Crumpton Paper

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An Exploration of Spirituality Within Leadership Studies LiteratureAlicia D. Crumpton, Ph.D.

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to explore the concept of spirituality within leadership studies literature.

Research questions included: (a) How is spirituality defined? And (b) How is the concept of spiritualityaddressed and how is it used? A brief overview of leadership studies context is provided followed by a

summary of spirituality definitions, research study findings related to individual, organization, and

spiritual leadership and some observations.

KeywordsSpirituality, Spirit, Soul, Leadership, Spiritual Leadership

IntroductionIn response to a perceived need for societal change, the Kellogg Foundation examined the role

of higher education in creating leaders because they posited that effective leadership is an essential

ingredient of positive social change (Astin, Astin & Kellogg, 2000, p. iv). A statement such as this about

leadership is no surprise given our intense interest in the topic. For example, a search using the term

leadership on Amazon.com yielded 71,554 hits and within academia, there are numerous programs

either offering leadership studies degrees or emphasizing leadership development (Crumpton, 2009).

While leadership is a hot topic, associating leadership with spirituality, historically, has not been

the norm. So when writers indicated, future leadership will not only need to possess new knowledge

and skills, but will also be called upon to display a high level of emotional and spiritual wisdom and

maturity (Astin, Astin, & Kellogg, 2000, p. 1). Then, Louis Fry (2003) actually proposed a theory of

spiritual leadership saying the reason for excluding the topic from discussions of leadership was due to

confusionand confounding surrounding the distinction between religion and spirituality (p. 705). I

began to ask, what is going on here!

The purpose of this study was to explore the concept of spirituality within leadership studies

literature. Research questions included: (a) How is spirituality defined? And (b) How is the concept of

spirituality addressed and how is it used? A brief overview of leadership studies context is provided

followed by a summary of spirituality definitions, research study findings related to individual,

organization, and spiritual leadership and some observations. This paper will add to our collective

conversation about conceptualizations of spirituality and histories of spirituality.

Context of Leadership StudiesLeadership studies is an interdisciplinary approach to exploring individual and collective

behaviors within social groups, organizations, and society. If one were to review discussions of

leadership, one would find many definitions. It seems like leadership as a phenomenon is hard to definealthough we seem to know it when we see or experience it. For this discussion, leadership is defined as

a a process whereby an individual influences *another individual or+ a group to achieve a common goal

(Northouse, 2010, p. 3). This definition represents a historical evolution in thinking about leadership.

Fairholm (2011) described this evolution in terms of generations:


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1st

generation: focused on who the leader is (e.g., great man theory, charismatic leadership and

other discussions of traits). Prior to the 1970s, the predominant emphasis was the leader as an

individual and his/her point of view.

2nd generation: what leaders do (behavioral theories)

3rd generation: where leadership happens (e.g., contingency theory; situational theory)

4th generation: what leaders think about, value, and do (transactional, transformational,

principle-centered, servant leadership, moral leadership, etc.). From the 1970s and 1980s

forward, there was increased recognition and attention paid to leadership as an influencing

process. Another aspect of the 1970s was an increased focus on morals and values in relation to

leadership. The 1990s and 2000s continued to see many proposed leadership approaches and

definitions using such terms as: strategic, visionary, connective, authentic, spiritual, responsible,

adaptive, and principle centered.

5th generation: spiritual leadership.

Each generation is active and fairly independent from another with each still gaining scholarly attention

and focus. Leadership theories do not seem to go away but continue to evolve.

There has also been a turn towards thinking about spirituality and spiritual leadership within thebroader scholarly context within the International Leadership Association (ILA), Academy of

Management (AOM), and the Integrating Spirituality and Organizational Leadership Foundation (ISOL).

A group of scholars recently submitted a proposal to the ILA suggesting the formation of a Learning

Community dedicated to understanding philosophy, religion and worldviews of which spirituality is a

part. The AOM created a new special interest group for its members Management, Spirituality and

Religion (AOM, 2011). ISOL, was a conference, originally co-designed by faculty from Delhi University

and Regent University to explore the intersections of spirituality, leadership, and organizations. Since

then, there have been two additional conferences culminating in the formation of the ISOL foundation.

