AMERICAN CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

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CONTENTS

UNIT I.CHAPTER I. A Nation Is Born – The Beginnings ………………………. 3CHAPTER II. Colonial America …………………………………………. 9CHAPTER III. Colonial Growth and Change ………………………….…15CHAPTER IV. Creating a Nation ………………………………………...21

UNIT II.CHAPTER V. The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution …..30CHAPTER VI. The Federal Government ………………………………...38CHAPTER VII. Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities ………………...…44

UNIT IIICHAPTER VIII. A Growing Nation – The New Republic ………………49CHAPTER IX. The Nation’s New Challenges ……………………….......56CHAPTER X. Sectionalism and Reform …………………………………66CHAPTER XI. A Nation Divides and Reunites ……………………….…72BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………...81

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UNIT I.

CHAPTER I. A NATION IS BORN – THE BEGINNINGS

The Americas today consist of peoples and cultures from around the globe. Over hundreds of years, the United States became a country where people of different backgrounds and beliefs could live together. As the country grew and matured it adapted to meet the changing needs of its people.

Evidence of the earliest migration can be clearly seen in the United States today. The federal government officially recognizes 562 Native American tribes. European influence is easily seen throughout the country as well.

No one knows for sure why the first people to settle in North America crossed the land bridge that once connected Asia and North America. With spears poised, small bands of hunters may have pursued a mammoth, a large game animal that is now extinct, or other large animals. Later settlers may have come by boat, hunting seals and whales. Over time, these “native Americans” would inhabit both North and South America.

THE FIRST AMERICANSWhen Europeans arrived in the Americas in the late 1400s,

they found native peoples with advanced cultures already living there. The mixture of Native American and European cultures that occurred in the New World shaped the history of the Americas and the future of the United States.

The early Americans were nomads, people who moved from place to place. Scientists believe the first Americans were people from Asia who crossed over a broad strip of land between Asia and North America that was exposed during the last Ice Age. These early peoples probably reached the Americas about 30,000 years ago. The crossing of this land bridge, called Beringia, was a migration, a movement of a large number of people into a new homeland. Separate groups spread out across the Americas, going as far east as the Atlantic Ocean and as far south as the tip of South America. These early people first hunted large mammals, but eventually shifted to small game such as deer and birds. About 9,000 years ago, people

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settled in what is today Mexico and began planting a form of corn called maize. With dependable supplies of food, early Americans began developing permanent communities. Knowing they would harvest enough food, they began improving their lives with permament dwellings, pottery and new forms of government. Over time, the many different groups of people living in the Americas developed distinctive cultures.

In what is today Mexico and Central and South America, three large, advanced civilizations developed – the Maya, the Aztec and the Inca. Each thrived for centuries. The Maya. The Maya built their civilization in the rain forests of what is today Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Belize. By A.D. 300 the Maya had built many large cities. Each city was dominated by at least one stone pyramid. The pyramids served as religious and political centers. The civilization of Maya was a theocracy, a society ruled by religious leaders. Mayan priests performed religious ceremonies and studied the night sky from temples built on top of the pyramids. The priests developed an understanding of astronomy. They created a 365-day calendar to schedule plantings, harvests and religious ceremonies. The Maya also traded up and down Mexico’s eastern coast. No one knows why, but around A. D. 800 the Mayan civilization began to decline. The Aztec. Centuries after the fall of the Maya, a group of hunters called the Aztec wandered through central Mexico. They settled on an island in Lake Texcoco, today part of Mexico City. On this island the Aztec built one of the greatest cities in the Americas – Tenochtitlan. At its height, the city was the largest city in the Americas, perhaps the largest in the world. By A. D. 1500, nearly 200,000 people lived there. The Inca. A third civilization, the Inca, founded their capital city of Cuzco around A.D. 1200. through their power and military conquest, the Inca built an empire that stretched for more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km). It reached from what is today Colombia to northern Argentina and Chile. At its height, the Inca Empire had a population of more than 6 million, including many conquered peoples. To control this empire, more than 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of stone-paved roads were constructed through jungles and over mountains.North American Peoples. Besides the civilizations of South and Central America, many other cultures developed on the North American continent. The Hohokam and the Anasazi lived in the desert Southwest between A. D. 200 and A. D. 1300. The hohokam developed irrigation canals to carry water to their settlements along

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the Gila and salt River Valleys. The Anasazi built cliff dwellings in what is today Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. A group of many different peoples known as the Mound Builders lived in the American Midwest. The earthen mounds they built lifted temples above the towns and may have served those who studied the night sky. The largest settlement of the Mound Builders was Cahokia in what is today Illinois. This city, built between A. D. 900 and A. D. 1200 by a people called the Mississippians, may have had 30,000 or more residents.People of the North. Although the civilizations of the Hohokam, the Anasazi, and the Mound Builders eventually faded away, other Native American cultures arose to take their place. The Inuit lived in the northern lands around the Arctic Ocean. They developed the ability to build homes made of blocks of snow and ice, and to craft clothing of sealskin and thick fur. They fished the coastal waters for seals, whales and walruses.People of the West. In western North America, groups like the Tlingit and Chinook lived off of the forest and the sea. They made canoes and cloth from tree bark and lived mainly off the abundance of salmon along the coast and in the rivers. In the Southwest, groups such as the Hopi, the Acoma, and the Zuni descended from the Anasazi. They built their dwellings from sun-dried mud brick called adobe. Nomadic peoples lived on the Great Plains, following the herds of antelope, deer, and buffalo. Every growing season the women grew squash, maize and beans. The Apache and Dakota later learned how to ride the horses that were introduced to the Americas by the Spanish in the 1500s. People of the East. The eastern woodlands of North America were home to the Iroquois and the Cherokee. They governed their peoples with complex law codes and federations, or governments that linked different groups. Wherever they lived in North America, the first Americans developed ways of life that were well suited to their environments. In the 1500s, however, they would meet Europeans whose cultures, beliefs and ways of life were different from anything they had known or ever seen.

EXPLORING THE AMERICASWhile Native Americans were the first to inhabit the American countries, the English, Spanish, Africans and other peoples would all eventually play a role in shaping the culture we now call American.

A period of intellectual and artistic creativity known as the Renaissance spread across western Europe between the thirteenth and

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fifteenth centuries. A spirit of discovery led to an age of exploration. Using more accurate maps and better navigational instruments, Europeans set sail. Their goal was to explore and develop trading routes to the rich eastern cultures of China and India. While searching for better routes from Europe to Asia, Europeans encountered powerful African kingdoms south of the Sahara. The empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai had grown rich trading gold, copper and iron ore.

Determined rulers hoped to find a more direct trade route to China, India and West Africa. Driven by this economic goal, Portuguese explorers began learning more about the sea and the African coast. In 1488 a Portuguese expedition led by Bartholomeu Dias rounded the tip of Africa. Ten years later, another Portuguese expedition headed by Vasco da Gama, crossed the Indian Ocean to Calicut on the coast of India. The sea routes that Portuguese sailors opened challenged other European nations to make their own explorations. Columbus crosses the Atlantic. Italian sailor Christopher Columbus believed that a better way to reach Asia was to sail west across the Atlantic Ocean. But Columbus needed a sponsor to finance his big project. After many failures he convinced King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to back his voyage. The monarchs agreed, partly for religiour concerns and partly to gain wealth. On August 3, 1492, Columbus set out from Palos, Spain, expecting to reach Asia in about two months. He based his calculations on the work of ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy, who had unfortunately underestimated the size of the world. Though his crew began to worry after a month at sea, Columbus maintained his faith. His confidence was soon rewarded. On October 12, 1492, a lookout shouted “Tierra! Tierra!” – “Land! Land!” Columbus was convinced he had reached the East Indies – the islands off the coast of Asia. However, he was actually in the Atlantic Ocean, southeast of present-day Florida. Columbus also explored what is today areas of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Jamaica and the coasts of Central America and northern South America in 1493, 1498 and 1502. Sailing around the world. In 1519 the Spanish sent Portuguese captain Ferdinand Magellan to lead a new expedition through or around South America to find a passage to Asia. In November 1520, Magellan finally found a twisting, narrow passage to the Pacific Ocean at the southern tip of South America. He expected the remainder of the trip to Asia to last just a few weeks. Instead, the voyage across the Pacific lasted four months. Quickly out of food, the

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crew ate sawdust, rats and pieces of leather to stay alive. Magellan was killed in a local was during a stop in the Philippines, but some of his crew returned to Spain. Only one of the five original ships and 18 of the 250 crew members completed the full journey. They were the first to circumnavigate or sail around the world. Spanish conquests. Spanish conquistadors explored the Americas. These men used their own money to explore and establish settlements, agreeing to give the Spanish crown one-fifth of any gold or treasure discovered. This way, failure of the expedition hurt only the explorer. Success, however, provided wealth and glory for the explorer and Spain. Cortės and Pizarro. Hernán Cortės came to Mexico in 1519 looking for gold and glory. Using his soldiers, cannons and nearby enemies of the Aztec, he conquered the Aztec Empire. When he marched on the capital of Tenochtitlán in November, the emperor, Montezuma, welcomed the Spaniard. Cortės imprisoned the emperor and eventually killed him and other Aztec nobles to prevent any rebellion. The Aztec drove the Spanish out of the city in anger. Cortės retaliated with more troops in 1521 and destroyed the city.In 1530 Francisco Pizarro sailed with 180 soldiers down the Pacific Coast of South America, searching for the fabled wealth of the Inca. In 1532, Pizarro captured the Inca ruler, Astahualpa, along with mush of the Incan army. When Atahualpa was killed a few months later, his army was unable to fight effectively without leadership. By 1535 Pizarro had gained control of most of the vast Inca Empire. The Spanish were able to quickly conquer these Native American empires for several reasons. They used superior weapons. They were helped by other Native Americans who had been treated badly by the Aztec and Inca. The Spanish also brought diseases with them. Since Native Americans had no immunity to these diseases, illnesses killed large numbers of Inca and Aztec. How America Got Its Name. It is an irony of history that the name “America” did not come from Christopher Columbus. That distinction belongs to a German writer of geography. In a further twist of events, America was named after Amerigo Vespucci, a 15th century Florentine merchant who owned a business in Seville, Spain, furnishing supplies for ships, preparing them for mercantile expeditions. How do we explain what seems to mock the reality of history?

Stirred by the achievements of Columbus and envious of the reputation his discoveries brought, Vespucci endeavored to cultivate Columbus' friendship and trust.

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Seven years after Columbus’ first voyage and while Columbus was still alive, Vespucci accompanied an expedition that consisted of four ships. They sailed past the eastern coast of South America, and visited Trinidad, which Columbus had named the preceding year. On his return to Europe Vespucci wrote letters with glowing descriptions of the newly discovered countries. He called the lands he had visited a “New World.” Some years later Vespucci’s letters were published and read by Martin Waldseemuller, a noted geographer, and Mathias Ringmann, a schoolmaster. Recently arrived from Germany to the province of Lorraine, they were attracted to the town of Saint-Die because of a newly established print shop. Both men were engaged in working on a reproduction of Ptolemy's treatise on geography, to which they were adding a preface.

After reading the account of Vespucci’s travels in “Quatre Navigations d’ Americ Vespuce,” they decided to incorporate Vespucci’s voyage into the treatise. Ringmann, acting as editor, wrote in his introduction: “There is a fourth quarter of the world which Amerigo Vespucci has discovered and which for this reason we can call ‘America’ or the land of Americo.” Apparently ignorant of the discoveries and achievements made by Columbus fifteen years earlier, Ringmann continued: “We do not see why the name of the man of genius, Amerigo, who has discovered them, should not be given to these lands, as Europe and Asia have adopted the names of women.” Their work was published on April 25, 1507 under the title “Cosmographiae Introductio.” It marked the first time the word AMERICA appeared in print.

Checking your understanding:1. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: nomads, federations, migration, Renaissance, maize, circumnavigate, theocracy, conquistadors.

2. How did the development of farming 9,000 years ago change the lives of nomads?

3. Where did Columbus land on his first voyage?

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CHAPTER II. COLONIAL AMERICA

In the summer of 1588, Spanish warships sailed toward the coast of England. King Philip of Spain had sent an armada, or war fleet, of 132 ships to invade England. With 30,000 troops and 2,400 guns, the Spanish Armada was the mightiest naval force the world had ever seen. Yet the smaller, swifter English ships quickly gained the upper hand. The Spanish Armada fled north to Scotland, where violent storms destroyed and scattered the fleet. Only about one-half of the Spanish ships straggled home. Though Spain lost its naval battle with England, it led the way in exploring the North American continent.

NORTH AMERICAN DEVELOPMENTSSpain was the first European nation to explore North America, but it would not be the only one. The French and the English would begin their own explorations of the Americas, eventually setting up their own colonial outposts. Spanish explorations. Spanish exploration of North America was led by Juan Ponce de León. He landed on the east coast of what is today Florida in 1513. Ponce de León’s exploration led to the first Spanish settlement in what is now the United States. In 1565, the Spanish established a fort at St. Augustine, Florida. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado traveled through northern Mexico and what is today Arizona and New Mexico in early summer 1540. Juan de Onate was sent from Mexico to gain control over lands to the north and to convert the natives. In 1598 Onate founded the province of New Mexico and introduced cattle and horses to the Pueblo people. Hernando de Soto led an expedition through Florida and the Southeast that lasted three years. He traced the southern portion of the Mississippi River. Other expeditions led further west and established Spanish colonies in what is today the southwestern United States. A Northwest passage. In 1497 England sent the Italian John Cabot to find a Northwest Passage to Asia – a more direct water route through the Americas. France hired another Italian, Giovanni de Verrazano, in 1524 for the same purpose. Cabot probably landed in what is today Newfoundland. Verrazano explored from Nova Scotia to the Carolinas. The Dutch and French Explore. In 1609 the Dutch hired Henry Hudson, who charted the river that bears his name. The following year, this time sailing for the English, he discovered a huge inlet in eastern Canada, now called Hudson Bay. The French sent explorers

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to North America who were more interested in establishing trading rights than building empires. Beginning with the settlement of Quebec, French traders spread through what is today Canada, and started trading posts to collect furs from Native Americans.

