CSEC Study Guide - Jan 31, 2012

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012 13

DDEEBBBBIIOONN HHYYMMAANNContributor

OBJECTIVE At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:1. Explain the social, economic and political factors which led to the abolition of slavery in the French and Spanish Caribbean.2. Discuss the main provisions of the Emancipation Act and the problems of the apprenticeship system.

yl:History

Emancipation & apprenticeship

The stipendiary magistrates (SM) were retired naval and army officers on halfpay, appointed from Britain, who were accustomed to rough conditions andenforcing discipline. They were chosen because they were not connected to theplanter class and it was felt that they would not be biased.

DUTIES OF STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATESa) To supervise the apprenticeship systemb) To settle disputes between masters and apprenticesc) To visit estates at regular intervals and hold courtd) To inspect jailhouses and workhouses

e) To assist in fixing the value of Negroes who wanted to buy their freedom

These duties were strenuous and ledto the death of many SMs, who werenot accustomed to tropical conditionsand could not afford the high cost ofmedical treatment.

CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENTSalary - £300 for the first year then

increased to £450 for travel expensesand housing. There was no pension fordependents if the SMs died in service.There was no sick leave and they hadto pay their own fare back home if theywas dismissed or invalided out ofservice. These bad working conditionsprevented SMs from performing theirduties satisfactorily and many wereeasily bribed by planters. They werealso overburdened by work becausethey were so few in numbers. Thosewho tried to do their duties weresometimes persecuted. They wereabused physically, verbally, and in thepress. They were all obstructed in theperformance of their duties, as planterssometimes refused to allow them onthe estates.

SUCCESS OF STIPENDIARYMAGISTRATES

a) They listened to complaints from both sides and acted as a buffer between masters and apprentices.b) They informed apprentices of their rights, they did not have to listen to gossip or obtain information from newspapers.c) They helped apprentices to organise their lives better by giving advice. However, they had very little to formulate schemes to improve the social conditions of the apprentices.They were unable to prevent apprentices from being punished harshly.

PUNISHMENTSApprentices were usually sent to the

workhouse, however SMs had nocontrol over what happened there. Themost common form of punishment inthe workhouse was the treadmill. Therewas also the whipping post andapprentices could be put in penalgangs. Females often had their headsshaved. Time lost in the workhousehad to be repaid by the apprentice viaworking for his master during his freetime.

CONTROLLING APPRENTICESON THE ESTATES

a) Valuations on able-bodied slaves were often inflated.b) It was illegal for apprentices to leave the estate without written permission.c) Locking up apprentices on false charges and dropping the chargesbefore the arrival of the SM was a common practice.d) High fees were charged for the use of the markets and for licences to work off the estates as carpenters,blacksmiths, etc. These licences and tickets to sell in the markets could be withdrawn.e) Paying low wages, making unfair deductions from wages and paying wages late.f) Refusal of planters to give customary allowances.g) Finding fault with apprentices’ work which had to be done over in the apprentices’ free time.h) Cutting down apprentices’ fruit trees and forbidding apprentices to own livestock.i) Spreading the 401/2 hours per week over five days instead of four.

THE END OF APPRENTICESHIP Apprenticeship ended for all

apprentices in 1838 because:

a) The system was not achieving its aims.b) The anti-slavery society exposed the abuses in the system and beganto campaign for full freedom.c) The planters feared violence if domestic apprentices were freed before field apprentices.d) Some planters felt that it was cheaper not to have to provide for apprentices and only to employ the number of labourers they needed.

NOTEAntigua granted full freedom to their

slaves. The planters decided againstapprenticeship.

The apprenticeship system came toan end in 1838 when the colonialgovernments in each colony votedagainst its continuation.

Debbion Hyman teaches at St Hugh’s HighSchool. Send question and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | 14 JANUARY 31-FEBRUARY 6, 2012

geometry Coordinate

CCLLEEMMEENNTT RRAADDCCLLIIFFFFEEContributor

IN THIS week’s lesson we will complete the review of functions. Thisis to be followed by the introduction to aspects of coordinategeometry. We will begin with the homework from last week.We will now begin to review coordinate geometry by considering

straight lines on the Cartesian plane with respect to the following:Gradient Intercept MidpointLength of line Equation of line

Again, let me remind you of the importance of the theory of graphs; itis very important to this topic.

The Cartesian plane consists of the perpendicular x and y axes.

REMINDERS� The axes must be properly labelled.� Appropriate scales should be accurately used.� The coordinates of a point are always expressed in the form: (x , y).� Three points are required to draw a straight line. A ruler must always be used to join the points.

GRADIENTThe gradient of a line is a measure of its slope. The value is denoted

by m and is defined as:m = Increase in the y coordinates

Increase in the x coordinates

Given two points represented by A (x1 , y1), and B (x2, y2) then theformula is:

m = y2 - y1

x2 - x1

EXAMPLEFind the gradient M of the line joining the points A(2 , 5) , B(1 , 2).Since m = y2 - y1 substituting

x2 - x1

m = 2 - 5 = -3 = 3.1- 2 -1

Answer = 3.

INTERCEPTThis is the y coordinate of the point where the line cuts the y axis,

that is the point (o , y). This y value is denoted as c.

