CRIME SCENE MANAGEMENT COMPILED

Makinika Afrika International pg. 1

CRIME SCENE MANAGEMENT

BY: Amb Steve Mbugua

INTRODUCTION TO CRIME SCENE MANAGEMENT

Definition of a Crime Scene

The scene of a crime is the area in the immediate vicinity of the occurrence, within which evidence

might be found. In some cases, there may be a primary crime scene and one or more secondary

scene.

A primary crime scene is the area in the immediate vicinity of the occurrence within which

evidence might be found. Thus a bank where the armed robbery occurred is a primary crime scene.

A secondary crime scene is an area, although not in the immediate vicinity of the primary crime

scene, still may afford evidence thereby linking the offenders with the offence. Therefore, in the

case of an armed robbery, the place where the getaway car is parked is a secondary crime scene.

Similarly, the route between the bank and the place where the getaway car is abandoned, both are

secondary crime scenes. People such as suspects and victims could also be considered secondary

scenes.

The limits of this area will vary according to the nature of the event. At times it can be localized

but on other occasions it might cover a considerable area. (Such as a hit run accident, the

investigator would extend his search a considerable distance from the point of impact to locate

evidence).

Responsibilities of the First Responder

The duties of a first responder areto:

1. Assist the victim.

2. Search for and arrest the suspect if still on the scene.

3. Detain all witnesses because they possess valuable information about the crime scene.

Keep witnesses separated to preserve their objectivity.

4. Protect the crime scene. Begin by using barrier tape, official vehicles, or other means to

secure the scene. Establish a crime scene security log to record the names of all

persons who enter or exit the crime scene. Do not smoke, drink, or eat within the

secured crime scene and do not allow unnecessary persons or officials to enter or

contaminate the scene.

5. Note and communicate to crime scene investigators all movements and alterations made

to the crime scene.


Where a crime scene is complex or of a serious nature and you have access to experienced

investigators and forensic officers, you should not attempt to examine the scene alone if at all

possible.

Ascertain if Crime Committed

The first Officer(s) attending the scene must, where appropriate:

Conduct First Aid to any Victim

Establish the extent (size) of the scene

Establish if a crime has been committed.

Establish whether the incident is minor or major to enable you to determine the level of support

that will be required to manage the crime scene.

Cordon the Scene

The following list demonstrates why it is important to ensure that the scene is not interfered with:

To protect vital evidence especially if this evidence may be endangered prior to the arrival

of a Forensic Officer.

Mark the scene boundary with tape or any material that will clearly show the area not to be

entered by unauthorised persons.

To establish an entry/exit point at the scene.

To prevent entry to the scene of any persons, including other police if they do not need to

be there.

Suspect Management

Along with witnesses when first arriving at a crime scene there may often is a suspect still present.

You should

Separate the suspect from other witnesses

Search and secure the suspect

Note any relevant comments he may make about the crime and Do NOT interview or question the

suspect as that is the role of the nominated investigator. However if you make the decision that

you are to be the Investigator then you make take any action with the offender that you deem

necessary in an inquiry. However you should make notes of anything the suspect says and if the

suspect starts to make admissions then you must appropriately caution him according to law.

Notify Authorities

Persons in authority should be notified, especially if the crime is of a serious nature. They may be;

The Command Centre


Investigation Officer (IO), and

Forensic Officers

This will ensure that specialized officers trained to deal with serious offences will attend the scene

expeditiously.

Record Crime Scene Movements

Duties of the Officer Preserving the Crime Scene include: -

Commencing a Crime Scene Log/Administrative Log in which all actions occurring within

the scene are recorded. An Officer may be nominated as a log keeper after consultation

with the Officer in Charge of the investigation.

Removing people through a common exit point.

Recording who enters the scene and why, time of entry and exit to/from the crime scene.

Maintaining control of the scene until it is taken over by an Investigator or Forensic

Officer.

Authority to restrict access to the scene to prevent contamination.

Inquiries

Isolate witnesses, record their details and, where possible, request them to stay.

Take notes about issues relevant to the scene.

Draw a basic sketch to record the scene if there appears any danger of the scene or

exhibits being interfered with.

Record all facts relating the incident and hand over it to the investigator after his arrival.

Examples: Name of eye witnesses, particulars of injured shifted to hospital, time and

related person of all facts, related and parked vehicle numbers etc.

If there is doubt about the value of an object as an exhibit; treat it as evidence until a

person examines it that is qualified to make a judgment. Assistance of other services is to

be called for in the most expedient manner without you leaving the crime scene.

Handover

When you hand the scene over to Investigators and Forensic Officers you need to be in a

position to carry out the following;

Hand over the Crime Scene Log which should include

Initial observations

Witness List

Victim Details

Suspect details

Other information of interest such as comments the suspect has made whilst in your

presence.


ELEMENTS OF CRIME SCENE MANAGEMENT

The only thing consistent about crime scenes is their inconsistency. Because of their diversity,

crime scenes can be classified in many ways. First, crime scenes can be classified according to the

location of the original criminal activity. This classification of the crime scene labels the site of the

original or first criminal activity as the primary crime scene and any subsequent crime scenes as

secondary.

This classification does not infer any priority or importance to the scene, but is simply a

designation of sequence of locations.

Most crimes are often solved by a system that focuses on teamwork, advanced investigation skills,

ability to process crime scene properly.

By recognizing, collecting and preserving all relevant physical evidence and information, the

effectiveness of crime scene functions are only as good as the whole management system.

Crimes today are solved by the teamwork of investigators and crime scene personnel and by

the combined use of techniques and procedures recognizing the power of crime scenes, physical

evidence, records, and witnesses. Unfortunately, numerous cases, routine and complex,

have shown that despite available crime scene technologies and specially trained personnel, the


productiveness of a crime scene investigation is only as good as the supportive management

team.

The four distinctive but interrelated components of crime scene management are;

• Information management

• Manpower management

• Technology management, and

• Management of logistics.

These components are all based on the fundamental need for good and ongoing communication.

1. Information management

With new developments in crime scene technology, investigation has proved that crime scene

contains a tremendous amount of information. This information can often link a suspect to a crime

scene, prove or disapprove an alibi, or develop investigative leads.

Information can be in oral form, written statements or documents, or in the form of pattern

evidence located or remarked absent from scene, or pattern evidence located within the scene.

The sooner information can be recognized, collected, analyzed, and preserved, the better the

chance that the case will be solved.

Various types of information can be used to solve crimes; comprehensive victim background

check, inquiry into the actions and whereabouts of the suspect and his or her belongings during

the last 24 hour period preceding the crime.

2. Manpower management

Manpower are the agencies responsible for the crime scene processing and construction.

Several factors involving manpower adversely affect crime scene management; insufficient

personnel, poor training and lack of experience or overworked crime scene team to deliver

dedicated qualified man-hours.

3. Technology management

Change in technology mandates the continual acquisition of new and often expensive equipment

and supplies for effective crime scene processing. The amount of resources allocated for

purchasing and upgrading equipment should be appropriate to the variety and volumes of crime


scene s encountered by the team/unit. As well as adequate training to the personnel to properly

utilize any new technology or new equipment.

Different categories of equipment

• Support vehicles; specifically constructed for crime scene purposes

• Communication; two way radio, cell phones fax machines, and computer with internet

connection. Tele-forensics and telecommunication technologies are being developed

• Tools and search equipment; hand tools, forensic light sources, metal detectors etc

• Specialized crime scene kits; latent print kits, trajectory reconstruction dowel and

accessories, casting kits for tool marks and foot ware impressions

• Chemicals and reagents; blood print enhancement reagent, latent print developers, etc

• Portable instrumentation; night vision equipment, portable laser, radar etc

• Evidence packaging materials and related forms

4. Management of logistics

Logistical concerns should be properly addressed and managed through god planning, organization

and efficient allocation of resources to be established earlier in the investigation. The following

elements are to be established;

Command posts

First officer responders must do everything possible to secure the integrity of the crime scene. In

order to maintain the integrity of a crime scene, outer perimeters and a command post need to be

established. A command post should be situated outside the

perimeter of the working crime scene away from evidence location to allow investigators

document the scene logically and accurately disseminate relevant information to and from the

crime scene.

During the initial part of the investigation, a mobile or a temporary command post is ideal

and can be locate near the outer perimeter of the scene. As investigation evolves and rime scene

functions diminish a longer term command post may be established.


The command post should focus on supporting the investigation team and provide facility to

establish a task force office or long term investigation centre.

Media relations

Care should be taken to restrict access to the crime scene and a separate area should be identified

for members of public and media. It is the right of the media to gather information and publicize it.

When the public information office is constantly updated and portrays an honest and timely

dissemination of information to the media, vast majority of media representatives will gladly

comply to protect the scene of crime and sensitive information.

The media area should be close to the actual crime scene for them to be able to obtain some file

footage for their newscasts. This is to be established with care to protect the entire scene or

sensitive information. Periodic news conferences should be scheduled and conducted by

authorized crime scene officers during major case investigations.

Conclusion

A deficiency in one of these areas or an over emphasis on component and neglect of another will

result in a system that is out of balance an that will jeopardize the overall management of crime

scene investigation process.

CRIME SCENE SECURITY

Introduction

Crime scene being anywhere an offence has been committed or anywhere with a potential to yield

evidence and is created after the commission of a crime, Majority of evidence required for proper

and successful prosecutions of perpetrators of crime is found at the scene of crime .Therefore, the

success of investigators depends on the actions of the first responder to a crime scene. The

integrity of a crime scene should be maintained at all times. Prompt visit is intended to safeguard

any physical evidence that could be available.


Physical evidence is anything that a suspect has taken from, left at or that may be otherwise

connected with the crime scene or the crime itself.

Many people, both police and members of the community believe that the investigation of crime

is the sole responsibility of Investigation officer and no other police officers are capable of, or

are permitted to do so? This is a MYTH! All police officers have an investigative role.

Why Preserve a Crime Scene?

The scene of a crime is a very important area. The reason we preserve the scene is so that all

of the available evidence can be found in its original position and condition to help us solve

the crime and find out who committed the crime.

Constables are usually the first members to get to the scene of a serious crime. Most

members know that a crime scene should be protected but often do not know why or how to

go about it.

NB: EVERY CONTACT LEAVES ITS TRACES

Evidence found at the scene of a crime can be used later as exhibits in court to prove that an offender

is guilty of the offence. It is very important that evidence found at the scene is kept in its original

state.

The scene should be kept in its original state to stop contamination (interference) of the crime scene

by people or other factors such as the weather.

Remember: every time something comes in contact with something else it leaves a trace. It may be a

fingerprint, footprint or something that we can link the crime to the offender.

What are we protecting the crime scene from?

i. People

Crime scenes will often attract crowds of onlookers and friends and family of the victim.

This may well lead to these people either deliberately or unintentionally moving or

destroying valuable evidence. Some people may even steal exhibits such as guns, knives

etc. of particular concern are police members who may also contaminate the crime scene by


handling or touching exhibits, walking over footprints or blood stains etc.

ii. Weather

Wind and rain, particularly, can destroy evidence quickly.

iii. Animals

Dogs, pigs and other animals generally may tend to scavenge or disturb a crime scene and

will thus destroy or relocate valuable evidence.

iv. Traffic

Motor vehicles, particularly police cars will often drive over and destroy evidence such as

tire marks, footprints and blood stains.

Locard’s principle

Locard’s exchange principle states, in essence, that when two objects touch, there is a transfer of

evidence.

Edmond Locard was educated in both medicine and law. He was fascinated with police work, and

persuaded a French police department to give him some space to start a laboratory in order to

study the concept of trace evidence. Locard believed that when two objects, or people, came into

contact with each other, each left a mark on the other.

Locard meant for his exchange principle to be an example of forces; for instance, billiard balls. A

cue ball is hit and it collides with another ball. The cue ball transfers the force to the second ball,

which begins moving. This explanation can also be applied to forensics. For example, when a red

car collides with a white car, we can expect to find white paint on the red car, and red paint on the

white car.

It is important to understand, however, that, while an investigator may find traces of a suspect at

the crime scene, this may not be sufficient to prove a case against the suspect. For example, if a

bank robbery suspect leaves a fingerprint on the door of a bank when he exits, this is not in and of

itself evidence of the robbery; it is only evidence that he has been on the scene. An investigator

needs additional evidence, such as witnesses, video, or proof that the suspect escaped with the

money, before making an arrest.

There cannot be discussion on crime scene security without mentioning locard’s principle.

Locard a French forensic scientist noted that whenever a crime occurs, no matter what the nature


is, the crime scene is the most important thing that the criminal leaves behind. As far as forensic

science goes, the crime scene is the only biggest source of obtaining physical evidence related to

the crime. It is from the crime scene that a Crime Scene Investigation begins. For an investigator,

it is something that gives insight into the way the crime was committed and it is much like visiting

the footsteps of the criminal through the clues that have been left behind.

The Locard Exchange Principle is the basis for linking physical evidence from or to the

victim, suspect, and crime scene. Anyone entering a crime scene can alter or change the scene

and its evidence, so access to the crime scene must be restricted and, if possible, pre- vented

except for essential crime scene personnel. Any physical barriers like vehicles or tapes that help

protect the crime scene must be established as soon as possible by the first responders.

After scene barriers have been established, one officer shall be designated as the scene

security officer. He or she will be responsible for preventing entrance into the crime scene by

curious onlookers. A contamination log or security log should be kept to record all entries to and

exits from secure areas of the crime s c e n e . Use of a m u l t i l e v e l secu r i t y approach can

successfully prevent this important stage in the investigation.

Only in rare situations will the crime scene investigator be the first responder. After he or she

arrives, the first step is to evaluate the established secure areas and change them if necessary.

Unlike the way they are depicted on TV, crime scenes are often chaotic and difficult to secure.

There is so much going on and too many people coming and going. But if an accurate

investigation is to take place, you must properly secure a crime scene by following certain

guidelines.

1. Establish the boundaries of the crime scene. Determine an inner perimeter, the spot where

the crime occurred, and an outer perimeter, for example, the exit or entrance doors or

windows. There may also be an extended perimeter, an area where, for example, a

perpetrator may have tossed a murder weapon when fleeing the scene.

2. Mark perimeters with crime scene tape or police barriers.

3. Remove unnecessary individuals from the scene. Gather witnesses, if any.

4. Determine if there is any evidence present. If so, log it carefully.


5. Record conditions of the area and anything that affects it. Write down time, weather

conditions, description of area and number of people, if any, present upon your arrival.

6. Release the crime scene after you complete all documentation, secure all evidence and

remove all photographs and sketches taken. Release should happen only when everyone

agrees that the scene has been adequately searched.

Crime scene security/approach

It is the responsibility of the first officer arriving on the scene of a crime to take first steps to

preserve and protect the area to the greatest extent possible. However the protection and securing

of the crime scene should involve all officers and persons involved at the crime scene. The

acronym S.C.E.N.E can be used as a guide in following the steps.

S- SAFETY; Safety Procedures and Emergency Care

C-CORDON; Secure and Control Persons at the Scene

E-EVIDENCE COLLECTION; Document Actions and Observations

N-NAME LOG LIST; Documentation

E- EVALUATE; Perform Final Survey of the Crime Scene

Safety

The safety and physical well-being of officers and other individuals, in and around the crime

scene, are the initial responding officer(s’) first priority of the first respondent is to Identifying and

controlling any dangerous situations or persons by ensuring that there is no immediate threat to

him and other responders through scanning the area for sights, sounds, and smells that may present

danger to personnel (e.g., hazardous materials such as gasoline, natural gas). He should Approach

the scene in a manner designed to reduce risk of harm to officer(s) while maximizing the safety of

victims, witnesses, and others in the area.

. Document the original location of the victim or objects that you observe being moved


Cordon/sealing of crime scene

Defining and controlling boundaries provide a means for protecting and securing the crime

scene(s). The number of crime scenes and their boundaries are determined by their location(s) and

the type of crime.

Establish boundaries of the scene(s), starting at the focal point and extending outward to include:

• Where the crime occurred.

• Potential points and paths of exit and entry of suspects and witnesses.

• Places where the victim/evidence may have been moved

Sealing of crime scene may be through physical barriers (e.g., ropes, cones, crime scene barrier

tape, available vehicles, personnel, and other equipment) or use existing boundaries (e.g., doors,

walls, gates).

Document the entry/exit of all people entering and leaving the scene, once boundaries have been

established.

Establishing boundaries is a critical aspect in controlling the integrity of crime scene in that it

provide the area to be covered by the investigators and a warning to civilians to keep off

A crime scene security also encompasses identification of any threats to scene integrity, and

ensures protection of physical evidence. The investigator(s) in charge should conduct a

walkthrough of the scene to avoid contaminating the scene by using the established path of entry

and Prepare preliminary documentation methods of the scene as observed. This is done to ensure

that all evidence that may be compromised is immediately documented, photographed, and

collected.

Prioritize the collection of evidence to prevent loss, destruction, or contamination. This can be

achieved by the investigator(s) in charge and team members who shall determine the order in

which evidence is collected. The team member(s) should:

a. Conduct a careful and methodical evaluation considering all physical evidence possibilities

(e.g., biological fluids, latent prints, trace evidence ).

b. Focus first on the easily accessible areas in open view and proceed to out-of-view locations.


c. Select a systematic search pattern for evidence collection based on the size and location of the

scene(s).

d. Select a progression of processing/collection methods so that initial techniques do not

compromise subsequent processing/collections methods.

Concentrate on the most transient evidence and work to the least transient forms of physical

evidence.

Importance of crime scene security

Securing of physical evidence

Effecting arrest and making recovery

Confirming existence of a crime

Protection from further interference

Collection of information and intelligence

Corroborate witness statement

Crime scene reconstruction

CONCLUSION

So often members of the public brand investigation officers who come to scene of crime

with long coats and dark shades as ‘real cops’ or heroes who Have come to save the day.

While , cloud of malice and suspicion always hang over the first respondents often uniformed

officers who are often seen as either failing to prevent the occurrence of the crime, are

involved in the commission of the crime or are clueless . however the contrary is the truth , as

a successful prosecution depend on how the first respondent secure the scene. It is therefore

prudent that more emphasis and training on crime scene security should be given to officers in

patrol as the outcome of most crime depends on them.

References


Crime Scene and Evidence Collection Handbook. Washington, D.C.:Bureau of Alcohol,

Tobacco and Firearms, 1999.

Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement. U.S. Department of Justice Office of

Justice Programs.

Evans, Colin, (2008).Criminal Investigations: Crime Scene Investigation Infobase

Publishing:NY

Handbook of Physical Evidence. Miami, Florida: Metro-Dade Police Department, 1996

CRIME SCENE EXAMINATION METHODS/ CRIME SCENE SEARCH

TECHNIQUES

Each crime scene is different according to the physical nature of the scene and the crime

committed. Consequently, the scene is thoroughly searched to develop essential evidentiary

facts pertinent to the offense. The actual crime scene search should not be confined to a

specific area, but extend along the path of approach and follow the line of flight of the

perpetrator. A search conducted in this manner will often uncover an item dropped or

discarded by the offender, which may later be instrumental in obtaining identification or a

conviction in court.

The Purpose of the Search

The crime scene search is conducted to uncover the physical evidence that will potentially do

the following:

Determine the facts of the crime

Identify the criminal

Aid in the arrest and conviction of the criminal

Crime scene searching

Prior to the search, the crime scene specialist should survey the crime scene and set limits on

the area of the search for the purpose of determining how to organize the search procedure

and to ascertain what assistance is needed. Before starting the search, the investigator and

crime scene specialist should note the locations of obvious traces of evidence, probable entry


and exit points used by the perpetrator, as well as the size, shape, and condition of the area to

be searched.