AMERICA DEVELOPSIn 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh sent about 100 men to settle on Roanoke Island, off the coast of what is today North Carolina. After a difficult winter, the unhappy colonists returned to England. Two years later Raleigh tried again, sending 91 men, 17 women and 9 children to Roanoke. John White returned to England for supplies and to recruit more settlers. When he returned, after a three-year delay, the settlement was deserted. The Roanoke colonists were never seen again. Jamestown settlement. In December 1606, a group of merchants known as the Virginia Company of London sent 144 settlers to America. The colony was organized as a joint-stock company, which provided investors in the company partial ownership and a share in its future profits. The colonists entered Chesapeake Bay and settled Jamestown in April 1607. They faced difficulty as disease and hunger devastated the colonists. By January 1608, when ships arrived with additional men and supplies, only 38 of the colonists remained alive. The colony survived when Captain John Smith managed to get corn from the Powhatan people. They also discovered they could make money for the investors by growing tobacco. Planters were soon raising the crop, and the colony of Virginia began to prosper and grow. Representative government. As the colony grew, the settlers complained about taking orders from the Virginia Company in London. In 1619, two important events occurred. First, the company agreed to let the colonists have some say in their government. Governor George Yeardley allowed the men of the colony to elect representatives, called burgesses, to the legislative assembly known as the House of Burgesses. Second, Dutch traders brought 20 Africans to work in the tobacco fields. They were the first of many Africans to come to America. Until about 1640 some African laborers in Jamestown were free and even owned property. In the years to follow, however, many more shiploads of Africans would arrive in North America, and those unwilling passengers would be sold as enslaved persons. Slavery was first recognized in Virginia law in 1661.

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New England Colonies. Further to the North, another colony formed in what is today New England. A group of religious Separatists, Protestants who fled to the Netherlands to avoid religious persecution, made an arrangement with the Virginia Company to settle in Virginia. In September 1620, 35 Separatist pilgrims and 102 other passengers began their journey to Virginia aboard the Mayflower. The Pilgrims first sighted land well north of Virginia at Cape cod. Due to the fast approach of winter, however, they settled in December at Plymouth. Plymouth was outside the control of the Virginia Company, the Pilgrims drew up a document called the Mayflower Compact to govern their new colony. Massachusetts Bay. In 1628 another religious group, the Puritans, received a royal charter to establish the Massachusetts Bay Company north of Plymouth. In 1630, under the leadership of John Winthrop, 1,000 men, women and children settled in a place they called Boston. The Puritans were unwilling to allow other religiour groups freedom to practice their beliefs. This lack of tolerance led to the creation of new colonies on neighboring areas. Connecticut and Rhode Island. In the 1630s colonists began settling in the Connecticut River valley. Some who were frustrated with the Puritan rule in Massachusetts migrated to Connecticut. The colony of Rhode Island was made up initially of colonists forced out of Massachusetts. Roger Williams received a charter for the colony of Rhode Island in 1644. it became a safe harbor for religious dissenters and was the first place in America where people of all faiths – including Jews - could worship freely. Middle colonies. Between the two clusters of English settlement in Virginia and New England lay lands controlled by the Netherlands. The main Dutch settlement was New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. In 1664 the English captured the valuable port of New Amsterdam. King Charles II gave the colony to his brother, the Duke of York, who renamed it New York. It differed from the New England Colonies which were run by private corporations under a royal charter. New York was a proprietary colony, a colony in which the owner, or proprietor, owned all the land and controlled the government. New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The southern part of the New York colony, between the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, was renamed New Jersey. The Proprietors of New Jersey hoped to make a profit by charging the settlers rent for the tracts of land they settled on. The profits never met expectations and by 1702, the colony had become a royal colony. In 1680 William Penn asked King Charles to give him

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land in America rather than repay a large loan the king once received from his father. The new Pennsylvania colony became a “holy experiment” for another group of Protestant dissenters called the Society of friends or Quakers.

To encourage European settlers to come to his colony, Penn advertised throughout Europe. By 1683 more than 3,000 English, Welsh, Irish, Dutch and German settlers had arrived. In 1701, in the Charter of Liberties, Penn granted the colonists the right to elect representatives to the legislative assembly. In 1703 the southernmost part of Pennsylvania was allowed to form its own legislature. It began to function as the separate colony of Delaware. Who are the Quakers?‘Quakers’ started as a nickname - the real name is the Religious Society of Friends. Nowadays they are quite happy to be called either Friends or Quakers. The Society of Friends started in England in the 1650s, when George Fox gathered groups of ‘seekers’ (dissidents) together. They felt that the traditional churches, over past centuries, had led people away from the real aims of Christianity with traditions, ritual and power politics seeming to have become more important. Quakers from that time have sought to live a simpler and more truthful life as shown by Jesus’ example, although many Quakers nowadays look both to Christianity and other faiths for inspiration. Quakers meet without priests, services or creeds and no longer dress in the distinctive clothes they once did.Southern colonies. In 1634 two ships and 200 settlers sailed up the Potomac River north of Virginia and established the colony of Maryland as a safe place for Catholics. Knowing that tobacco had saved the Virginia colony, the colonists turned first to tobacco farming. Most Maryland tobacco farmers also produced wheat, fruit, vegetables and livestock. The organizers of Maryland also welcomed Protestants to settle in the colony. From the beginning, the Protestants outnumbered the Catholics. To ensure that Catholics could worship freely, the colony’s government passed the Act of Toleration in 1649. it granted all Christians the right to worship freely. Religious freedom was becoming rooted in the colonies. Northern and Southern Carolina. In two charters issued in 1663 and 1665, King Charles II created a large proprietary colony south of Virginia named Carolina. Farmers from Virginia’s backcountry settled the northern part of Carolina. The southern part of Carolina was more prosperous, thanks to fertile farmland and a good harbor at the main city of Charles Town (later Charleston). In the 1680s planters discovered that rice grew well in the wet coastal lowlands.

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Slaves brought by the settlers worked in the rice fields. By 1700 more than half the people who arrived in Charles Town were enslaved Africans. Tension grew between the people of northern and southern Carolina. In 1729 they split into two colonies – North and South Carolina. Georgia. Georgia, the last of the British colonies in America to be established, was founded in 1733. General James Oglethorpe received a charter to create a colony where debtors and poor people could make a fresh start. The British government also wanted Georgia to serve as a military barrier between Spanish Florida and South Carolina. The first group of settlers built the town of Savannah, as well as forts to defend themselves from the Spanish. Oglethorpe initially limited the size of landholdings and banned slave labor. Frustrated with the slow growth of Georgia, however, he gave up altogether in 1751, turning the colony back over to the king. Spanish and French Settlements. The British were not the only Europeans who were colonizing North America. The Spanish expanded from their colonial base of Mexico, the Caribbean and Central and South America. They reached into the western and southern part of what would one day be the United States. Spanish missionaries, soldiers and settlers founded Santa Fe in present-day New Mexico in 1610. other groups of missionaries and settlers expanded the Spanish presence into what is today Arizona, Texas and California.

The French had founded Quebec in 1608. In 1663 New France became as royal colony whose main concern was the fish and fur trade in the interior of North America. In the 1670s, the French spread their explorations along the Mississippi River. They hoped to find gold, silver, other precious metals and a water passage to the Pacific Ocean. Eventually the French followed the Mississippi River all the way to the Gulf of Mexico. Claiming this territory for France, Robert Cavalier Sieur de La Salle named it Louisiana in honor of King Louis XIV. In 1718the French governor founded the port of New Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi River. France and Great Britain were great rivals during the colonial period. Both nations were expanding their settlements in North America. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, wars in Europe between the British and the French would shape events across the Atlantic even more decisively.

Checking your understanding:

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1. Key terms: Write a short paragraph in which you use all of the following terms: Northwest Passage, Mayflower Compact, joint-stock company, Puritans, separatists, proprietary colony.

2. Explain why Maryland passed the Act of Toleration. 3. What were some causes of the development of slavery in the

colonies? Understanding cause and effect:A cause is any person, event or condition that makes something happen. What happens as a result is known as an effect. These guidelines will help you identify cause and effect.- identify two or more events.- ask questions about why events occur.- look for “clue words” that alert you to cause and effect, such as because, led to, brought about, produced and therefore.- identify the outcome of events. Task: Read an account of a recent event or chain of events in your community newspaper. Determine at least one cause and one effect of that event.

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CHAPTER III. COLONIAL GROWTH AND CHANGE

In 1760 Englishman Andrew Burnaby traveled throughout the North American colonies, observing American life. He could not imagine that these colonies would ever join in union for they were as different from one another as “fire and water”, and each colony was jealous of the other. “In short, such is the difference of character, of manners, of religion, of interest, of the different colonies, that I think … were they left to themselves, there would soon be a civil war, from one end of the continent to the other.”

THE ENGLISH COLONIES GROWIn the 1700s control of North America shifted dramatically in favor of the British. France was eliminated as a major colonial power in the area. Spain was weakened as well, though it retained its control in the American Southwest. During the 17002, the population of the English colonies grew a great deal. The number of people living in the colonies rose from about 250,000 in 1700 to 2.5 million in 1775.

Life in New England. Farming was the main economic activity in all the colonies, but in New England long winters and thin, rocky soil made large-scale farming difficult. New England also had many small businesses. Some people used the waterpower from the streams on their land to run grain mills. Skilled craftspeople set themselves up as blacksmiths, shoemakers, furniture makers, gunsmiths, metalsmiths and printers. Shipbuilding and fishing provided other important economic activities. New England ship merchants took fish, grain, meat and lumber to the West Indies (the Caribbean Islands). There, the ship’s captain traded for sugar, molasses (a thick syrup produced in refining raw sugar and ranging from light to dark brown in color.), and fruit, which he then took back to New England. Rum, made from the molasses, along with manufactured goods, was then shipped to West Africa. There the goods were traded for enslaved Africans, who came to the Americas along what was called the Middle Passage. This complex web of shipping routes came to be called the triangular trade. The Middle and Southern Colonies. Farmers in the Middle Colonies grew large quantities of wheat and livestock, but many home-based industries such as carpentry and flour making were also important. There were many mines and lumber mills as well. The Southern Colonies developed plantations that produced large harvests of

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tobacco and rice. The rich soil and warm climate produced a profitable lifestyle based on agriculture. Consequently, the Southern Colonies had little need to develop commerce or industry. For the most part, London merchants rather than local merchants managed Southern trade. Slavery was part of colonial life and one reason for the economic success of the Southern Colonies. Many Puritans, Quakers and Mennonites – a German religious group – condemned slavery. Slavery, however, generated great wealth for plantation owners, who controlled the economic and political life of the South. Colonial Government. England viewed its North American colonies as an economic resource. The colonies provided England with raw materials, which English manufacturers used to produce finished goods. These goods were then sold to the colonists. This process followed an economic theory called mercantilism. This theory stated that a nation’s power depended on expanding its trade and earning profit from its colonies. To make certain that only England benefited from trade with the colonies, parliament passed a series of laws in the 1650s called the Navigation Acts. These laws forced colonists to send goods to England only on English ships and prevented products such as sugar or tobacco from being sent outside England’s empire. Some colonists ignored these laws and began trading illegally with other nations. As the colonies grew, they relied more and more on their own governments to make local laws. Colonial legislatures gave only white men who owned property the right tom vote. Neither women, indentured servants (employed), landless and poor people nor enslaved Africans could vote. France and Britain Clash in America. By 1700 Britain and France were the major powers in North America. The nations clashed over the fur trade and over rights to North Atlantic fishing areas. The French discouraged British expansion into the Ohio Valley by building a string of forts along the rivers of the upper Ohio valley. France’s attempt to control the Ohio Valley led to clashes with the English colonists. One of the first conflicts began when 21-year-old George Washington led a surveying mission into the Ohio Valley and demanded that the French leave. In the spring of 1754, Washington led his troops in battle against a group of French soldiers at the site of present-day Pittsburg. The larger French forces quickly defeated him.

Representatives from the New England colonies, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met in Albany, New York, to discuss the threat of war. The representatives adopted a plan suggested by Benjamin Franklin. His plan called for “one general government” for all the American colonies in which a single elected legislature would

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govern the colonies. Not one colonial assembly approved the Albany Plan of Union. The colonies were not yet ready to put aside their own concerns and agree to act in a united fashion.

THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARWashington’s defeat in the Ohio Valley, combined with reports of the French building forts in the valley, concerned the British government in London. It decided to support the colonists’ struggle in America.

The British Government takes action. British General Edward Braddock was appointed commander in chief of all the British forces. His first action was to march 1,400 British regular soldiers and a number of colonial militiamen to Fort Duquesne, a French fort in western Pannsylvania. In June 1755, Washington helped guide the British into the Ohio valley. He tried to tell Braddock that the formal marching style of the army made them open to ambush. There were French and Indian sharpshooters hidden in the dense forests. Braddock ignored Washington’s advice. Britain declares war on France. On July 9, the British forces were ambushed just as Washington had warned. Braddock called for an orderly retreat, but panic overcame the British and nearly 1,000 soldiers were killed including Braddock. Britain declared war on France as a result, and the Seven Years’ War began. During this war, French, British and Spanish forces clashed in Cuba, the West Indies, India and the Philippines, as well as in North America and Europe. In North America, the war was known as the French and Indian War. The first years of the war were disastrous for the British and their American colonies. Great Britain’s fortunes improved, however, after William Pitt came to power as secretary of state and then as prime minister. He picked skilled military commanders and oversaw the war effort from London. Though Pitt ran up an enormous debt fighting the war, Great Britain finally defeated the French after capturing Quebec in the heart of New France in 1759. The Continent changes hands. The Treaty of Paris of 1763, which formally ended the war, allowed France to keep its sugar-producing islands in the West Indies, but forced it to hand over Canada and its lands east of the Mississippi River to the British. France’s ally, Spain, gave Florida to the British but received French lands west of the Mississippi – the Louisiana Territory – as well as the port of New Orleans. The Treaty of Paris marked the end of France as a power in North America. Great Britain now controlled all the land east of the

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Mississippi River. Spain controlled large areas of the continent west of the Mississippi. Road to independence. The vast territory that the British gained after the war with France led to new conflicts with the Native Americans living in North America. A series of raids on British forts and villages along the western frontier led the British to take two measures to end these troubles. To prevent more fighting, King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763 to halt the settlers’ westward expansion. This act set the Appalachian Mountains as the temporary western border between the colonies and Native American lands. The British also planned to station 10,000 soldiers in the colonies. Although the end of the French and Indian War brought peace for the first time in many years, King George III’s proclamation created friction between Britain and the colonies. Intended to settle growing problems between the expanding colonies and the Native American population, the Proclamation led to the first of many conflicts between the British government and the colonists in North America. Taxation without representation. The measures taken by the British alarmed the colonists. Most colonists were satisfied with the government in London prior to 1763. Now many feared that the large number of British troops in North America might be used to interfere with their liberties. They saw the Proclamation of 1763 as a limit on their freedom. In 1764 the British finance minister began a series of actions to make the colonists contribute more toward British expenses in North America. First, they took action against smuggling in the colonies, claiming that the smugglers kept money meant for the British Empire. To catch colonists involved in smuggling, customs officers were allowed to obtain general writs of assistance. These legal documents enabled the officers to search homes and warehouses for goods that might be smuggled. Many colonists considered this a terrible abuse of power. They were horrified that government officials could come into their homes without warning.