This Interdisciplinary.net conference with its focus on spirituality is yet another indicator ofthe topics

importance and interest among a broad range of disciplines.

How is spirituality defined?As with the term leadership, there seems to be a myriad of definitions for and conceptions of

spirituality. Palmer (1998) remarked, Spirituality, like leadership, is a very hard concept to pin down.

Leadership and spirituality are probably two of the vaguest words you can find in our language, and

when you put them together you get something even more vague (p. 201). Then there is the challenge

of trying to figure out distinctions between spirit, spirituality, and soul, for the terms are often used

interchangeably. Mitroff and Denton (1999) proposed that soul refers to that which ties together and

integrates all of the separate and various parts of a person. . . makes a person a human being (p. 5).

Soul, according to Benefiel (2005) is the lived manifestation of spirituality in an individual (p. 9). The

table below presents a thematic view of frequently occurring words used to describe spirituality:

Theme Descriptors Source

Journey Search for meaning; quest; personal journey; search for

fullest development; search for truth; rediscovering self;

Spiritual quest is a dynamic process where people

purposefully seek to discover their higher power or being;

inward journey; quest through uncharted territory;

personal process occurring over time; interior;

Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, p. 135;

Benefiel, 2005, p. 733; Bolman &

Deal, 2001, pp. 30, 31; Delbecq,

1999, p. 345; Fry, 2003, p. 705;

Gull & Doh, 2004, p. 130;

Longbotham & Lee, 2007, p.


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transformation awakening, transition, recovery, dark

night, dawn

236; Melina, 2007, p. 433; Vaill,

1996, p. 180; Vaill, 1998, p. 178

Experience Feeling the sacredness of the moment; process of

dialogue with other; inner experience of a sense of the

beyond; inner experience; certain phenomenological

states; enriching; experience of transcendence;

transformation; renewal; transcendence; communion

with the divine; experience of discovery


Conger, 1994, p. 10; Delbecq,

1999, p. 345; Gardner, 2000, p.

29; Gull & Doh, 2004, p. 134;

Klenke, 2005, p. 169; Krahnke,

Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2003, p.

397; Lewis & Geroy, 2000, p.

684; Melina, 2007, p. 433; Vaill,

1996, p. 180

Life force Vital, energizing force or principle; higher power or

divinity; God; sense of transcendence; the transcendent;

all embracing; something greater than oneself;

transcendent mystery; relationship with a higher power;

supreme power, a being, a force, that governs the entire

universe; belief in transcendent; a dimension beyond self

Banks & Ledbetter, 2004, p. 63;

Bolman & Deal, 2001, p. 9;

Conger, 1994, p. 10; Delbecq,

1999, p. 345; Fairholm, 2011,

pp. 196; 197; Fleming, 2007, pp.

167, 168; Fry, 2003, p. 705;Howard, 2002, p. 232;

Longbothom & Lee, 2007, p.

236; Martsolf & Mickley, 1998,

p. 294; Mitroff & Denton, 1999,

p. 22; Singh-Sengupta, 2007, p.

13; Vaill, 1996, p. 180

Connection Belong; Sense of Belonging

Vision of an order and a moral scheme that lies outside

our material existence; bound to a higher reality;

coherence to human existence; feeling connected; sense

of connection; sense of belonging to a great whole; thespirit that we each are; pattern of events; collective

force; connected to others; sense of being connected;

unseen order of things; something sacred in existence;

everything is interconnected; sacredness of everything;

connection with self, others, God, higher power and the

environment


Burack, 1999, p. 280; Delbecq,

1999, p. 345; Fairholm, 2011, p.

196; Gull & Doh, 2004, p. 130;

Howard, 2002, p. 231; Klenke,2005, p. 169; Krahnke,

Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2003, p.