Once the crime scene examiner has gathered as much information as possible through the

initial assessment and completed initial photography the crime scene examination or search

can begin.

As a general rule evidence of a fragile or vulnerable nature should be collected before material

that is less likely to be lost or destroyed. Thus, crime scene photography and sketches

should be done because the crime scene will change with passing time and the examiner‘s aim is to

make a record of the scene as close to its original condition as possible.

NB: When examining the scene, remember to apply Locard‘s Principle of Exchange.

Search techniques

Traditionally, there are three types of searches conducted at a crime scene: spiral search, grid

search, and sector search. The specific technique used is not as important as having the

process conducted in an organized and systematic manner. There are five (5) systematic

search methods normally utilized to search crime scenes. They include the spiral search, strip

search, grid search, zone or sector search, and the pie or wheel search. Let‘s look at each of these and

discuss how they are conducted

Spiral Search Method

This ever-widening circle technique is conducted with the searching officer starting at the

focal point of the crime scene or the center of the area, working outward by circling in a

clockwise or counterclockwise direction to the outside edges of the crime scene. A spiral

technique is a good pattern for a rather confined area. This works well in a small room. In

addition to using the spiral pattern in a room, it is also helpful to apply this pattern in layers.

This can be done as follows:

Visually search the top third of the rooms, as well as the ceiling. Police officers

typically do not look up very often, but should in the case of a crime scene. There may

be bullet holes in the ceiling, blood splatter or hidden items.


Search the middle third of the room including drawers and cabinets.

Search the lower third, using the spiral technique. The floor and lower cabinets are

typically where most evidence is located.

Grid search

The grid search is a variation of the strip search and is useful for large crime scenes,

particularly outdoor scenes. After completing the strip search, the searchers are doubled

back perpendicularly across the area they just searched. It is very time consuming, but

causes a very methodical and thorough examination of the area. It also has the advantage of

allowing searchers to view and search the crime scene from two different viewpoints, thereby

increasing the possibility of uncovering evidence not previously noticed.


Strip Search

A strip search is typically used in outdoor scenes to cover large areas in which detailed

examination is necessary. It is a technique frequently used by archeologists when they search

a particular area. The strip search uses a series of lanes across the crime scene. This method

can be used by one person or a group of searchers. It is done as follows:

Each lane contains a searcher that walks down the lane parallel to the other searchers.

Once the searchers get to the end of the lane they reverse their direction and walk

back adjacent to the lane they just searched.

This process is continued until the entire crime scene area has been searched.

If one of the searchers finds evidence, all searchers should stop until the evidence is

properly processed and they receive additional information.


Zone or sector search

A zone or sector search is used when the search area is particularly large and cumbersome.

The zone or sector search requires the crime scene to be divided into four large quadrants (the

four large quadrants can also be sub-divided into four smaller quadrants). Each quadrant or

sector is then searched separately as an individual unit, using the spiral, strip and/or grid

search pattern.

Pie or Wheel Search


The pie or wheel search is based on the establishment of a circle surrounding the crime scene.

The circle is then divided into six quadrants in a pie-like fashion.

It should be noted that a combination of search patterns can be applied if the

circumstances of the scene demand it. The search should also be multi-dimensional

meaning that the examiners need to look in all directions including up and down. The type of

search applied can depend on:

The type of scene (whether internal or external)

The presence of a body (victim)

The size of the area to be searched

The type of terrain

The size of the evidence

The need to move objects

The number of skilled officers available

During the search of the crime scene the forensic officer must closely examine relevant

objects and identify their potential as evidence. Whilst doing so the examiner should consider:

Physical evidence that may assist with the elimination of persons or establish the

identity of suspects

Physical evidence that may assist with the corroboration of witnesses

Interpretation of any impression evidence

Relationships of evidence within the scene

Any sequences of events suggested by the physical evidence

Scenario development including alternative scenarios

During the crime scene search for physical evidence, special attention must be

directed to the discovery and documentation of impression evidence. Impression evidence is

often not readily apparent, therefore, each of the areas of possible contact between the

perpetrator and the scene must be carefully examined with the full expectation that it will

contain impression evidence.


Point of Observation

Perpetrators sometimes observe a scene from a distance prior to committing a crime, or they

may stalk a victim in preparation for an assault. Such vantage points , which offer the

perpetrator a hidden viewpoint, should be searched for shoe or tire impressions.

Route to Scene

Take note of any contaminants (soil, dew, etc.). That may have collected on shoe soles along

the route used to approach a crime scene. These contaminants may be deposited at the point of

entry and within the scene.

Soft outdoor surfaces along the approach route may contain impression evidence that can be

collected and may allow for an interpretation of the number of perpetrators by noting the

number of different shoe sole patterns that are present.

Point of Entry

The point of entry is often a likely location to recover impression evidence. Contaminants that

have collected on the shoe soles are often deposited on interior surfaces upon entry. Pay

special attention to window sills, chair seats, desk and table tops at or near the point of entry.

Additionally, forced entry may have been accomplished by kicking in a door or climbing to

access a window. These surfaces should be thoroughly searched for impression evidence.

Route through the Crime Scene

A methodical visible search with existing light should be conducted anywhere that the route of

the perpetrator is apparent or suggested. Search for impressions in blood, grease, dust, etc. Take

note and collect any objects that bear indentations that may have been caused by being stepped

on by the perpetrator. Strewn or dropped paper items (envelopes, magazines, boxes, etc.) should

be recovered from floor surfaces to be examined for the presence of dust or residue

impressions.

Following the search with existing light, a thorough search should be made using a bright

floodlight held just off of the surface to direct a beam of oblique (low angle) lighting across


the surface. This should be done in darkened room conditions and may reveal dust or residue

impressions that were not otherwise apparent.

Point of Occurrence

This is the area in a crime scene that the focal point of the criminal activity is obvious. This may

be an area where ransacking has taken place, where a struggle with the victim has taken place, or

where the victim‘s body is located. Impressions may be deposited in blood or other body fluids or on objects

that have been displaced or knocked over. In murder cases, the victim‘s body and clothing are

a potential source of impressions.

Point of Exit

Recover impressions from the area immediately adjacent to the point of exit. This includes

impressions in soft exterior ground surfaces. Any surface that may have been contacted

during exit should be searched.

Escape Route from the Scene

Attempt to reconstruct the direction and means of escape from the scene. Be alert for other

evidence associated with pathways from the scene such as discarded weapons and other

property.

Search for areas where a vehicle may have been parked, and recover associated tire

impression evidence.

Searching the scene for evidence

The search for evidence at a bombing crime scene is critical. The crime scene will contain

important evidence for identifying the suspect and assist in the successful prosecution of the

crime. The exact method of searching will depend on various uncontrollable factors.

Investigation of the scene of a bombing is a time-consuming task that requires a considerable

amount of physical work and attention to minute pieces of physical evidence. The search is

also dirty work and will require the crime scene specialist to sift through large quantities of

debris to locate items of evidence.


One person should be placed in charge of the collection of evidence from the various

collectors. Valuable evidence may not be admissible in court if a proper ―chain of custody cannot be

established. The location where any evidence is recovered must be documented.

The search for evidence should not be concentrated on only obvious explosive-related

physical evidence such as safety fuse, blasting caps, timing mechanisms, pieces of

wire, batteries, and explosive residues. This may cause other valuable evidence to be

overlooked. Other evidence to look for includes:

Fingerprints

Hairs and fibers

Soil, blood, paint, plastic, and tape

Tools and/or tool marks

Metals

Writing paper, printing, cardboard, leather, and wood

Tire tread and shoe print impressions

The search of the crime scene should not be stopped after a few items have located. The

search must be well-organized and thorough to prevent the necessity of a second search.

The probable flight path of the bomb components should be determined to prevent needless

searches. Trees, shrubbery, telephone poles, and the roofs, ledges and gutters of nearby

buildings need to be searched. A search pattern should be established for large areas. A

satisfactory method is a line of searchers who move forward. The areas to be searched should

be charted to ensure a thorough search pattern.

Any items that are foreign to the scene and items that the searchers cannot identify

need to be retained. Small debris should be sifted through a 1/4" wire screen onto an insect-

type screen. These screens are usually placed onto 2 foot square wooden frames constructed

from 2 x 4 inches lumber.


Evidence Log

Due to the large number of persons involved with the bomb scene search and the amount of

evidence collected, an evidence log should be kept to detail each item collected, including

the date, time, and name of the person who collected the material. Using this log facilitates

establishing a chain of evidence and makes the inventory of all the evidence easier.

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

General Introduction

Crime scene is a location where a crime took place (or another location where evidence of the

crime may be found), and comprises the area from which most of the physical evidence is

retrieved by law enforcement personnel, crime scene investigators (CSIs) or in rare

circumstances, forensic scientists. Crime scenes may or may not be where the crime was

committed. There are different levels and types of crime scenes.

Physical evidence is any material objects, which play some actual role in the matter that, gave rise

to the litigation, introduced in a trial, intended to prove a fact in issue based on its demonstrable

physical characteristics.

It would be impossible to list all the objects that could conceivably be of importance to a crime.

Almost anything can be Physical Evidence. According to Lawrence Chow; Physical evidence is

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science


any object that can establish that a crime has been committed or can provide a link between a

crime and its victim or between a crime and its perpetrator.

History and Development of Rules of Evidence

Evidence is the means by which the prosecution tries to prove its case and the defendant tries to

cast doubt upon the prosecution evidence. Similarly in civil case this is through addressing

evidence that the claimant attempts to prove his case and the defendant attempts counter the

claimant case.

The rules of evidence were designed to control both the judge and the jury. They were also

intended to make the trial more businesslike and efficient. The evolutionary process that

resulted in our present rules of evidence is a reflection of both English and U.S. history.

In the middle Ages, glaring abuses of the trial process, such as the Star Chamber and the

Inquisition, developed. Strangely enough, the Star Chamber was originally developed to cure

abuses by the royalty. At their height, both the Star Chamber and the Inquisition became

obsessed with obtaining confessions. The noble ideal that a person could not be con- victed

solely on the allegations of others dissolved into a nightmare of torture chambers designed to

force the suspect to confess.

The earliest forms of juries differed greatly from their modern counterpart. At one time jurors

were selected based on their knowledge of the case. Unlike our present system in which jurors are

not supposed to have an opinion about the case prior to the trial, early jurors were only selected

if they had personal knowledge of the facts. Busybodies made

Examination of evidence

The examination of physical evidence by a forensic investigator is usually undertaken for

identification and comparison. The purpose of identification is to determine the physical or

chemical identity of a substance with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques

will permit. The objective of a comparison is to determine whether or not the suspect specimen

and a control specimen have a common origin, by subjecting them to the same examinations and

tests. In a comparison analysis, the forensic investigator must not forget the role that probability

plays a determining factor in the discovering the origins of two or more specimens. Evidence is

said to possess individual characteristics when it can be associated with a common source with an


extremely high degree of probability. However, evidence that can be associated only with a group

and never with a single source is said to possess class characteristics. Evidence, broadly construed,

is anything presented in support of an assertion. This support may be strong or weak. The strongest

type of evidence is that which provides direct proof of the truth of an assertion. At the other

extreme is evidence that is merely consistent with an assertion but does not rule out other,

contradictory assertions, as in circumstantial evidence.

TYPES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Blood Stains

Seminal Stains

Hair

Fibers and Threads

Glass

Paint

Flammable Liquids

Firearms Evidence

Tool Marks

Controlled Substances and Medicinal Preparations

Questioned Documents

Latent Fingerprints

Biological material - blood, semen or saliva

Paint chips

Soil and vegetation

Accelerants

Fingerprints

Impression evidence – shoe prints, tire tracks or tool marks

Narcotics

Based on the concept on the "Locard's Exchange Principle" every time someone enters an

environment, something is added to and removed from it. The principle is sometimes stated as

“every contact leaves a trace”, and applies to contact between individuals as well as between

individuals and a physical environment. Law enforcement investigators are therefore taught to

always assume that physical evidence is left behind at every scene. This will be generally true, and

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the amount and nature of the evidence created will be largely dependent on the circumstances of

the crime.

Examples ; finger print trace

The Role of Physical Evidence

• The physical evidence left behind at a crime scene plays a crucial role in reconstructing the

events that took place surrounding the crime.

• Although the evidence alone does not describe everything that happened, it can support or

contradict accounts given by witnesses and/or suspects.

• Information obtained from physical evidence can also generate leads and confirm the

reconstruction of a crime to a jury.

• The collection and documentation of physical evidence is the foundation of a

reconstruction.

• Reconstruction is a team effort that involves putting together many different pieces of a

puzzle.

• The right connections have to be made among all the parts involved so as to portray the

relationship among the victim, the suspect, and the crime scene.

• If successful, reconstruction can play a vital role in aiding a jury to arrive at an appropriate

verdict.

• Physical evidence can prove a crime has been committed or establish key elements of an

offence. Example: In cases of alleged rape, the victim‘s torn clothing and injuries may be

sufficient to prove non-consent.

• Physical evidence can place the suspect in contact with the victim or with the crime scene.

Example: Victims hair caught in the suspect‘s watch band.

• Physical evidence can establish the identity of persons connected to the crime. Example:

Fingerprints developed within the crime scene and subsequently identified to a person.

Physical evidence can exonerate the innocent. Example: In cases of alleged rape DNA

analysis of samples taken from a victim may clear a suspect.


Physical evidence can corroborate the victim‘s testimony. Example: In cases of alleged

assault, minor injuries to a suspect‘s knuckles may corroborate a victim‘s claim that he was

punched in the mouth.

A suspect confronted with physical evidence may make admissions. Example: Stolen

property found in the suspect‘s possession.

Physical evidence is more reliable than eye witnesses. Observations made during violent or

stressful situations have often proved to be inaccurate.

Evaluation

Final survey of the crime scene ensures that evidence has been collected and the scene has been

processed prior to release. In addition, a systematic review of the scene ensures that evidence,

equipment, or materials generated by the investigation are not inadvertently left behind and any

dangerous materials or conditions have been reported and addressed.

The investigator(s) in charge should ensure that:

Each area identified as part of the crime scene is visually inspected.

All evidence collected at the scene is accounted for.

All equipment and materials generated by the investigation are removed.

Any dangerous materials or conditions are reported and addressed.

Law supporting crime scene investigations

Evidence means and includes all statements which the court permits or requires to be made before

it by witnesses, in relation to matter of fact under enquiry: Such statements are called oral

evidence.

All documents produced for the inspection of the court:- such documents are called documentary

evidence. (sec-3 of Evidence Act, 1872, Act No-I).

Documents means any matter expressed or described upon any substance by means of letters,

figures or marks or by more than one of those means, intended to be used, or which may be used,

for the purpose of recording matter. (sec-3 of Evidence Act)


Connectivity of Physical evidence in existing law- Provided also that, if oral evidence refers to the

existence or condition of any material thing other than a document, the Court may, if thinks fit,

require the production of such material thing for its inspection. Sec-60 of Evidence Act, 1872.

Investigation means- Sec-4(k)(1) of Cr.P.C. ―Investigation‖ includes all the proceedings under

this code for the collection of evidence conducted by a police officer or by any person.

CONCLUSION

In criminal law, physical evidence is king, it does not have bias and exists independent of the

hopes and wishes of anyone. This is why it is so very important for physical evidence to be

discovered, not contaminated and properly analyzed.

Physical evidence usually involves objects found at the scene of a crime. Physical evidence may

consist of all sorts of prints such as fingerprints, footprints, handprints, tidemarks, cut marks, tool

marks, etc. Examination of some physical evidence is conducted by making impressions in plaster,

taking images of marks, or lifting the fingerprints from objects encountered. These serve later as a

comparison to identify, for example, a vehicle that was parked at the scene, a person who was

present, a type of manufacturing method used to create a tool, or a method or technique used to

break into a building or harm a victim. An examination of documents found at the scene or related

to the crime is often an integral part of forensic analysis. Such examination often helps to establish

not only the author, but more importantly identify any alterations that took place. Specialists are

also able to recover text from documents damaged by accident or on purpose. American Academy

of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) describes physical evidence as anything from small evidences that

require a microscope to view to anything as large as a truck.


COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE

Introduction

'Its a document or object produced in Court and referred to or identified by a witness in giving

evidence".

Therefore the exhibit can be any object or document from a microscopic speck to a large truck,

which in view of the Crime Scene Examiner may bear some information that may assist the Police

or the courts at a later date in determining the sequence of events that may have occurred, or may

prove guilt or innocence of the alleged offender. This evidence is referred to as PHYSICAL

EVIDENCE, and this evidence should stand alone, to enable the courts to interpret that value of

the evidence on its own merit.

After completion of the crime scene documentation and intensive search of the scene for

physical evidence, the collection and preservation of the evidence can begin. One individual

should be designated as the evidence collector to ensure that the evidence is collected,

packaged, marked, sealed, and preserved in a consistent manner. No item of evidence will

be missed, lost, or contaminated if only one person has the obligation for this important

stage in the investigation

There is no rigid order for collection of the evidence, but some types of evidence, by their nature,

should be given some priority of order. Transient, fragile, or easily lost evidence should

be collected first. Some items of evidence because of location within the crime scene may have

to be moved or repositioned. If items are moved and new evidence is discovered,

documentation must proceed immediately. It is difficult to generalize about the collection of

physical evidence.

What are Exhibits? Why Collect Exhibits?


There are very few serious criminal cases that could be successfully prosecuted without the

presentation of exhibits to the court and members of a jury. Inevitably all criminals acquire

whether willingly or unwillingly, evidence in the form of exhibits that can be collected by

thorough investigators.

Evaluate each Potential Exhibit

Consider each potential exhibit and assess its value.

Is it likely to be useful as evidence?

Is it unlikely to be useful as evidence?

Is it of no evidentiary value?

No instructor can tell you what to collect and why it should be collected, as each case is different

and the significance of particular items will vary from scene to scene. However, when collecting

exhibits you should do so with an ―open mind‖. It is important to establish the relevance of

individual pieces of evidence, (eg. their position and how that position relates to the incident), as

this information must be passed onto the Investigating Officer, and ultimately to the Prosecutor

and the court. The evidence could be rejected by the court on the application of the defence

counsel if it is not shown to be relevant.

Beware of Hazards!

Before collecting re handling an exhibit the crime scene examiner should assess potential hazards

and take the necessary precautions before proceeding. Hazards could be physical, biological or

chemical. Avoid Contamination! Your exhibit may need to be examined or analyzed by someone

else. Therefore you should avoid contaminating your exhibit by wearing gloves.

Avoiding Cross Contamination!

Each item collected should be placed in a separate bag to avoid the possible cross transfer of

material from one item to the other. One exhibit in each container.

Exhibit handling and management is an area where all police organizations tend to have

weaknesses in their systems and processes. Nine times out of ten, these weaknesses will go

unnoticed, or cause no consequences for Police investigators and police management. However, it

is the tenth occasion that the content of this session seeks to overcome. Poor exhibit handling and


management can result in serious criminal prosecutions being challenged and defeated on the basis

of handling, security and continuity of exhibits when presented to the court. There will be an

increase in challenges in relation to the validity and admissibility of exhibits throughout the Pacific

Region as communities and individuals become more aware of their rights under legal systems and

judicial and investigative procedure. As an outcome many police organisations and individual

officers are likely to suffer criticism and experience a loss of credibility and public confidence.