Second, in 1764 Parliament passed the Sugar Act to stop the smuggling between the colonies and the French West Indies. By lowering the tax on molasses imported by the colonists, the British hoped to encourage colonists to pay the duty on foreign molasses. The British could then collect the tax on molasses and increase their earnings. Never before had colonial taxes been used to raise money for the British treasury. James Otis, a young Boston lawyer argued that the colonists should not be taxed by Parliament because they

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could not vote for members of Parliament. Otis coined a slogan for colonial protesters: “taxation without representation is tyranny”. The Stamp Act rebellion. In 1765 Parliament passed an even more disturbing law. The Stamp Act placed a tax on almost all printed material in the colonies – everything from newspapers and pamphlets to wills and playing cards. All printed materials had to have a stamp, which was applied by British colonial officials. The Stamp Act was a terrible nuisance. Since it affected everyone in the colonial cities, however, it had the effect of convincing many colonists of the need for unified action. Colonial protesters argued that Parliament had interfered in colonial affairs. It had taxed the colonies directly and violated the tradition of colonial self-government by not consulting with the colonies before the Act was passed. In Boston, Samuel Adams started a protest organization called the Sons of Liberty. Other cities soon formed their own Sons of Liberty organizations.Merchants began to Boycott – refuse to buy – British and European goods. Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia House of Burgesses to take action against the Stamp Act. When he was accused of treason, Henry replied: “If this be treason, make the most of it”! Building colonial unity. In October 1768 a fleet of British ships sailed into Boston Harbor with hundreds of soldiers ready to quell (to suppress, to pacify) any further protest. Many colonists, especially those in Boston, felt that the British had pushed them too far. First they had passed a series of laws that violated colonial rights. Now they had sent an army to occupy colonial cities. Throughout the next year, the tense atmosphere between the “redcoats” – the British soldiers – and the Boston colonists grew. On March 5, 1770, the tension finally reached a peak. A fight broke out between townspeople and soldiers. As the crowd grew, the soldiers grew increasingly nervous and several confused soldiers fired into the crowd killing five colonists. The colonists called the tragic encounter the Boston Massacre. News spread describing the “massacre” which led many colonists to call for stronger boycotts on British people. The only boycott to continue, however, was against the last remaining taxed product – tea. On December 16, 1773, members of the Boston Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as native Mohawks and threw 342 chests of British east India tea into Boston harbor. Britain reacts. When news of the “Boston Tea Party” reached London, King George III realized that Britain was losing control of the colonies. Lord North, the Brtiish prime minister, decided to make an example of Massachusetts. In 1774 very harsh laws called the

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Coercive Acts were enacted, designed to make Massachusetts pay for its resistance. Boston Harbour was closed, cutting off food and other supplies. Most town meetings were prohibited. The British hoped to isolate Boston, but other colonies sent food and clothing in support of Boston. Having a newfound unity, the colonies called these new laws the Intolerable Acts.

Checking your understanding:1. Under mercantilism, who controlled trade and who supplied

raw materials? 2. How did the Stamp Act collect money?3. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: triangular trade, writs of assistance, mercantilism, boycott.

4. List two reasons the French felt threatened by British interest in the Ohio River Valley.

5. Why did the Stamp Act anger the colonists? Task: Write a letter to the editor of a colonial newspaper in which you attempt to persuade fellow American colonists to boycott British goods. In writing your letter, make sure you use standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure and punctuation.

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CHAPTER IV. CREATING A NATION

At first a few colonists wanted a complete break with Britain one of the most popular songs at the time, “The Bold Americans” called for both liberty and continued loyalty to the British king: “We’ll honor George, our sovereign, while he sits on the throne,If he grants us liberty, no other king we’ll own.If he grants us liberty, so plainly shall you see,We are the boys that fear no noise! Success to liberty.”

ROAD TO INDEPENDENCEWith the passage of the Intolerable Acts, the colonial leaders realized that they must be more vigorous in protesting the abuses from their British rulers. The outpouring of sympathy from other colonies for Bostonians showed that the people wanted them to continue resisting new taxes. Bostonians vowed to boycott all British goods, but something new was needed – a gathering of the colonial leaders. Word spread from Massachusetts to Virginia: the colonies must unite in protest or lose their liberties. A call to arms. The colonies showed increased unity on September 1774, when 56 men representing every colony except Georgia, gathered in Philadelphia. This new organization, called the Continental Congress, planned to establish a political body to represent the colonists’ interests. Patrick Henry summed up the meaning of the gathering: “The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers amd New Englanders are no more,” he said. “I am not a Virginian, but an American.” The delegates passed a resolution to form militias, groups of citizen soldiers. If fighting broke out, the colonies would be ready with their own armed forces. Militia companies in Massachusetts began frequent training sessions, made bullets and stockpiled rifles and muskets. The British also prepared for conflict British general Sir Thomas Gage ordered 700 troops to move to Concord, Massachusetts, where gunpowder was stored. It seemed war between the British and the colonists could not be avoided. The first battles. Paul Revere and William Dawes rode through the night on April 18, 1775, to warn the Concord and Lexington townspeople of the approaching British troops. After arriving, the British destroyed what gunpowder had not been removed from Concord, and began their march back to Boston. All along the road from Concord to Boston, colonists fired on the troops from behind trees, rocks and stone fences. By the time the redcoats reached

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Boston, more than 200 were wounded and 73 were dead. The battle for America’s independence had begun.

Following the battles of Lexington and Concord, committees in the colonies sent out calls for volunteers to join the militias. On June 16, 1775, about 1,200 of the militiamen gathered in and around Boston at Bunker Hill and Breed’s Hill. The next day redcoats charged up (cause to be agitated, excited, or roused) Breed’s Hill straight into deadly American gunfire. After running out of gunpowder the colonial forces withdrew. Heavy British losses indicated however, that defeating the Americans on the battlefield would not be quick or easy. As American colonists heard about these battles, they faced a major decision. The Loyalists – those who chose to remain loyal to Britain – did not consider unfair taxes and regulations enough cause for rebellion. The Patriots, on the other hand, were determined to fight the British to the end – until American independence was won. Moving toward independence. Three weeks after the battles of Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. All 13 colonies sent delegates that included some of the greatest political leaders in America: John and Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock and Thomas Jefferson.The Congress becomes a government. The Second Continental Congress began to govern the colonies. It created the Continental Army and chose George Washington to be the army’s commander. He had military experience and the delegates admired and trusted him. The delegates then offered Britain one last chance to avoid all-out war. A formal request called the Olive Branch Petition was sent to George III. It asked the king to protect the colonists’ rights. George III refused to receive the petition and instead hired more than 30,000 German troops to add to the British forces in America. Drafting the Declaration of Independence. While the delegates of the Second Continental Congress debated whether the colonies should declare themselves a separate nation, a committee was chosen to draft a Declaration of Independence. The committee included Jefferson, Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman of Connecticut and Robert Livingston of New York. Jefferson was chosen to write the document. After about two weeks, the draft was complete. On July 2, 1776, twelve colonies at the Congress voted for independence. While New York did not initially vote, it later announced its support. After making some changes to Jefferson’s draft, the Declaration was approved on July 4, 1776. Copies of the Declaration went out to the

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newly declared states. Washington had it read aloud to the militiamen he was training. In New York, American soldiers tore down a statue of George III in celebration.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONBoth the British and the Americans expected the war to be short. The British planned to crush the rebellion by force. Most of the Patriots believed the British would give up after losing one or two major battles. Few believed John Adams when he predicted in April 1776: “We shall have a long, obstinate and bloody war to go through.” At first glance the British had an overwhelming advantage in the war. They had the strongest navy in the world, an experienced army and the wealth of a worldwide empire. The colonists lacked regular army and a strong navy and weapons and ammunition were in short supply. The Americans did, however, possess some advantages. They were fighting on their own ground with a great determination to protect it. The early years. Initially, neither side achieved victory, the Americans showed no lack of bravery, but ran short of supplies for the army. In the winter of 1776-1777 the Patriot cause was near collapse. The Continental Army dwindled as soldiers refused to reenlist after completing their term of service. Some states ignored a congressional ban barring the use of African American soldiers. By the end of the war, every state except South Carolina enlisted African Americans to fight. Patriot author Thomas Paine wrote a pamphlet, The American Crisis, in which he reminded despondent Americans that “the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph.” Washington had Paine’s encouraging words read to his troops to inspire them to continue the fight. Gaining allies. In the face of this low point in American morale, there came a dramatic victory at Saratoga, New York, in October 1777. this success convinced France that America had a chance to win. In February 1778, France declared war on Britain and sent money, equipment and troops to aid the Patriots. Spain and the Netherlands also contributed to the American effort. Facing this development, the British stepped up efforts in the South to bring the war to an end. The British believed the many Loyalists in the South would help them. However, the British received less help than they expected from the southern Loyalists. Rather, the sudden hit-and-run guerrilla warfare of southern Patriots kept the British army off guard. The war is won. Washington and his army camped north of New York City in the summer of 1781. Knowing that the British army under General Charles Cornwallis was surrounded by Patriot forces

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on the Yorktown peninsula in Virginia, and hearing that French troops were sailing towards Chesapeake Bay, Washington changed his plans. He decided to advance on the British at Yorktown rather than at New York City. Washington’s army marched south, gaining reinforcements from another group of French soldiers. He sent word to Patriot troops from the western territories to march to Virginia, while anxiously hoping the French troops disembarking Chesapeake Bay would arrive in time. By the end of September 1781, 17,000 American and French troops converged and trapped Cornwallis’s 8,000 British and Hessian troops at Yorktown. Surrounded, under heavy cannon fire, and running low of supplies, Cornwallis surrendered on October 19.The Treaty of Paris. While the victory at Yorktown did not end all the fighting, it convinced the British that the war was too costly to pursue. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 recognized the Unites States as an independent nation and awarded to the new nation land from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River.

A MORE PERFECT UNIONWhile Americans were fighting for their independence on the battlefield, they were also creating new governments. After rejecting British rule, they needed to establish their own political institutions at both the state and national levels. Additionally, the new nation needed to demonstrate strength and the ability to command respect from the rest of the world. The Articles of Confederation. Their experience with British rule made Americans cautious about strong governments. For that reason that states adopted constitutions that limited governmental power. They also divided government functions between the governor and the legislature. Establishing separate state governments was a much easier task than creating a single national government. Americans agreed that their nation should be a republic, a government in which citizens ruled through elected representatives.

The Second Constitutional Congress designed America’s first constitution – the Articles of Confederation. This national government had the authority to conduct foreign affairs, maintain armed forces, borrow money and issue currency. Yet it could not regulate trade, force soldiers to join the army or impose taxes. If the Confederation Congress needed to raise money or troops, it had to ask the state legislatures – but the states were not required to contribute. In addition the new national government lacked a chief executive to enforce its laws. The Congress should not pass a law

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unless 9 states voted in favor of it. Any attempt to change the Articles required the consent of all 13 states. Unfortunately the Confederation government had so little power, it could not deal with the nation’s large war debt. Lacking the power to tax, the Confederation could not pay its debts to the American citizens and foreign nations that had financed the Revolutionary War effort. Convention and compromise. The American Revolution had led to a union of 13 states; it had not yet created a nation. Some leaders were satisfied with a system of independent state governments that resembled the old colonial governments. Others saw a strong national government as the solution to America’s problems. They demanded a reform of the Articles of Confederation. In September 1786, James Madison, a Virginia planter proposed calling a convention in Philadelphia to discuss trade issues. He also suggested that this convention consider amending the Articles of Confederation.

Deciding to close their doors to the public and to keep the proceedings secret to create an atmosphere of free debate, the delegates began their discussions in May 1787. Madison quickly demonstrated the desire to build a strong but fair republican system that balanced the need to act quickly and decisively with the need to protect the people from misuse of power. His carefully thought out proposal became known as the Virginia Plan. Compromise wins out. The plan called for a two-house legislature, a chief executive chosen by the legislature and a court system. The members of the lower house of the legislature would be elected by the people. The members of the upper house would be chosen by the lower house. In both houses the number of representatives would correspond in size to the population of each state. Delegates from small states were unhappy with this plan that centered power in states with large populations. An alternate New Jersey Plan modified the original Articles of Confederation. It kept the Confederation’s one-house Congress with equal representation and gave the Congress expanded powers to tax and regulate trade.

Roger Sherman of Connecticut proposed a compromise that aimed at pleasing both large and small states. He suggested a bicameral legislature in which the lower house’s size varied according to the state’s population. The upper house gave each state equal representation – with two members each. Sherman’s plan also addressed another disagreement between Northern and Southern states. Enslaved persons were counted as three-fifths of a free person for both taxation and representation. This prevented over-representing the South’s free population, while not inflating the

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South’s tax burden. The delegates also agreed to leave the United States slave trade intact for the time being. Ratifying the Constitution. (approving and giving formal sanction to; confirming).Before this new government could go into effect, 9 of the 13 states had to approve it. In late 1787, state legislatures set up special committees to debate the document. Those who supported the Constitution were called Federalists. They had enjoyed the support of most of the delegates who approved the document in Philadelphia, including the respected figures of Ben Franklin and George Washington. The opponents of the new Constitution, called Antifederalists by the Federalist group, mainly argued that the new Constitution would take away the liberties fought for in the Revolution. These opponents considered the strong powers of the federal government to be threatening to the states.

Most effectively, the Antifederalists criticized the lack of a bill of rights – common in state constitutions – to specifically protect individual freedoms. After vigorous and persuasive arguments by both sides, Delaware became the first state to approve the Constitution on December 7, 1787. Six months later, New Hampshire became the ninth state needed to approve the Constitution. Though technically the new government was now in force, the nation’s two largest states – New York and Virginia – had not yet voted. In order to move these important states to approval, the Federalists agreed to add a bill of rights amendment, an addition to the document. Finally, in May 1790, Rhode Island became the thirteenth state to approve the new document. The Bill of Rights would be added in 1791, after the new government took office. Now it was time for the nation to elect leaders and begin the work of government.