The following is a plot of the points A and B on the Cartesian planewhich will illustrate the concepts.

MIDPOINTThis point is denoted by M and from the diagram, the coordinates of

the midpoint are:

IN REVIEW:

yl:Mathematics

Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


MMAARRJJOORRIIEE HHEENNRRYYContributor

THIS WEEK I will continue to share with you how to writedescriptions as is required by the syllabus. In the last twolessons I discussed the description of drainage. I will now go on

to other descriptions, beginning with vegetation. This is either naturalvegetation or cultivated crops (agriculture). Invariably, what you arebeing asked to do is clearly stated in the question. To describevegetation, you must rely heavily on the legend or key of the map.Study this carefully to identify the symbols for each type of vegetationor agricultural activity indicated on the map. It does not matter howwell you know the country from which the map extract was taken; youmust refer to the section that is represented on the extract given.

Natural vegetation includes forest of different types, scrub,grassland and woodland. In keeping with the syllabus, you are oftenasked to explain the relationship between the type of vegetation andthe relief of the land. The approach I would recommend is:

� Study the legend to see the natural vegetation listed.� Study the map extract to see if those listed in the legend are present on it.� Observe closely the relief of the land where each type of vegetation identified is found.� Make a link between both.

For example, what is the vegetation found in the highlands, on steepslopes, on gentle slopes? Give examples of the height at whichparticular vegetation is found. Woodland could be found above acertain height and on steep slopes, while forest is lower down on thesame steep slope. Grassland could be on gentle slopes at lowerelevation.

Cultivated crops would be those typical of the Caribbean regionsince the map extracts you are given to use are all from the region. Thecrops include sugar cane, banana, coconut, rice and citrus.Sometimes you are asked to list a specific number of the cultivatedcrops. In that case, once you have identified the crops in reference tothe legend, simply list them on your answer sheet. For other times,you are asked to account for the distribution of them. In the lattersituation, you are required to link vegetation with the relief of the land.The approach is similar to that of discussing natural vegetation, aswas given above.

� Study the legend to see the cultivated crops listed.� Study the map extract to see if those listed in the legend are present on it.� Observe closely the relief of the land where each type of crop is cultivated.� Make a link between both.

For example, you may find sugar cane on low lands, citrus ongentle slopes and rice on flat swampy lands. In addition, you canobserve and comment on whether the cultivation of the crop isscattered because of the relief – may be steep slopes and the ruggednature of the land. The availability of water can be included in yourresponse if asked to account for the distribution of agriculturalactivities. That is the presence of rivers or streams to provide water forirrigation. You may even identify areas where cultivated crops areabsent, suggesting reasons for this.

Let me now go on to description of settlements. These are usuallyshown by dots on the map and in the legend. These dots may bereferred to as ‘other buildings’. You must have knowledge of thedifferent settlement patterns to be able to identify these on the extract.Let me revise these very quickly. When the settlement (the dots)follows a line of movement, for example, a road or a river andsometimes along the coast, this is linear. A nucleated or compactsettlement is identified when the buildings are close together and areconnected by roads. In areas where there may be hilly terrain orextensive farming activities are present, a dispersed settlement patternis identified. These three settlement patterns are shown in the diagrambelow.

(Source: SSkkiillllss iinn GGeeooggrraapphhyy iinn SSeeccoonnddaarryy SScchhooooll by V.A. Rahil)

In your description of settlement, once you have identified thepattern state the name of both the settlement and the pattern and givefour-figure grid references for its location. You must ensure that theexaminer knows exactly what you are writing about.

The discussion will continue in the next lesson.

Marjorie Henry is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Vegetationyl:Geography

RUDOLPH BROWN/PHOTOGRAPHER

Jessica Williams (back seat, left) and Maricet Leyva, while in the driver’s seat are Amanda Mitchell (left) and GordeneJocas, giving their megawatt smiles at the Jamaica Motor Show held at the Police Officers’ Club on Sunday, January 22.


FFRRAANNCCIINNEE TTAAYYLLOORR--CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

MAIN POINTS� Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases measured at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules.� The temperatures and pressures usually used are standard temperature and pressure (STP), which is 00C and 1 atmosphere pressure, and room temperature (RTP) which is 200C and 1 atmosphere pressure.� The formula of a compound shows how many atoms of each element are present in a molecule or formula unit.� The empirical formula is the simplest formula, which representsthe composition of the compound.� The actual formula is called the molecular formula. It is generally a multiple of the empirical formula and is calculated from the molar mass.

1 dm3 of any gas at STP contains the same number of molecules as1 dm3 of any other gas at STP.

22.4 dm3 of any gas contains L molecules (6.0 * 1023) at STP. This isone mole of the gas and is called the molar volume.

At RTP the molar volume is 24 dm3.