Whilst the handling and management of exhibits is not the most glamorous and interesting aspect

of criminal investigation and prosecution, it is a critical aspect and one that police officers,

supervisors and managers need to complete more thoroughly and professionally.

Traditionally police have always attempted to present the actual exhibit. Traditionally police have

always attempted to present the actual exhibit‘ relating to a crime to the court. The motivation for

this belongs to a belief that the actual item, viewed and considered by a magistrate, judge and / or

members of a jury, is far more persuasive and informative than a description offered in a statement

by the police, victim or owner. This is true to a certain extent, however, it is quite obvious that

large exhibits, or live exhibits have never been able to be presented to a court, and so the belief is

really only partially true! Where exhibits are personal property and are of some value, quite

obviously the owner/s requires them to be returned at the earliest opportunity, for this reason and

for the equally important reason that police do not need to keep and be responsible for valuable or

bulky exhibits for long periods, Do not keep exhibits longer than necessary.

There are sufficient means by which exhibits can be recorded and presented to the court, without

retention of the actual item. Photographing, fingerprinting or analysis as needed can be

undertaken, allowing return to the owner or disposal at the earliest opportunity as sufficient

accountability and continuity, two important ‗ideas‘ in terms of police investigations and exhibits,

can be generated to satisfy the onus (obligation, duty, responsibility) of presenting evidence to the

court. Photographers, Property Officers and Analysts, through tendering photos, sworn testimony

and Certificates are able to corroborates and confirm the existence of an exhibit and its relevance

to a case.

Only items of a unique or controversial nature need necessarily be actually tendered such as

murder weapons, implements used in armed hold ups or serious assaults, documents, defective

vehicle parts, money or other articles with unique or distinctive characteristics.


At times, something seized as an exhibit might prove not to have any evidentiary value. In such

circumstances, there is no need to tender it in court. Return it to the lawful owner.

Obtaining evidence from clothing

The purpose of this is to look at the importance of preserving items of clothing from suspects and

victims of violent crime so that valuable physical evidence, which may be present on the clothing,

can be obtained. The evidence may be so small or disguised by the colour of the garment, that it is

virtually invisible to the naked eye. It is easily and often overlooked by initial response police,

investigators and medical personnel.

An offender and victim may transfer some trace of themselves, some trace of their previous or

immediate environment or some trace of an associated article such as a motor vehicle or weapon,

onto each other during the course of a violent crime. The types of evidence are many and varied

however, physical evidence from clothing can generally be divided into the following categories.

Victims Transported to Hospital

In cases of sexual assault or hit and run motor vehicle collisions, where it is believed the offender

may have suffered a bleeding injury and most other violent crimes where the offender and victim

have come into close contact, it is critically important to obtain the clothing from the victim.

It would be advisable to contact medical staff at the hospital as soon as possible and ask them to

preserve the clothing from the victim for forensic examination. Never assume the hospital will

routinely retain or preserve the clothing items from the victim. It is an unfortunate fact that most

medical personnel are not trained to recognize the value of forensic evidence on clothing. If

possible have the hospital staff place each item of clothing into separate paper bags and secure

them in a safe location. The clothing should be collected as soon as possible from the hospital.

PROCEDURES FOR COLLECTING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

The very first thing that must be done at all crime scenes is securing the scene. Law enforcement

officials must limit access to the area/scene; this is done to maintain the integrity of the evidence

that may be at the scene. You don't want scores of people trampling on the evidence.


Physical Evidence Collection Guidelines

Blood Stains

Blood that is in liquid pools should be picked up on a gauze pad or other clean sterile cotton cloth

and allowed to air dry thoroughly, at room temperature. It should be refrigerated or frozen as soon

as possible and brought to the Laboratory as quickly as possible. Delays beyond 48 hours may

make the samples useless.

If close to the Laboratory, deliver stained object immediately.

If unable to deliver to the Laboratory, or if the object must be mailed, allow the stain to air

dry completely before packaging.

Do not heat stained material or place it in bright sunlight to dry. Hang clothing and similar

articles in a room where there is adequate ventilation.

If not completely dry, label and roll in paper or place in a brown paper bag or box and seal

and label container. Place only one item in each container. Do not use plastic containers.

Dried Blood Stains

On clothing, if possible, wrap the item in clean paper, place the article in a brown paper

bag or box and seal and label container. Do not attempt to remove stains from the cloth.

On small solid objects, send the whole stained object to the Laboratory, after labeling and

packaging.


On large solid objects, cover the stained area with clean paper and seal the edges down

with tape to prevent loss or contamination.

If impractical to deliver the whole object to the Laboratory, scrape the stain onto a clean

piece of paper, which can be folded and placed in an envelope.

Do not scrape directly into evidence envelope.

Scrape blood from objects using a freshly washed and dried knife or similar tool.

Wash and dry the tool before each stain is scraped off. Seal and mark the envelope.

Do not mix dried stains. Place each stain in a separate envelope.

Never attempt to wipe dried stains from an object using a moistened cloth or paper.

Standard Blood Specimens

Autopsy Blood Samples

Request that pathologist obtain the sample directly from the heart into a yellow (ACD) or purple

stopper vacutainer (some labs request both). In rare cases when no liquid blood is available, ask

pathologist to collect a section of liver, bone, and/or deep muscle tissue and freeze for typing. In

such cases, proceed also with collection of a secondary standard as described below.

Blood samples from Live Individuals

For typing purposes, have sample drawn into yellow and purple stoppered vacutainers. Note these

are distinguished from the BA tubes which have grey stoppers.

If the victim is injured to the extent that a transfusion is necessary, make an effort to obtain or

begin necessary procedures to obtain the pre-transfusion sample collected by the hospital. These

samples are not retained for long periods by the hospital, so it is important to act promptly. Also,

make sure that some bloodstained garment worn by the individual has been air dried and frozen to

serve as a secondary standard.


Handling and Storage of Physiological Fluid Evidence

(Obligation under People vs Nation and Hitch that a reasonable and good faith effort be made to

preserve perishable evidence)

Stains and Controls

1. Air dry

2. Package in paper

3. Freeze

Consider special handling of non-absorbent items on (metal or plastic). Any condensation from

thawing could disturb or destroy such evidence. Such items should be kept at room temperature

and submitted to the lab as soon as possible.

Liquids (generally standards)

Blood

Refrigerate, do not freeze standards collected in yellow stoppered vacutainers.

Submit to the lab as soon as possible.

Saliva

Collect on a sterile gauze pad or swabs, allow to air dry and package in paper. Do not use plastic

containers.

Seminal Stains

Seminal stains are often, but not always, found on clothing, blankets, sheets. Allow any

stains to air dry, wrap in paper, and package evidence in paper bags. Do not use plastic

bags.


For sex offense cases, the victim should always be examined by a physician. A Sexual

Assault Evidence Collection Kit is used to collect evidence from the victim. It is very

important that the instructions on the kit be followed with care in order to gain the greatest

benefit from the collected evidence.

Label all garments such as undershorts, panties, or other exhibits and package each

garment separately.

If damp, allow fabric to dry completely before packaging.

Handle fabrics as little as possible.

Hair

An examination of human hair can occasionally reveal the possible race of the individual

from whom it came and the part of the body from which it originated.

Human hair can be compared to determine whether or not two samples could have had a

common origin. The value of the Laboratory examinations of such specimens will depend

upon the amount of hair recovered and the characteristics found in the examinations.

Recover all hair present. If possible, use the fingers or tweezers to pick up hair, place in

paper bindles or coin envelopes which should then be folded and sealed in larger

envelopes. Label the outer sealed envelope.

If hair is attached, such as in dry blood, or caught in metal or a crack of glass, do not

attempt to remove it but rather leave hair intact on the object. If the object is small, mark it,

wrap it, and seal it in an envelope. If the object is large, wrap the area containing the hair in

paper to prevent loss of hairs during shipment.

In rape cases, the victim's pubic region should be combed prior to collecting standards.

Obtain known hair samples from the victim, suspect, or any other possible sources for

comparison with unknown specimens. The recommended method for collecting head hairs

is to start by having the person from whom they are being collected bend over a large sheet

of clean paper, rubbing or massaging their hands through the hair so that loose hair will fall

out on the paper. More should then be gathered by plucking them from representative areas

all over the head. A total or 50-100 hairs is desired. Do not cut the hair. This same method


may be used to collect hairs from other parts of the body. 30-60 pubic hairs are required.

When the person is a suspect, hair should be gathered from all parts of the body even

though there may only be an interest in hair from the head at that particular time.

Fibers and Threads

Such evidence is often found in fabric abrasions or caught in torn materials or other areas

on hit-and-run vehicles.

In some burglary cases, it may be found caught in torn screens, broken glass, or other

locations.

Examination of fibers can normally be conducted to determine the type or color of fiber.

Such examinations will sometimes indicate the type of garment or fabric from which they

originated.

Fibers and threads can also be compared with suspects clothing to determine whether or

not they could have come from this clothing.

If threads or large fibers are found, they can often be picked up with the fingers and placed

in a paper bindle, then in a coin envelope, which can be sealed and marked. Never place

loose fibers directly into a mailing envelope since they can be lost from this type of

envelope.

If the fibers are short or few in number, and if it is possible to do so, wrap the area or the

entire item containing the fibers in paper and send the whole exhibit to the Laboratory.

Pick up fibers on tape only if the laboratory in your jurisdiction allows it and gives you its

requirements. When fibers or threads are recovered, always send all clothing of persons

from which they might have originated to the Laboratory for comparison purposes.

In sex offenses, assaults, and some other cases, it may be possible to indicate or demonstrate

contact between two individuals or between one other individual and some other object, such as a

car seat, by comparing fibers. Such examinations are only of value when it is known no contact

occurred between the two individuals or an individual and some other object prior to, or

subsequent to, the offense. Extra care must be taken to keep each article of clothing of each

individual or other object separated. Each garment should be-laid on a clean sheet of paper, and


separately rolled up in the paper after marking the exhibit. If the clothing of one subject touches

the clothing of another, or if it is laid down on the table of placed on the car seat contacted by the

clothing of the other suspect, the comparisons may be of no value.

Glass

Windows are frequently broken in burglaries, headlights in hit-and-run cases, and bottles or other

objects may break or leave fragments on personal belongings of suspects involved in various types

of crimes.

Recovery of Evidence Samples

Shoes and clothing of suspects or other objects contaminated with glass should be wrapped

in paper and submitted to the Laboratory for examination.

All glass found at hit-and-run scenes should be recovered. The search should not be limited

to the point of impact, since headlight glass may be dropped off at some distance away as

the car leaves the crime scene. Glass from different locations should be kept in different

containers. All glass should be collected because more than one type may be present. In

addition, if just a few representative samples are saved, individual pieces that could be

physically matched with glass remaining in the headlight shell of the suspected vehicle

may be overlooked.

Place small glass fragments in paper bindles, then in coin envelopes, pill boxes, or film

cans which can be marked and completely sealed.

Place large glass fragments in boxes. Separate individual pieces with cotton or tissue to

prevent breakage and damaged edges during shipment. Seal and mark the box containing

them.

Standards for Comparison

Windows: If the broken window is small, send the whole window or all glass remaining to the

Laboratory. If the window is large, recover several samples from different areas of the

window. If the evidence glass is large enough for physically matching the broken edges or


comparing the fracture lines, hackle marks, surface abrasions or contamination, the whole

broken window is necessary.

Auto Glass - Auto Headlights: All glass remaining in the shell should be recovered. If it is

suspected that a new glass has been installed, this should be removed and a careful

examination made for small chips remaining in the shell from the previous lens which is

broken. In such cases, also submit the new lens to the Laboratory.

Other Glass: When bottles or other glass objects are broken, recover all remaining glass.

Headlights and Taillights of Motor Vehicles

As part of the investigation of vehicle accidents, it may be of importance to determine

whether or not a headlight or taillight was illuminated at the time the light was broken.

Recovery of the filaments is of primary importance. These are quite small and their

location may require a careful search. If recovered, they should be placed in a paper bindle

or a small pill box sealed with tape. Whether or not the large filaments are located, all

remaining parts of the lamp socket, glass envelope, or sealed beam headlight unit should be

wrapped in paper and saved for Laboratory study.

Paint

Paint evidence is frequently encountered in hit-and run cases, on tools used by burglars, and

occasionally in other types of cases.

Hit-and-Run Cases

Paint may be transferred to clothing of pedestrian victims. Examine all areas, with

particular attention being paid to areas showing pressure glaze, tears, or other contact.

If found, do not remove the paint, but mark the garment, carefully wrap it by rolling it in

paper and send it to the Laboratory.

Such paint will at least show the color of part of the responsible car. It must be

remembered, however, that many modern cars have more than one color and the paint


transferred only represents the color of the particular area on the car that made contact with

the victims.

Rarely will an examination of paint transfer on clothing indicate the make and model of the

vehicle involved, since only portions of the top oxidized layer on the cars are usually

transferred. In addition, many vehicles are repainted using colors and types of paint which

may be different from those specified by the automobile manufacturer. The color and type

of paint selected by the car owner for repainting his vehicle may also be the same as that

used by a different automobile manufacturer, which could cause confusion in the search for

the responsible car.

Sometimes whole chips of paint will be transferred to the clothing. If these flakes contain

several layers, and in particular if they come from a repainted car, such evidence may have

great value when the responsible vehicle is located. Chips of paint may also be found on

the ground near the point of impact in some cases.

Obtain samples for comparison from all areas showing fresh damage on suspected

vehicles. This is very important since the paint may be different in type or composition in

different areas, even if the color is the same. If the paint can be flaked off by bending the

metal slightly, remove it in this manner. If not, scrape or chip the paint off, using a clean

knife blade. Carefully wipe the blade before collecting each sample. Collect all layers

down to the metal. Place each sample in a separate container.

Cross transfers of paint commonly occur in hit and-run cases of two or more vehicles. If

loose paint chips are found, attempt to remove and place them in a paper bindle. If,

however, the transfers are smeared on the surfaces, flake off chips or scrape paint from the

vehicle, including the transferred paint, as well as the top layer of paint originally on the

car. Keep all transfers recovered from different areas in separate containers. Do NOT place

samples directly into envelopes -- place into paper bindles first.

When cross transfers occur, always collect contaminated samples from each vehicle from

areas immediately adjacent to each transfer collected. This is of great importance, since

such specimens permit the laboratory to distinguish between the transferred paint and the

paint originally present on the vehicle.


Burglary Cases

Tools used to gain entry into building, safes, or other places often contain traces of paint,

as well as other substances, such as plastic, safe insulation, etc. Care must be taken that

such traces are not lost. If such transfers may be present, wrap the end of the tool

containing the material in clean paper and seal with tape to prevent loss. In no case should

attempts be made to set the tool into marks or impressions found. If this is done, transfers

of paint or material can occur and any traces found later will have no significance as

evidence.

Collect specimens of paint from all areas which the tools may have contacted at the crime

scene. These samples should include all layers present. Do not destroy the tool mark in

collecting the paint. If possible, cut out around the mark, and send it to the Laboratory.

The tool itself may contain paint or other coatings, tracings of which may be left at the

crime scene. A careful search should be made for such matters, particularly in each tool

mark.

Collection and Preservation of Paint Specimens

Keep all samples collected in separate containers.

Small paper bindles can be used to collect and hold many paint samples. A satisfactory

method is to tape one side of the bindle to the side of the vehicle, building, or safe just

under the area where the sample is to be collected. By holding the bindle open with one

hand, and using a clean knife blade, paint can be scraped loose and into the bindle. With-

the sample in the bindle, scotch tape can be removed and the open end of the bindle folded

several times. It can be placed in a coin or mailing envelope, which can be marked and

sealed. Scotch tape may be used to seal the bindle, but such containers should never be

stapled.

Glass vials or other suitable containers are used only as a last resort.

Never place paint directly into envelopes unless large pieces are enclosed. Most envelopes

have unsealed cracks in the corners and loss or contamination can occur.


Flammable Fluids

The search for flammable fluids in arson cases should include a thorough examination of the entire

fire scene. This should extend to areas where no burning occurs, since flammable fluids may have

been placed in other locations where ignition failed.

Traces of flammable fluid may be found in cans at the fire scene in arson cases. Mattresses, rugs,

upholstery, wallboard, and other objects at the scene may also contain fluids which can be

separated and identified in the Laboratory, even though these objects are partially burned. Wood

upon which such fluids have been poured and ignited may still contain detectable traces of the

liquid, if the wood has not been completely charred by the fire. Even where a large and hot fire has

occurred, traces of such liquid are sometimes found where they have seeped into the ground

through cracks in the floor or flowed under baseboards and sills.

While most flammable fluids commonly used have characteristic odors, some substances

commonly available are almost odorless and quite easily escape detection. These include some

alcohols, deodorized kerosene, charcoal lighter fluids, and others.

If volatile liquids are found in open containers, pour a small amount of the material into a

clean glass vial with an airtight seal so no loss will occur. Do not use any rubber-lined lids

or plastic containers.

Small samples of soil, wood, cloth, paper, etc., should be placed in small, clean metal cans

and sealed immediately to prevent loss of additional volatile components by evaporation.

Large pieces of wood, upholstery, wallboard, and similar exhibits which will not fit in cans

should be placed in heat-sealed KAPAK plastic. Be sure the Laboratory has examined a

sample of the plastic from each order before you use it.

When the exhibits themselves can be marked, this should be done. In all cases, the package

or container should be marked.

Samples of flammable fluids normally present at fire scenes should also be submitted for

comparison with any material recovered from partially burned substances.

Samples of flammable fluids in the possession of any suspects should be submitted for

comparison purposes. This includes any clothing, rags, or other materials which have


suspicious stains or odors. These should be packaged in the same manner as materials

recovered at the fire scene.

It is possible, in many cases, to isolate flammable fluids from various, partially burned articles

through means of gas chromatographic analysis and other studies to determine the type of

flammable fluid present. Normally, however, the manufacturer or brand name of the material

cannot be determined.

Firearms Evidence

Firearms

Never submit a loaded gun to the Laboratory, unless it is delivered in person. Unfired

cartridges may be left in the magazine of a weapon, provided the magazine is removed

from the gun. A firearm with the cartridge in the chamber should never be shipped by any

method, even if the weapon is not cocked or on safety.

Never clean the bore, chamber, or cylinder before submitting a firearm, and never attempt

to fire the gun before it is examined in the Laboratory.

Never pick up a weapon by placing a pencil or other object in the end of the barrel.

Record serial number, make, model, and caliber of the weapon, and mark it in some

inconspicuous manner that does not detract from its value before sending it to the Laboratory.

Marking firearms is important since duplicate serial numbers are sometimes found on different

guns of the same make and general type. Do not confuse model numbers or patent numbers

with serial numbers.

Place weapons in strong cardboard or wooden boxes, well packed, to prevent shifting of guns

in transit.

Rifles or shotguns should not be taken apart.

If blood or any other material, which may pertain to an investigation is present on the gun,

place a clean paper around the gun and seal it with tape to prevent movement of the gun

and loss of the sample during shipment.


If the gun is to be examined for latent fingerprints, use procedures under that title in this

Manual.

Bullets

Never mark bullets.

Wrap recovered bullets in paper and seal in separate labeled pill boxes or envelopes.

Submit all evidence bullets recovered to the Laboratory. A conclusive identification may

be possible on only one of several bullets recovered even when they all appear to be in

good condition.

Do not attempt to clean recovered bullets before sending them to the Laboratory. Bullets

recovered from a body should be air dried and wrapped in paper. Washing may destroy

trace evidence.

Cartridge Cases

Wrap recovered cartridge cases in and seal in separate labeled pill boxes or envelopes.