Checking for understanding:1. In which battle did the Americans win their first victory over

the British? 2. What was the purpose of the Continental Congress? 3. What disadvantages did the Patriots face? 4. Why did many see a new national government as necessary? 5. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: militias, republic, Loyalists, Federalists, Patriots, amendment, Guerrilla warfare.

6. Compare the strengths of the British and American military forces.

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7. Why was the Second Continental Congress useful during the war?

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

1) On a sheet of paper use all of the following terms to write several short historically accurate paragraphs related to the information in the chapter.

a. migrationb. Renaissancec. circumnavigated. joint-stock companye. Separatistsf. Puritansg. triangular tradeh. mercantilismi. boycottj. republick. Federalists

2) The following sentence illustrates a cause-and effect relationship. Identify the cause(s) and effect(s) in this sentence: “During the 1700s, the population of the English colonies grew dramatically as a result of high immigration.”

3) Review Chapter 4 and make a list of the differences between the Federalists and Antifederalists.

4) Which colony was founded to put Quaker ideas into practice?

5) Which country supported Columbus on is quest to find a water route to Asia?

6) Why did the Virginia Company create the House of Burgesses?

7) What was the purpose of the first Continental Congress?

8) Why did the Proclamation of 1763 cause friction between great Britain and the colonies?

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9) What European nations supported the Americans during their struggle in the Revolutionary War?

10) Why did some states want a bill of rights added to the Constitution as it was originally written?

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UNIT II.

CHAPTER V. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE CONSTITUTION

A. The Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence has four parts. The Preamble explains why the Continental Congress drew up the Declaration. The second part, the Declaration of Natural Rights, lists the rights of the citizens. It goes on to explain that, in a republic, people form a government to protect their rights. The Declaration refers to these rights as unalienable rights. The word unalienable means non-transferable. An unalienable right is a right that cannot be surrendered. The third part of the Declaration (The List of Grievances) lists the colonists’ complaints against the British government. Notice that King George III is singled out for blame. The Final section (The Resolution of Independence) declares that the colonies are “Free and Independent States” with the full power to make war, to form alliances and to trade with other countries. The signers, as representatives of the American people, declared the colonies independent from Great Britain. Most members signed the document on August 2, 1776.

B. The constitutionGOALS OF THE CONSTITUTIONFor more than 200 years the Constitution has provided the framework for the United States government and has helped preserve the basic rights of American citizens. The Preamble, or introduction to the Constitution reflects the basic principle of American government – the right of the people to govern themselves. It also lists six goals for the United States government: “to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and out Posterity”. These goals guided the Constitution’s Framers as they created the new government. They remain as important today as they were when the Constitution was written. To form a more perfect union. Under the Articles of Confederation, the states functioned almost like independent nations. For the most part, they did not work together on important matters such as defense

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and finances. This lack of unity could have been dangerous for the nation during times of crisis. To form “a more perfect Union” the Framers believed the states needed to agree to operate as a single country and cooperate on major issues. To establish justice. For the Framers, treating each citizen equally was one of the fundamental principles on which to build the new nation. The Constitution provides a national system of courts to protect the people’s rights and to hear cases involving violations of federal law and disputes between the states. To ensure domestic tranquility. Shays’s Rebellion began in 1786 and shocked Americans. The Unites States had become a self-governing nation, yet a group of people had resorted to violence to express their anger over government policies. The Constitution provides a strong central government to “insure domestic Tranquility” – that is, to keep peace among the people. To provide for the common defense. The Articles of Confederation required nine states to approve any decision by the Confederation Congress to build an army or navy. The Constitution gives the federal government the power to maintain armed forces to protect the country and its citizens from attack. To promote the general welfare. The Declaration of Independence states that the purpose of government is to promote “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness” for the people of the nation. The Constitution includes ways to “promote the general welfare – or well-being- of the people by maintaining order, protecting individual liberties, regulating commerce and bankruptcies and promoting science and technology by granting patents. To secure the blessings of liberty. The American colonists fought the Revolutionary War to gain their liberty. The Framers believed that preserving liberty should also be a major goal of the Constitution. The Constitution guarantees that no American’s basic rights will be taken away now or for posterity. MAJOR PRINCIPLESThe principles outlined in the Constitution were the Framers’ solution to the problems of a representative government. The Constitution rests on seven major principles: (1) popular sovereignty, (2) republicanism, (3) limited government, (4) federalism, (5) separation of powers, (6) checks and balances, and (7) individual rights. Popular sovereignty. The Declaration of Independence states that governments derive their powers from “the consent of the governed”. The opening words of the Constitution, “We the people”, reinforce this idea of popular sovereignty – or “authority of the people”.

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Republicanism. Under republicanism, voters hold sovereign power. The people elect representatives and give them the responsibility to make laws and conduct government. For most Americans today, the terms republic and representative democracy mean the same thing: a system of limited government where the people are the ultimate source of governmental power. Limited government. The Framers saw both benefits and risks in creating a powerful national government. They agreed that the nation needed strong central authority but feared misuse of power. They wanted to prevent the government from using its power to give one group special advantages or to deprive another group of its rights. By creating a limited government, they made certain the government would have only those powers granted by the people. Article I of the Constitution states the powers that the government has and the powers that it does not have. Other limits on government appear in the Bill of Rights, which guarantees certain rights and liberties to the people. Limited government can be described as the “rule of law”. No people or groups of people are above the law. Government officials must obey the law. Federalism. When the states banded together under the Constitution, they gave up some independence. States could no longer print their own money or tax items imported from other states. Nevertheless, each state governed itself much as it had in the past. This system, in which the power to govern is shared between the national government and the states is called the federal system, or federalism. Our federal system allows the people of each state to deal with their needs in their own way. At the same time, it lets the states act together to deal with matters that affect all Americans. The Constitution defines three types of government powers. Enumerated powers belong only to the federal government. These include the power to coin money, regulate interstate and foreign trade, maintain the armed forces and create federal courts. (Article I, section 8).

The second kind of powers are those retained by the states, known as reserved powers. They include such rights as the power to establish schools, pass marriage and divorce laws, and regulate trade within a state. Although reserved powers are not listed specifically in the Constitution, the Tenth Amendment says that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government” are reserved to the States. The third set of powers defined by the Constitution are concurrent powers – powers shared by the state and federal governments. Among these powers are the right to raise taxes, borrow money, provide for public welfare and administer criminal

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justice. When conflicts arise between state law and federal law, the Constitution declares that the Constitution is “the supreme Law of the Land”. Conflicts between state law and federal las must be settled in a federal court. Separation of powers. To prevent any single group or institution in government\t from gaining too much authority, the Framers divided the federal government into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. Each branch has its own functions and powers. The legislative branch, Congress, makes the laws. The executive branch, headed by the president, carries out the laws. The judicial branch, consisting of the Supreme Court and other federal courts, interprets and applies the laws. Checks and balances. As an additional safeguard, the Framers established a system of checks and guards in which each branch of government can check, or limit, the power of the other branches. This system helps maintain a balance in the power of the three branches. For example, Congress can pass a law. Then the president can reject the law by vetoing it (the vested power or constitutional right of one branch or department of government to refuse approval of measures proposed by another department, especially the power of a chief executive to reject a bill passed by the legislature and thus prevent or delay its enactment into law).However, Congress can override (to declare null and void), ore reverse the president’s veto if two-thirds of the members of both houses vote again to approve the law.

Over the years, the Supreme Court has acquired the power to determine the meaning of the Constitution and to declare that a law or a government policy goes against the Constitution. In doing so, the Court provides a check on the powers of Congress and the president. Judicial decisions – those made by the courts – can be overruled by amending the Constitution. The president and the Senate provide a check on the judicial branch through their power to appoint and approve federal judges. Congress can also change a law so that it no longer conflicts with the Constitution, or it can amend the Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment passed by Congress in 1866, overturned the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Dred Scott decision, which had ruled that enslaved African Americans were not citizens. Individual rights. The Bill of Rights became part of the Constitution in 1791. these first 10 amendments protect basic liberties and rights that you may take for granted – including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, freedom of religion and the right to a trial by jury. The 17 amendments that follow the Bill of

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Rights expand the rights of Americans and adjust certain provisions of the Constitution. Included among them are amendments that abolish slavery, define citizenship, guarantee the right to vote to all citizens, authorize an income tax and set a two-term limit on the presidency. A LIVING CONSTITUTIONTwo years after the Constitutional Convention, Benjamin Franklin wrote, “our Constitution is in actual operation; everything appears to promise that it will last; but in this world nothing is certain but death and taxes.” Despite Franklin’s uncertainty about the Constitution’s future, it is still very much alive today. The Constitution has survived because the Framers wrote a document that the nation could alter and adapt to meet changing needs. The result is a flexible document that can be interpreted in different ways in keeping with the conditions of a particular time. The Constitution’s flexibility allows the government to deal with matters the Framers never anticipated – such as regulating nuclear power plants or developing a space program. In addition the Constitution contains a provision for amending – changing or adding to – the document. Amending the Constitution. The Framers intentionally made the amendment process difficult to discourage minor or frequent changes being made. Although thousands of amendments – changes to the Constitution – have been proposed since 1788, only 27 of them have actually become part of the Constitution. An amendment may be proposed in two ways: by the vote of two-thirds of both houses of Congress or by two-thirds of the state legislatures asking for a special convention on the amendment. The second method has never been used. Ratification of an amendment requires approval by three-fourths of the states. The Constitution can be ratified by the approval of state legislatures or by special state conventions. Only the Twenty-first Amendment – which repealed (to revoke an official act) the Eighteenth Amendment, banning the sale of alcoholic beverages – was ratified by state conventions. Voters in each state chose the delegates to the special conventions. Interpreting the Constitution. The Constitution includes two provisions that give Congress the power to act as needed to meet changing conditions. The first of these provisions is what is known as the “elastic clause” (Article I, section 8). It directs Congress to “make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper” for executing all the powers of government. Congress has interpreted this clause to mean that it has certain implied powers, powers not specifically defined in the Constitution. Over the years, Congress has drawn on its implied

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powers to pass laws to deal with the needs of society. The second provision used to expand congressional authority, the “commerce clause” (Article I, section 8), gives Congress the power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations and among the several States”. Congress has used this clause to expand its powers into a number of areas, such as regulation of the airline industry, radio and television and nuclear energy. Powers of the Presidency. The Constitution describes the role and the powers of the president in general terms. This has allowed the executive branch to extend its powers. In 1803, for example, President Thomas Jefferson approved a treaty with France that established the United States to buy an enormous tract of land. The Courts. The role of the judicial branch has also grown as powers implied in the Constitution have been put into practice. In 1803 Chief Justice John Marshall expanded the powers of the Supreme Court by striking down (to eliminate) an act of Congress in the case of Marbury v. Madison. In that decision the Court defined its right to determine whether a law violates the Constitution. Although not mentioned in the Constitution, judicial review has become a major power of the judicial branch. The process of amending the Constitution and applying its principles in new areas helps keep our government functioning well. In 1974 Barbara Jordan, an African American member of Congress and a constitutional scholar spoke in ringing tones of her faith in the Constitution: “I felt somehow for many years that George Washington and Alexander Hamilton just left me out by mistake. But through the process of amendment, interpretation and court decision I have finally been included in ‘We, the people’.” THE BILL OF RIGHTS

1. Guarantees freedom of religion, speech, assembly and press and the right of people to petition the government.

2. Protects the rights of states to maintain a militia and of citizens to bear arms.

3. Restricts quartering of troops in private homes. (/allowed the British to force a colonial family to take in a British soldier and give him free room and board. This was designed to both ease the cost of housing and feeding their own troops as well as having a way to keep an eye on troublemakers).

4. Protects against “unreasonable searches and seizures (sechestrare, confiscare)”.

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5. Assures the right not to be deprived of “life, liberty or property, without due process of law.”

6. Guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury.

7. Assures the right to a jury trial in cases involving the common law (drept cutumiar) (the law established by previous court decisions).

8. Protects against excessive bail (eliberare pe cautiune in excess), or cruel and unusual punishment.

9. Provides that people’s rights are not restricted to those specified in the first eight Amendments.

10. Restates the Constitution’s principle of federalism by providing that powers not granted to the national government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states and to the people.

Checking your understanding:11. Explain the following terms: to impel; endowed;

despotism; usurpations; relinquish; inestimable; annihilation; convulsions; Naturalization of Foreigners; tenure; quartering; render; abdicated; perfidy; insurrections; petitioned for redress; unwarrantable jurisdiction; consanguity; rectitude.

12. Key terms: Write complete sentences using each term below: republicanism, Federalism, preamble, amendment.

13. What is the importance of federalism in the Constitution?

14. Why was it so important for basic freedoms to be guaranteed in the Constitution?

Task: The Bill of Rights guarantees certain basic rights to all Americans. Select one of the 10 amendments that make up the Bill of Rights and research its history. Present your findings, in your own language (Romanian) in a one-page essay.

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CHAPTER VI. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCHCongress, the legislative branch of the government makes the nation’s laws. It also has the power to “lay and collect taxes” and to declare war. Congress has two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House and Senate. Today, the House of Representatives has 435 voting members and five nonvoting delegates from the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa and the Virgin Islands. The number of representatives from each state is determined by the state’s population. Representatives, who must be at least 25 years old, serve two-year terms. The Senate consists of 100 senators, two from each state. Senators, who must be at least 30 years old, serve six-year terms. The senators’ terms are staggered (alternated), which means that one-third of the Senate seats come up for election every two years. The role of congress. Congress has two primary functions: to make the nation’s laws and to control government spending. The government cannot spend any money unless Congress appropriates, allocates or sets aside, funds. All tax and spending bills must originate in the House of Representatives and gain approval in both the House and the Senate before moving on to the president for signature. Congress also serves as a watchdog over the executive branch, monitoring its actions and investigating possible abuses of power. The House of Representatives can impeach, or bring formal changes against any federal official it suspects of wrongdoing or misconduct. If an official is impeached, the Senate acts as a court and tries the accused official. Officials who are found guilty may be removed from office. The Senate also holds certain special powers. Only the Senate can ratify treaties made by the president and confirm presidential appointments of federal officials, such as department heads, ambassadors and federal judges. All members of Congress have the responsibility of representing their constituents, the people of their home states and districts. As a constituent you can expect your senators and representatives to promote and protect your state’s interests as well as those of the nation. Congress at work. Thousands of bills, or proposed laws are introduced in Congress every year. Because individual members of Congress cannot possibly study all these bills carefully, both houses use committees of selected members to evaluate proposed legislation. Standing committees are permanent committees in both the House

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and the Senate that specialize in a particular topic, such as agriculture, commerce or veterans’ affairs. These committees usually are broken down into sub-committees that focus on a particular aspect of a problem or issue. The House and the Senate sometimes form temporary select committees to deal with issues requiring special attention. These committees meet only until they complete their task. Occasionally, the House and the Senate form joint committees with members from both houses. These committees meet to consider specific issues, such as the system of federal taxation. One type of joint committee, a conference committee, has a special function. If the House and the Senate pass different versions of the same bill, a conference committee tries to work out a compromise bill acceptable to both houses.