CALCULATIONS ON MOLAR VOLUME1(a) What is the volume of 8g of oxygen at (i)RTP (ii) STP1 mole of oxygen (O2) = 2 * 16 = 32g32g = 24dm3 at RTP and 22.4 dm3 at STPThus 8g = 24/4 dm3 at RTP and 22.4/4 dm3 at STPVolume of 8g of O2 at RTP = 6 dm3 and at STP = 5.6 dm3

(b) Calculate the mass of 4.8 dm3 of (i) N2 (ii) CO2 at RTP.(i) 1 mole of N2 = 28g24 dm3 at RTP = 28g4.8 dm3 = (28 * 4.8)/24 = 5.6g

(ii) 4.8 dm3 of CO2 at RTP = (44 * 4.8)/24 = 8.8g

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION1. Calculate the Mr for the compound eg. Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4

Mr = (14 + (4*1))*3 + 31 + (4*16) = 149 1 mole = 149g

2. Calculate the mass of each element in one moleN = 3*14 = 42g H = 3*4*1 = 12g P = 31g O = 4* 16 = 64g

3. Calculate the % of each elementN = (42/149)* 100 = 28.2% H = (12/149)*100 = 8.1% P = (31/149)*100 = 20.8%O = (64/149)*100 = 43.0%

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAEThe formula of glucose is given as C6H12O6. This shows that the

compound glucose is made of 6 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms ofhydrogen and 6 atoms of oxygen. This is the molecular formula.

The empirical formula of glucose is CH2O and is the whole numberratio of the elements in this compound.

To find the empirical formula from combustion or percentagecomposition data, the number of moles must be found.

NOTE: Number of moles = Mass (g)

Molar mass (g/mol)

1. Calculate the empirical formula of the compounds formed in the

following reactions.(i) 3.40g calcium form 9.435g of the chloride

METHOD Elements present Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl)Mass of each element 3.40g 9.435-3.40 = 6.035gRelative atomic mass 40 35.5Number of moles 3.40/40 6.035/35.5

= 0.085 = 0.17Ratio of moles 0.085/0.085 0.17/0.085

= 1 = 2Empirical formula = CaCl2

In determining molecular formula, the empirical formula and/or themolar mass must be known.

Calculate the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon containing85.7% carbon given that the molar mass is 56g/mol.

METHOD 185.7% C 14.3% H Mass in 100g 85.7g 14.3g No. of moles 85.7/12 14.3/1 = 7.14 = 14.3 Ratio of elements 1 : 2 Empirical formula = CH2, Mr = (12+2 = 14g) Molecular formula: (CH2)n = 56 14n = 56 & n = 4Formula = (CH2)4 = C4H8

METHOD 2 Mass of carbon = 85.7% * 56 = 48gMass of hydrogen = 14.3%*56 = 8g1 atom of carbon = 12g1atom of hydrogen = 1g# of carbon atoms = 48/12 = 4# of hydrogen atoms = 8/1 = 8Molecular formula = C4H8

Francine Taylor-Campbell teaches at Jamaica College. Send questions andcomments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Themole

concept

yl:Chemistry


NNAATTAASSHHAA TTHHOOMMAASS--FFRRAANNCCIISSContributor

HELLO, ALL. As I promised lastweek, here are the answers to themultiple-choice questions that I

had set for you last week:

1. C 2. C3. B 4. A5. C 6. C7. C 8. D9.A 10. B11. C 12. B13. D 14. A15. A 16. C17. C 18. D19. A 20. D21. D 22. A23. B 24. B25. D

How many did you get correct beforeyou consulted your dictionary?! I hopemost.

Now, let us turn to the lesson at hand.Have you ever witnessed an incident andhad to write a report on it? Or, have youread reports documented innewspapers? Well, this week we shall beexploring the report, with particularemphasis on eyewitness and newspaperreport writing.

Being able to write a report is anessential skill, as reports are used inmany aspects of daily life. Examples ofmajor types of reports which you mayencounter are: the informative report, thefield trip report, the newspaper report,the investigative report, the progressreport, the sales report, theincident/accident report, the eyewitnessreport and the evaluation report. You willnotice, then, that if you intend to be anews reporter, a police officer or even abusiness analyst you will need todevelop your skills in this area.

So, what is a report? It is acompilation of information systematicallyorganised on a specific topic, subject,issue, matter or incident. The report has aspecific purpose and is directed toparticular audiences and readers.

Generally, the structure of a report foracademic purposes is organised asfollows:

INTRODUCTION This includes your purpose for writing

the report, as well as the specific matterwhich will be dealt with.

DISCUSSIONThis is a summary of a description of

the incident or main focus of the report.

ENDING This is the conclusion. It entails a

summary of actions taken and,depending on the purpose for which youare writing, may even providerecommendations.

Let us take a closer look at theeyewitness report.

An eyewitness report is an account ofan event, incident or accident which aperson experiences first-hand. Itcaptures what the person saw, felt andthought. This type of report cansometimes be used in a court of law asevidence. An eyewitness report focuseson the following:

� Time of the incident� Location of the incident� Accurate and complete details of the incident� Sense impressions of the person� Vivid language to convey the experience clearly

� Appropriate verb forms such as the past simple tense and the past passive tense.

The following is an example of aneyewitness report. It is an excerpt takenfrom TThhee TTeelleeggrraapphh, dated January 18,2012.

Eyewitness report - inside thewreckage of Japan’s Fukushima nuclearreactor (by Martin Fackler in Fukushima7:00PM GMT 12 Nov 2011)

Japan’s stricken Fukushima nuclearplant has opened its doors to reportersfor the first time since the March 11earthquake. Martin Fackler of the ‘NewYork Times’ sent this pooled dispatch.