Fired shotgun shells may be marked either on the inside or outside of the paper or plastic

portion of the shell.

If an examination is required to determine if a shot shell or cartridge case was fired by a

specific weapon, submit the weapon and all recovered unfired ammunition.

Submit all evidence cartridge cases or shotgun shells recovered to the Laboratory. Some

cases contain more identifying detail than do others.

Wrap each cartridge in paper to prevent damaging the breech clock, firing pin, or other

markings by contact with other cartridge cases. Place wrapped cartridge cases in envelopes

or pill boxes. Label and seal container.

Ammunition

Always attempt to recover unused ammunition for comparison purposes when firearms are

obtained as evidence. If not in the weapon itself, subjects often have additional ammunition


in their cars, clothing, houses, or other locations. It may be important for test purposes to

duplicate exactly the make, type, and age of the ammunition used in the crime. Other

ammunition in the suspect's possession is identical to that fired during the crime.

Unfired ammunition should not be marked. The box with the ammunition may be marked

without marking every round in the box.

Powder and Shot Pattern

Submit clothing or other material showing evidence of gun powder residue or shot holes to

the Laboratory. The clothing should be carefully wrapped in clean paper and folded as little

as possible to prevent dislodging powder particles. Photographs of the pattern will not

suffice, as in most instances microscopic examination and chemical tests must be

conducted on the exhibits themselves. Package each item separately.

For gunpowder or shot pattern tests to have significance, it is essential to obtain

ammunition identical in make, type, and age to that used at the crime scene. This duplicate

ammunition is necessary for firing in the weapon in question to determine the distance of

the muzzle of the weapon from the victim or other object at the time the questioned bullet

was fired.

Gunshot Residue

Gunshot residue is extremely fragile evidence and should be collected as soon as possible

(preferably within three hours of the discharge of firearm). Use the laboratory-supplied

GSR kits and carefully follow the directions. In the case of live subjects, if more than six

hours have passed or if the subject has washed his hands, it is unlikely that meaningful

results will be obtained. If a body is to be sampled, whenever possible, gunshot residue

collection should be performed prior to moving the body. If this is not possible, protect the

hands with paper bags.

Serial Number Restoration

In many cases, obliterated serial numbers can be restored if too much metal has not been

removed in erasing the number.


Always advise the Department of Justice in Sacramento if, after restoring the serial

number, the gun is to be numbered. If the original number can be restored, this is normally

restamped on the gun. If it cannot be restored, a new number is assigned to the gun and

stamped thereon by the Department of Justice or Numbering Station.

Tool Marks

Nature of Evidence

Tool marks are encountered most frequently in burglary cases but may also be found in other types

of crimes. The evidence consists of striations or impressions left by tools on objects at the crime

scene and various types of tools found in the possession of suspects. In other cases, it is possible

by means of physical and other comparisons to prove that parts of tools left at crime scenes were

broken from damaged tools found in the possession of suspects. In many cases, it is possible to

identify the specific tool which made the questioned marks by means of a Laboratory comparison

of tools and marked objects. In some instances, it is also possible to prove that marks of various

types on tools were produced by objects which they contacted at crime scene.

Preservation and Packaging of Tools

All areas on recovered tools which contain transferred paint, building material, or other

contamination should be wrapped in paper and packaged to prevent the prying blades or

cutting edges .'rom contacting any other surface or object.

Make No Tests With Tools

Attempts should never be made to fit tools into questioned marks or to make test marks

prior to Laboratory examination. If done, the questioned mark or tool may be altered and

this may make any Laboratory examination valueless. In addition, traces of transferred

paint or other stains on the tool may be lost or additional material may be transferred to the

tool.

Preservation of Tool Marks

Whenever possible, submit the whole object containing tool marks to the Laboratory

instead of just removing the area containing the mark. If this is not possible, carefully


photograph and sketch the area containing the mark. Although this photograph will not be

sufficient to allow the Laboratory to perform a toolmark comparison with the tool, it will

assist the Laboratory to determine how the mark was made so that test marks can be-more

easily made.

Casts of tool marks can be made by a person who has had considerable experience in this

work. Poor casts are useless for comparison purposes and some marks will be damaged if

improper methods are used.

Pack the object containing tool marks so that no alteration or damage will occur during

shipment. Small objects should be wrapped with clean paper and placed in envelopes or

boxes, while important areas on larger objects can be protected with paper. Whole, large

objects can be packed in cartons or crates, if not delivered in person.

Controlled Substances and Medical Preparations

The Laboratory handles the analysis of marijuana and other drugs and medicinal preparations

which may be involved in criminal cases or found in the possession of subjects involved in various

crimes.

Each sample of material recovered should be placed in a paper container, which can be sealed and

marked. Be sure to properly seal as loose material, particularly in the case of marijuana, can leak

and spill. Some drugs, like PCP, should be packaged in heat-sealed KAPAK bags.

Medicinal preparations found in prescription boxes or bottles should be left in these containers

which can be sealed and marked. The information on the prescription label may be of assistance to

the Laboratory.

By means of chemical tests, most controlled substances and common drugs can be identified.

Many pills, tablets, and other medical preparations are very difficult to analyze and identify unless

either large quantities are available for testing, or some clues are present as to the general type of

material they contain. In all cases where prescriptions are involved and the drug store and

prescription numbers are known, a check of possible container content should be made at the drug

store named on the label. With this information, the Laboratory will often be able to determine

whether or not the contents of the containers are the same as the material described.


While controlled substances can be identified in routine cases, the Laboratory does not normally

attempt to identify all medicinal preparations which may be encountered in criminal

investigations. Unless specific instructions to the contrary are received, such materials are usually

tested only for common preparations and their possession may violate of the law.

All evidence of this nature should be brought to the Laboratory in a sealed package.

Questioned Documents

Questioned Material to be Submitted

All questioned documents involved in a particular investigation should be submitted to the

Laboratory for examination. This is important since questioned documents are identified by a

comparison of similarities, plus an absence of divergences or dissimilarities. In order to make an

identification, sufficient handwriting, typewriting, or other evidence must be available on which to

base an opinion. This means that all questioned material is needed, as well as sufficient exemplars

or known specimens.

Exemplars

It is very important to have sufficient handwriting exemplars for comparison with the questioned

document. One or two signatures on a suspect's driver's license or a draft card, in many cases, does

not contain sufficient individual characteristics on which to base a conclusion. In some instances,

such an examination may substantiate a suspicion and this should be considered as an

investigational lead. To support this, it is necessary to obtain and examine additional standards.

Collected specimens that were made in business transactions such as receipts, promissory notes,

credit and employment applications, letters, booking card, and fingerprint card signatures are

writings that, in most cases represent the individual's most normal writing. It is significant in many

cases that these writings be of the same date as the questioned document. It is important to obtain

request specimens from a suspect at the first interview; the suspect may be uncooperative at a later

date.

The conditions surrounding the preparation of the questioned document should be duplicated as

nearly as possible when the request exemplars are obtained. If yellow-lined paper and blue ink

were used to produce the questioned document, the same or similar color and type of paper and


instrument should be used. If the suspect document is a threatening letter and the note is either

handwritten or block lettered, the same style should be requested from the writer. Have subjects

write their names and addresses several times and brief personal histories. This should be removed

and another sheet of paper furnished.

Dictate the exact words and numbers which appear on the questioned document. This should be

done at least 12 times, removing the specimens from the writer's view as they are produced. If it is

a check case, the specimens should be taken on blank checks or slips of paper of the

same/appropriate size. The number of specimens necessary for an identification in any specific

case cannot be determined; therefore, at least twelve specimens should be obtained for each

questioned document.

When securing typewritten exemplars, several copies of the questioned documents should be made

on the suspected machine using light, medium, and heavy touches. At least one copy should be

made with the ribbon removed from the machine, or the ribbons set on stencil, and the keys

allowed to strike directly on a sheet of new carbon paper, which should be inserted on top of the

paper used for the specimen. This provides clear-cut exemplars of any machine's type face,

showing disfigurations in type characters. Always type the exemplars on the same type and color

of paper as that used on the questioned document.

Preservation of Questioned Documents

Under no circumstances should either the questioned document or the exemplars be

marked, defaced, or altered. No new folds should be made, nor should marks or notes be

placed on such material. Personal marks for identification purposes should be made as

small as possible on the back or other area of the document where no handwriting or

typewriting is present.

Whenever possible, all documents should be protected by placing them in cellophane or

plastic envelopes.

Shipment of Evidence

Questioned documents may be submitted personally or left in previously described lockers

at the Laboratory entrance.


Such evidence sent to the Laboratory by mail must be sent by certified or registered mail. If

there is a massive amount of material, it may be sent some other way, but the package must

always be sealed.

Charred Documents

Where examination and decipherment of charred paper is involved, great care must be taken to

prevent any additional crumbling or breaking apart of the burned material. Normally it should be

placed on top of loose cotton in a box and delivered in person to the Laboratory. Bullets

Never mark bullets.

Wrap recovered bullets in paper and seal in separate labeled pill boxes or envelopes.

Submit all evidence bullets recovered to the Laboratory. A conclusive identification may

be possible on only one of several bullets recovered even when they all appear to be in

good condition.

Do not attempt to clean recovered bullets before sending them to the Laboratory. Bullets

recovered from a body should be air dried and wrapped in paper. Washing may destroy

trace evidence and general type. Do not confuse model numbers or patent numbers with

serial numbers.

Place weapons in strong cardboard or wooden boxes, well packed, to prevent shifting of guns in

transit.

Rifles or shotguns should not be taken apart.

If blood or any other material, which may pertain to an investigation is present on the gun, place a

clean paper around the gun and seal it with tape to prevent movement of the gun and loss of the

sample during shipment.

If the gun is to be examined for latent fingerprints, use procedures under that title in this Manual is

packaged, such material will be damaged if attempts are made to ship it by mail.


Other Questioned Document Evidence

In addition to handwriting and typewriting comparisons and the decipherment of charred

documents, many other related examinations can be conducted by the Laboratory. These include,

but are not limited, to:

Restoration or decipherment of altered, obliterated, or erased writing.

Comparison of check protectors and rubber stamps with questioned printing.

Identification of embossed or indented writing or typing.

Comparison of paper and commercially-printed material, such as checks, coupons, receipts,

and others.

Physical matching of cut or torn paper of various types.

Problems relating to inks.

Latent Fingerprints

Marking of Latent Fingerprint Evidence

All such evidence should be marked in some distinctive manner, such as is the case with

any other type of physical evidence. Precautions should be taken, when marking evidence,

not to damage or destroy potential latent fingerprints.

Lifted, developed latents should also be marked or sealed in marked envelopes.

Photograph-developed latents with and without identifying markings and scale.

Preservation of Fingerprint Evidence

The primary precaution in all cases is the prevention of adding fingerprints to evidence, or

of destroying those already present.

Most fingerprints submitted will be on paper, glass, metal, or other smooth surfaced

objects. When articles containing latents must be picked up, touch as little as possible, and

then only in areas least likely to contain identifiable latents, such as rough surfaces.


While gloves or handkerchiefs may be used to pick up such exhibits, any unnecessary

contact should be avoided. Although using a cloth to pick up exhibits prevents leaving

additional prints on the articles, the cloth will frequently wipe off or smear any prints

originally present, unless great care is taken.

Large articles containing latents such as glass, metal articles, and firearms should be placed

on wood or heavy cardboard and fastened down with string to prevent shifting and contact

with other objects in transit. Where such evidence is to be examined frequently, a pegboard

should be obtained on which wooden pegs can be moved as desired to support exhibits and

keep them from moving. Bottles and glasses may be placed vertically on a board and

placed in the bottom of a box. The base of the bottle or glass can be surrounded with nails

to hold it in place, and the top can be either inserted through a hole in a piece of cardboard

or held in position with a wooden board nailed to the container's lid.

Papers and documents containing latent prints should be placed individually in a

cellophane or manila envelope. Such a container can be sandwiched between two sheets of

stiff cardboard, wrapped, and placed in a box for mailing.

EVIDENCE PRESENTATION

Preparation for court should begin long before the court date. Crime scene examiners who fail

to prepare properly should not be surprised when a skillful lawyer cuts them to shreds in the

witness stand. The culmination of any crime scene examination is to describe in court

observations made, actions carried out and evidence recovered. The crime scene examiner

should never take the trial and their appearance to present evidence lightly.

Following is a list of tips which may assist an officer to deal with the daunting prospect of

presenting crime scene related evidence in court.

Prepared – Be well-prepared for court by knowing your evidence well. Review your

notes, photographs, case file and exhibits and try and anticipate any questions which might be

asked.

Dress – Project a professional image by dressing professionally for court. Whether in uniform

or plain clothes ensure your clothes are neat and clean.


Etiquette – Abide by the expected etiquette and rules of the courtroom.

Confidence – Be confident! If you know you did your best at the crime scene and whilst

preparing for court you have the right to feel confident.

Knowledgeable – Know your subject! A little research or revision leading up to the court

date will assist.

Demeanor – Be respectful to the court and the people asking you the questions.

Objective – Be objective and impartial when giving evidence by sticking to the facts.

Do not speculate.

Responsiveness – It pays to pause occasionally before answering questions but not too

often or for too long. The court expects a timely response to questions.

Clear and concise – Explain your answers clearly without needlessly over elaborating.

Explain in lay terms – Do not use technical terms which the court may have trouble

understanding. If technical terms must be used you will need to qualify them with an

explanation of their meaning.

Voice control – Your tone must be non-confrontation and the volume audible.

Body language – Be careful of your posture and body language. Do not shrug your shoulders

or rock or slump in the chair.

Eye contact – Your responses should be directed to the judge or magistrate not the

lawyer cross- examining.

Visual aids – Use charts or photographs to illustrate responses if you need to.

Limitations – Understand your limitations relating to what you can comment on and do not

extend beyond that boundary.


CRIME SCENE NOTES AND SKETCHING

Crime

In ordinary language, the term crime denotes an unlawful act punishable by a state. The term

crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,

though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes. The most popular view is

that crime is a category created by law (i.e. something is a crime if applicable law says that it

is).One proposed definition is that a crime, also called an offence or a criminal offence, is an act

harmful not only to some individual, but also to the community or the state (a public wrong). Such

acts are forbidden and punishable by law

What is a crime scene?

A crime scene is any physical scene, anywhere that may provide potential evidence to an

investigator. It may include a person’s body, any type of building, vehicles, and places in the open

air or objects found at those locations. “Crime scene examination” therefore refers to an

examination where forensic or scientific techniques are used to preserve and gather physical

evidence of a crime.

What can constitute evidence?

A fundamental principle of forensics is that every contact leaves a trace. This may be contact of a

person with a person, contact of a person with a vehicle or location, or of a vehicle with a location

etc. Forensic investigators identify those traces and analyze them to explain what has happened.

Evidence at crime scenes may include:

_ Biological samples such as DNA from blood, semen, saliva and breath, hair, fingerprints

and body part prints, urine, teeth

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_ Fibres such as pieces of material torn from clothing, or pieces of weapons broken during

an attack

_ Photographs, videos, drawings and plans

_ Documentary evidence such as receipts, travel tickets or bank statements

.

Securing the crime scene

A very simple action that investigators in any country can take is to make sure their staff

are aware of the need to secure a crime scene. Investigators should do all they can to ensure

that scenes (including the victims as well as the locations and the evidence at that location)

are not interfered with, and to allow adequate time to strategize the “forensic examination”.

Interference—leading to “forensic contamination”—can be avoided by simple measures

_ Controlling access to scenes

_ Covering scenes

_ Keeping records of everyone who has had access to a scene

_ Taking fingerprints and DNA samples from staff before they are allowed to get to a scene

_ Providing guidance in the packaging of recovered material, to prevent deterioration or

Contamination

Organization of crime scene investigation

The recovery, transport, storage and analysis of samples from crime scenes must be organized

to include the following elements:

_ Samples should be obtained by appropriately trained staff. Staff conducting medical

examinations will need to be highly trained; other examinations will require only basic

training.

_ Staff should be provided with appropriate equipment, including health and safety

clothing, bags, boxes and bottles to store samples and material, and labels and record

sheets to identify them clearly.

_ Appropriate and secure storage facilities should be provided where material is held

before it is taken for further analysis, and places of analysis should be clean and have

procedures in place to protect samples and materials.

_ Material should be transported in a way that does not allow contamination; there

should be a system of tracking samples by recording who placed them in storage, who

removed them and who received them for analysis.


Handwritten Notes

The crime scene examiner should take accurate and extensive notes. These can include

entries in police notebooks and within forms specifically designed for crime scene recording.

These notes need to be accurate and should include the following:

The time and date the call was received to attend the scene.

The time, date and with whom you attended at the scene.

The names of those you spoke to at the scene.

Actions carried out at the scene including exhibits collected, examinations carried

out and conclusions reached.

Handwritten notes are important because

they:

Provide details permanent record of the investigation

Enable the distribution of information to all investigators

Enable the presentation of accurate information in court

Assist to refresh your memory at a later time.

Evidence which may be important may include:

Items which are foreign to the scene. That is, items which may have been introduced

by an offender.

Items used in the commission of the offence. For example, weapons.

Any damage or signs of interference to the scene.

Evidence relationships. For example, the proximity of shoe impressions to the point of

entry.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO DOCUMENT THE SCENE AND ITS EVIDENCE


• Personnel working at the scene may be called upon to recount certain details and

demonstrate actions taken during the scene investigation. Memory cannot be relied on for this.

• Documentation is crucial to recall and demonstrate, at a later stage, the

initial status of the scene and what was done, when, how and by whom.

• Chronologicalandcarefuldocumentationisimportanttoensurethe“traceability”and

“continuity” of the evidence throughout the process. The chain-of-custody establishes that what is

produced in court relates to the specified item recovered from the scene.

• All subsequent examinations and analyses can be compromised if the chain of-custody is

not properly initiated and maintained at the scene.

CRIME SCENE SKETCHING

Photographs alone are not sufficient for the adequate recording a crime scene. A crime scene

sketch will complement the photographs and notes made during the crime scene search. The

purpose of a sketch is to portray the information accurately, not necessarily artistically. It is

not required that the crime scene specialists have any artistic ability in order to construct an

adequate sketch of a crime scene. Crime scene sketches clarify the appearance of the scene

and make it easier to comprehend.

Information to be Included in the Sketch:

The sketch should include at least the following information:

The crime scene specialist‘s full name and assignment.

The date, time, crime classification, and report number.

The full name of any person who assists in taking measurements.

Address of the crime scene, its position in building, landmarks, and compass direction.

The scale of the drawing, if a scale drawing has been made.

The major discernible items of physical evidence and the critical features of the crime

scene. The location of such items is indicated by accurate measurements from at least two

fixed points, or by other methods discussed below.

A legend or key to the symbols used to identify objects or points of interest on the


sketch.

Considerations Involved in Crime Scene Sketching

The measurements shown on the sketch should be as accurate as possible and they need to

be made and recorded uniformly. Steel tapes are the best means of taking measurements.

It is difficult to explain an erroneous measurement on a drawing, and can introduce doubt in

the minds of others as to the competence of the entire search of the crime scene.

Rough Sketch

A rough sketch is drawn free hand by the crime scene specialist at the scene of the

crime.

Changes should not be made to it after the specialist has left the scene. This sketch

will not normally be drawn to scale, but will indicate accurate distances, dimensions,

and relative proportions.

Detailed Sketch

A smooth sketch is one that is finished and is frequently drawn to scale from the

information provided in the rough sketch. If a sketch is drawn to scale, the numbers

concerning the distances can be eliminated. However, if the sketch is not drawn to

scale, the distances need to be shown.