397; Krishnakumar & Neck,

2002, pp. 154, 156; Longbothom

& Lee, 2007, p. 236; Martsolf &

Mickley, 1998, p. 294Mitroff &

Denton, 1999, pp. 22, 24; Senge,

1990, pp. 141, 142; Singh-

Sengupta, 2007, pp. 11, 13; Vaill,

1998, p. 28

Identity Essence of who we are; defines inner self including

physical and intellectual selves; core of energized self;

what makes us human; inner person or being, soul, or

spirit; fully engaged; animating force; immaterial

essence; bedrock sense of identity; meaningfulness of

work and life; affects the way a person sees themselves;

spiritual beings; integral to who you are; about identity;

an unfolding of life that demands reflection; a sense of

who one is and how one knows



Benefiel, 2005, p. 9; Bolman &

Deal, 2003, p. 396; Fairholm,

2011, pp. 196; 197; Gull & Doh,

2004, p. 130; Lips-Wiersma &

Mills, 2002, p. 183; Longbotham

& Lee, 2007, p. 236; Martsolf &

Mickley, 1998, p. 294; Mitroff &


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Denton, 1999, p. 5

Wholeness Life and work; integration; wholeness Benefiel, 2005, p. 49; Fairholm,

2011, p. 196; Kourie, 2006, p.

26; Melina, 2007, p. 433; Mitroff

& Denton, 1999, p. xv

Meaning/Purpose Gives meaning; Defines meaning; source of principlemeaning; living in depth; meaning, purpose, and a sense

of contribution to the greater community; sense of

purpose; there is a purpose for everything and everyone

Banks & Ledbetter, 2004, p. 63;Bolman & Deal, 2001, p. 6;

Fairholm, 2011, p. 196; Klenke,

2005, p. 169; Kourie, 2006, p.

23; Martsolf & Mickley, 1998, p.

294; Mitroff & Denton, 1999,

pp. 22, 24; Senge, 1990, pp. 141,

142; Vaill, 1996, p. 180

Self

Awareness

Personal Mastery; yearning for personal development

and evolution; consciousness; self mastery

Athreya, 2007, p. 41; Benefiel,

2005, p. 9; Fleming, 2007, pp.

167, 168; Senge, 1990, pp. 141,

142

Feelings or

Qualities

Ultimate Values; core values

Feelings: harmony; love, trust, working in partnership

toward a common end; service; respect inherent value in

all things; integrity; authenticity; genuineness;

compassion; joy; security; completeness, hope; awe; in

the presence of transcendent; inner peace, calm;

optimism; conviction, courage

Qualities: Essential-ness; care, stewardship, deeply

inquisitive; kindness, communication, exemplar, vision


Bolman & Deal, 2001, p. 6;

Fairholm, 2011, p. 196; Fleming,

2007, pp. 167, 168; Gull & Doh,

2004, p. 130; Klenke, 2005, p.

169; Kourie, 2006, p. 23;

Krahnke, Giacalone, &

Jurkiewicz, 2003, p. 397;

Longbothom & Lee, 2007, p.

236; Melina, 2007, p. 433;

Mitroff & Denton, 1999, pp. 22,

24; Senge, 1990, pp. 141, 142;Winston, 2007, p. 49

Faith/

Certitude

Source of certainty in an uncertain world; deep

confidence about who we are, what we care about, and

what we believe in; meaning in everyday things;

spiritually grounded; faith and willpower

Autry, 1998, pp. 312, 313;

Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 396;

Fairholm, 2011, p. 197; Mitroff

& Denton, 1999, p. 26; Pruzan &

Polit, 2007, pp. 159, 160

Action Motivates individual action; enables human action;

Enables people to transcend their normal selves; a

decision to search beyond; attempt to harmonize with

the beyond; spiritual perspective constitutes the context

for action the world; affects how one operates in theworld; spiritual perspective constitutes context for

action; actions of a person and the effects those actions

have on others


Fairholm, 2011, pp. 196; 197;

Fry, 2003, p. 705; Lewis & Geroy,

2000, p. 684; Mitroff & Denton,

1999; Pruzan & Polit, 2007, pp.159, 160

A proposed definition:


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Spirituality is an experience and awareness of a Higher Power, a sense of inter-connectedness

between and responsibility to self, other, the planet, and the Higher Power. These fundamental

beliefs about reality constitute an integrated foundation upon which individuals or groups view

the world, derive purpose and meaning, and experience certitude. Our values, qualities,

motivations, and actions derive from our spirituality. Spiritual formation, a goal of which is self

awareness and a movement toward authenticity, is an ongoing journey.