When it receives a bill, a committee can kill it by rejecting it outright, “pigeonhole” it by setting it aside without reviewing it, or prepare it for consideration by the full House or Senate. While preparing bills, committees hold public hearings at which citizens can present arguments and documents supporting or opposing the bills. Once a bill is approved by a committee in either house of Congress, it is sent to the full Senate or House for debate. After debate the bill may be passed, rejected or returned to committee for further changes. When both houses pass a bill, the bill goes to the president. If the president approves the bill and signs it, it becomes law. If the president vetoes (rejects) the bill, it does not become law, unless Congress overrides (cancels) the presidential veto by a vote of two-thirds of the members in each house.

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCHThe executive branch of government includes the president, the vice president and various executive officers, departments and agencies. The executive branch carries out the laws that Congress passes. Chief Executive. The president plays a number of different roles in government, each of which has specific powers and responsibilities. These roles include the nation’s chief executive, chief diplomat, commander in chief, chief of state and legislative leader. As chief executive, the president is responsible for carrying out the nation’s laws. Many executive departments and agencies assist the president in this job. Chief Diplomat. As Chief Diplomat, the president directs foreign policy, appoints ambassadors and negotiates treaties with other nations. Treaties must be approved by a two-thirds vote of the Senate before they go into effect.

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Commander in Chief. As commander in chief of the armed forced, the president can use the military to intervene or offer assistance in crises at home and around the world. The president cannot declare war; only Congress holds this power. The president can send troops to other parts of the world for up to 60 days but must notify Congress when doing so. The troops may remain longer only if Congress gives approval or declares war. Chief of State. As chief of state, the president serves a symbolic role as the representative of all Americans. The president fulfills this role when receiving foreign ambassadors or heads of state, visiting foreign nations or bestowing honors on Americans. Legislative leader. The president serves as a legislative leader by proposing laws to Congress and working to see that they are passed. In the annual State of the Union address, the president presents goals for legislation.The executive branch at work. Many executive offices, departments and independent agencies help the president carry out and enforce the nation’s laws. The Executive Office of the President (EOP) is made up of individuals and agencies that directly assist the president. Presidents rely heavily on the EOP for advice and for gathering information. The executive branch also includes 14 executive departments, each responsible for a different area of government. For example, the Department of State plans and carries out foreign policy and the Department of the Interior manages and protects the nation’s public lands and natural resources. The heads or secretaries of these departments are members of the president’s cabinet, a group that helps the president make decisions and set government policy. The independent agencies manage federal programs in many fields. These include aeronautics and space, banking, communications, farm credit and trade. Government corporations are government agencies that are run like privately owned businesses. One government corporation whose services you may often use is the United States Postal Service.

THE JUDICIAL BRANCHArticle III of the Constitution called for the creation of a Supreme Court and “such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” In 1789 Congress passed a Judiciary Act, which added a series of district courts to the federal court system. Congress added appeals courts, sometimes called circuit courts, in 1891 to ease the workload of the Supreme Court. Lower federal courts. At the lowest level of the federal court system are the Unites States district courts. These courts consider criminal

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and civil cases that come under federal, rather than state authority. The criminal cases include such offenses as kidnapping and federal tax evasion. Civil cases cover claims against the federal government and cases involving constitutional rights, such as free speech. There are 91 district courts in the nation, with at least one in every state. The next level of federal courts, the appeals courts, reviews district court decisions in which the losing side has asked for a review of the verdict. If an appeals court disagrees with the lower court’s decision, it can either overturn the verdict or order a retrial. There are 14 appeals courts in the United States. The Supreme Court. The Supreme Court stands at the top of the American legal system. Article III of the Constitution created the Supreme Court as one of three coequal branches of the national government, along with Congress and the president. The Supreme Court is composed of nine justices: the chief justice of the United States and eight associate justices. Congress sets this number and has the power to change it. Over the years it has varied from 5 to 10, but it has been 9 since 1869. The Constitution does not describe the duties of the justices. Instead, the duties have developed from laws, through tradition, and as the needs and circumstances of the nation have developed. The main duty of the justices is to hear and rule on cases. This duty involves them in three decision-making tasks: deciding which cases to hear from among the thousands appealed to the Court each year; deciding the case itself; and determining an explanation for the decision, called the Court’s opinion. Shaping public policy. The Supreme Court is both a political and a legal institution. It is a legal institution because it is responsible for settling disputes and interpreting the meaning of laws. The Court is a political institution because when it applies the law to specific disputes, it often determines what national policy will be. For example, when the Court rules that certain parts of the Social Security Act must apply to men and women equally, it is determining government policy. Judicial review. As you have read, the Supreme Court’s power to examine the laws and actions of local, state and national governments and to cancel them if they violate the Constitution is called judicial review. The Supreme Court first assumed the power of judicial review in the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803). Since then, the Court has invalidated or canceled nearly 200 provisions of federal law. The Supreme Court may also review presidential policies.

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Checking your understanding:1. List the basic steps of how a bill becomes a law. 2. What role does the president play in the passage of a new

law? 3. What is the president’s cabinet? 4. What powers does the president hold in his role as

commander in chief? 5. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that helps explain its meaning: appropriate, impeach, constituents.

6. List three responsibilities of the president. 7. Why is Congress’s power to appropriate money important? 8. Which branch of government do you think is the most

powerful? Explain why you think so.

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CHAPTER VII. CITIZENS’ RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

THE RIGHTS OF AMERICAN CITIZENS. “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

These words from the Declaration of Independence continue to inspire Americans. They have encouraged Americans to pursue the ideals expressed in the Declaration and to create a Constitution and a Bill of Rights that protect these rights. The rights of Americans fall into three broad categories: the right to be protected from unfair actions of the government, to have equal treatment under the law and to have basic freedoms. Due process. The Fifth Amendment states that no person shall “be deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law”. Due process of law means that the government must follow procedures established by law and guaranteed by the Constitution, treating all people according to these principles. Equal protection. All Americans, regardless of race religion or political beliefs, have the right to be treated the same under the law. The Fourteenth Amendment requires every state to grant its citizens “equal protection of the laws.” Basic freedoms. The basic freedoms involve the liberties outlined in the First Amendment – freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and the right to petition. In a democratic society, power exists in the hands of the people. Therefore, its citizens must be free to exchange ideas freely. The First Amendment allows citizens to criticize the government, in speech or in the press, without fear of punishment. It also states that the government cannot endorse a religion, nor can it prohibit citizens from practicing a religion if they choose to do so. In addition, the Ninth Amendment states that the rights of Americans are not limited to those mentioned in the Constitution. This has allowed basic freedoms to expand over the years through the passage of other amendments and laws. The Twenty-sixth Amendment, for example, extends the right to vote to American citizens 18 years of age. Limits on rights. Our rights are not unlimited. The government can establish laws or rules to restrict certain standards to protect the

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health, safety, security and moral standards of a community. Moreover, rights may be limited to prevent one person’s rights from interfering with the rights of others. The restrictions of rights, however, must be reasonable and must apply to everyone equally.

CITIZEN PARTICIPATIONA citizen is a person who owes loyalty to and is entitled to the protection of a state or nation. How do you become an American citizen? Generally citizenship is granted to anyone born within the borders of the United States. Citizenship is also granted to anyone born outside the United States if one parent is a United States citizen. A person of foreign birth can also become a citizen through the process of naturalization (to grant full citizenship to one of foreign birth). To qualify, applicants must be at least 18 years old. They must have been lawfully admitted for permanent residence and have lived in the United States for at least five years. They must possess good moral character and accept the principles of the Constitution. Applicants must also understand English and demonstrate an understanding of the history and principles of the government of the United States. Before being admitted to citizenship, applicants must be willing to give up any foreign allegiance (loyalty) and must promise to obey the Constitution and the laws of the United States. As citizens of the United States, we are expected to carry out certain duties and responsibilities. Duties are things we are required to do by law. Responsibilities are things we should do. Fulfilling both our duties and our responsibilities helps ensure that we have a good government and that we continue to enjoy our rights. Duties. One of the duties of all Americans is to obey the law. Laws serve three important functions. They help maintain order; they protect the health, safety and property of all citizens; and they make it possible for people to live together peacefully. If you disobey laws, for example, you endanger others and interfere with the smooth functioning of society. If you believe a law needs to be changed, you can work out through your elected representatives to improve it. Americans also have a duty to pay taxes. The government uses tax money to defend the nation, provide health insurance for people over 65 and build roads and bridges. Americans benefit from services provided by the government. Another duty of citizens is to defend the nation. All males aged 18 and older must register with the government in case they are needed for military service. The nation no longer has a draft, or required military service, but a war could make the draft necessary again. The Constitution guarantees all

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Americans the right to a trial by a jury of their peers (equals). For this reason you should be prepared to serve on a jury when you become eligible at the age of 18. having a large group of jurors on hand is necessary to guarantee the right to a fair and speedy trial. You also have a duty to serve as a witness at a trial if called to do so. Responsibilities. The responsibilities of citizens are not as clear-cut as their duties. Because responsibilities are voluntary, people are nor arrested or punished if they do not fulfill these obligations. The quality of out government and of our lives will diminish, however, if or responsibilities are not carried out. Keep in mind that government exists to serve you. Therefore, one of your responsibilities as a citizen is to know what the government is doing and to voice your opinion when you feel strongly about something the government has done or has failed to do. When the government learns that most people favor or oppose an action, it usually follows their wishes. You also need to be informed about your rights and to exercise them when necessary. Knowing your rights helps preserve them. Other responsibilities include respecting diversity, accepting responsibility for your Actions and supporting your family. Vote, Vote, Vote! Perhaps your most important responsibility as an American citizen will be to vote when you reach the age of 18. Voting allows you to participate in government and guide its direction. When you vote for people to represent you in government, you will be exercising your right of self-government. If you disapprove of the job your representatives are doing, it will be your responsibility to help elect other people in the next election. You can also let your representatives know how you feel about issues through letters, telephone calls and petitions. While not everyone holds public office, everyone can participate in government in other ways. Working on a political campaign, volunteering to help in a hospital or library, and participating in a local park cleanup are all ways to take responsibility and to make a contribution to good government as w well-run community. Respecting others’ rights. To enjoy your rights to the fullest, you must be prepared to respect the rights of others. Respecting the rights of others also means respecting the rights of people with whom you disagree. Respecting and accepting others regardless of race, religion, beliefs or other differences is essential in a democracy. All Americans are entitled to the same respect and good treatment. The flag. The flag of the United States is one of the oldest national standards in the world. General George Washington first raised the Continental

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Army flag in 1776. Several flag designs with 13 stripes were used in 1776 and 1777, until Congress established an official design on June 14, 1777 — now observed as Flag Day. The act stated, “That the Flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.” Washington explained it this way: “We take the stars from heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity representing liberty.” In the United States Flag Day is celebrated on June 14.

a) The flag should be raised and lowered by hand and displayed only from sunrise to sunset. On special occasions, it may be displayed at night.

b) The flag may be displayed on all days, weather permitting, particularly on national and state holidays and on historic and special occasions.

c) No flag should be flown above the American flag or to the right of it at the same height.

d) The flag may be flown at half-mast to mourn the death of public officials.

e) The flag should never tough the ground or floor beneath it.

f) The flag may be flown upside down, only to signal distress.

g) When the flag becomes old and tattered, it should be destroyed by burning. According to an approved custom, the Union (the white stars on the blue field) is first cut from the flag; then the two pieces, which no longer form a flag, are burned.

Today the flag consists of thirteen horizontal stripes, seven red alternating with 6 white. The stripes represent the original 13 colonies, the stars represent the 50 states of the Union. The colors of the flag are symbolic as well: Red symbolizes Hardiness and Valor, White symbolizes Purity and Innocence and Blue represents Vigilance, Perseverance and Justice.

Checking your understanding:1. What is due process of law? 2. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that helps explain its meaning: due process of law, citizen, naturalization.

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3. Why are personal responsibilities important?4. Summarize three of the freedoms granted in the first

Amendment. 5. The Fifth Amendment states that people have the right of

“due process of law.” Why is this phrase important? 6. For what reason may the flag be flown at half-mast?

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UNIT III

CHAPTER VIII. A GROWING NATION – THE NEW REPUBLIC

After the United States declared itself independent from British rule, many countries watched to see how the young country would survive on its own. In the years that followed, the nation grew stronger. Manufacturing took on a stranger role in the economy. People moved westward across the continent in greater and greater numbers. By the end of this period, however, the nation would be almost torn apart by a civil war. The rights that Americans fought for during this period remain with us today. Many of these rights can be seen in amendments to the Constitution.

Celebrations erupted in the streets of Philadelphia, New York, Boston and Charleston in 1789. news about the Constitution’s ratification was greeted with relief and enthusiasm. All that was needed now was a leader to guide the new nation. On April 6 the new Senate counted the presidential ballots. To no one’s surprise, the votes were unanimous. Senator John Langdon wrote to General George Washington: “Sir, I have the honor to transmit to Your Excellency the information of your unanimous election to the office of President of the United States of America.”

A NEW NATIONWashington and the Congress made many important decisions about the structure of the government. For example, the Constitution gave Congress the power to establish departments. However, it did not specify whether the department heads would report to the president or to the Congress. There early politicians set the tone for the young republic’s future. Washington knew that the precedents, o traditions he established as the nation’s first president would shape the future of the United States.