Methods of sketching

Coordinate Method

The coordinate method measures the distance of an object from two fixed points. One

form of this method uses a baseline, which is drawn between two known points. The

baseline could be a wall, or drawn as a mathematical center of a room, the exact

dimensions of which are known. The measurements of a given object are then

taken from left to right along the baseline, to a point at right angles to the object,

which is to be plotted. The distance will be indicated in the legend with a number in

parentheses following the name of the object.


Triangulation Method

The triangulation method is useful in an outdoor situation where there are no

easily identifiable edges of roads or fields to use as reference points. Two or more

reference points are located and should be widely separated if possible. The item

of interest is located by measuring along a straight line from the reference points.

Cross-Projection Method

The cross-projection method is useful when the items or locations of interest are on

or in the wall surfaces as well as elsewhere in an enclosed space. The walls, windows,

and doors in a cross-projection sketch are drawn as though the walls had been folded

flat on the floor. Then a sketch is drawn of the measurements from a given point on

the floor to the wall.

The sketch should include the location of victim, location of weapons and other exhibits

and if possible a north point. After the sketch or plan is finished it should be endorsed with

your name, signature, time and date.

Again, the sketch will be valuable to refresh your memory in the future and may be invaluable

if photographic equipment fails.

Steps in Sketching the Crime Scene

Examination of the Crime Scene

Before the investigators begin examining the scene of the crime, they should gather as much

information as possible about the scene. Once again, a slow and methodical approach is

recommended. Information is gathered to prevent destruction of valuable and/or fragile evidence

such as shoeprints, trace evidence, etc. Once all of the information is gathered, a mental plan is


formulated as to how the crime scene will be analyzed. Copious notes and relevant times should be

kept on every aspect of the crime scene investigation. The examination of the scene will usually

begin with a walk through of the area along the "trail" of the crime. The trail is that area which all

apparent actions associated with the crime took place. The trail is usually marked by the presence

of physical evidence. This may include the point of entry, the location of the crime, areas where a

suspect may have cleaned up, and the point of exit. In some cases, a walk through may become

secondary if potential evidence is in danger of being destroyed. In that case, this evidence should

be preserved, or documented and collected as quickly as possible.

Documenting the Crime Scene

Videotaping the Crime Scene

If available, a video camera is the first step to documenting a crime scene. Videotape can provide a

perspective on the crime scene layout which cannot be as easily perceived in photographs and

sketches. It is a more natural viewing medium to which people can readily relate, especially in

demonstrating the structure of the crime scene and how the evidence relates to the crime. The

video camera should have a fully charged battery as well as date and time videotape display

functions. A title generator and "shake free" operations are also nice options. If a title generator is

not available, then about 15 seconds at the beginning of the tape should be left blank. This will

allow the addition of a title card with any pertinent information to the beginning of the crime scene

tape. The condition of the scene should remain unaltered with the exception of markers placed by

the investigators and any lights turned on during the walk through. These alterations can be noted

on the audio portion of the tape. Before taping, the camera range should be cleared of all

personnel. Any people in the area should be forewarned that taping is about to commence and they

should remain silent for the duration of the tape. This prevents recording any potentially

embarrassing statements.

Still Photography


Whether a video camera is available or not, it is absolutely essential that still photographs be taken

to document the crime scene. If a video camera is available, then photographs will be the second

step in recording the crime scene. If video is not available, then still photography will be the first

step. Photographs can demonstrate the same type of things that the videotape does, but

photographs from the crime scene can also be used in direct comparison situations. For example,

actual size photographs (also known as one-to-one photos) can be used to compare fingerprint and

shoeprints photographed at the crime scene to known fingerprints or shoes from a suspect. This is

the advantage of photographs over videotape.

The photography of the crime scene should begin with wide angle photos of the crime scene and

surrounding areas. When shooting the general overall scene, the photos should show the layout of

the crime scene and the overall spatial relationships of the various pieces of evidence to each

other. A good technique to use indoors is to shoot from all four corners of a room to show its

overall arrangement. The next set of photos should be medium range to show the relationships of

individual pieces of evidence to other pieces of evidence or structures in the crime scene. Finally,

close up photos should be taken of key pieces of evidence. A ruler should be photographed with

items where relative size is important or on items which need to have one-to-one comparison

photographs. The object should first be photographed as is, then photographed with the ruler. It is

important that when doing one-to-one photography that the ruler is on the same plane as the object

being photographed and the film plane is parallel to the ruler. This is why a level and a tripod are

necessary. Notes should also be taken as to what the investigator is photographing or wishes to

demonstrate in each photograph. This is to prevent the investigator from getting the picture back at

a later date and trying to figure out what he or she was trying to accomplish with the photo. The

same areas should be photographed in the same sequence as mentioned above in the paragraphs on

videotaping.


Sketching and Mapping the Scene


Sketching—A crime scene sketch is a permanent record of the size and distance relationship of the

crime scene and the physical evidence within it. The sketch serves to clarify the special

information present within the photo-graphs and video documentation, because the other methods

do not allow the viewer to easily gauge distances and dimensions. A sketch is the most simplistic

manner in which to present crime scene layout and measurements. Often photographer/camera

positions may be noted within a sketch also.

Why is a sketch important to crime scene documentation?

It accurately portrays the physical facts.

It relates to the sequence of events at the scene.

It establishes the precise location and relationship of objects and evidence at the scene.

It helps to create a mental picture of the scene for those not present.

It is a permanent record of the scene.

It usually is admissible in court.

It assists in interviewing and interrogating.

It assists in preparing the written investigative report.

It assists in presenting the case in court. Well-prepared sketches and drawings help judges,

juries, witnesses, and others to visualize the crime scene.

When should sketches be made?

Sketch all serious crimes and accident scenes after photographs have been taken and before

anything is moved.

Sketch the entire scene, the objects, and the evidence.

Two types of sketches are produced with regards to crime scene documentation: rough sketches,

and final/finished sketches. Rough


sketches (Figure A) are developed while on-scene, typically

during the crime scene assessment/preliminary scene evaluation

phase to assist with development of a strategic plan for

processing. The sketch is not done to scale, can be drawn with

any implement (crayon, chalk, pencil, pen, etc.), and is very

rough artistically. As work progresses at the crime scene, the

sketch will include not only the crude crime scene layout, but

also will be used to record measurements of items and structures,

and distances between items.

A final sketch (Figure B) is a finished rendition of the rough

sketch. They are usually prepared for courtroom presentation and

often will not show all measurements and distances originally

recorded on the rough sketch. Only significant items and

structures are typically present within a final sketch. A final

sketch is produced in either ink or on a computer, in a manner

that is not able to be modified (i.e., not in pencil!). The sketch

should be clutter-free and should accurately depict all pertinent

items of evidence, typically through the use of an accompanying

legend. A legend is a note of explanation, outside of the sketch

area, which relates to a specific item, symbol, or information

contained within the graphical representation of a sketch. A final

sketch should include:

Title (What does the sketch represent? For example,

Sketch of Bank ABC Robbery).

Legend (What do symbols within the sketch mean?).

Case Information. (i.e., date, time, place, case number).

Initials/Name (person who drew the sketch).

Indication of a direction (e.g., North).

Scale (e.g.: 1” = 1’).

Measurement table (If measurements are not represented within the confines of the sketch,

an accompanying measurement table should be included to explain the distances and

measurements associated with it.).

Figure A—An example of a

rough sketch. Courtesy of

Sarah Bedish

Figure B—An example of a

final sketch. Courtesy of Sarah

Bedish


There should be a notation following the scale or measurement table stating: “All

Measurements are Approximate.” This will ensure that the sketch’s author does not get into

a credibility argument in court that a measurement is documented as the listed

measurement, but could in fact be greater or lesser due to rounding errors or other factors.

Four different crime scene perspectives can be represented within a sketch: (a) the bird’s eye or

overhead view, (b) the elevation or side view, and (c) the three-dimensional (3D) view. Sometimes

personnel choose to incorporate several perspectives within a sketch (e.g., using both elevation and

overhead sketches to draw an exploded or cross-sectional view of a scene).

An overhead or bird’s eye view is the most common form of crime scene sketching. It is prepared

with the perspective being as though the author was looking down upon the scene from above.

This type shows the floor layout but cannot represent heights of items or show associated evidence

on walls. In order to show such information, a person must sketch an elevation or side view sketch

to show evidence located on a building façade, interior wall, or any item of which height is an

important aspect (e.g., death involving a hanging). A 3D crime scene perspective is created with

the aid of computers, and has its primary function as being crime scene activity reconstruction, to

help explain what happened and in what order.

Crime Scene Mapping—Mapping is the term associated with crime scene measurements.

Sometimes a person may sketch but not map, meaning that he or she draws a sketch of an area but

does not apply measurements to the sketch produced and items represented. Rarely, however, will

one map without sketching (i.e., record measurements with no graphical representation for what

the measurements represent). Sometimes this step is referred to as measuring. There are a variety

of methods for mapping a crime scene, depending upon whether the crime scene is an interior or

exterior scene. As this is an introductory text, only the most basic and most often used methods are

covered here. The basic types of mapping methods utilized for crime scene sketching and mapping

are: (a) baseline, (b) rectangular coordinates, (c) triangulation, and (d) polar/grid coordinates.

Baseline Mapping—This is the most basic—and least accurate—form of crime scene

mapping. For this method, a baseline is developed or identified from which to conduct

measurements. This can be an existing area, such as the edge of a roadway, a wall, fence,

etc., or it can be developed by personnel, such as by placing a string or tape measure

through the scene and conducting measurements from there. In the case of the latter, the


line should be run between two known fixed points, such as trees or other identifiable

points, so that the points could be found in the future and the scene reconstructed if

necessary. Once the baseline is established, measurements are taken from the baseline at an

approximate 90 degree angle from the baseline to a point on the identified item or area of

the crime scene. Typically, most measurements are made either to center mass of the item

or to the nearest point of the item to the baseline. Because it is impossible to ensure that the

measurement was taken at 90 degrees, the possibility exists that the measurement will be

longer if the measurement was over 90 degrees from the baseline, or if it was less than 90

degrees from the baseline. For this reason, this method is not as accurate as some of the

other methods; however, it is quick and extremely easy to use.

Rectangular Coordinate Mapping—The rectangular coordinate mapping method is a

slightly more accurate variation of the baseline method because it utilizes two such

baselines instead of one. Two measurements are taken to a point on an item or location at

the scene. One from each identified baseline. Some personnel choose to measure to two or

more points on an item, using multiple rectangular measurements as a way of increasing

accuracy, while others simply choose to measure to an arbitrarily-identified center mass of

the object in question or point to which the measurements are being taken. As with the

baseline method, it cannot be determined that such measurements are taken precisely at 90

degree angles from the baseline, so there exists a greater possibility of errors than with

some of the other methods. However, due to this method having two measurements, it has

much greater accuracy than with the single line baseline method. This method is especially

useful in confined spaces and smaller interior scenes.

Triangulation Mapping—This is the most accurate method that does not make use of

advanced technology. While it is quite a bit more laborious and time-consuming, it is

sufficiently more accurate than the aforementioned methods of mapping to be worth the

effort. The accuracy for this method comes in its foundation: two fixed points. From these

two fixed points, measurements are taken to specified points on an item or within the crime

scene. There is no need to worry about whether or not measurements have been made at a

right angle because the points derive from a known fixed point, such as the corner of a

room, or edge of a door frame. From these fixed points, a minimum of two measurements

are made to each identified point. If the object is of a fixed or constant shape (e.g., a

firearm or item of furniture), then the object is measured to two points, from the two fixed

points, for a total of four measurements. If the object is of a variable shape or size (e.g., a


puddle of water, pool of blood, or pile of clothes), then the object is measured to an

approximate center of mass.

Polar/Grid Coordinate Mapping—Utilizing polar coordinates is the fourth method of

crime scene mapping used to document evidence location at a crime scene. Like those

previously mentioned, this is a two-dimensional system that indicates the location of an

object by providing the angle and distance from the fixed or known point. Obviously, in

order to conduct measurements by this method a transit or compass is necessary to measure

the angles and polar directions. This method is best utilized in large outdoor scenes with

very few landmarks (e.g., a plane crash in forest or large field).

Advanced Mapping Techniques—Some departments may have the ability to make better

utilization of modern technology, such as global positioning systems (GPS) and Total

Stations, which are mapping systems that can take measurements in polar coordinates and

then convert the measurements into grid coordinates. The benefit of this technology is that

they both are able to provide precise electronic distance measurements and are extremely

useful in mapping large-scale scenes and events.

A Total Station is an electronic surveying instrument that has an integrated computer and can

measure angles in the horizontal and vertical planes, utilizing a laser rangefinder instead of the

more archaic method of a manual tape measure. This is especially useful because changes in

elevation are very difficult to both measure and depict on a crime scene sketch. The Total Station

is capable of recording evidence positions in three dimensions, thus simplifying this otherwise

complicated situation.

GPS is a satellite-based navigation system comprising a network of 24 satellites that have been

placed in the Earth’s orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was originally used by and

intended for the military; however, in the 1980s the government made the technology available for

civilian use. The benefit of GPS is that it works in any weather condition, anywhere in the world,

24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to utilize GPS. These satellites

complete two very precise orbits of the Earth a day, during which they transmit signal information.

It is these signals that GPS receivers gather and then use triangulation to calculate the user’s

location. A GPS receiver must be locked on to the position signal of at least three satellites in

order to calculate a two-dimensional position (latitude and longitude) as well as track movements

of an object. If the GPS receiver is able to lock onto four or more satellites, the receiver can

determine the user’s three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude), along with


object movement. The more satellites that the GPS is locked onto, the greater the accuracy of the

position. Once the user’s position has been determined, an additional service is that calculation of

movement can provide GPS users the ability to record information such as speed, bearing, track,

trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise, sunset, time, and many more possibilities.

How accurate is GPS? In most cases, commercially available GPS receivers are accurate to

approximately 12 meters, with higher end units capable of accuracy in the 3- to 5-meter range.

This is sufficiently accurate for large scenes that have no known/fixed landmarks. A GPS reading

is typically used to “mark” a known point and then measurements are made from that location,

thereby ensuring that any measurements taken will all be “off” by the same amount because they

all originate from the same location.

As with all other crime scene measurements, all measurements are approximate, and are never

documented as or testified to as being 100% accurate. Crime scene mapping is about doing the

best possible documentation with the resources available, realizing that rounding and other factors

inhibit the ability to be completely accurate.

NOTE TAKING

Crime scene notes should contain descriptions of the crime scene (signs of struggle, bullet holes,

and areas having a large amount of evidence), descriptions and locations of physical evidence, the

disposition of physical evidence, and any personnel in or out of the crime scene area. Notes must

be comprehensible and chronological as they might be called upon to be revealed as part of a pre-

trial discovery process. Notes serve the function of compensating for loss of memory, and a

familiar tactic in court that lends credibility to a detective is where they are allowed to consult

their notes. Notes also qualify as res gestae evidence, or spontaneous utterances, which carry

more weight in court as an exception to the hearsay rule. This can be very useful when the notes

have recorded the first moments of what was said or done by a witness or suspect.

Note taking at the scene must be a constant activity and should include:

a) Scene – a detailed written description of the scene with the location of the items of physical

evidence recovered. They should include:

1) time of discovery


2) who discovered it

3) how it was discovered

4) who handled the item before packaging

5) Who packaged and marked the item

6) Disposition of the item

b) Details – this may be the only record of the scene that exists after a period of time. The note

taker should put down as many details as possible at the time the notes are taken. Only

contemporaneous notes are allowed as evidence in court.

Conclusion

Scientific crime scene investigation is the best methodology to ensure that an investigation is

properly conducted and justice is served. Use of this methodology will prevent the abrupt end of

an incomplete investigation and allow for the best use of the physical evidence found at crime

scenes.

LATENT PRINT PROCESSING

a) DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Physical evidence may be defined as articles or materials which are found in connection with an

investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator or the circumstances

under which the crime was committed or which, in general, assist in the discovery of the facts.

Crime Scene is any physical scene, anywhere that may provide potential physical evidence to the

investigator. It can be a person’s body, vehicles or any objects found at those locations.


Scene of Crime is the general area where a crime was committed e.g Cannon Towers can be a

scene of crime and 10th floor Lecture hall two where a body was found with a knife in the chest is

a crime scene

Value of Physical Evidence

– Helping to establish the scope of the crime scene

– Linking the perpetrator with the scene

– Connecting a suspect with a weapon

– Supporting witness statements

– Connecting crime scene areas (abduction, vehicle used, dump site)

b) LATENT EVIDENCE

“Evidence” includes any matter that illuminates the truth. It refers to any means that can establish

or prove the veracity of a fact in question. “Latent”, in a forensic sense, is evidence not visible or

obvious, but capable of emerging. Latent evidence is therefore, any evidence unseen or

undetected. Logically, if an item of evidence weren’t there, it couldn’t be latent. A fingerprint is an

example of latent evidence. Another, more common form of latent evidence is negative evidence.

Negative evidence can take any form, and can be anything tangible or intangible. To identify

evidence beneath the surface, one must employ critical thinking, reasoning, and logical analysis.

The main purpose of crime scene officers is to develop and identify latent fingerprints, palm

prints, and sometimes even foot prints. The word latent implies that the prints are hidden or not

easily seen without help (either chemical, physical, photographic, or electronic development).

Behind every investigation are additional facts waiting to be discovered. The slightest omission

may lead to an unidentified set of facts. As an experienced forensic expert, it is important that very

often, ask the right questions and know what to ask for it will yield an abundance of material from

which deductions can be made, a clearer picture of the accusation will develop, and more facets of


the investigation will be revealed. In the process of getting beneath the surface to identify latent

evidence, one can reconstitute the evidentiary perspective of a case.

c) FINGERPRINTS

Fingerprint evidence is the most positive investigative means of identifying people. Every

fingerprint is unique. They form on a person before birth and remain unchanged until the body

decomposes after death. Fingerprints impressions often look alike but when closely examined;

their differences can prove the prints to have been made by different fingers. Prints from the same

finger may look different because the pressure used to make them differed or the curve of the

surface differed, yet examination by a qualified examiner can prove the prints to have been made

by the same finger.

Positive identification or elimination of the prints can only be made by a trained and qualified

fingerprint examiner. Prints are identified by making qualitative and quantitative comparisons of

one friction ridge print with another. The examiners compare separate ridge characteristics and

their relationship one to another.

FINDING AND PROCESSING LATENT PRINTS

Latent prints are a chance or unintentional prints found on items of a crime scene. Some prints can

be plainly visible especially those made by a finger coated with a foreign substance like blood,

grease or dirt. Some prints are imprinted in pliable substances like butter, semidry paint or candles.

The visibility depends on physical condition of the person who left the prints on the object or

surface and on the angle of reflection of the light by which they are viewed. The visibility also

depends on the time that has passed since they were placed, the amount of heat to which they have

been exposed among others.

Photographing prints can safe guard fingerprints evidence. This is because it can offset damage

which can occur in the preservation process. They are also useful in the preparation and

presentation of fingerprint evidence. After photographing, an enlargement can be made at the

crime lab which can be used in comparing with others with the print captured.


PRESERVING PRINTS

Print lifting tape is used on prints made visible by a foreign substance or if they are on a small

object, the whole object may be held as evidence. Latent prints made by normal secretions of the

skin have to be processed in a special way before they can be seen or preserved. The two most

common means are powdering and chemical treatment. Prints which need dusting powder to

develop should be photographed before lifting. Prints found in dust should be photographed and

then lifted; they should not be powdered as this will destroy them completely.