Spiritual people have a strong sense of self and purpose and a deep understanding of their situatedness.

Ones sense of self is influenced greatly by held fundamental beliefs and are continually fostered and

renewed through an ongoing spiritual journey. Rather than rely solely on objective data from which to

draw conclusions, people gather from spiritual experiences in whatever form they might take. People

experience destiny tied to their fundamental beliefs, destiny provides a rationale or explanation for lifes

happenings. A sense of responsibility to self, others, and the planet are more akin to moral obligations

they are so integral to beliefs about the nature of identity and inter-connectedness of all things.

Authenticity is found through persistent self awareness, striving to be responsible and do right, and

seeking truth and speaking about it. Fundamental beliefs are lived out through being in the world. To

deny knowledge of Being and our relation to it, is to live in-authentically and to risk losing the soul.

Spiritual people have a multi-layered understanding of the relationship between the physical and meta-physical worlds. Respect, responsibility, taking the moral high road these are all characteristics of a

person not expressing just head knowledge about certain facts but in terms of moral obligation. To

violate any of these principally was to deny ones very nature and identity in relation to Being.

Research FindingsMany have spoken of the turn towards spirituality and attributed a variety of reasons for why it

would garner the attention of leadership studies. Some mentioned reasons: (a) Globalization in all

sectors; (b) Increasing conflict; (c) Declines in resources and the environment; (d)pragmatic business

needs such as increased competition, productivity, efficiency, worker retention and diversity, and (e) a

response to ethical business failures. The changing global environment brought about in part due to

changes in business patterns and the adoption of technology worldwide influences how we live andinteract. I routinely communicate with friends all over the world using technologies such as Skype,

Facebook, and electronic mail. 24/7 news coverage makes it possible to hear of conflict around the

world and to follow it in real time. Add to our awareness of conflict, reports about declining or

affected resources (such as oil, water, and foodways) due to a myriad of factors in concert with

discussions about climate change and its long terms effects. For-profit businesses have pragmatic

business concerns for profit, productivity, efficiency, worker retention, and diversity. A large number of

ethical failures, the financial crisis, and the housing market collapse along with the aforementioned

reasons contributed and continue to contribute to a season of questioning. Vaill (1996) used the term

permanent white waterwhen describing: a felt lack of continuity, a felt lack of direction, absence of a

sense of progress, absence of a feeling of cumulative achievement, a lack of coherence, a feeling of

meaninglessness, and a lack of control (Vaill, 1996, p. 178). Further, Vaill, noted that in turbulent

times, people turn to transcendent sources of meaning (p. 178).

I was surprised at the number of references within the literature to What good will it be for a

[person] if he[/she] gains the whole world, yet forfeits his[/her] soul? (NIV, Matthew 16:26). I recall a

conversation around the coffee pot at a conference in the latter part of 2008 where the general tone

was something is very wrong when we have well-educated leaders with no spiritual center, no regard

for anything beyond self-interest, personal acquisition and attainment. At this years ILA conference,

there were a number of keynote speakers and workshops where the presenters discussed the


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imperative for whole person leadership, the integration of spirituality or faith and leadership, and the

conduct of business balancing business goals and objectives with concern for people, social context, and

the environment. Business as usual focused solely on profits often at the expense of has created an

environment of openness and questioning, a turn, if you will towards spirituality as a source of hope.

Numerous studies have been conducted to explore workplace spirituality, a few focused

specifically on leadership. A summary of findings related to individual, organizations, and spiritual

leadership is presented.