The first president. During the summer of 1789, Congress set up departments in the executive branch of government to assist the president. Washington chose the leaders of each department. The State Department handled relations with other nations, the Treasury Department dealt with financial matters and the War Department

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provided for national defense. In addition, the office of Attorney General was created by Congress to oversee the government’s legal affairs and the postmaster general ran the new postal service. Washington requested that the heads of each department and the attorney general meet with him regularly. This group of advisors became known as the cabinet. The first Congress also created the nation’s court system with the Judiciary Act of 1789. in this act, Congress established a federal court system with 13 district courts and three circuit courts. State laws would remain, but the federal courts had the power to reverse state decisions. The Nation’s Supreme Court served as the final authority on many issues. Once the basic structures of the new government had been created and filled with individuals, Congress considered constitutional amendments for the promised bill of rights. Congress passed 12 amendments and the states agreed on 10 of them. In December 1791, these 10 amendments were added to the Constitution and became known as the Bill of Rights. Early challenges. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton struggled with the nation’s financial problems. Hamilton tried to find a way to strengthen the nation and improve the government’s financial reputation. Hamilton called for new national taxes. These taxes upset many Americans. In western Pennsylvania, farmers rebelled. The armed protest, called the Whiskey Rebellion, alarmed government leaders. President Washington sent 13,000 soldiers to put down the uprising. The new government also faced other problems in the West. The Native Americans that lived between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River denied that the United States had any authority over them. On many occasions Native Americans turned to Britain and Spain for support. President Washington used negotiations with Britain and direct attacks on Native American groups to bring peace to the area. Treaties and neutrality. Twelve Native American nations in the Great Lakes region signed the Treaty of Greenville in 1795. The treaty opened most of Ohio to white settlement. These successes, in turn, convinced the Spanish to make peace with the United States. In Pinckney’s Treaty, also signed in 1795, the Spanish gave the United States open access to the Mississippi River and promised to dismantle all Spanish forts in American territory. Washington declined to seek a third term as president in the spring of 1796. In his farewell address, Washington attacked the evils of the developing political parties in the United States and urged the nation to avoid alliances with any other nation.

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The first political parties. Washington had criticized political parties and warned that they would divide the nation. Nevertheless, as various issued arose in the ew republic, it was only natural that people would disagree about them and that people of similar views would band together. In Washington’s cabinet, secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson increasingly took opposing sides on issues. Those who supported the policies of Hamilton wished for a vigorous federal government. These Americans, called Federalists, tended to support banking and shipping interests. Jefferson’s supporters began calling their party the Republicans, or the Democratic – Republicans. They wanted to leave as much power as possible to the state governments rather than giving more power to the national government.

One difference between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans concerned the basis of government power. Hamilton believed in implied powers, those not specifically mentioned in the Constitution. Jefferson and James Madison disagreed. They believed in a strict interpretation of the Constitution. They claimed that unless the Constitution specifically mentioned government powers in a particular area the government had no authority to act. In the presidential election of 1796, candidates sought office for the first time as members of a party rather than as individuals. The Federalists nominated Vice President John Adams and Charles Pinckney as their candidates. The Republicans put forth former secretary of state Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. In the end Adams won. He took office on March 4, 1797. President John Adams. Along wit the stress of political party disagreement, the Adams administration faced growing tension with France. Between 1798 and 1800 the new American navy fought an undeclared war with the French navy. The threat of was with France made Americans more suspicious of immigrants from other countries. Federalists in Congress responded with strict laws to protect the nation’s security and punish those who spoke out against the government’s actions. These measures were known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. Federalists used the laws to silence opposition. For some Americans, fears of a strong central government abusing its power seemed to be coming true. The Democratic-Republicans looked to the states to protect the people’s freedoms and fight what they regarded as Federalist tyranny. Caught up in this political turmoil, President Adams refused to rush to war with France. He appointed a commission that sought peace with France. In 1800 the French agreed to stop attacks on American ships. Even though he had

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successfully avoided war, Adam’s actions divided the Federalists and hurt his chances for re-election.

THE JEFFERSON ERAThe Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties fought a bitter election campaign in 1800. Federalists supported President Adams and Charles Pinckney for a second term. The Democratic-Republicans again nominated Jefferson and Burr.

The Democratic-Republicans take power. When members of the Electoral College voted, Jefferson and Burr each received 73 votes. The House of Representatives had to decide the election. The Federalists worked for 35 ballots to prevent the election of Jefferson, but finally, at Hamilton’s urging, Jefferson became president by a single vote. When Jefferson entered office, he aimed to reduce the big federal government, protect individual liberties and reduce the national debt of 83 million dollars. The entire federal government in 1801 consisted of only a few hundred people and some of those were part-time workers. This was exactly how Jefferson thought it should be. In his view the responsibilities of government should be limited to delivering the mail, collecting taxes on foreign imports and conducting a census every 10 years. Jefferson and the Courts. Jefferson hoped that some Federalists would support his policies. However, bitter feelings between the parties continued during his administration. Much of the ill will resulted from a disagreement between Jefferson and the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall, a Federalist, made the Court an equal partner in government. He did this by declaring that the Supreme Court could review the actions of the executive and legislative branches. This power of judicial review has become a basic part of the system of checks and balances of our government today. Under Marshall, the Court usually upheld the power of the national government over the rights of the states. The Louisiana Purchase. In 1802 France needed money to continue financing its ongoing war with the British Empire. Consequently, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte agreed to sell the large Louisiana Territory that stretched west of the Mississippi River. Previously owned by Spain, France had acquired the territory just that year in a secret deal. Jefferson’s administration could not resist the opportunity to expand the country. The Louisiana Purchase would provide cheap and abundant land for farmers for generations to come. The Senate

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approved the sale in October 1803 and the size of the United States doubled.Lewis and Clark. Even before the Louisiana Purchase was complete, Jefferson persuaded Congress to sponsor an expedition to explore the new territory and chart its geography. In the spring of 1804 Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led an exploration crew of expert river men, gunsmiths, carpenters, scouts and a cook. Interpreters also came along to help negotiate with Native Americans they met along the way. Lewis and Clark kept a journal of their voyage, making valuable notes on what they saw or did.

Jefferson instructed the explorers to find a route across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. They were also to learn as much as they could about the Native Americans who lived in the new territory and to treat them “in the most friendly and conciliatory manner.” They were assisted in this effort by a young Shoshone woman named Sacagawea. Married to one of the guides, she served as an interpreter and helped the explorers survive. After 18 months and nearly 4,000 miles, Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific Ocean in November 1805. After spending the winter at the mouth of the Columbia River, they headed east on two separate routes. Both explorers arrived in St. Louis in September 1806. the expedition had collected valuable information on people, plants, animals and the geography of the West. Perhaps most important, the journey gave hope to a nation of people eager to move westward. Federalists Vs. Democratic-Republicans (1800) • Federalists– Led by Hamilton and Adams• Demo-Republicans– Led by Jefferson

• Federalists– Supported by merchants, bankers, and manufacturers.• Demo-Republicans– Supported by southern planters, small farmers, northern laborers.

• Federalists– Advocated a strong national government.• Demo-Republicans– Advocated states’ rights.

• Federalists– Supported British in foreign affairs.

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Demo-Republicans– Supported the French in foreign affairs.

• Federalists– Favored government by “rich, well-born, and able”.• Demo-Republicans– Favored government by the “common man”.

• Federalists– Interpretation of the constitution favored loose “implied powers”.• Demo-Republicans– Interpretation of the constitution favored strict construction.

• Federalists– Favored a national bank.• Demo-Republicans– Opposed a national bank.

• Federalists– Favored a strong standing army.• Demo-Republicans– Opposed a standing army.

• Federalists– Supported by New England and city dwellers.• Demo-Republicans– Supported by Southerners and Westerners.

Checking your understanding: 1. Which political party was led by Alexander Hamilton? 2. What geographical barrier did Lewis and Clark have to cross

in order to reach the Pacific Ocean? 3. What was John Marshall’s greatest contribution as Chief

Justice? 4. Key terms: Write a short paragraph in which you use the

following key terms: precedent, cabinet, implied powers, judicial review.

5. Who established the cabinet and what was its purpose? 6. How did the Supreme Court (=the judicial power) affect the

balance of power between the state and federal government?

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CHAPTER IX. THE NATION’S NEW CHALLENGES

In 1801 Washington D. C. was slowly rising from a swampy site on the Potomac River. The nation’s new capital had only two noteworthy buildings 0 the president’s mansion (later called the White House) and the still unfinished Capitol. Between them stretched a mile and a half of muddy streets on which pigs and chickens roamed freely. Very few people liked being in Washington. It was hot and steamy in the summer, and the river and swamps were a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Abigail Adams called the new capital “the very dirtiest hole.”

CONFLICT WITH EUROPEFrom the swapms of Washington to the faraway lands of China, Americans were building a new nation. In 1785 the American ship Empress of China returned to New York from China with a highly prized cargo of tea and silk. The goods sold for a fabulous profit. Soon ships from New York, Philadelphia, and especially New England were sailing regularly to China and India carrying furs and other goods. The young United States was beginning to assert its economic independence. The presence of American merchants on the seas, however, meant that the United States would be involved in the affairs of other nations as well.

A disastrous trade ban. War broke out again between France and Great Britain in the mid-1790s. The United States continued to trade with both nations, claiming it was a neutral party. Trouble began when Britain and France began to stop and search American trade vessels on the Atlantic Ocean. Angry at this interference newly re-elected President Jefferson completely banned trade with both nations. Federalist New England, the heart of the shipping industry complained loudly about the ban. With ships stuck in their ports, unemployment began to rise. In the South tobacco meant for Europe rotted on the docks and cotton went unpicked. In the West the price of wheat declined and river traffic came to a halt. In 1808, the new president, James Madison, faced even more problems. Madison struggled to deal with angry Native Americans who objected to American settlers in the Ohio Valley. Convinced that the Native Americans in the Ohio Valley were allied with the British, an angry group of western Democratic-Republicans in Congress known as War Hawks pressured the president to declare war on Britain. Eventually,

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Madison asked Congress to declare war, although Americans in the Northeast remained strongly opposed to war.The War of 1812. The United States began preparing for war too late. The regular army consisted of fewer than 7,000 troops. The state militias numbered nearly 70,000 but were poorly trained and many states opposed “Mr. Madison’s War”. The war took place mostly in the Northeast, along the Great Lakes and alongside the Gulf of Mexico. In August of 1814, the British sailed into Chesapeake Bay and directly attacked Washington D.C. The Capitol and the president’s mansion were burned. The same year, British leaders in London decided that the war was costly and unnecessary. The Treaty of Ghent officially ended the war in December 1814. it did not change any existing borders. Before word of the treaty had reached the United States, one final battle occurred at New Orleans. Andrew Jackson’s army defeated a British invasion of the city and killed about 700 British soldiers. Jackson became a hero, even though the battle did not affect the war’s outcome.

GROWTH AND EXPANSIONBetween 1790 and 1825 three developments changed the nation. First, manufacturing took on an important role in the American economy. Second, people moved westward across the continent in larger and larger numbers. Third, the United States slowly began to seek a role in world affairs.

Economic growth. In the mid-1700s the way goods were made began to change in Great Britain. Instead of people using hand tools, machinery began to perform some of the work. This new system of producing goods brought about so many changes that this time in history is known as the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution began to take root in the United States around 1800, appearing first in New England. The soil was poor, and farming was difficult, but it had many streams and rivers to power the waterpower machinery that ran in factories. Most important, merchants in New England had money to invest in machinery. American inventors such as Oliver Evans improved the steam engine and developed a mechanical flour mill. In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a simple machine that quickly separated the cotton seeds from the fiber. Agriculture expands. Although many New Englanders went to work in factories, most Americans still lived and worked on farms. In the 1820s more than 65 percent of Americans were farmers. In the South, cotton production increased dramatically. The demand for cotton had

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grown steadily with the development of industrial textile mills in New England and Europe. Southern plantation owners used enslaved workers to plant, tend and pick the cotton. The cotton gin made it possible to clean the cotton much faster and more cheaply than by hand. Between 1790 and 1820, cotton production soared from 3,000 to more than 300,000 bales a year. Westward bound. In 1790 the United States population was nearly 4 million. Most Americans lived east of the Appalachian Mountains and within a few hundred miles of the Atlantic coast. By 1820 the population of the country had reached about 10 million, with nearly 2 million living west of the Appalachians. The nation needed good inland roads for travel and for the shipment of goods to and from seaports. Private companies built many roads and charged fees to help recover construction costs. When Ohio joined the Union in 1803, it asked the federal government to build a road to connect it with the East. In 1806 Congress approved funds for a National Road to the West. Americans moved westward in waves. The first wave began before the 1790s and led to the admission of four new states between 1791 and 1803-vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio. During the next 13 years, only one new state, Louisiana entered the Union. The westward movement slowed during the War of 1812. after the war, however, a second wave of westward growth began. Between 1816 and 1821 five new western states were created – Indiana, Illinois, Mississippi, Alabama and Missouri. Unity and Sectionalism. The nation expanded economically and geographically during James Monroe’s presidency, a period called the Era of Good Feelings. However, political cooperation began to decline as Americans began supporting the region where they lived. This regional loyalty or sectionalism, became more intense as differences arose over national policies. Sectional tension reached new heights in 1820 over the issue of slavery and how to admit new states to the Union. The South wanted Missouri, part of the Louisiana Purchase, admitted as a slave state. Northerners wanted Missouri to be free of slavery. The issue became the subject of debate throughout the country, exposing bitter regional disagreements. Eventually, Speaker of the House Henry Clay helped work out a compromise that preserved the balance between North and South. The Missouri Compromise, reached in March 1820, provided for the admission of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. The Agreement banned slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana territory north of the 360 30’ N parallel. The question was settled but only temporarily.

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The Supreme Court. The Supreme Court also became involved in sectional and states’ rights issues at this time. The state of Maryland imposed a tax on the Baltimore branch of the Second Bank of the United States – a federal institution. The bank refused to pay the state tax, and the case reached the Court in 1819. The Supreme Court ruled that since the Bank was a creation of the federal government, the state had no right to interfere with it. The Supreme Court’s ruling strengthened the national government. It also contributed to the debate over sectional issues. People who supported states’ rights believed the decision was a threat to individual liberties. Strong nationalists welcomed the decision’s support for national power. The Monroe Doctrine. In the 1820s Spain began having trouble with their colonies in the Western Hemisphere. All throughout Spain’s colonial empire – which stretched from the southwestern Unites States, through Mexico, central America and most of South America – struggles for independence were breaking out. In 1822 Spain turned to France, Austria, Russia and Prussia for help in its fight against revolutionary forces in South America. The possibility of increased European involvement in North America led President Monroe to issue a statement, later known as the Monroe Doctrine. In 1823 Monroe declared that while the United States would not interfere with any existing European colonies in the Americas, it would oppose any new ones. North and South America “are henceforth not be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” In 1823, the United States did not have the military power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Nevertheless, it became an important element in American foreign policy.