[i] Powdering

Choose a powder that best contrasts with the background. Powders are supplied in many

colours but black and white are commonly used.

To preserve a print with powder, check for a test print in the area selected. Lightly brush

the place with powder to see if a latent print is actually present. Wipe the surface clean and

process the test print.

The powder can be applied with feather brushes, fibreglass and camel hair. Magnetic wand

(rod) is used with magnetic powder. In case of a large area you can use a large piece of

cotton.

Pour a small amount of powder on a clean sheet of paper.

Gently touch the tips of the brush to the powder and shake off the excess powder back to

the paper. It is important for good prints processing to use small amount of powder and a

delicate touch.

Using a smooth stroke, guide the brush over a suspected area or over a barely visible print.

Get enough ridge to see the direction of the flow of the ridge and follow the flow of the

ridge with the brush.

Photograph the completed ridge detail and use more powder to make it more visible.

Photograph it again and protect the ridge with a tape. Make sure to use a ruler when

photographing the prints.

N/B


If you are in the crime scene without proper powders, you can use soot (impure carbon particles

resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons) as a field expedient. Pass some

nonflammable objects through the smoke of a burning piece of wood. A black, even deposit of

soot will form on the object. Carefully brushing will yield latent prints.

[ii] Lifting

Transparent lifting tapes and rubber lifters are commonly used. Rubber lifters are better

than transparent lifting tapes in curved or uneven surfaces.

Transparent lifting tape has an advantage of presenting the lifted fingerprints in the correct

position as the print is reversed in rubber tape.

Transparent tapes used in homes and offices are not suitable for lifting prints but they can

be used as a field expedient.

Rubber lifters store well and come in both black and white for use with different coloured

powders. They are well suited to use in places like doorknobs where the surface is uneven.

User a lifter large enough to cover the print and leaves lots of room. Remove the plastic

cover of a rubber lifter with care in one steady movement. Any pause will result on a line

being left on the lifter. In most cases, powder on a print will not stick to the line, thus

ruining the print. Place the adhesive side of the lifter to the powdered print. Press it down

evenly, then peel the lifter from the surface on one smooth even motion. Press the plastic

cover of the lifter over the lifted print for protection.

Transparent lifting tape which are available in dispensers speed up the lifting process.

Prints on transparent lifting tape should be mounted on material which contrasts with that

of the lifting powder.

When lifting a print in either manner, use care to halt air bubbles forming under the lifter. Keep a

quarter twist on the tape with one hand while rolling it flat with the other to prevent air bubbles.

Powder might stick to object on which the print is found. If brushing will not remove the excess

powder, it is advisable to make two lifts; the first will remove the excess powder, the second will

preserve the fingerprint for identification. Also a latent print may be enhanced by adding brush

powder on the first lift.

[iii] Chemical processing


Lab technicians are trained to use many chemical mixtures to process evidence using techniques

which are accepted in law. Latent on paper products should be developed with chemicals. Paper

acts as a blotter, absorbing skin secretions when touched therefore the latent prints will not rub off

paper as they rub off a nonporous surface. The amount of pressure and contact are the two

variables that affect these latents the most.

To develop the prints, the paper is exposed to chemicals which react to skin secretions of the print

residue. The chemical processes depend on the presence of mineral or organic or organic matter in

the perspiration.

Perspiration composition differs from person to person and from time to time in the same person.

The difference accounts for the uncertain and frequently spotty development of these processes.

CONCLUSION

Investigation is an objective process used to discover facts about a situation, person or behaviour.

It is of paramount importance for the investigator to be rich with evidence. Latent prints although

mostly found by a chance can be very useful in proving a case in court. The strength of an

investigator is to have the believe in Dr. Edmond Locard wherby Locard's principle holds that the

perpetrator of a crime will bring something into the crime scene and leave with something from it,

and that both can be used as forensic evidence. Every contact leaves a trace.


CRIMINAL EVIDENCE


CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime Scene Photography Equipment

Forensic photography, sometimes referred to as forensic imaging or crime scene photography,

is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident scene using

photography for the benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation. It is part of the process of

evidence collecting. It provides investigators with photos of victims, places and items involved in

the crime. Pictures of accidents show broken machinery, or a car crash, and so on. Photography of

this kind involves choosing correct lighting, accurate angling of lenses, and a collection of

different viewpoints. Scales, like items of length measurement or objects of known size, are often

used in the picture so that dimensions of items are recorded on the image.

Good crime scene photo

A good photograph of a crime scene must meet certain technical specifications: correct exposure,

sharp focus and maximum depth of field, the portion of the photograph that appears sharp. The

image must also be free from distortion. Such technical standards produce photos that will actually

aid agents in their investigation of a crime.

But there are additional qualities that make a photo admissible in court. The image pictured cannot

alter the scene or evidence -- say through strategic blocking with a measuring device or an

intentionally shallow depth of field. The image must also be relevant to the case and should be

composed with technical precision in mind, not emotional appeal.


Photographers might vary their kit based on personal preferences or the type of crime scene but

most carry certain basics: a camera, obviously, and maybe even multiple cameras; filters;

electronic flashes; various lenses for wide-angle, mid-range and close-up shots; a tripod; a

measuring device; a gray card, which when combined with a light meter helps produce correctly

exposed photographs; and a way to protect equipment from rain or extreme heat or cold.

Crime scene photographers usually use color images although black and white can be useful when

documenting evidence that relies more on texture than color like latent fingerprints.

CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

Crime scene photography, like any other form of 'once-in-a-lifetime' photography has to be done right

the first time. There is no room for errors, for guessing or omissions. It is imperative that the crime

scene is recorded accurately on film in the first instance, because it will be too late to go back later.

As a crime scene examiner or as a designated crime scene photographer, it is your task to make that

accurate record for a number of reasons. Perhaps the most important reason is to eventually transport

judge and jury to the scene many years later, to show them what the scene looked like at the time of

or immediately after the crime was committed. It may be no more than a handful of photographs of a

simple break and enter offence. The attention to detail in that instance should be no different to that

paid to a major incident such as a murder. The only difference will be the volume of the work you

do. Other reasons for recording a scene are to provide Police with a photographic record to assist

them in their investigation - especially if it is unsolved, to reveal any latent details at the scene and to

enhance microscopic details which are not readily visible to the naked eye.

. THE CAMERA

There is an old saying which goes, “A tradesman is only as good as the tools he uses.” This is very

true when it comes to crime scene photography. Without good, well-maintained photographic

equipment you will not be able to do your job to perfection. You need modern, state-of-the-art

camera equipment which is capable of being used every day for hours on end and which can handle

the odd bump. Advances in digital photography are occurring at astounding rates and digital cameras

are slowly but surely making inroads to forensic photography. No matter what medium you use

however, the methods and procedures adopted to actually photograph a crime scene do not change.


The minimum requirement for many years has been, and for a lot of years to come will be, a 35mm

SLR camera with a metal body. It is on that basis that the following is presented.

THE LENS

It is the quality of your lens which will govern the quality of your photography. For crime scene work

you will need more than a standard lens. The minimum requirement is a wide-angle lens of at least

28mm focal length; a macro lens of around 50mm focal length which will give you 1:1 magnification

and possibly a medium telephoto lens of 135mm focal length. If you are looking for greater

magnification than 1:1 with your macro lens, you will also need an extension tube. Your department

may also be able to supply you with a zoom lens in the range of 28-105mm which can take the place

of both the wide-angle and the medium telephoto lenses.

FLASH EQUIPMENT

Not every crime scene you attend will be as easy to photograph as an everyday, landscape shot. There

will be indoor scenes, underground scenes, night scenes, outdoor scenes with heavy contrasts between

light and shadow and any one of a myriad other situations which demand additional lighting. It is

therefore essential that your camera is coupled with an efficient flash unit with a high output, which

can be dedicated to the camera. Gone are the days of guessing lens apertures and flash guide numbers.

Today's modern cameras and dedicated flash units not only take the guess work out of camera and

flash settings, they also calculate the scene presented to them in less time than it takes to press the

shutter release button - and deliver an optimum image to the operator.

ESSENTIAL ACCESSORIES

No crime scene photographer would consider throwing such valuable camera equipment onto the

back seat or floor of a vehicle in between jobs. This valuable equipment must be looked after at all

times, and when it is not being used should be stored and transported in a sturdy, air-tight camera

case. Also, no crime scene photographer worth his salt would consider a camera outfit complete

without a sturdy tripod. The camera's power requirement must be kept in mind, with spare fresh

batteries always part of your equipment. This also applies to the power supply for your flash. Other

items essential to the crime scene photographer are scales and graphs, a grey card and a colour chart.


FILM

The quality of film available today is constantly improving. Film technology is such that image

quality produced by fast films is superior to that of the slower films of 10 or 15 years ago. The grain

detail of today's ISO400 colour negative film is finer than that of yesteryear's ISO100 film. Many

Police departments today have moved right away from monochrome (black and white) film and now

photograph all their crime scenes in colour - including fingerprints. The Courts too, have come to

expect colour photographs. Jurors live in a colourful world. They have colour televisions, colour

photographs of the family on the wall at home and they are bombarded daily with colourful images

from bill boards and magazines. Why take them on a nostalgia trip, and put crime scene photography

back 50 years by producing monochrome photographs at Court when there is no need to? Of course

there will be times when monochrome film will be used, especially for technical applications, and

there it comes into its own. My personal preference for crime scene photography is ISO400 colour

film. When I have to use monochrome film I use ISO125 which I rate at ISO80 for greater image

contrast. Reversal (slide) film also has its place in crime scene photography, especially for

illustrative, demonstrative and lecture purposes. Whilst it is not always possible to photograph a

crime scene with both negative and reversal films, the copying of photographs onto slide film is a

simple procedure.

TECHNICALITIES

CORRECT EXPOSURE

It is important to keep in mind the need for pin sharp images coupled with maximum depth of field.

Both these aspects are achieved by careful selection of aperture settings, and the correct selection of

complementary shutter speeds to obtain the correct exposure. Bear in mind, that whilst negative film

(both colour and monochrome) has a fairly wide exposure latitude which will compensate for 2 or 3

stops over-exposure or under-exposure, there is nothing like a good set of correctly exposed negatives

to produce a perfect set of photographs.

FLASH MANIPULATION


There will be times however, when you will have to take charge of the flash unit and dictate to the

camera and its film how much light you are going to apply to a particular scene, and how you want it

recorded on the film. If you are photographing the remains of the interior of a burned-out building for

instance, the need for flash lighting will be vastly different to that required to photograph a snow

scene in daylight. The black of the burned-out building will `soak up' the light from the flash and

there will be nothing left to record on the film. It will be necessary for you to switch your camera and

flash to manual, and allow 2 more stops over-exposure on your camera than the exposure indicated on

your flash. For instance, if you set your flash for an exposure at ƒ11 then you will have to set the

aperture of your lens to ƒ5.6 to compensate for the light which is `soaked up.' Conversely, if you are

photographing a scene in snow and it is necessary to use flash to highlight some details, you may

have to stop down your lens aperture by 2 stops to overcome the brilliant combination of flash and

snow glare which could wash out your image. In other words, in extremes of conditions don't allow

your camera and flash to do the work. Both are calibrated to work in a `normal' world where

everything is average. That is why the photographic industry works on the standard 18% reflectance

grey card which is technically in the middle between pitch black and brilliant white. If you do not

have a grey card amongst your equipment, then get one. It is one of the cheapest aids for determining

exposures that a photographer can own and use.

PAINTING WITH FLASH

All flash units, regardless of how much light they put out when fired, suffer from the same problem -

light fall off. If you are aware of the inverse square law relating to flash output, then you will know

that the furthest objects from the camera and flash receive less light than the ones closest to the

camera. They therefore show up darker in your photograph than those closer objects. When

photographing a large scene at night, especially outdoors, you can supply flash light to all of the scene

and make it appear like daylight by using a simple technique called `painting with flash'. All this

means is you have your camera mounted on a sturdy tripod, and with a suitable aperture selected (say

ƒ4 or ƒ5.6) you focus your lens, set your shutter speed to `B' and lock the shutter open. You then set

about walking around the scene with your flash unit set for the same aperture (ƒ4 or ƒ5.6) and fire the

flash off manually at objects in the scene which you want to appear correctly exposed in your

photograph. It is important not to stand between the flash and the camera and so create multiple

silhouettes of yourself throughout the scene, and not to fire the flash straight at the camera. It may be


necessary between flash firings to have an assistant cover the front of the lens with a dark object such

as the inside of a Police hat to avoid `hot spots' such as street lights burning bright areas into your

photographs.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

BASIC REASONS

There are a number of reasons for photographing a crime scene. The most basic of those reasons is:

• To record the scene and associated areas,

• To record the appearance of physical evidence as first encountered,

• To provide investigators with a photographic record of the scene to assist them with their

investigations, and

• To present the crime scene at court for the edification of judges, juries and counsel alike.

THE CRIME SCENE PROPER

It is important before entering and photographing a crime scene that you talk to investigators at the

scene and formulate a plan of attack. In the majority of cases, especially with indoor scenes, there is

no need to rush in, to take a dozen quick photographs and then leave. Outdoor scenes will be

governed by terrain and weather conditions. You must liaise with investigators, find out exactly what

they want photographed, know what they are investigating, and be prepared to use your expertise to

record the scene accurately. It is always possible that your trained eye will see something the

investigators cannot see. Bring it to their attention and record it.

THE TECHNIQUE FOR GOOD COVERAGE

THE BIG PICTURE

Photographing of a crime scene should start with location shots, which are wide-angle photographs of

the general crime scene and surrounding areas. They will present a big picture of the overall scene to


show its layout, and to show the relationships between various pieces of evidence at the scene. This

may involve aerial photographs from an aircraft, from some other elevated advantage point nearby, or

simply general shots from a distance. If the scene itself is an indoor one, I work on a minimum of 10

photographs of a room using a wide-angle lens - one from each corner looking diagonally to the

opposite corner (4); one from the centre of each wall looking directly to the centre of the opposite

wall (4); one from near floor level at one end of the room looking up to the ceiling (1); and one from

the same end of the room near to ceiling height looking down to the floor of the room (1) giving the

total of 10 photographs.

THE MID-RANGE PHOTOGRAPHS

The next set of photographs should be your mid-range shots. These show the relationships of specific

items of evidence to each other and to the scene proper. They should be photographed from normal

viewing height, the same perspective any person in the room or at the scene would have when

walking through them. Remember, your photographs will eventually be viewed by a judge or a panel

of jurors, and they must be able to relate to the scene easily, with no distortions or confusion.

THE CLOSE-UP PHOTOGRAPHS

Generally, the final series of photographs will be close-ups to show details of important pieces of

evidence which you have already identified in your mid-range photographs. Items with which relative

sizes are important should be photographed with and without a scale. The item should be firstly

photographed as located, then photographed again including the scale. It is important that the scale is

placed on the same plane as the item, and that the film plane is parallel to the scale.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

• If you have a crime scene which is not confined to one area, photograph it progressively by doing a

`walk-through'. Always link your photographs by having some identifiable object in one photograph

visible in the next photograph, and so on.

• Be careful where you step and what you touch. Do not destroy any evidence such as shoe

impressions, blood stains or fired cartridge cases as you are photographing.

• If an object was moved prior to your arrival, don't try to replace it or have someone else replace it in

an effort to reconstruct the scene. Photograph the scene as it presents itself to you.


• Don't be rushed by an investigator. He or she has a job to do - and you have yours. Conduct your

photographic examination systematically and objectively. In serious and major crime scenes record

everything, regardless of its apparent irrelevance.

SPECIFIC CRIMES

Each crime scene has its own particular features, and the type of photography required at each scene

will be determined by those features.

HOMICIDE

Murder has been called the most heinous of crimes - the taking of another human life. It abhors all

humanity and demands swift and satisfactory resolution. For that alone, the photographing of a

murder scene will be a detailed one. The same procedures as outlined in 4.1 above are important.

Perhaps the most important `items' at the scene will be the victim, injuries and any weapons located.

It will be important to photograph any signs of activity prior to the murder; any evidence of a

struggle, or of forced entry if an indoor scene; and the views from the positions any witnesses had of

the crime. You will usually have to attend and photograph the ensuing autopsy, where as well as

taking photographs for your own information, you may be asked by the attending pathologist to take

photographs of anatomical significance for his information.

SUICIDE

When attending a suicide or any other deceased for that matter, and there is some doubt as to the

circumstances of the death - treat it as a homicide. Film is cheap, and if the suicide should turn out to

be a murder you have covered it fully. Don't think it cannot and will not happen. History is full of

murders made to look like suicides.

ASSAULT

Assaults and other injury crimes firstly require a general, overall photograph of the victim prior to

detailed photographs of injuries. An assault victim can be photographed like a mini crime scene, with

general (big picture) photographs, mid-range and close-up. When photographing bruises, bites marks

and other injuries close-up, use a scale to show the sizes of the injuries; photograph at 90 degrees to

the injury to avoid distortion; and use a small aperture especially on curved surfaces such as an arm or

finger to increase depth of field and so ensure the entire injury image is sharp.


STRUCTURAL SCENES

Scenes of building fires, building collapses or other structural events, both externally and internally,

should also be photographed using the `big picture, mid-range and close-up' principles Always

ensure your own safety and the safety of your valuable equipment.

MOTOR VEHICLE CRASHES

Scenes of motor vehicle crashes, and for that matter scenes involving crashes of any kind - be they

motor vehicles, aircraft or even trains - should also be photographed using the `big picture, mid-range

and close-up' principle. These photographs must show the relationships of each vehicle to the other;

the view each driver had on approach to the point of impact; the direction from which each driver

came; debris and marks on the roadway; views from the points witnesses observed the crash at their

eye levels; technical photographs showing damage to the vehicles; and where necessary detailed

photographs of physical evidence to identify hit and run vehicles. The damage to a vehicle must be

photographed from at least two opposing diagonals and through the two axes of the vehicle, as a

minimum. Flash should be used to fill in shadows within damaged areas.

BREAK AND ENTER OFFENCES.

Again the `big picture, mid-range and close-up' principle applies. Close-up photographs will include

tool marks, shoe impressions, fabric impressions, fingerprints and other trace and physical evidence.

These will all include a scale, and fingerprint examinations and photography will be carried out

according to laid down procedures.

TRACE EVIDENCE

SHOE AND TYRE IMPRESSIONS

The same principle applies as in general crime scene photography, with the `big picture' photograph

showing where in the scene the impression is located. This can be indicated with a marker alongside

the impression, which is left in position when the mid range and close up photographs are taken.

With these larger items of trace evidence, maintain a standard lens setting when photographing them,

which makes it easier to relate sizes when viewing or enlarging photographs for comparison purposes.

Of course a scale is always included in the photograph as well as an identifier with the date, location

and my initials thereon. It is important to keep the film plane of the camera parallel to the surface


bearing the impression. It is equally important to use an oblique light source to reveal the detail of the

impression. When using flash in this way on an impression which is outdoors and in sunlight, cast a

shadow across the impression to enable the flash to create a greater contrast and so reveal the detail in

the impression. A shoe impression can be photographed on one film frame. A tyre impression

however needs numerous frames which must overlap, and here it is important to have a measuring

tape alongside the impression to show the scale and to enable the photographs to be joined if

necessary. A standard 50mm to 55mm lens should be used for impression photography as a wide-

angle lens will give unacceptable distortion to the impression.