Individuals

Organizations need people. It sounds like an obvious statement, yet, the impact of the industrial

revolution was a tendency towards mechanization, efficiency, and overall productivity with the net

effect of employees being viewed as cogs in the system. Some of the net effects to employees include

low morale, demoralization, high turnover, burnout, frequent stress related illness, and rising

absenteeism (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, p. 134; Garcia-Zamor, 2003, p. 355). These effects come at time

when workers are spending more and more time at work (Conger, 1994, p. 1; Krishnakumar & Neck,

2002, p. 153). A number of research studies have been conducted exploring workplace spirituality and

its overall impact/effect on employees. Studies find several possible benefits:

Possible Benefit Source

Sense of community Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, pp. 134, 135; Autry, 1998, pp. 312, 313;

Conger, 1994, p. 3; Duchon & Plowman, 2005, p. 814; Milliman,

Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003, pp. 429, 441; Rego, Cuhal, & Souto,

2007, p. 316

Sense of challenge Fry, Matherly, Whittington, & Winston, 2007, p. 71

Meaningfulness Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, p. 136; Duchon & Plowman, 2005, p. 812;

814; Fry, Matherly, Whittington, & Winston, 2007, p. 71; Gull & Doh,

2004, p. 130; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003, pp. 429, 441;

Rego, Cuhal, & Souto, 2007, p. 316Sense of connectedness Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, p. 135; Autry, 1998, pp. 312, 313; Gull & Duh,

2004, p. 134

Joy; enjoyment of work; fulfillment Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002, p. 153; Rego, Cuhal, & Souto, 2007, p. 316

Alignment of personal with

organizational values

Duchon & Plowman, 2005, p. 811; Kouzes & Posner, 2002, p. 51;

Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003, pp. 429, 441; Rego, Cuhal, &

Souto, 2007, p. 316

Increased overall well being

including physical and mental

health, personal growth and sense

of self worth

Krahnke, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2003, p. 397

People want to bring their whole person to work and perform interesting, meaningful work that

augments their sense of purpose, and provides a sense of community with others and a connection to

the organization purpose, goals, and objectives. In those organizations where spirituality was fostered

and/or spiritual leadership was in practice, positive benefits were realized.

Organization/Workplace


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The prevailing organizational view has been that of competition, profit, and productivity. Somewhere

along the line, bottom line focus and an ethic of care beyond that bottom line became oppositional

whereas human, social, and environmental impacts were deemed outside the bounds of organization

priorities. According to Wheatley (2005): We have squashed and ignored spiritual questions in the

workplace leading us to an engineering image, ignoring the deep realities of human existence (p. 19).

The importance of this is as Palmer (1999) reminded us: We become cogs in a machine when our

action does not flow from a deep sense of who we are and what we want to do (p. 39). The trend

towards workplace spirituality re-orients and re-frames organizational concerns. This re-orientation is

not without criticism or concern that spirituality is a fad only in favor due to its positive impacts or that

leaders have impure motives and no real concern for human welfare. These are valid concerns and

criticisms. The table below summarizes the positive benefits found in various research studies:

Possible Benefits Source

More hospitable work

environment and job satisfaction

Burack, 1999, p. 180; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003, pp. 429,

441

Increased capacity to attract,

keep, and motivate workers

Fry, Matherly, Whittington, & Winston, 2007, p. 71

Fosters organizational

commitment of employees

Fry, 2003, p. 694; Kouzes & Posner, 2002, p. 51; Krishnakumar & Neck,

2002, p. 153; Milliman, Czaplewski, & Ferguson, 2003, pp. 429, 441

Increased employee motivation Duchon & Plowman, 2005, p. 811

Increases productivity and overall

performance

Ashmos & Duchon, 2000, 134; Burack, 1999, p. 180; Fairholm, 2011, p.

161; Fry, 2003, p. 694

Increased employee commitment Rego, Cuhal, & Souto, 2007, p. 316

Increased honesty and trust Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002, p. 153

Increased capacity to address

diversity issues particularly

incongruent value systems.