I was one of around three dozenjournalists put on to two buses. We weregiven protective suits, double gloves, adouble layer of clear plastic booties overshoes, hair cover, respirator mask and aradiation detector.

And then we began our drive to theplant.

First, we passed through the policecheck point. Through the bus window Isaw the empty towns of Naraha, Tomiokaand Okuma pass by. There wereabandoned homes. A plant store with itsgreenery still on display outside, butwithered and dead.

I could see that many homes had beenvisited and fixed already by residents,with the surrounding areas swept cleanand debris from the earthquake placedinto neat piles.

Other houses, however, were clearlyleft exactly as they were when residentsfled on March 11. Inside one office I sawpapers scattered in piles on the floor,apparently untouched since theearthquake.

We continued past a pachinko parlour,its facade collapsed, and a car

dealership with its windows shatteredand insulation exposed.

Then came a gas station which hadbeen cleaned up of debris – but thentaken over by a population of crows.

All the time I watched the radiationreadings on my detector rise steadily aswe approached the plant: it read 0.7microsieverts per hour in Naraha,located just near the edge of the 12-milerestricted zone from the plant.

As we reached Tomioka, it rose to 0.9,and then soon it was 1.5. In Tomioka, wepassed a former welcome centre fornuclear plants operated by Tokyo ElectricPower Station (TEPCO), operators ofFukushima Daiichi.

It consisted of a small collection ofBavarian-style gingerbread buildings.

There was even a posted of NaotoKan, the prime minister at the time ofMarch 11 who is now no longer inpower.

By now, the warning buzzer on myradiation detector was going offconstantly: I watched the radiation levelsrise quickly, from 2.7 microsieverts to3.7 to 4.1.

When we arrived in a place calledOkuma, the reading was 6.7microsieverts and the bus came to a halt.We were instructed to put on respiratormasks at this stage – which meant thatevery inch of my skin was now coveredand protected.

Then we turned on to the main roadwhich leads to the plant. We were within3 kilometres of the plant at this stage buteven here many houses appeared to beneat, with front doors closed, windowcurtains drawn.

Finally, we reached the security checkpoint at the entrance of the plant: theradiation detector buzzed at 20microsieverts.

(Note: a microsievert, also known assievert, is the International System ofUnits (SI) SI derived unit of doseequivalent radiation.

What are the details that you havegarnered from the excerpt? Would youconsider this to be an effective report? Innext week’s lesson, we shall look at anewspaper report. Until then, Iencourage you to read examples of anewspaper report this week andfamiliarise yourselves with the featuresof this type of report.

Natasha Thomas-Francis teaches at GlenmuirHigh School. Send questions and comments tokkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Writing a reportpart 1

yl:English Language

WINSTON SILL/FREELANCE PHOTOGRAPHER

ALT Autohaus launches the new Audi A6 motor car at the Sandals hangar,Tinson Pen Aerodrome, MarcusGarvey Drive, on Wednesday night January 18.


yl:English Literature

‘Theme for English B’ part 2

BBEERRYYLL CCLLAARRKKEEContributor

DID YOU do a little dancing, singing or bothafter you found out about Bach, Bessie Smithand bop (short for bebop)? Have you ever

listened to any blues music? Try to listen to someand then see if you can make a song of this poemusing the ‘blues’ beat or rhythm. You won’t bedisappointed; have some fun and perhaps you willget the underlying tone of sadness.

The speaker in TThheemmee ffoorr EEnngglliisshh BB is a collegestudent whose instructor has given his class theassignment of writing a page. The question thenarises as to what the page is to be about. Theanswer, such as it is, is to be found in the third lineof the instruction

AAnndd lleett tthhee ppaaggee ccoommee oouutt ooff yyoouu......

You must have wondered what you would havedone if you had been given such a task, just as thestudent in the poem does. This should help you tounderstand his concern with the last line of thework that says that if it comes out of the writer itmust be true. Now, we do not know whether thestudents were told first to write this page on aspecific topic or whether this is all they were told,but our focus is on whatever is of concern to thespeaker.

Read lines six to 15 please. Now, yes now. Tellme, why does the persona who is also the speakerin this case spend time informing us about hisbackground? Of what benefit is it to us to hear thathe is coloured, just twenty-two, that he was born inWinston-Salem, went to school there, then toschool in Durham, is presently at ColumbiaUniversity, is the only coloured student in his classand is living at the Harlem branch of the YMCA.

Yes – we are getting to know him. We meet herea young man from an industrial city who movedfrom his home to another industrial area, but onethis time known for its academic offerings and thento New York to attend a university. He is living inHarlem. Do you see any significance in this? Isthere any thing in Harlem that could have an impacton him?

He, the speaker, is struck by the teacher’s beliefthat if the ideas a person expresses comes out ofthe person, they will be true and he wonders ifbringing out or telling the truth presents nodifficulty, no complications, is just plain. So then,he gives us his brief personal history. We are ableto realise through this that his truth, or what is truefor him, is made up of a variety of experiences.

He continues to reflect, beginning with thinkingthat at his age, twenty-two, it is difficult to knowwhat is true. After all, he has not seen, heard nordone enough to have set beliefs or proofs aboutanything. He decides, however, that he is learning,and not only from the experiences of Harlem butalso, to a lesser extent, from the city of New York,maybe even the whole state.

