedbythemintheirdoctrineofIsrael'smessianicmission.TheyclaimthattheJewshavebeenforthepastthreethousandyearsthe"Swissguardofmonotheism."Theystillbelievethemselvestobethetypicalpeople,andtheirfirmpersuasiononthisheadistheonestrongfeatureoftheReformers'creed.Iftheywillusetheirworld-wideassociationtoillustrateanewthevirtuesforwhichtheirracebecamerenownedinthe



past,--andwereferespeciallytothepurityofthesexualrelationsamongthem,theirpiousreverencefordomesticties,--theymaystillbecome,astheyaspiretodo,exemplarsofpuritytobejoyfullyimitatedbyothers.Iftheywilluseitinthespiritoftheirancientlawgivertotonedowntheharshdistinctionsofwealthandpoverty,toestablishjusterrelationsbetweenthestrongandweak,inbrief,toharmonizethesocialantagonismsofmodernlife,theymayconferaninestimablebenefituponmankind.Butthemannerinwhichthesymbolismofassociationmightbeappliedtoinvigoratethereligioussentiment,andtoexpelthecoldnessofthetimesbythefervorofanewenthusiasm,isasubjectoftoovastdimensionstobethussummarilydespatched,andweshallhopetorecurtoitonsomefutureoccasion.*

*Inanarticleonthereligiousaspectsofthesocialquestion.

ThepresentconditionofliberalJudaismisstronglyakintothatofliberalChristianity.Theoldisdead,thenewhasnotbeenborn.Itishardlysafetopredictwhatpossibledevelopmentsthefuturemayyethaveinstore.AsregardstheJews,however,itisrighttoaddthatsuchchangesashavetakenplaceintheconstitutionoftheirreligionhavenotbroughttheminanysensenearertoChristianity.Onthecontrary,sincethebeliefinapersonalMessiahhasbeendropped,thehopeoftheirconversionhasbecomemorevagueandvisionarythan

ever.Thosewhomtheworshipofthesynagogueandthetemplenolongerattractseitherbecomewhollyscepticalandindifferent,or,asisoftenthecase,transfertheirallegiancetothenewhumanitariandoctrinewhichisfastassumingthecharacterofareligionintheardoritinspiresandthestrongspiritualunionitcements.ForthegreatbodyoftheJews,however,thecentraldoctrineofJudaismremainsunshaken,anddoubtless,solongasChristianityexists,Judaismasadistinctcreedwillcoexistwithit.ThemodernJews,liketheirancestors,believethattheirmissionisnotyetended,andtheyawaitwithpatiencetherisingofsomenewmanofgeniusamongstthem,whowillcombinethequalitiesofthepopularleaderwith.'theattributesofthescholar,andwillgivebodyandformtotheideaselaboratedbytheReformers.Asareligioussocietytheydesiretoremaindistinct.But

ascitizens,theyareeagertoremovewhateverdistinctionsstillhampertheirintercoursewiththeirneighborsofothercreeds.NeverhasthedesiretoreturntoPalestineandretrievetheirlostnationalitybeenmoreforeigntotheirsentimentsthanatthepresentday,thoughrecentspeculationshavemisledmanytobelieveotherwise.Theyknowtheycannomorereturnthither.Theywouldnotiftheycould.Theylovethelandoftheirbirth;theywishtojointheirlaborswiththoseofothersinpromotingtheprogressoftheentirehumanrace.Theyhaveceasedtoregretthepast,anddesirenothingmoreearnestlythantoliveinthepresentandforthefuture.

THEEND.

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