THE JACKSON ERAA struggle for political rights took shape in the 1820s and 1830s, when many people questioned the limits of American democracy. From 1816 to 1824, the United States had only one political party – the Democratic-Republicans. However, within the party, differences had arisen among various groups with their own views and interests.

From Adams to Jackson. In 1824 James Monroe was finishing his second term as president. Following the example of earlier presidents, Monroe declined to run for a third term. Four candidates from the Democratic-Republican Party competed for the presidency. The four candidates’ opinions differed on the role of the federal government. They also spoke for different areas of the country. The party nominated William H. Crawford, from Georgia. The other three

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Democratic-Republicans in the presidential race were favorite son candidates, meaning they received the backing of their home states rather than that of the national party. Henry Clay of Kentucky was Speaker of the House of Representatives. Clay fought for continued improvements of the country’s transportation system, high taxes on imports and a stronger national bank. General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee was a hero of the War of 1812. raised in poverty, Jackson claimed to speak for the Americans who had been left out of politics. His supporters included farmers in the South, settlers in the West and laborers in the Eastern cities. John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, son of former president John Adams, received support from Northeastern merchants. Adams believed that the federal government should shift the nation’s economy to manufacturing. In the election no one received more than half of the electoral votes, so according to the Twelfth Amendment, the House of Representatives selected the president. With the help of Henry Clay, Adams received enough votes in the House to become president. Adams named Clay as his secretary of state. Jackson’s followers accused the two men of making a “corrupt bargain” and stealing the election. The election of 1828. In 1828 Andrew Jackson tried again for the presidency, but by this time the party had divided into two separate parties: the Democratic-Republicans who supported Jackson and the National Republicans who supported Adams. Jackson’s supporters, commonly called Democrats, favored states’ rights and mistrusted strong central government. After a bitter campaign, Jackson received most of the votes of the new frontier states while also receiving many votes from the South. Jackson defeated Adams in a landslide victory. He tallied 56 percent of the popular vote and 178 of 261 electoral votes. Upon taking office, President Jackson promised “equal protection and equal benefits” for all Americans – at least for all white American men. During his first term, a spirit of equality and flourishing democracy spread through American politics. Between 1824 and 1828, the percentage of white males voting in presidential elections increased from 36.9 to 57.6 percent. By 1828, 22 of the 24 states had also changed their constitutions to allow the people, rather than the state legislatures, to choose presidential electors. The tariff debate. One of the most dividing issues in American politics was the use of tariffs, fees paid by merchants who imported goods. While northeastern manufacturers believed tariffs made American –made goods seem more affordable, Southerners hated tariffs. The South traded cotton to Europe for manufactured goods and the new tariff made these items more expensive. Southern

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politicians and plantation owners were so outraged by the rise of high tariffs during the 1820s and 1830s that some threatened to secede, or break away from the United States and form their own government. Jackson supported a congressional bill that lowered the tariff, while simultaneously persuading Congress to pass a bill that allowed him to use the military to enforce acts of Congress. The message was clear: If the South did not calm itself, it would face the army. For a time, a crisis was avoided. Yet, the South would remember this lesson – that the federal government would not allow a state to go its own way without a fight. Conflicts over land. The United States had expanded westward by the 1830s, but large numbers of Native Americans still lived in the eastern part of the country. In Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida, the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Seminole held valuable lands. In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act which allowed the federal government to pay Native Americans to move west. Most agreed to move and in 1834 Congress created the Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma for Native Americans from the Southeast. Sometimes, they did not agree to move. In 1838, Jackson ordered 7,000 federal troops to remove the Cherokee from their homes and lead them west. Brutal weather along the way claimed thousands of Cherokee lives. Their forced journey west became known to the Cherokee people as the Trail Where They Cried. Historians call it the Trail of Tears. Jackson and the Bank. Another area of conflict during Jackson’s time as president was the Second bank of the United States. For years, Jackson had attacked the bank as an organization of wealthy Easterners. The bank held the federal government’s money and controlled much of the country’s money supply. Although Congress had chartered the bank, it was run by private bankers. In 1832 Jackson rejected a congressional bill to renew the Bank’s charter for another twenty years. Most people supported this action, and Jackson was reelected in 1832 with 55 percent of the popular vote. Once re-elected, Jackson decided to “kill” the Bank by ordering the withdrawal of all government deposits from the Bank. The Bank was eventually forced to close.

MANIFEST DESTINYSince colonial times many Americans had believed their nation had a special role to fulfill. In the 1800s that mission seemed to be spreading freedom by occupying the entire continent. In the 1840s that mission was described as a “Manifest Destiny to overspread and

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to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us.” This meant that the United States was clearly destined – set apart for a special purpose – to expand all the way to the Pacific. The Oregon Country. A large northwestern part of the continent was called the Oregon country. For twenty years, Great Britain and the United States claimed and settled the area peacefully. However, Americans began to settle there in increasing numbers. Democrat James Polk won the presidency in 1844, partly because he supported American claims to Oregon. Democrats campaigned using the slogan “Fifty-four Forty or Fight”, referring to the line of latitude that Democrats believed should be the nation’s northern border in Oregon. In 1846, the two nations compromised and set the boundary between the United States and Canada at latitude 49o. Independence for Texas. Manifest Destiny also demonstrated itself in the Southwest during the 1830s. Present-day Texas was once a possession of Spain. When Mexico won its independence from Spain in the 1820s, it assumed control of the Texas territory. Mexican leaders hoped to attract settlers to Texas by offering large tracts of land at low prices and postponing taxes for four years. In return, colonists agreed to obey Mexican law, convert to Catholicism and learn Spanish. By 1830 Americans in Texas far outnumbered Mexicans. Further, these American settlers had not adopted Mexican ways. When Mexico tried to assert its authority, American settlers called for independence. The American settlers fought the Mexican Army in several battles, most famously at a Catholic mission named the Alamo. Despite losing at the Alamo, the Americans eventually won and gained their independence in 1836. The Republic of Texas existed for nine years before becoming part of the United States in 1845. New Mexico and California. The Mexican territories of New Mexico and California extended from Texas to the Pacific Ocean and up to the Oregon Territory. Americans with the idea of Manifest Destiny viewed this land as valuable. Shippers and manufacturers hoped to build ports on California’s Pacific coast for trade with China and Japan. Polk twice offered to buy California and New Mexico from Mexico, but Mexico refused. Before long the United States would take over both regions by force. War with Mexico. Relations between Mexico and the Unites States had been strained for some years. When the United States annexed, or took control o, Texas in 1845, the situation worsened. Mexico, which had never accepted the independence of Texas, charged that the annexation was illegal. Words turned into blows on April 24, 1846,

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when Mexican soldiers attacked a small force of American soldiers. Polk’s government decided that the attack was grounds for war with Mexico. Although Polk had clearly provoked the Mexicans, Americans felt justified by Manifest Destiny. Congress passed a declaration of war against Mexico. American forces quickly defeated the Mexican army and claimed New Mexico and California as part of the United States. The United States lost over 12,000 men to war and disease, but Mexico losses were far greater. Mexico lost more than half its territory in the war. In the peace treaty, Mexico gave up all claims to Texas, surrendered New Mexico and California and agreed to the Rio Grande River as the border between the two nations. In 1853 the Unites States paid Mexico an additional 10 million dollars for a strip of land along the southern edge of present-day Arizona and New Mexico. With this, the United States mainland reached its present size. All that remained was to settle the newly acquired territories.

Checking your understanding:1. Why did the Federalists oppose the trade ban? 2. What two factors allowed Southern plantations to be so

productive? 3. Why did Southern leaders oppose tariffs? 4. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: Industrial Revolution, cotton gin, sectionalism, favorite son, tariffs, secede, Manifest Destiny, annex.

5. How did cotton gin affect production? 6. How did the notion Manifest Destiny help Americans justify

their desire to extend the United States to the Pacific Ocean?

Analyzing Primary SourcesHistorians determine what happened in the past by combining

through bits of evidence to reconstruct events. This evidence – both written and illustrated – is called primary sources. Examining primary sources can help you understand history.

Primary sources are records of events made by the people who witnesses them. They include letters, diaries, photographs and pictures, news articles and legal documents. To analyze primary sources, follow these steps:

- Identify when and where the document was written;- Read the document for its content and try to answer the

five “W” questions: Who is it about?; What is it about?;

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When did it happen?; Where did it happen?; Why did it happen?

- Identify the author’s opinions.Practicing the skillThe primary source that follows comes from Speckled Snake, an elder of the Creek Nation, in 1829. He was more than 100 years old at the time he said these words. Read the quote, then answer the questions that follow: “Brothers! I have listened to many talks from our Great father. When he first came over the wide waters, he was but a little man. But when the white man had warmed himself before the Indians’ fire and filled himself with their hominy, he became very large. With a step he bestrode the mountains and his feet covered the plains and the valleys. His hand grasped the eastern and the western sea and his head rested on the moon. Then he became our Great father. Brothers, I have listened to a great many talks from our Great Father. But they always began and ended in this – “Get a little further; you are too near me.”

a) What events are described?b) Who was affected by these events?c) What is the general feeling of the person who stated this

opinion? Task: Analyzing primary sources: Find a primary source from your past – a photograph, a card, an old newspaper clipping. Bring this source to class and explain what it shows about that time in your life.

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CHAPTER X. SECTIONALISM AND REFORM

In the 1840s, telegraph wires and railroads began to cross the nation. But traveling by rail had its discomforts as writer Charles Dickens describes: “There is a great deal of jolting, a great deal of noise, a great deal of wall, not much window, a locomotive engine, a shriek and a bell. … in the center of the carriage there is usually a stove … which is for the most part red-hot. It is insufferably close; and you see the hot air fluttering between yourself and any other object you may happen to look at, like the ghost of smoke. …”

NORTH AND SOUTHIn the Northern states, technology changed the way Americans worked, traveled and communicated. By the mid-1800s, power-driven machinery performed many taska that were once done by hand. The South, on the other hand, did not change as radically as the North. It continued to be an agricultural region. In the 1800s, sharp economic and cultural differences existed between the Northern and the Southern states. The existence of slavery in the South was the sharpest difference between the regions. Political disagreements over the spread of slavery into newly acquired lands would divide the regions over time.

The North’s economy. The industrialization of the North developed in three phases. Initially, manufacturers made products by dividing the tasks involved among the workers. During the second phase, manufacturers built factories to bring specialized workers together. In the third phase, factory workers used machinery to perform some of their work. By 1860 the Northeast’s factories produced about two-thirds of the country’s manufactured goods. Improved transportation. Improvements in transportation contributed to the success of many of America’s new industries. Between 1800 and 1850, construction crews built thousands of miles of roads and canals – artificial waterways. The canals opened new shipping routes by connecting many lakes and rivers. The growth of railroads in the 1840s and 1850s produced another means to speed the flow of goods. The North’s people. As the factory system developed in the North, working conditions worsened. As the workday got longer, on-the-job accidents increased. Workers often labored under unpleasant conditions as well. Factory owners showed more concern for profit than for the comfort and safety of their employees. They knew that they could easily replace an unhappy worker with someone else eager

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for a job. Slavery had largely disappeared from the North by 1820. African Americans, however, were not treated the same as others. Most communities would not allow free African Americans to attend public schools and barred them from public facilities as well. Often African Americans were forced into separate schools and hospitals. Although better off than the enslaved people of the South, Northern African Americans still suffered the cruel and lasting effects of discrimination. Immigration. Immigration to the United States increased dramatically between 1840 and 1860. American manufacturers welcomed the tide of immigrants, many of whom were willing to work for long hours and for low pay. The largest group of immigrants to the United States at this time came from Ireland. Between 1846 and 1860, more than 1.5 million Irish immigrants arrived in the country. Settling mostly in the Northeast, many Irish took low-paying factory jobs in Northern cities. The second largest group of immigrants in the United States between 1820 and 1860 came from Germany.Southern cotton kingdom. The South did not receive as many immigrants as the North. This was because the southern region had developed along very different economic and social paths. The growth of the British textile industry in the late 1700s had created a huge demand for cotton, and the cotton gin made it much easier to process the crop for shipping overseas. This made cotton very profitable. Both the Upper South and the Deep South were agricultural, but their economies developed in different ways. The Upper South still produced tobacco, hemp (canepa), wheat and vegetables. The Deep South was committed to cotton and, in some areas, to rice and sugarcane. Industry never caught on in the South in the 1800s, in part because cotton growing was so profitable. Another disadvantage was the lack of money to invest in building industry. Most wealthy Southerners had their money tied up in land and slaves. The South’s people. Most white Southerners fit into one of four categories: yeomen, tenant farmers, the rural poor or plantation owners. Yeomen – farmers who did not have slaves – made up the largest group of whites in the South. Most yeomen owned land. Although they lived throughout the nation, they were most numerous in the Upper South and in the hilly rural areas of the Deep South. Yeomen grew crops both for their own use and to sell. Southern whites who did not own land rented it or worked as tenant farmers on landlords’ estates. Others – the rural poor – lived in crude cabins

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in wooded areas where they could clear a few trees, plant some corn and keep a hog or a cow. They also fished and hunted for food. Plantations and slavery. Plantation owners lived more comfortably than any of these other groups, though most did not live luxuriously. A small group of plantation owners – about 12 percent – held more than half of the slaves. About half of the planters held fewer than five enslaved workers. Life for the enslaved worker on the plantation was one of hardship and misery. They worked hard, earned no money and had little hope of freedom. In the face of these brutal conditions, enslaved African Americans maintained their family life as best they could and developed a culture all their own. The urban South. Although the South was primarily agricultural, it was the site of several large cities by the mid-1800s. cities on the rise included Baltimore, Charleston, Richmond and Memphis. The population of Southern cities included white city dwellers, some enslaved workers and about 250,000 of the South’s free African Americans. Although some free African Americans prospered in the cities, their lives were far from secure. Between 1830 and 1860 Southern states passed laws that limited the rights of free African Americans. Most states would not allow them to migrate from other states. Although spared the horrors of slavery, free African Americans were denied and equal share in economic and political life.