He uses repetition and personification to tell ushow wrapped up he is with Harlem. He tells us whathe likes, all normal, natural actions and desires. Heis just another human being, we can say, includinghis love of music which is not limited to what ispopular or black. His conclusion, like ours, is thathe, a black man, is fond of the same things of whichthe members of other races are fond. He does notbelieve that his written piece will be white; but it willnot be totally coloured for he has been affected byhis exposure to a white instructor. More than that,he concludes that America creates the opportunityfor the races to influence each other, something thatis not appreciated at times by the teacher and thestudent.

Finally, he mentions something he sees as true.He claims that the instructor is more free than he is.‘More free?’ Let us look at this philosophical idea.He is making the point that circumstances haveenslaved both of them, but that within the situationthe teacher has more latitude than he does. Histruth is that though bound together because theylive in the same country, they are not equal.

Continue to enjoy! Please answer the questionsthat you had in last week’s lesson, and have awonderful week. God bless!

Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor.Send questionsand comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


HHYYAACCIINNTTHH TTUUGGMMAANNContributor

THE PURPOSE of stock control is to make surethat the right quantity/number of each type ofproduct is always available. This is important

or else the firm might find itself out of stock andlose sales as a result. Too high a stock level meansmoney is tied up unproductively and valuable spacewasted.

Several steps must be followed to ensure that anaccurate picture of the current stock position isalways at hand. Therefore, proper records must bekept for ordering, receiving and issuing of goods.Stocktaking must be carried out at regular intervals.

RECORDING INCOMING STOCKThis may be done either centrally, through the

use of a stock record card, or computer system, orlocally. A local system means that a card(sometimes called a bin card) is attached to the rackwhere the product is stored. The date and quantityof incoming stock are recorded on the card.

After goods have been checked, the storeroomshould be arranged in an orderly manner toexpedite efficient handling of storeroom content.

RECORDING OUTGOING STOCKWhenever stock is issued, the date, quantity and

requisition number must be recorded on the stockrecord card. Keeping a running balance is importantso one can know how much stock is held. The finalcolumn of the stock record card shows this.

REORDERING WHEN STOCKS RUN LOWA well-organised storeroom has a reordering

procedure that goes into effect whenever an itemreaches the minimum stock level. Usually, thestoreroom notifies the purchasing departmentwhich, in turn, places the order with the supplier.

STOCKTAKINGThis is done regularly so as to ensure that the

balances on the stock cards are accurate. The firm’sauditors may make spot checks to make sure thatproducts are not unaccountably disappearing.Regular check detects slow-moving items and poorbuying practices.

An annual stocktaking is done at the end of thefinancial year. This involves the assessment of thevalue of the goods on hand. A physical count ofeach item is done and its value calculated. At theend of the financial year, the totals are then added to

give the closing stock figure, which appears in thefinal accounts.

COMPUTERISED STOCK CONTROLThe computer, with a special software, can also

assist with stock control. The computer can recordall the items available for sale and then deduct eachitem that is sold from the total stock. Some retailersuse what is called bar coding for printing receipts.This makes it easier for the establishment to keep atab on its stocks as the computer will show whenit’s time for reordering. Here is an example: whenyou go to a large bookshop to purchase a textbook,the item is passed over a scanner (the section withthe bar code facing scanner), the computer readsthe description and price of the item andautomatically deducts the total from the stockfigure.

STOCK LEVELS11.. MMiinniimmuumm lleevveell

The minimum stock level is the point at whichthere is just enough stock to take care of the normaldemand until the new stock is delivered. Thestoreroom supervisor establishes the minimumlevels for all items.

The minimum stock level is determined by:� the delivery period�- the amount and frequency with which an item

is used

Can you say what the storeroom clerk does onnoticing that the minimum stock level isapproaching? A minimum stock level for each itemis fixed at a level which allows for the item to bereordered before it runs out.

22.. MMaaxxiimmuumm lleevveell

The maximum stock figure is the largest quantityof stock. The purchasing staff should be able todecide upon the amount of goods to be ordered.However, if the stocks are too high for the needs ofthe firm, then the rate of turnover would be loweredand the profits reduced. Of course, if stocks areperishable they will deteriorate.

This is all for this week; continue to revise.

Hyacinth Tugman teaches at Glenmuir High School. Sendquestions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Stock controlyl:Office Administration


Usain Bolt (right), the RJR Sportsman of the Year for 2011, with his coach Glen Mills atthe Sportman and Sportswoman of the Year awards ceremony, held at The JamaicaPegasus hotel, New Kingston, on Friday night, January 20.


yl:Social Studies

Goodgovernance

MMAAUURREEEENN CCAAMMPPBBEELLLLContributor

GOOD GOVERNANCE may be usedto describe how public institutionssuch as political ones conduct

public affairs and manage publicresources. Governance, on the other hand,can be described as “the process ofdecision making and the process by whichdecisions are implemented or notimplemented”.

Governance, according to the UnitedNations Development Programme(UNDP), “is the exercise of economic,political and administrative authority tomanage a country’s affairs at all levels. Itcomprises mechanisms, processes andinstitutions through which citizens andgroups articulate their interests, exercisetheir legal rights, meet their obligationsand mediate their differences”.