BLOOD SPLASH PATTERNS

Photographs of blood splash patterns, whether they be on a floor, on a vertical surface such as a wall

or even overhead on a ceiling, must be photographed with the film plane parallel to the surface

bearing the stain. A scale must be included on the same plane as the surface. Of course, like any

serious crime scene, general location photographs must be taken to show the positions of the blood

staining at the scene.

MACRO/MICRO PHOTOGRAPHY

Apart from 1:1 and 5:1 fingerprint photography other detailed photographs are often required of tool

marks, serial numbers, pieces of jewellery and the like. The focusing of a lens so close to small

objects, especially when an extension tube is used, requires the use of the smallest possible aperture in

the camera lens to ensure maximum depth of field and clarity of detail of the item being

photographed.

PURPOSE OF CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

The purpose of crime scene photography is to provide a true and accurate record of the crime

scene and physical evidence present by recording the original scene and related areas. It provides

investigators and others with a permanent visual record of the scene that can be analyzed or

examined for later use. It’s also very beneficial in court hearings and trials as it provides the judge

as well as the jurors with a permanent visual record of the scene and evidence that was collected

from it. Regardless if a scene has been videotaped, still photographs are a must at every crime

scene. Although videotaping does record everything, photographs can demonstrate certain things

such as direct comparison. Actual size photographs can be used to compare fingerprint and shoe


prints photographed at the scene against the suspect.


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INTRODUCTION TO FINGERPRINING

Introduction

The science of fingerprints is based on three fundamental principles:

Fingerprints are unique to the individual.

Fingerprints are persistent meaning they remain with us until after death.

The fingerprint patterns are variable to the point where they can be systematically

classified for filing.

It is these three principles which enable fingerprints to be such a useful tool in criminal

investigation.

Learning Objective

At the end of this topic you should be able to:-

Understand the fundamental principles of the fingerprint science.

Describe how fingerprints can be used to assist in criminal investigation.

Demonstrate how to take a set of inked fingerprints from another person.

Detect, develop and preserve latent fingerprints.


Inked Fingerprints

Inked fingerprints are used for two main purposes; compilation of the criminal history of an

individual and comparison against fingerprints found at crime scenes. Another non-criminal use of

inked fingerprints is for the elimination of fingerprints that may have been deposited by persons

who may have had legitimate access to a crime scene. As someone will be attempting to use the

inked impressions for comparison you must ensure that they are of the highest possible quality. Do

not allow your work to be the cause of an unsuccessful fingerprint search!

In the early 1900‘s many countries established inked fingerprint collections and commenced the

detection and development of fingerprints at crime scenes. Thus, began a new era in criminal

investigation and the identification of suspects through fingerprint comparisons.

A Word of Caution

Before discussing the procedure for taking inked fingerprints some remarks are appropriate about

the potential hazards of handling prisoners with open wounds or blood on their hands. Hepatitis

and AIDS are major concerns among persons who handle blood-stained objects (including

prisoner‘s hands). Nylon gloves should be worn to avoid coming into direct contact with blood.

Work station and equipment

Your police station may have permanent or temporary workspace for inked fingerprinting. In

either case there are certain pieces of equipment that you will require to carry out the task. As

with the tools of any trade, the equipment for taking inked fingerprints should be kept in top

condition in order to achieve optimum results.

Read through the following descriptive list for an introduction to the required

equipment

Working surface


The working surface should ideally be at the height of the forearm of a standing person of

average height when the forearm is held parallel to the floor It may be a permanent stand or a portable unit which, when placed on top of a desk or counter

comes to the appropriate height. It is convenient to incorporate storage inside the unit for the

equipment, forms and cleaning materials.

Inking Plate

The inking plate may be made of any smooth material such as glass, steel or a hard plastic that

is not easily scratched. A standard glass louver is a convenient size,

Ink

The ink must give dark grey, almost black, impressions and must dry almost immediately.

Specially formulated fingerprint inks give the best results. Other substitutes may appear light

grey or be a particularly slippery consistency, both of which lead to poor results.

Fingerprint Forms

Most fingerprint forms are laid out so that the right thumb is at the left end of the top row

of spaces and the other digits are in sequence until the left little linger is reached at the right

end of the second row. Below these two rows are spaces for the fingers of each hand to be

recorded simultaneously without rolling (plain impressions). Also included on the front of the

form are spaces for both the left and right thumb impressions, which are placed

simultaneously between both sets of the plain impressions of the fingers

Cleaning Materials

The working surface must always be kept clean. Non-flammable solvents and paper

towels will remove the ink.

Washing Facilities

Washing facilities for the subject must be provided before and after fingerprinting. Regular

soap and water is usually adequate for preparation of the hands of the subject before

printing. Waterless hand cleaner or a lotion is usually required to cleanly remove the ink

after printing.

Control of the Subject

The biggest single cause of poor quality fingerprints is lack of control of the subject. The

position in front of the work surface, your control of the arms and hands and your grip


on the fingers while rolling, all combine to determine the ease with which the task will be

completed. This will, in turn, dictate the quality of the impressions. You will find it

awkward at first and this will cause errors of smeared and poorly defined impressions.

Careful practice will overcome the difficulty and eventually it will become second nature.

Relax the Subject

Encourage your subject to relax. The less tension in the arm and hand there is to overcome

the better your results will be. Have your subject look away from the fingerprint form so

there are fewer tendencies to anticipate the rolling action and to try to 'help' you. You must

be in control of these motions, not the subject.

Stance of the Subject

Position the subject in front of the work surface so that there is no difficulty in reaching any part of

the fingerprint form without having to stretch or change position.

Usually, if the forearm is at right angles to the workstation at a point midway between the

fingerprint form and the inking plate, the subject will not need to move to reach either the form or

the inking plate.

Stance of the Officer

There are two basic stances for the officer:


One stance positions the officer to the left of the subject when rolling the left hand and to the right

when rolling the right hand. This method keeps the subject from standing directly behind the

technician.

The disadvantage of this method is that you must learn to work both left and right-handed. It is,

however, the preferred stance if you will be alone in the room with the subject.

Grasping the Hands of the Subject

A brief description of the technique is given here. Since the right hand impressions are at

the top of the fingerprint form the right hand will be rolled first and you will, therefore, have

the subject on your left

Grip the right hand of the subject with your left while supporting the tip of the digit with your

right thumb and index. Your left hand will perform all of the rotating movement as you ink and roll the impressions

(assuming a right handed officer).

Your right hand will merely support the tips of the digits, helping to position them in the

boxes on the fingerprint form. This hand should place very little downward pressure on the

tips of the digits otherwise the result is likely to be smeared impressions.

When you move to the left side of the subject to roll the left hand you may wish also to reverse your hand positions. Your right hand will now perform the rotation while your left becomes the support.


It takes a little practice to get the thumbs and fingers of the subject organised so that the

uninvolved digits are not in the way. This is especially true of the thumbs. By the time the

subject has curled the other fingers under and extended the thumb, and you have grasped

the hand, you may find that there is very little thumb left to stretch onto the fingerprint

form. The knuckles of the subject or your own fingers tend to catch on the edge of the form

holder in this situation. This, of course, leads to uneven rolling which is another cause of

smeared impressions. Practice will help teach you to overcome these difficulties.

In order to achieve full rotation it is important that the hand, wrist and forearm be in a

straight line. (A work surface at the proper height makes this very much easier.)

Because of the skeletal structure in the forearms it is usually easier to roll the fingers

outwards, away from the body of the subject and the thumbs inwards towards the body.

Test each subject, before inking, by rotating the fingers to check for tension in the muscles.

Always roll from a position of tension to one of less tension to avoid smearing the

impression at the end of the roll.

You will find that you must adapt your technique to accommodate the differing sizes and

shapes of hands. Experience will indicate how this is best accomplished.

The digits are inked and rolled starting with the right thumb and progressing to the left little finger. Ink and roll one digit before inking the next one. Grasp the right hand of your subject as described previously.

Rotate the hand outwards, away from the body of the subject, until the thumbnail is

vertical. Lay it on the inking surface and roll inwards until it is again vertical on the other

side of the nail. Check that the bulbous portion of the thumb is now evenly inked from the

flexion crease to the tip and from nail to nail.

Rotate it outwards again and position it

above the right side of the appropriate

space on the fingerprint form so that the

flexion crease is just above the bottom line. When located satisfactorily above the form, in one smooth, continuous motion, place the thumb down onto the form, roll inwards and lift off the form.


The secret to success is to make these three actions form a single fluid motion. Keeping this

motion fluid and continuous while, simultaneously using suitable pressure, rolling fully and

positioning correctly will take much practice!

Many subjects will attempt to help and may put their fingers on the form before you are

ready. This will almost invariably result in a smeared impression. To avoid this situation

hold the digit in position above the form by resting your little finger, of the hand with

which you are supporting the fingertips, on the work surface. A slight pause at this point

often helps to relax your subject or at least take them by surprise when you begin the roll.

Having the subject look away from the fingerprint stand may also help to prevent them from

anticipating your actions.

Follow the same procedure with the other digits except that the fingers are rotated in the opposite direction to the thumbs. i.e. in towards the body first, then outwards while rolling on the form.

An important part of the inking procedure is to ensure that you roll each digit on an unused

area of the inking surface. If you roll a finger over an area which has already been used

you will often find that the ridge detail from the previous finger is also recorded on the new

impression.

Plain Impressions

Below the two rows of spaces for individual fingerprints on the form are spaces for

simultaneously recording the four fingers of each hand.

They are inked together and placed flat on the form without rolling. These serve as a check

that the rolled impressions are in the correct order. They are also often valuable for

comparison work since they more closely resemble the fingerprints found at scenes of crime

than do the rolled impressions.

Injuries

When a digit has an open wound it may be inadvisable to contaminate the injury with

fingerprint ink. If a digit has a bandage that cannot be temporarily removed it will be

impossible to record the impression. In these cases simply write "injured", and the reason, in

the space. If possible note the general pattern type. (Don't forget to wear disposable gloves.)


Amputations

When the entire digit is amputated write "Amp." and the date of the amputation in the

space. Also make a note in the descriptor area of the form. Writing the information in the

digit box before you roll the other impressions helps to ensure that the remaining digits will

be in the correct boxes. Otherwise it is easy to forget to skip the space for the missing digit.

When there is only a partial amputation, ink and roll the digit to record the remaining area of pattern and note the date of the amputation in the descriptor area of the form.

The final step in taking inked impressions is always a very careful check of your work.

If poor -quality impressions are submitted they may be filed inaccurately or perhaps not filed at all. Subsequent fingerprint searches of that individual may then fail to reveal a criminal history and a crime scene impression search may indicate that there are no matches.

Keep in mind that all of your crime scene fingerprint work eventually relies on the

original fingerprints being complete and accurate.

Checking the Impressions

A good set of inked fingerprints will meet all of the following

criteria:

Rolled from nail to nail

All deltas recorded


Flexion crease 2-3 mm. above bottom line of digit box on the fingerprint form

Impression centred in box, not overlapping next box or impression

Impression square in box, not more than 15 degrees either side of vertical

Inking even and of correct density across the whole impression

Clear, sharp ridge detail, no smearing, missed or filled-in areas

Rolled impressions in correct order

A good way to quickly check for sharpness and clarity of the rolled impressions is to compare

them against the plain impressions. Keep practicing until you can produce rolled impressions

just as clearly as good quality plain impressions.

Fingerprint Fundamentals

The underside of the fingers, thumbs, palms, toes and soles of the feet consists of skin that is

corrugated and referred to as ridged skin. This ridge skin assists with grip and provides the

body with a non-slip finish. These ridges are not all continuous with many having natural

variations called characteristics. It is these characteristics that are used for the process of

identification.

Examples of Fingerprint

Characteristics

A Ridge ending downwards

B Lake or enclosure

C Bifurcation upwards

D Dot

E Ridge ending upwards

F Short ridge

G Bifurcation downwards

These corrugations when coated with perspiration or other contaminate can leave a

reproduction of the ridges upon a surface, much like an office stamp. Reproductions of this

type are referred to as latent fingerprints and represent those normally located on exhibits

and/or at crime scenes. As a matter of course, they generally require some form of

development to make them visible.

For fingerprint recording purposes ink is used. As there is no physiological, biological or


physical difference between the areas of the body bearing ridge skin the underside of the

palms of the hands and soles of the feet are of equal value for identification purposes.

The ridges and characteristics are formed after the 3rd to 4th month of foetal development and remain unchanged throughout a person‘s life other than increasing in size with growth. Only deep injury or disease may cause some difference in the appearance of the ridges. The pattern types vary within limits that allow for classification.

The ―flow‖ of the ridges on the underside of the fingertips demonstrates a variety of distinct patterns with every person having either all the same pattern or a combination of them. These patterns are not unique from person to person with many having the same types. However depending on the type of pattern or patterns a person has allows an examiner to group these patterns into file groups. This enables fingerprints to be classified, filed, searched or retrieved from a filing system.

From an identification perspective it is the first two criteria of the fundamental principles that

the fingerprint science depends upon with criteria three being convenient for fingerprint

processing.


Fingerprint Crime Scene Examination

Upon arrival at the crime scene you should establish all information from the complainant, whilst conducting a general overview of all areas brought to your attention. Ensure that you question the complainant about other possibilities.

When commencing your examination stand 5-10 meters back from the Point of Entry (POE)

and get an overview of what you are going to examine. This can reveal evidence that you

may miss by being too close. Be methodical and work your way through the scene starting

from the outside location of the POE. A large percentage of your results particularly those

that pertain to the offender/s are going to be obtained from the POE, especially if it has been

forced.

Always examine the exterior of the premises for other signs of forced entry. A general tour

of the exterior of the premises examining all windows, doors etc. is recommended

(undisturbed dust, cobwebs etc. can assist to establish if any attempt has been made on these

areas). Additionally, it can assist your court testimony to state that you examined areas apart

from those of the actual scene area. An area of attempted forced entry can sometimes reveal

more forensic evidence than the actual POE.

Note the method of entry whilst examining from outside as this will assist what areas should

be examined inside. i.e.: the height, design and how the window opens, what the offender

may have used to assist entry i.e.: a chair to climb in will indicate to you what areas of the

window frame and surrounds need to be examined.

If practicable take portable exhibits outside for examination and when re-powdering the brush

take outside or place over a bin etc. to remove excess. Again, ensure any necessary

photographs are taken before fingerprinting.

Approach each examination with an open mind and try to view the scene as the offender

would. If possible follow the route used by the offender and use your knowledge of police

work to establish what he may and may not have handled. It is advisable not to waste time on

items that will not render evidence.

Upon completion of the main areas of examination, make a quick inspection of other rooms to satisfy yourself that all possible areas of interest have been exploited.


Fingerprint Equipment

Brush applied powders

There are three powders that are generally used for scene

examinations:

Black powder: designed to contrast with light coloured surfaces and comprises

principally of graphite. Silver powder: designed to contrast with dark coloured surfaces and comprises principally of aluminium. Bi-chromatic powder: composition of both silver and black powders that can be used on both light and dark surfaces.

Bi-chromatic powder is dark grey in colour and has a gritty textured appearance and can be readily distinguished from black powder, which is distinctly black in colour and has a very fine texture.

Magnetic Powders

Magnetic powders are available in both silver and black and comprises of the same composition as the above powders but with the addition of very fine iron filings. This increases the powders‘ density and adhesive potential on some surfaces.

Containers of magnetic powder are notably heavy and can be easily distinguished from

containers of brush-applied powders. All powders can be used on any smooth non-

porous surface however magnetic powder has superior results on surfaces such as

ceramic, PVC, aluminium, glossy magazines and plastics.

Brushes

Powdering brushes are made from white fibreglass bristles mounted on either a plastic or

wooden handle and are designed for longevity, ability to suspend the fingerprint powders and

minimise risk of physical damage to developing fingerprints.

A brush should be dedicated to each type of powder especially silver and black as mixing of

powders on a brush will reduce its contrasting efficiency. Once a brush discolours to the

powder used it will work very effectively without constantly re-dipping the brush into the

powders.


Fingerprint brushes must never be allowed to come in contact with anything that is wet, i.e. water, oil, blood, as this will destroy the brush and render it permanently unusable.

The end of the brush handle should be carefully trimmed or sharpened to a point to assist with endorsements. Always ensure the appropriate brush is used with the correct powder.

Magnetic wand

These comprise of a magnet mounted on a spindle inside a sleeve. When the spindle is in the

down position the magnetic powder can be picked up. Sliding the spindle up removes the

magnet and releases the powder.

Brushing out brush

These are a course bristled brush used to remove excess fingerprint powder or residual dirt

and dust from around the developed latent impression. They must NOT be used for

applying fingerprint powders.

Adhesive fingerprint lifters

Adhesive fingerprint lifters comprise of a 12cm x 14cm clear adhesive film attached to either

a black or white backing sheet. The two colours of the backing sheet are to

compliment the contrast depending on what fingerprint powder is used.


When the adhesive film is removed from the backing keep contact with either surface to a

minimum, as it is very easy to leave your own fingerprints on the surfaces. The exposed

backing sheets are slightly static therefore care must be taken to avoid dust, dirt etc being

attracted to the surface. Bi- chromatic powder can be placed on either backing but superior

contrast is always achieved by placing it onto the white backing. Lifters can also be cut no

smaller than across the width to produce two 7cm x 12cm pieces.

Hinge lifters

These are similar to adhesive fingerprint lifters except the adhesive surface is placed onto a clear backing once the fingerprint has been lifted.

Roll of lifting tape

Book binding tape can be used but again is not recommended. Its main advantage is cost as it

is very cheap compared to adhesive fingerprint lifters. The tape often has scratches and

impurities in its finish that may affect the lift and/or appearance of the developed fingerprint.

The tape must be placed on some form of backing of which exposed/unexposed photographic

paper is normally used.

Fingerprint Development Techniques

How powders work

All fingerprint powders simply adhere to any residue moisture left on a surface from the


fingers and produces a contrast with the surface. This will make the fingerprint visible.

Unfortunately, fingerprint powders do not discriminate and will adhere to any residual

moisture, matter or contaminates left upon a surface.

Application

The fingerprint brush can be gently stroked or twirled over the surface or a combination of

both methods for best results. Surfaces can be treated quickly and as fingerprint impressions

begin to develop further attention can be concentrated on those areas. Brush applied powders

can cover a large surface area in very quick time. Additional powder should only be placed on

the brush if powdering is proving difficult. However non-development of fingerprints could

simply be because there are no impressions on the surface. Excess fingerprint powder can

spoil or destroy fingerprint impressions.

Magna wands must be dipped into the powder so that the powder suspends from the wand.

The wand is carefully stroked over the surface ensuring only the powder makes contact.

Excess pressure or lack of powder can cause the wand to come in contact with the

surface and damage the fingerprint. Residue powder left on the surface can be collected

using the wand and returned to the container.

NOTE: If the surface is particularly dusty or dirty do not return the powder to its

container, as this will contaminate the powder spoiling its adhesive properties. Using a

magna-wand and magnetic powders is restricted to small surface areas, those that are non-

magnetic and are on a horizontal plane.

Excess fingerprint powder or residue dust should then be removed using the dust out brush.

This is done by carefully and very lightly cleaning the area of the developed fingerprint.

Ideally, stroking the brush in the direction flow of the ridges is recommended. Extreme care

must be practiced, as these brushes will damage the impression if excess pressure is applied.