Although, Lewis and Geroy (2000)noted: Most of the literature

does not embrace the concept of

defining spirituality as a diversity

issue

Lewis & Geroy, 2000, pp. 683, 684

Research shows that (a) a recognition of inner life, meaningful work, and community in the workplace

contribute to organizational performance; (b) positive relationships among the qualities of spiritual

leadership and organizational productivity and commitment; (c)an increased physical and mental health

of employees, advanced personal growth, and enhanced sense of self worth; (d) a relationship between

spirituality dimensions and organization commitment, an individual intention to quit, intrinsic work

satisfaction, job involvement, and organization based self esteem; (e) sustained purpose, culture, andidentity can transcend and enhance an organizations performance and success; and (f) workplace

spirituality is a framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promote employees

experience of transcendence. . . facilitating their sense of being connected to others in a way that

provides feelings of completeness and joy (Krahnke, Giacalone, & Jurkiewicz, 2003, p. 397).

Spiritual Leadership


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Spiritual leadership is described as the type of leadership necessaryto meet the challenges of today.

Fairholm (2011) argued that the nature of the new workplace demands spiritual leadership (p. 157). A

number of studies examined the proposed benefits of spiritual leadership within organizations.

In an extensive meta-analysis of 150 studies exploring spirituality and leadership, Reave (2005)

established a consistency between differing spiritual teachings and leaders values and practices

contributing to overall leadership effectiveness in motivating employees, creating a positive ethical

climate, inspiring trust, promoting positive work relationships, and achieving organizational goals.

Leaders also achieved organizational goals such as increased productivity, lowered rates of turnover,

greater sustainability, and improved employee health (p. 656). Reave chronicled a number of findings

related to the value of examining spirituality in leadership; spirituality as the source of motivation and

work as calling; the relationship of spiritual values and leadership success; and spiritual practices related

to leader effectiveness.

Value of examining spirituality in leadership

Universal spiritual values and leadership effectiveness evaluate practices in relation toprofessed values

Spirituality as a causal factor in leader effectivenessSpirituality as the source of motivation: work as a calling

Work as calling: the source of leader motivation Work as calling: the source of follower motivationSpiritual values and leadership success

Integrity as the most crucial spiritual value for leader success Integrity and follower trust Integrity and ethical influence Honest communication with self and others Humility as related to leadership success Humility versus charisma humble leaders are more effectiveSpiritual practices related to leader effectiveness Demonstrating respect for others values Treating others fairly Expressing and concern Listening responsively Appreciating the contributions of others Engaging in reflective practice

Fairholm (2011) found that spiritual leaders ensure others feel engaged, foster integrity, promote a

sense of connection and community, are sensitive to stakeholders, and fosters unity in a culturally

diverse work force (pp. 160-162) Hicks (2003)emphasized the need to unite people around diverse

spiritual values (p. 51).

Employees become happier, are more committed to work, and develop a stronger sense of calling, when

around spiritual leadership characterized by promotion of self-determination and personal

development, appreciation shown and confidence in employeess (Rego, Cunha, & Olivereira, 2007, p.

97). Additional qualities include courage, open minded, fostering positive interpersonal relationships

and a sense of community, kindness, compassionate, loyal and respectful.


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Identified character traits included: Trustworthy, loyal, love, hope, forgiveness, acceptance, gratitude,

integrity, honest; courage; humility; kindness; empathy, compassion, patience, meekness, endurance,

excellence, peace, altruism, self transcendent, self sacrificing, fun, inspirational, caring, considerate,

(Fairholm, 2011, p. 162; Fleming, 2007, p. 172; Fry, Matherly, Whittington, & Winston, 2007, p. 73;

Klenke, 2007, p. 526; Lewis & Geroy, 2000, p. 692)

ObservationsBased on a review of the leadership studies literature, the following assumptions are made about the

nature of spirituality:

No clear, concise definition of spirituality exists. I questioned in my own mind whether the existence

or clarity of a definition matters, the so whatquestion. Is it perhaps that leadership scholars perceive

there is general consensus about what the term means and therefore it is unnecessary to define it

overtly?

Spirituality and religion are not the same. One can be spiritual without being religious.

Clearly within the literature there is a strong distinction between spirituality and religion. Generally

there is a recognized connection between spirituality and religion but spirituality is considered a broaderterm. Historically, organizations have typically been considered a secular sphere (Hicks, 2003, p. 22).