Many groups and individuals havelooked on these concepts and have giventheir definitions which, if studied, arequite similar.

It is “... among other things,participatory, transparent and accountable.It is also effective and equitable and itpromotes the rule of law”. - UNDP

It “...encompasses the role of publicauthorities in establishing the environmentin which economic operators function andin determining the distribution of benefitsas well as the relationship between the rulerand the ruled”. - OECD [Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development]

It is “...epitomized by predictable, open andenlightened policy making; a bureaucracyimbued with a professional ethos; anexecutive arm of government accountable forits actions; and a strong civil societyparticipating in public affairs; and all behavingunder the rule of law”. - World Bank 1994:GGoovveerrnnaannccee:: TThhee WWoorrlldd BBaannkk’’ss EExxppeerriieennccee

KEY ATTRIBUTES OF GOODGOVERNANCE

The concept of good governance hasbeen illuminated by the work of the formerCommission on Human Rights. In itsresolution 2000/64, the commissionidentified the key elements of goodgovernance:

� transparency� responsibility� accountability� participation� responsiveness (to the needs of the people)

It links good governance to sustainablehuman development while emphasisingprinciples such as accountability,participation and the enjoyment of humanrights.

TO THIS WE CAN ADD:� Independence of the judiciary� Access to information� Prudent use of resources� Efficient civil service� Tolerance of freedom of expression

Citizens expects that the governmentwith it various ministries must have ahigh-quality performance. When goodgovernance is practised, citizens can goabout their personal business and otherendeavours with ease and confidence. Ifindividuals/citizens’ expectations are notcontinuously met or seemingly so,citizens usually become angry orindifferent with governance. However,governance that restricts citizens’opportunities to success and to live wellsocially and economically will always bemet with opposition and result inconflicts, in some case even civil war.

In this unfulfilled situation not muchwill be accomplished due to theatmosphere of discontent, and many willvoice opinions like, “I will never vote for

them again” or “We will soon vote themout”.

Good governance will help to create anenvironment conducive to maximisingtheir productive capacity. Goodgovernance never happens by chance, wemust all work towards it. We must demandgood governance, and when we have it weshould work with those at the helm tosustain it.

As citizens, we must ensure that weparticipate freely, openly and fully in thepolitical process. It is a right. We cancompete if needed for office and we canform political parties. Most of all, we mustbe able to enjoy the fundamental rightsand civil liberties of society.

According to Balmiki Sing, goodgovernance is accordingly associated withaccountable political leadership,enlightened policy making and a civilservice imbued with a professional ethos.The presence of a strong civil society,including a free press and an independentjudiciary, are pre-conditions for goodgovernance. He further states that goodgovernance means securing justice,empowerment, employment and efficientdelivery of services.

ACTIVITIES1. Differentiate between governance andgood governance.2. State four reasons why good governance is necessary in your country.3. Suggest three ways in which the new government can practise good governance and explain how citizens help in the process.4. As a citizen, what do you use to decide that a government is practisinggood governance?

Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hugh’s HighSchool. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm


MMOONNAACCIIAA WWIILLLLIIAAMMSSContributor

LAST WEEK we completed our study on nutrition in plants with adescription of the experiment to show that carbon dioxide isnecessary for photosynthesis. While this is not directly required

by your syllabus, it is important to note because questions can be setthat require knowledge of what happens when carbon dioxide isabsent. This week we continue our study of nutrition by beginning tolook at what happens in animals.

Sorry, students, I have gone ahead of myself and hence I haveneglected to greet you! How are you this week? Just bubbling and ontop of the world I hope! I want to share a thought with you that I hopewill help you as the days to your exams draw nearer and nearer.

Knowledge is powerInformation is liberatingEducation is the premise of progress in every family.

Kofi Annan

To begin our study, we will first look at the diet of humans. The foodthat we eat every day is our diet. This diet should contain thefollowing:

CarbohydratesMineralsProteinsWaterFatsRoughageVitamins

Your diet is balanced when it has all of the things listed above in thecorrect amounts and proportions. The food you eat in a day shouldprovide you with enough energy to get you through that day. If you eattoo much the body will store the extra amount as fat. The amount offood that is needed by the individual is dependent on the followingfactors:

� Your body size� How active you are� How fast you are growing

It follows then that a 16-year-old girl should not be eating the sameamount as a 16-year-old boy, nor should the manager of a companybe eating the same amount as a cane cutter. A pregnant or lactating(breastfeeding) mother must also have different dietary requirementsfrom another woman who is of the same age. As the person gets older,the amount of food that the individual consumes should decreasebecause the energy requirements of the older person will be less thanthat of the younger one.

Any deviation from the balanced diet will lead to the individualbecoming malnourished. We Jamaicans have a concept that if theindividual is not fat, well rounded or ‘fluffy’, then the individual ismalnourished, but a fat or obese person is also a person who issuffering from malnourishment. The word ‘malnourished’ whentranslated means ‘bad nourishment’. This person is consuming a dietthat is not balanced. He/she is getting more energy from the foodconsumed than the body requires or, to put it another way, the person’senergy intake is greater than his/her energy output.