Arrow indicates

direction of brushing

Ridge flow


The developed impression/s must be then lifted using a contrasting adhesive

fingerprint lifter. The clear adhesive film can be removed entirely from the backing or

peeled back and held in one corner. The adhesive is carefully place onto the developed

fingerprint ensuring all of the impression and endorsement are preserved. Rub gently

over the lifter to ensure contact with the surface. Peel the adhesive from the surface

and place back onto the backing card. Rub the surface to remove excess air bubbles. A second lift may be made if the first proves unsuccessful or unclear. Both lifters must be retained and endorsed accordingly as lifter 1, lifter 2 etc.

More fingerprint tips Fingerprint impressions that appear in natural dust on a surface cannot be further

developed using fingerprint powders. These must be photographed first and a lift of

the impression with an adhesive fingerprint lifter can be attempted. Select a backing

colour that best contrasts with the colour of the dust. Minimal success is achieved by

lifting these types of impressions. Fingerprint impressions in substances such as grease, oil, blood, or in a soft medium such as putty or an etched fingerprint will require to be photographed for recording.

Endorsements Every latent fingerprint lifted from an exhibit or crime scene must have an

endorsement on the rear of the fingerprint lifter. The endorsement is your notes at

the time and must be done A.S.A.P. after lifting to ensure accuracy. The rear endorsement should include specific

information such as:

Address Date Location of fingerprints Fingerprint officers name and police number Inside or outside of glass If a 2nd or 3rd lift Small diagram of item or area from where fingerprint was lifted. If the lifter relates to another lifter (i.e. a large area of hand that does not

fit onto one lifter) The rear endorsement should not include:

POE or Point of entry

Offender/suspect names Other hearsay, unrelated or unnecessary information.


Routinely officers are requested to fingerprint items that have been moved from their

original location by the complainant or by other police officers. It is imperative that

your endorsement reflects where you actually examined the item. DO NOT endorse

the location from where you are told it originated. That is the evidence of the person

who moved it to provide.

Fingerprint Comparison and Identification

It is useful for the any crime scene fingerprint officer to understand the fingerprint

comparison and identification process as this will help them to appreciate the

required quality and clarity of fingerprint detail. Fully-trained and qualified

fingerprint specialists compare crime scene fingerprints with inked fingerprints and

inked fingerprints with other inked fingerprints. The steps that are taken during the

comparison process are as follows:

1. The fingerprint impressions in both fingerprints are compared to determine if patterns correspond.

2. Using an eye-glass a common ridge characteristic (starting point) should be

located in both impressions. That is, a common characteristic of the same

type, facing the same direction and in the same relative position in both

prints.

3. From this starting point the number of intervening ridges to the next

matching characteristic should be counted. This process should be continued

until a sequence of matching ridge characteristics that have the same

number of intervening ridges have been located. A minimum of 12

matching characteristics is required to complete an identification allowing the

examiner to reach the conclusion that the fingerprint impressions are

identical, that is made by one and the same person.


LATENT PRINT PROCESSING

DEFINITION OF TERMS:

Physical evidence may be defined as articles or materials which are found in connection

with an investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator or the

circumstances under which the crime was committed or which, in general, assist in the

discovery of the facts.

Crime Scene is any physical scene, anywhere that may provide potential physical

evidence to the investigator. It can be a person’s body, vehicles or any objects found at

those locations.

Scene of Crime is the general area where a crime was committed e.g Cannon Towers can

be a scene of crime and 10th floor Lecture hall two where a body was found with a knife

in the chest is a crime scene

Value of Physical Evidence

– Helping to establish the scope of the crime scene

– Linking the perpetrator with the scene

– Connecting a suspect with a weapon

– Supporting witness statements

– Connecting crime scene areas (abduction, vehicle used, dump site)

d) LATENT EVIDENCE

“Evidence” includes any matter that illuminates the truth. It refers to any means that can

establish or prove the veracity of a fact in question. “Latent”, in a forensic sense, is

evidence not visible or obvious, but capable of emerging. Latent evidence is therefore,


any evidence unseen or undetected. Logically, if an item of evidence weren’t there, it

couldn’t be latent. A fingerprint is an example of latent evidence. Another, more common

form of latent evidence is negative evidence. Negative evidence can take any form, and

can be anything tangible or intangible. To identify evidence beneath the surface, one

must employ critical thinking, reasoning, and logical analysis.

The main purpose of crime scene officers is to develop and identify latent fingerprints,

palm prints, and sometimes even foot prints. The word latent implies that the prints are

hidden or not easily seen without help (either chemical, physical, photographic, or

electronic development).

Behind every investigation are additional facts waiting to be discovered. The slightest

omission may lead to an unidentified set of facts. As an experienced forensic expert, it is

important that very often, ask the right questions and know what to ask for it will yield an

abundance of material from which deductions can be made, a clearer picture of the

accusation will develop, and more facets of the investigation will be revealed. In the

process of getting beneath the surface to identify latent evidence, one can reconstitute

the evidentiary perspective of a case.

e) FINGERPRINTS

Fingerprint evidence is the most positive investigative means of identifying people. Every

fingerprint is unique. They form on a person before birth and remain unchanged until the

body decomposes after death. Fingerprints impressions often look alike but when closely

examined; their differences can prove the prints to have been made by different fingers.

Prints from the same finger may look different because the pressure used to make them

differed or the curve of the surface differed, yet examination by a qualified examiner can

prove the prints to have been made by the same finger.

Positive identification or elimination of the prints can only be made by a trained and

qualified fingerprint examiner. Prints are identified by making qualitative and


quantitative comparisons of one friction ridge print with another. The examiners compare

separate ridge characteristics and their relationship one to another.

FINDING AND PROCESSING LATENT PRINTS

Latent prints are a chance or unintentional prints found on items of a crime scene. Some

prints can be plainly visible especially those made by a finger coated with a foreign

substance like blood, grease or dirt. Some prints are imprinted in pliable substances like

butter, semidry paint or candles. The visibility depends on physical condition of the

person who left the prints on the object or surface and on the angle of reflection of the

light by which they are viewed. The visibility also depends on the time that has passed

since they were placed, the amount of heat to which they have been exposed among

others.

Photographing prints can safe guard fingerprints evidence. This is because it can offset

damage which can occur in the preservation process. They are also useful in the

preparation and presentation of fingerprint evidence. After photographing, an

enlargement can be made at the crime lab which can be used in comparing with others

with the print captured.

PRESERVING PRINTS

Print lifting tape is used on prints made visible by a foreign substance or if they are on a

small object, the whole object may be held as evidence. Latent prints made by normal

secretions of the skin have to be processed in a special way before they can be seen or

preserved. The two most common means are powdering and chemical treatment. Prints

which need dusting powder to develop should be photographed before lifting. Prints

found in dust should be photographed and then lifted; they should not be powdered as

this will destroy them completely.


[i] Powdering

Choose a powder that best contrasts with the background. Powders are supplied in

many colours but black and white are commonly used.

To preserve a print with powder, check for a test print in the area selected. Lightly

brush the place with powder to see if a latent print is actually present. Wipe the

surface clean and process the test print.

The powder can be applied with feather brushes, fibreglass and camel hair.

Magnetic wand (rod) is used with magnetic powder. In case of a large area you

can use a large piece of cotton.

Pour a small amount of powder on a clean sheet of paper.

Gently touch the tips of the brush to the powder and shake off the excess powder

back to the paper. It is important for good prints processing to use small amount

of powder and a delicate touch.

Using a smooth stroke, guide the brush over a suspected area or over a barely

visible print. Get enough ridge to see the direction of the flow of the ridge and

follow the flow of the ridge with the brush.

Photograph the completed ridge detail and use more powder to make it more

visible. Photograph it again and protect the ridge with a tape. Make sure to use a

ruler when photographing the prints.

N/B

If you are in the crime scene without proper powders, you can use soot (impure carbon

particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons) as a field expedient.

Pass some nonflammable objects through the smoke of a burning piece of wood. A black,

even deposit of soot will form on the object. Carefully brushing will yield latent prints.

[ii] Lifting

Transparent lifting tapes and rubber lifters are commonly used. Rubber lifters are

better than transparent lifting tapes in curved or uneven surfaces.


Transparent lifting tape has an advantage of presenting the lifted fingerprints in

the correct position as the print is reversed in rubber tape.

Transparent tapes used in homes and offices are not suitable for lifting prints but

they can be used as a field expedient.

Rubber lifters store well and come in both black and white for use with different

coloured powders. They are well suited to use in places like doorknobs where the

surface is uneven.

User a lifter large enough to cover the print and leaves lots of room. Remove the

plastic cover of a rubber lifter with care in one steady movement. Any pause will

result on a line being left on the lifter. In most cases, powder on a print will not

stick to the line, thus ruining the print. Place the adhesive side of the lifter to the

powdered print. Press it down evenly, then peel the lifter from the surface on one

smooth even motion. Press the plastic cover of the lifter over the lifted print for

protection.

Transparent lifting tape which are available in dispensers speed up the lifting

process.

Prints on transparent lifting tape should be mounted on material which contrasts

with that of the lifting powder.

When lifting a print in either manner, use care to halt air bubbles forming under the lifter.

Keep a quarter twist on the tape with one hand while rolling it flat with the other to

prevent air bubbles.

Powder might stick to object on which the print is found. If brushing will not remove the

excess powder, it is advisable to make two lifts; the first will remove the excess powder,

the second will preserve the fingerprint for identification. Also a latent print may be

enhanced by adding brush powder on the first lift.

[iii] Chemical processing

Lab technicians are trained to use many chemical mixtures to process evidence using

techniques which are accepted in law. Latent on paper products should be developed with

chemicals. Paper acts as a blotter, absorbing skin secretions when touched therefore the


latent prints will not rub off paper as they rub off a nonporous surface. The amount of

pressure and contact are the two variables that affect these latents the most.

To develop the prints, the paper is exposed to chemicals which react to skin secretions of

the print residue. The chemical processes depend on the presence of mineral or organic or

organic matter in the perspiration.

Perspiration composition differs from person to person and from time to time in the same

person. The difference accounts for the uncertain and frequently spotty development of

these processes.

CONCLUSION

Investigation is an objective process used to discover facts about a situation, person or

behaviour. It is of paramount importance for the investigator to be rich with evidence.

Latent prints although mostly found by a chance can be very useful in proving a case in

court. The strength of an investigator is to have the believe in Dr. Edmond Locard

wherby Locard's principle holds that the perpetrator of a crime will bring something into

the crime scene and leave with something from it, and that both can be used as forensic

evidence. Every contact leaves a trace.


CRIME SCENE PROCEDURES

The discoveries, inventions, and theories of our forensic science fore bearers have all

culminated into what we know today as the criminal investigation. Often, that

investigation begins upon discovery of a crime scene. The information on criminal

investigations, and crime scene procedure, is covered in scores of books. A basic

overview of crime scene procedures is covered below.

First Responder Priorities:

1. 1. Determine need for medical assistance

2. 2. Confirm or pronounce death

3. Conduct a scene walk through

4. Take steps to preserve and protect area

5. Secure and isolate the crime scene using ropes or barricades

6. Exclude all unauthorized personnel from scene

7. Determine the lead investigator

Physical evidence can be rendered useless by people wandering through the area.

Every single person has the potential to destroy valuable evidence. It's the responsibility

of the officer to prohibit access to anyone not directly involved with processing the site

(including fellow officers).

Evaluation of the Area

Determine the boundaries of the scene

Establish the perpetrator’s entrance and exit

Initial walk though of the scene to determine the strategy for documentation of the entire

crime scene.

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DOCUMENTING THE SCENE

Photography/Video

1. Overall Photos

Photographs must be in unaltered condition.

Overview photographs are taken of the entire scene and surrounding areas, including

walls and points of entry and exit.

The purpose is to include as much as possible in one photograph.

The goal is to ensure that each important item is in at least one photo.

Should be taken before anything is disturbed

Photographs of physical evidence: should show the position and location relevant to the

scene.

Photographs of the body: should show the body's position relative to the scene.

2. Mid Range Photographs

The purpose is to focus attention on a specific object.

Scales should be used when indicated. Without a scale, many photos can't be admitted in

court.

Photos of wounds and bruises should be photographed with and without scales.

3. Close up Photographs

The purpose is show a specific aspect of an object up close.

Photos can show pattern of injuries

Photos showing injuries or weapons lying near the body are necessary.

After the body is removed, close up photos should be taken of the area underneath.

Digital/Video Photography

Same principles used in regular photography apply.

Overview shots as well as close ups should be taken.

SKETCHING THE SCENE

Rough Sketches:

Shows all recovered items of physical evidence

Objects are located by distance measurements from two fixed points.

Distances marked must be accurate. All distances are made with a tape measure.

Each item is assigned a letter or number.

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The sketch shows a compass heading designating north.

Finished Sketches

Usually prepared with the aide of templates

Usually drawn to scale

Must contain information contained in the rough sketch

NOTES

Required in court

Includes a detailed written description of the scene

Identifies the time an item was discovered, by whom, how and by whom it was packaged,

and the disposition of the item.

Notes are used to refresh memories, sometimes years later.

SEARCHING THE SCENE

Conducting the search for evidence is the responsibility of the lead investigator. A

thorough search is imperative and no important evidence should be overlooked. Failure to

collect all pertinent evidence may lead to charges of negligence or tampering.

Types of Searches

Zone Search: A small area or room is searched. It's used in homicides, rape, drug and

bomb searches.

Ever Widening Circle: The searcher starts in the middle of the ring and continues in an

ever widening circle until the whole area is searched. This is used when only one person

is available to search.

Straight Line Search: Used outdoors for body dump search and after mass disasters. A

large number of people will stand, shoulder to shoulder, and walk across the area in a

straight line.

Strip Search: Used for when only a small number of people are available to cover a large

outdoor area. With this search, the searchers will walk straight and then turn at right

angles across the area to be covered. Down, across, up, across, down, across, up....

Grid Search: This type covers a large area. The area is divided into a grid and a search is

made of each grid. A second search will then be made perpendicular to the first search.

INDOOR SEARCHES

The search will start at the immediate area at and around the body and move outward. All

areas, including ceilings, windows, doors, and floors must be examined for evidence.

Any item which may carry trace evidence must be collected. Some examples of areas and

things to be searched for are listed below:


The victim

Book cases

Furniture

Stoves

Doors

Windows

Papers, magazines, and mail

Ashtrays

Lighting

Kitchen - Check for place settings at table, number of place settings, food present and

condition of food.

Heating Conditions - check type; vented or unvented; thermostat setting.

Wastebaskets and trash cans

Bathrooms

Clocks and watches

Stairs, passages, entry and exit

Check for tool marks

Check for signs of ransacking and general disorder

Check for signs of a fight

Check odor of rooms

Check for blood, hair, signs of body fluids, fingerprints, footprints, etc.

Check for hiding places for weapons behind stoves and bookcases, under beds, up on

high furniture, under the mattress, etc.

OUTDOOR SEARCHES

A large area will be searched, using personnel with metal detectors and sifters. The

search will usually be completed using the straight line, strip or grid method. Some of the

things the searchers will be looking for are: fingerprints, footprints, tire tracks or prints,

bloodstains, scratches, paint flakes, hair, fibers, etc. Soil samples are also taken in order

to compare traces of mud or soil on the suspect's clothing later. In some cases, collecting

samples of the surrounding vegetation and insects can also prove useful.

If a vehicle is suspected in the commission of a crime, a meticulous search is done all

over the vehicle, including the carriage underneath. Officers will be looking for dents,

scratches, scrapes, paint, hairs, fibers, bits of glass, pieces of clothing, etc. A special

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vacuum cleaner is used to catch minute traces of evidence. In vehicles, soil accumulates

under fenders and bodywork. When two vehicles collide, the soil or mud may be

dislodged. By doing a soil comparison, it can later be determined if a particular vehicle

was present at the crime scene.

COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE

The collection of physical evidence is vital to any crime scene search. The goal of

collection is to maintain the integrity of the evidence. Physical evidence can be anything

from huge items to minute traces of blood, dust, and fibers which can only be examined

in the crime laboratory. Physical evidence must be handled in an exact manner thus

preventing any contamination of the evidence. Blood evidence, for example, cannot be

packaged wet or it will grow mold. The handlers need to try to prevent any change from

taking place from the time the evidence is collected at the scene until it reaches the

laboratory.

EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Blood, semen, saliva, sweat

Hair

Fibers

Documents

Fingerprints

Glass

Paint

Powder residues

Plastic and rubber items

Tool marks

Wood and metal objects

Impressions

PACKAGING OF EVIDENCE

Correct packaging techniques are vital to maintaining the integrity of the evidence. If

the evidence is allowed to become contaminated, damaged or evaporated through

mishandling, it becomes worthless. A primary rule of packaging evidence is that,

whenever possible, the items should be sent to the crime lab intact. Rather than remove

evidence from the object, it's preferable that the entire object be sent to the laboratory. If

evidence must be removed, forceps or swabs can be utilized. If a swab is used, the swab

must be air dried before packaging.

Folded papers, labeled envelopes and paper bags are often supplied and are useful for

packaging evidence such as hair, blood and other body fluids, and debris. Ordinary

manila envelopes should not be used, since tiny particles can leak out. Each distinct item

must be packaged in separate paper bags to avoid cross contamination.


Wet evidence, such as blood, semen, and saliva, must be air dried first. Any wet evidence

can grow mold which can cause the evidence to deteriorate. Once dried, the evidence can

be sealed in an envelope, then packaged in a paper bag, sealed and marked accordingly.

All items of clothing must be air dried then placed in separate paper bags. Other

containers which can be used include: screw top glass vials, plastic pill bottles, cardboard

boxes, and metal paint cans. Some examples are given below:

Arson Material - metal paint can

Blood, Semen, and Saliva (dried) - paper bags

Blood (liquid) - glass vial

Clothing - paper bag

Fingernail Scrapings - envelope, then paper bag

Bullets - cardboard box

Fibers - envelope, then paper bag

Drugs - plastic bag

Paint - metal box

Soil - paper bag

CHAIN OF CUSTODY

A continuous chain of custody must be maintained in order for evidenceto be accepted in

court. Standards require that every person who handles the evidence must be accounted

for. A log is created, for every piece of evidence, from the beginning of the crime scene

investigation until the evidence is released to the crime laboratory. This includes the

name, date, description, and location of the item, as well as the handler's name and title.

Once in the laboratory, the forensic examiner's signature, the incoming and

examination dates, the times, and the department are also logged in. In order to avoid

confusion or questionable handling, the evidence should be handled as minimally as

possible.

DISBURSEMENT OF THE BODY

The following Death Investigation Guidelines, from the Department of Justice, are used

for disbursement of the remains:

Maintain integrity of evidence on the body

Ensure the body is protected from further trauma or contamination.

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Wrap hands and feet in paper bags

Establish victim's identification

Participate in scene debriefing

Notification of appropriate agencies

Notification of next of kin

Inventory and secure property, clothing, and personal effects that are on the body.

Remove in a controlled environment with a witness present.

Blood and/or vitreous samples are recovered prior to release of remains.

Ensure the labeling, packaging, and removal of the remains.

Secure transportation of the remains.

Questions

1. What are the basic steps of scientific crime scene investigation?

2. List and describe the definitions or classifications of crime scenes.

3. What are the eight types of information that can be obtained from the

examination of the physical evidence found at crime scenes?

4. What are the four components of crime scene management?

5. What are the five crime scene investigation models? Describe them and give the

advantages and disadvantages of each.

6. Discuss the duties of the first responder at a crime scene.

7. What is the multilevel approach to crime scene security?

8. What are the components or tasks of crime scene documentation? What is the

purpose of each?

9. What is the basic process used for photographing crime scenes? Discuss each step.

10. What are the two basic types of crime scene sketches? What are the two types of

perspectives used in sketches?