Note the marked difference in the terms used to describe the two:

Spirituality Religion

Personal Institutional

Emotional Dogmatic

Adaptable Rigid

Inclusive Exclusive

Tolerant Legalistic

Positive and negative perceptions of spirituality and religion contribute to a strong mantra withinleadership studies literature that spirituality unites but religion divides (Hicks, p. 48).

Mitroff and Denton (1999) found that people are afraid to use words associated with spirituality due to

concerns of appropriateness, yet, are hungry for models of practicing spirituality in the workplace

without offending their coworkers or causing acrimony (p. xvi). Rationale for not incorporating

spirituality or religion in the workplace include arguments for separation of church and state, the legality

of religion within workplaces, a desire to be value-free, and the deeply embedded mantra of

spirituality unites but religion divides. This split is problematic on multiple levels, for it: (a) perpetuates

a myth of value-free neutrality that is illogical, impossible, and unsustainable; (b) denies and/or

diminishes the whole person, their phenomenological reality, along with the sense of purpose and

meaning they derive from spirituality or religion; (c) potentially biases ways of knowing towardobjectivity at the expense of subjective knowledge particularly revelatory; and (d) may be more divisive

than unifying given the possibility for reinforcing hierarchical, binary, and oppositional thinking. Some

questions: (a) What is the distinction and/or boundary between spirituality and religious behaviors?

(b) How do reconcile the emphasis on whole person leadership with this distinction? (c) What

practices and/or organizational approaches might support a respectful environment with regard to

spirituality and/or religion?


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Spirituality is inherently human. As defined, spirituality constitutes a separate thing from intellect,

emotions, and physical being. Whether acknowledged or not, spirituality is always present. An

individuals spirituality is deeply personal and private. A person has an awareness of a Higher Power or

something outside oneself along with a belief in the interconnectedness between self, other, the Higher

Power, and the planet. Ultimately spirituality is meaning making and knowledge construction. A

persons identity is derived from his/her spirituality, sense of purpose, and meaning.

Spiritual formation is a function of human intention. In the absence of intention, a person or

organization can lose their soul or become disconnected from identity, sense of purpose, and

meaning. The metaphor of a journey or a quest is often used to describe the ongoing process. Spiritual

formation involves moving to a more authentic self. Spiritual experiencesoften feel different than

other experiences. How do you measure spirituality or spiritual formation or leadership development?

Ones values and actions are constituted from ones spirituality. A set of universal values are assumed

(although not clear what those are). Yet, there is little discussion of ethics and morality in relation to

spirituality or spiritual leadership. For example, authenticity is often mentioned. Is there an assumption

of a movement toward the good? Is this a valid assumption given unethical leaders? Another

question to address is what is spiritual about the values being discussed?

Organizationally, collective spirituality can be co-created. This collective spirituality is often

experienced as a sense of community and connection within organizations. A downside within the

literature is the seeming bias towards organizational outcomes and indicators. There is little discussion

of impact on peoples lives as a whole.

Research indicates positive Individual and organizational benefits from spirituality in the workplace

and spiritual leadership. It is unclear how the values described for leaders are unique (or if they are

within spiritual leadership. Little or no research has been conducted about the spiritual or religious

beliefs leaders may hold and how those beliefs may impact leader actions (Dent, Higgins, & Wharff,

2005, p. 642).

How researchers define spirituality and design research projects is important. There currently is not

comprehensive, integrated theory that explains spiritual formation or spiritual leadership. Researchers

need to clearly understand and define the phenomena rather than the desired outcome (e.g.,

productivity, sense of community). Carefully evaluate how our own beliefs might influence our research

question. Be aware of how our definitions of spirituality, religion, purpose of work and leadership are

influenced by our own biases and assumptions.


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Management Inquiry, 9(2), 134-145.

Astin, A. W., Astin, H. S., & W.K. Kellogg Foundation. (2000). Leadership reconsidered: Engaging higher

education in social change: W.K. Kellogg Foundation. Retrieved September 27, 2010 from,

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