Obesity used to be thought of as a problem of industrialisedcountries, but it is fast becoming a problem in Jamaica due to the

increase in the number of fast-food outlets and the reduction in theactivity of children and teenagers. Habits developed in childhood arenot so easy to break. A person is described as being obese if he is 20per cent above the recommended weight for his/her height and if hisbody mass index (BMI) is greater than 30. BMI is calculated using thefollowing formula:

Body mass (in kg)/height (in metres) x2

If your BMI is under 20, you are also malnourished because you areunderweight. The ideal BMI lies between 20 - 24%.

Unbalanced diets can also lead to the development of certaindiseases. Examples of these are:

ANAEMIA Caused by a deficiency of iron or Vitamin B12 in the diet. It can be

cured by eating a diet rich in meat, liver, leafy green vegetables, driedpeas and beans and yeast.

KWASHIORKOR/ENERGY PROTEIN MALNUTRITION (EPM) This is seen in children whose mothers have stopped breastfeeding

them. Their subsequent diets do not contain enough food to provideenergy for normal functions, so their bodies begin to use storedprotein as a source of energy.

MARASMUSCaused by general starvation through lack of food. The body will

then use stored carbohydrates and fats as sources of energy, causingthe person to lose weight. If the dietary deficiency continues, this useof stored food can extend to the proteins in the muscles of the body.

Unfortunately, there is something in some of us that makes us wantto seek perfection in certain aspects of our lives. This can lead to thedevelopment of poor self-esteem, causing us to believe that we are notmeasuring up to the so- called ‘ideal’. How we look is not exempt fromthis so some of us want to be as slim as the model on the runway. Thisoften affects our diet and can lead to the development of eatingdisorders. On such disorder is anorexia nervosa. Individuals sufferingfrom anorexia eat so little that their BMI becomes dangerously low.

They develop problems such as:� Pale, papery skin� Reduced resistance to infections� Irregular menstrual periods in females

The illness is psychiatric as it has to deal with the individual’sperception. Treatment includes ways to improve the individual’s self-esteem, as well as the reintroduction of normal eating patterns.

There are some persons who do not eat meat. These arevegetarians. They replace meat with other forms of protein. There aredifferent types of vegetarians:

� Some do not eat meat but eat fish.� Some do not eat either meat or fish but consume dairy products.� Some do not eat meat, fish or dairy products. These persons are known as vegans.

These individuals will need to include a source of Vitamin B12because this vitamin is not found in plants. Individuals becomevegetarians for different reasons. These can be:

ETHICALThere should be no direct destruction of animal life to provide food

for them.

RELIGIOUSSome religions frown on the consumption of animal products,

feeling that the consumption of plant products will make the individualhealthier.

NUTRITIONAL Some persons suffer from allergies to animal products.

It is believed that a vegetarian diet can provide the followingbenefits:

� Low blood cholesterol and low blood pressure� High retention of calcium and other minerals� Less likely formation of gall and kidney stones� Provision of a good balance of the types of fat that the body needs.

See you next week when we will begin to look at digestion anddentition. Have a marvelous and productive week!

Monacia Williams teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and commentsto kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Nutrition in animalsyl:Biology


Sportswoman of the Year sprinter Veronica Campbell-Brown at the RJR National Sportsman and Sportswomanof the Year awards ceremony held at The Jamaica Pegasushotel on Friday, January 20.


NNAATTAALLEEEE AA.. JJOOHHNNSSOONNContributor

STUDENTS, THIS is lesson 20 of our series of IT lessons. In thisweek’s lesson we will look at how to represent an algorithmgraphically, as well as control statements.

A flow chart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. It usesspecial geometrical objects to designate the basic steps of a program,which are:

A PARALLELOGRAM

This is used to represent the input operation as well as the outputoperation.

A RECTANGLEThis is used to represent a processing /assignment statement.

A DIAMOND

This is used to represent a decision (if-then-else and loops)structure.

AN ELLIPTICAL SHAPE

This is used to represent the terminal indicators, START or STOP.

DIRECTIONAL ARROWSThese are used to indicate the flow of the logic in the algorithm.

THE CONNECTOR

In example 1 (given in the previous lesson), you were required toread the values of three numbers, find the product of the numbers andoutput the product.

This is the flow-chart version of the product algorithmLet us now look at control statements and ways of representing

them with a flow chart.

CONTROL STATEMENTSSSeeqquueenncciinnggSequencing is a part of any programming structure. This is where

the program is viewed in a simple top-to-bottom manner, from theinput statement to the end of the program. Example 1 (productprogram) given in the previous lesson is an example of a basicprogram written in a sequential manner.

Before we look at the selection statement, below are examples of

how the various control structures are depicted in a flow chart.

SEQUENCE

SELECTION (DECISION)

LOOP (REPETITION)

SELECTION/CONDITIONAL STATEMENTSIn our everyday lives we make simple and important decisions.

These decisions that we make are normally based on a particularcondition. For example, if school is keeping you will go to school, butif school is not keeping then you will stay home. The decision will bemade based on the condition of whether or not school is keeping.

THE IF STATEMENT

The ‘ifstatement’ is aconditionalstatement. Itcausesexecution ofsome statementto depend onthe truth value

of a certain condition, given as a Boolean expression. A Booleanexpression is one that results in a value that is either true or false. Forexample, the expression 2 < 5 result would be true because thenumber ‘2’ is indeed less than the number 5. If the condition is true,then the statements immediately after “then” are executed; if it is false,then the statements after ‘else’ are executed, provided that the “else”clause is present.

As observed in the examples above, the ‘if statement’ structurebegins with an ‘if’ and ends with the word ‘endif’.

Let us look at a pseudocode algorithm that will show sequencingand selection, as well as the flow-chart version of the program.

Example 3Write a pseudocode algorithm to read two numbers and to print the

value of numb1 if it is greater than numb2 else print numb2.

Flowcharts

yl:Information Technology


YYVVOONNNNEE HHAARRVVEEYYContributor

HELLO, READERS. The recent lessons on economies and diseconomies of scale taught us that as

businesses expand their size of operation they will experience advantages initially, but ultimately

they will be faced with disadvantages.

In the case of a firm, we should also note that as it expands beyond its ideal or most efficient size it will

experience diminishing returns. Diminishing returns, therefore, serves as a limit to the expansion of the

firm.

This law operates only in the short run. The short run is defined as a time period during which there is at

least one fixed factor of production. If demand and prices rise, the firm can only increase output by

increasing the variable factors. A fixed factor is a factor of production that cannot be changed or varied in

the short run, and a variable factor is one that can be changed or varied.

The law of diminishing returns, also known as the law of variable proportions and the law of diminishing

marginal product, states that as successive units of variable factor are added in equal amounts to a fixed

factor, the marginal or extra product for each additional unit of the variable factor will eventually decline or

fall.

The initial growth of the firm will result in increasing returns. Average costs will fall and profits will rise.

However, output will reach a maximum at some point. Further expansion of the firm will cause diminishing

returns to operate. Average costs will rise and profits will fall. To make it clear what actually happens,

consider a car tyre without air. This would correspond to the fixed factor of production. The air would

correspond to the variable factor of production. As you begin to pump air into the tyre, the tyre will inflate at

a fast rate. However, if you continue pumping air into the tyre, after a while it will inflate at a slower and

slower rate. This occurs because the fixed factor (the tyre) is overworked. The same principle applies to a

growing business.

It is important to note the following:

1. The law refers to amounts of physical product and not to the value of the output.

2. It assumes that there is no technological change.

3. The law may be applied to all factors of production.

4. Diminishing returns sets in primarily because the factors of production are imperfect substitutes for

each other.

It is usual to illustrate the law of diminishing returns using land as the fixed factor and labour and capital

as the variable factors of production. The table below shows a numerical illustration of the law of

diminishing returns:

Notice that the marginal output (the addition to the total output) INCREASES up to the employment of the

third unit of labour and capital. The fourth to sixth units of labour and capital show diminishing returns. If

the producer should continue adding the variable factors to the fixed factor, the marginal output would

decline until it reaches zero. It reaches zero when the total output does not change (it is constant). When

total output falls, marginal output becomes negative.

Now, revise the lesson above, do some additional reading and then answer the following question:

(a) Define the term short run. (2 marks)

(b) What is meant by a fixed factor of production? (2marks)

(c) Explain what happens when a firm is experiencing increasing returns. (2 marks)

(d) State the law of diminishing returns. (2 marks)

(e) Explain two reasons the law operates. (4 marks)

(f) Illustrate the law using a table or a graph. (6 marks)

(g) Why is it that the law can be applied to any factor of production? (2 marks)TOTAL: 20 marks

Next week our topic will be the small firm. Bye until then.

Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

yl:Principles of Business

Law of diminishingreturns

Law of diminishingreturns


RROOXXAANNNNEE WWRRIIGGHHTTContributor

BELOW IS a worked example. Please follow the principles applied and try very hard to retain as much aspossible.

QUESTIONa. State what is meant by the following terms. State the formula where appropriate:i. Working Capitalii. Owner’s Capitaliii. Capital Employediv. Authorised Share Capitalv. Loan Capital

b. The balance sheet of Salmon contained the following information:

Theory of double entryyl:Principles of Accounts

Show the effect (plus or minus) and the amount of the transactions 1 to 7 on EACH of the three types ofcapital. If there is no change, state ‘no change’. Use the headings in your answer:

� Working Capital� Owner’s Capital� Capital Employed

EXAMPLE:

1. Salmon withdrew $2, 000 cash for personal use.2. Machinery costing $100,000 was bought and paid for with the help of a five-year bank loan of $80,000.3. Surplus fixed assets, book value $3, 800, were sold for $2, 400.4. Fixed assets were depreciated in the books by $5, 000.5. Stock which had cost $2, 000 was sold on credit for $2, 800.6. A long-term business loan of $16, 000 was repaid by Salmon from his private funds.7. Salmon received a cheque for $1, 940 from a debtor in full settlement of a debt of $2, 000.

c. Explain the importance of working capital to a business.

SOLUTION:A.

C. Working capital is important to a business as it helps in the daily operations without which thebusiness may not be able to meet its current or short-term obligations such as purchase of stock, payment tocreditors, payment of expenses, extension of credit to customers, among other things.

Visit with us again next week when we will present purchase of business. See you then.

Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy. Send questions and comments to kkeerrrryy--aannnn..hheeppbbuurrnn@@gglleeaanneerrjjmm..ccoomm

Documents

CSEC Study Guide - Jan 31, 2012