THE AGE OF REFORMA new reforming spirit arose in America in the early 1800s. the men and women who led the reform movement wanted to extend the nation’s ideals of liberty and equality to all Americans. They believed the nation should live up to the noble goals stated in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. The reforming spirit. The spirit of reform brought changes to American religion, politics, education, art and literature. Some reformers sought to improve society by forming utopias, communities based on a vision of a perfect society. In the early 1800s, a wave of religious fervor – known as the Second Great Awakening – stirred the nation. The Second Great Awakening increased church membership, especially among Methodists and Baptists. It also inspired people to become involved in missionary work and social reform movements. Reforming education. Reformers also focused on education. They argued that the poor state of education threatened the nation’s well-being. In the early 1800s, only New England states provided free

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elementary education. By the 1850s, through the hard work of reformers, all states had accepted three basic principles of public education: that schools should be free and supported by taxes, that teachers should be trained, and that children should be required to attend school. The Abolitionists. The spirit of reform in the early 1800s also included the efforts of abolitionists – members of the growing band of reformers who worked to abolish, or end, slavery. The religious revival and the reform movements of the early and mid-1800s gave new life to the anti-slavery movement. Many Americans came to believe that slavery was wrong. One effort to end slavery was the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816. The society planned to raise enough money to purchase land in Africa to resettle African Americans. The American Colonization Society did not resettle African Americans as fast as the number of enslaved people increased in America. The Society could only resettle a small number at a time, and furthermore, most African Americans did not want to go. They simply wanted to be free in the country they had lived in for generations. The Underground Railroad. Some abolitionists risked prison – even death – by secretly helping enslaved Africans escape. The network of escape routes out of the South became known as the Underground Railroad. The Underground Railroad had no trains or tracks. Instead, passengers on this “railroad” traveled through the night, often on foot and fled to the North. The railroad’s “conductors” were whites and African Americans who helped guide the escaping slaves to freedom in the North. Harriet Tubman escaped from slavery to become the most famous conductor on the Underground railroad. She made many dangerous trips into the South and guided hundreds of enslaved people to freedom. The antislavery movement led to an intense reaction against abolitionism. Southern slaveholders – and many Southerners who did not have slaves – opposed abolitionism because they believed it threatened the South’s way of life. Southerners claimed that slavery was essential to economic prosperity in the South. They also argued that they treated enslaved people well, and that for African Americans slavery was preferable to factory work in the North. The conflict between the proslavery and antislavery groups continued to mount. At the same time, a new woman’s rights movement was growing and many leading abolitionists were involved in that movement as well. The women’s movement. Women played a major role in all the American reform movements of the 1800s. In July 1848, Elizabeth

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Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and a few other women organized the first women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention issued a Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions modeled on the Declaration of Independence. The women’s declaration called for an end to all laws that discriminated against women. It demanded that women be allowed to enter the all-male world of trades, professions and businesses. The most controversial issue at the Seneca Falls Convention was the demand to allow women the right to vote. The Seneca Falls Convention paved the way for the growth of the women’s rights movement. An uncertain future. The period of time from the 1820s to the 1860s was a time of conflict, compromise and reform. The most pressing point of division remained the existence of slavery. Slavery would be the center of more and more arguments in the United States. This argument would eventually serve to split the nation in two. Is American slavery compassionate or cruel? Read the following viewpoints.More than any factor, slavery isolated the South from the rest of the United States. While abolitionists cried out to bring the cruel practice to an end, Southern slaveholders defended the only way of life they knew. Sojourner Truth, former slave, 1851“Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed, and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! … I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen them most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman?”

Jeremiah Jeter, Southern slaveholder, c. 1820“I could not free them, for the laws of the State forbade it. Yet even if they had not forbidden it, the slaves in my possession were in no condition to support themselves. It was simple cruelty to free a mother with dependent children. Observation, too, had satisfied me that the free negroes were, in general, in a worse condition than the slaves. The manumission [setting free] of my slaves to remain in the State was not to be thought of. Should I send them to Liberia? Some of them were in a condition to go, but none of them desired to. If sent, they [would] be forced to leave wives and children belonging to other masters [on nearby plantations], to dwell in a strange land.”

a) Why do you think Sojourner truth was an effective speaker?

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b) Why didn’t Jeremiah Jeter just free his slaves?c) Do the two excerpts contradict each other? In what way? (The

slave said that her children were sold; the slaveholder said that he could not set free a woman with dependent children).

To bear the lash – a suporta biciul

Checking your understanding:1. Why was transportation important in the early 1800s? 2. Why was the Seneca Falls Convention important? 3. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: canals, yeomen, tenant farmers, utopia, abolitionists, Underground Railroad.

4. List two differences between yeomen and plantation owners. 5. Describe two goals of the women’s movement. Task: What differences arose between the North and the South? Answer in 4 paragraphs: introduction, description of economic differences; description of social differences; conclusion. (N – technological changes, machinery; S – no changes; the existence of slavery in the S was the sharpest difference)Task: Design a poster to win support for the women’s rights movement. Include viewpoints that will draw both men and women supporters.

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CHAPTER XI. A NATION DIVIDES AND REUNITES

Union sergeant Driscoll directed his troops at Malvern Hill on July 1, 1862. The enemy fought fiercely, especially one young Confederate soldier. Driscoll raised his rifle, took aim, and shot the boy. As he passed the spot where the boy had fallen, Driscoll turned the daring soldier over to see what he looked like. The boy opened his eyes and faintly murmured, “Father,” then his eyes fluttered shut, never to open again. A Union captain later wrote: “I will forever recollect the frantic grief of Driscoll; it was harrowing to witness. He [had killed] his son, who had gone South before the war.”

THE CIVIL WARLike the Driscolls, many families were divided by the war. Neither side imagined, however, that the war would cost such a terrible price in human life. During the four years of fighting, hundreds of thousands of Americans were killed in battle. Division over slavery finally split the nation in 1860. during that year’s presidential election, slavery divided the Democratic Party. This allowed the Republican candidate, Abraham Lincoln, to win the election. The Republican platform, tried to appeal to a wide range of Americans. It called for slavery to be left undisturbed where it existed, but for it to be excluded from the territories. This was not acceptable to most Southerners. Lincoln’s name did not even appear on the ballot in most Southern states. Secession and War. Many people in the South did not trust Lincoln and his Republican Party, fearing that the government would not protect Southern rights and slavery. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina became the first state to vote for secession – withdrawal from the union. By February 1861, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida and Georgia joined South Carolina to form the Confederate States of America. They chose Jefferson Davis, a senator from Mississippi, as their president. Fighting began when the South tried to hold federal forts. Confederate forces fired the first shots at Fort Sumter, a Union fort in South Carolina, When Confederate forces tried to claim Fort Sumter, a Union fort in South Carolina, they fired the first shots of the war. Thousands of cannonballs were fired at the fort, and the Civil War had begun. President Lincoln issued a call for 75,000 troops to fight to save the Union. Choosing sides. Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas joined the Confederacy. Border states – including Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland and Delaware who allowed slavery – stayed

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with the Union. These states held many people sympathetic to the Confederacy. Likewise, some residents of Southern states opposed the secession. In 1861, 48 counties of Virginia organized themselves as a separate state called West Virginia. Congress admitted this new state to the Union in 1863. Comparing North and South. The North enjoyed the advantages of a larger population, more industry and more abundant resources than the South. It had a better banking system, which helped to raise money for the war. The North also possessed more ships and almost all members of the regular navy remained loyal to the Union. Finally, the North had a larger and more efficient railway network. The North also faced disadvantages. Bringing the Southern states back into the Union would be difficult. The North would have to invade and holds the South = a large area filled with a hostile population. The South would also be fighting on familiar territory, defending their land, their homes and their way of life. The South, also, had superior military leadership at the beginning of the war. Southern families had a strong tradition of military service and provided many experienced officers to the Confederate Army. America’s bloodiest war. When the war began, each side expected an early victory. Each was very wrong. By the end of the war 850,000 men fought for the Confederacy. 2.1 million fought for the Union. The war lasted more than four years and was the most devastating conflict in American history. Early battles. Early battles were sobering for the nation. The first major battle of the war, the First Battle of Bull Run, outside of Washington, D.C. resulted in a Southern victory. The North was shocked. Lincoln ordered one million more soldiers. The war raged across the country, from the waters off of the East Coast to the western United States. Two ironclad warships – steam-powered, wooden ships covered in iron plates – fought each other for the first time off the coast of Virginia. The Union Merrimack and the Confederate Monitor fought each other to a stalemate because neither could sink the other. The Battle of Shiloh raged in Tenneddee, causing more than 20,000 casualties – people killed or wounded. The city of New Orleans fell to Union forces, giving the North control of most of the Mississippi River. The Battle of Antietam, occurring on 70 miles from Washington, was the single bloodiest day of the war. Emancipation. Throughout the early part of the war, President Lincoln had no intention of ending slavery. His first priority was to save the Union. However, as the war went on, attitudes towards slavery began to change. More Northerners believed that slavery was

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helping the war effort in the South. They argued that enslaved people were raising crops to feed the armies and doing other heavy work in the trenches at army camps. Lincoln was aware of the shift in public opinion. Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, which outlawed slavery in the Confederate states, on January 1, 1863. Since the policy only applied to the South, no enslaved people were actually free. However, Lincoln knew that many of them would hear of the proclamation and might encourage them to run away fro their slaveholders. Only a year later, Congress prepared a constitutional amendment to end slavery in the United States. In 1865, Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment, which was ratified, or approved, the same year by states loyal to the Union. It was this amendment that truly freed all of the enslaved Americans.The tide of war turns. The winter of 1862-1863 saw gloom in the North and hope in the South. Confederate General Robert E. Lee won decisive victories at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, two Virginia towns. However, in July 1863, the North won two victories that marked a turning point in the war. The Battle of Gettysburg, occurred in Pennsylvania and involved over 100,000 troops. The North turned back a much larger force, although the day saw over 50,000 casualties. The battle at Vicksburg, Mississippi, ended when Confederate forces surrendered to Union general Ulysses S. Grant. The South would be on the defensive after the summer of 1863. at the end of 1864, Union forces under General William Tecumseh Sherman led his army the historic “march to the sea” through the South, destroying everything in sight. Cities were burned, livestock was killed and railroad lines were torn up. This method of waging war was known as total war. Victory for the North. Confederate Army commander Lee finally surrendered on April 9, 1865, at a small village in Virginia called Appomattox Court House. Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy, was captured in Georgia on May 10. The Civil War was over at last. More than 600,000 soldiers died in the war. Billions of dollars of damage were suffered, most of it in the South. The war also created bitter feelings among defeated Southerners that lasted for generations. The war had other consequences as well. The North’s victory had saved the Union. The federal government was strengthened and was now clearly more powerful than the states. Finally, the war freed millions of African Americans. How the nation would treat those new citizens remained to be seen.

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RECONSTRUCTIONEven before the war was over, Northerners disagreed about how to rebuild the South and allow the various states to rejoin the Union. This process was called Reconstruction, and it went through several different plans. President Lincoln had a plan, but it was short-lived. Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, at Ford’s Theater in Washington D.C. Lincoln’s vice president was Andrew Johnson, formerly a Southern Democrat from Tennessee. His plan was softer on the South than many in the Republican Congress wanted. The Congress, ruled by the “Radical Republicans” fought with the president over Reconstruction.

African American’s rights. In 1865, during the final weeks of the war, Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau. This government agency was meant to help former enslaved persons, or freedmen. The agency distributed food and clothing and established schools throughout the South. Southern whites were making the lives of African Americans difficult. In 1865 and early 1866, the new Southern state legislatures passed a series of laws called black codes. These laws trampled the rights of African Americans. To freed men and women and many Northerners, the black codes looked like slavery in disguise. In 1866, Congress passed a new amendment to the Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment granted full citizenship to all individuals born in the United States. This was meant to protect the rights of newly freed African Americans. Radical Reconstruction. The Republicans in Congress quickly took charge of Reconstruction. President Johnson could do little to stop them because Congress could easily override his vetoes. Thus began a period known as Radical Reconstruction. Reconstruction Act of 1867. In 1867, Congress passed the First Reconstruction Act that called for the creation of new governments in the 10 Southern states that had not ratified the Fourteenth Amendment. The act divided these 10 states into five military districts, to be overseen by a military commander until new governments were formed. Many white Southerners refused to take part in state government. Thousands of newly registered African American voters helped make the new state governments Republican-controlled. Impeaching President Johnson. The Republican Congress was so opposed to President Johnson that it passed several laws limiting the president’s power. One of these laws, the Tenure of Office Act, limited the president’s control over his own government. When

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Johnson broke this law, the House of Representatives voted to impeach – formally charge with wrongdoing – the president. The trial began in the Senate in March 1868 and lasted almost three months. Johnson survived by only one vote and served until the end of his term. African Americans in Government. African Americans played an important role in Reconstruction politics both as voters and as elected officials. They did not control the government of any state, but held many important positions. At the national level, 16 African Americans served in the House of Representatives and 2 in the Senate between 1869 and 1880. One of the most famous of these men was Hiram Revels, a minister, a Civil War veteran and educator. He served a year in the Senate, where he declared he received “fair treatment”. The Ku Klux Klan. Violence against African Americans and their white supporters became commonplace during Reconstruction. Much of this violence was committed by secret societies organized to prevent freed men and women from exercising their rights and to help whites regain power. The most terrifying of these societies, the Ku Klux Klan, was formed in 1866. Members of the Klan dressed in white and intimidated African Americans, burning their homes, churches and schools. The Knal killed as well. In Jackson County, Florida, the Klan murdered more than 150 people over a three-year period. Life in the South. Despite the violence, Reconstruction brought important changes to the South. In the 1870s Reconstruction governments began creating public school systems for both races, which had not existed in the South before the war. Within a few years, more than 50 percent of African American children in the South were enrolled in public schools. Life was still difficult economically in the South, especially for African Americans. Most of them were not able to buy land after the war. The end of Reconstruction. During the 1870s, the Republican Party began to decline in power and unity. Democrats gained power in some Southern states. The end of Reconstruction was near. The presidential election of 1876 was a very close election and the results were disputed. Republicans and Democrats met in secret to work out an agreement. The Compromise of 1877 called for Republican Rutherford Hayes to take the presidency. The deal included various favors to the Democratic South, including the withdrawal of military troops. The message was clear. The federal government would no longer attempt to reshape Southern society. Reconstruction was over.

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Checking your understanding:1. Which slave states remained in the Union after the Fort

Sumter attack? 2. Which states did not secede until after the Fort Sumter attack?

What was the Emancipation Proclamation? 3. Why were the black codes passed in the South? 4. Key terms: Use each of these terms in a complete sentence

that will help explain its meaning: Secession, border states, ironclad, casualties, ratified, Reconstruction, black codes, impeach.

5. What advantages did the North have in the Civil War?6. Describe three consequences of the Civil War.

ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

1. Explain each of these terms:a. implied powers b. judicial review c. Industrial Revolution d. Underground Railroad e. Manifest Destiny f. yeomen g. abolitionists h. secession i. Reconstruction j. impeach

2. What was the main reason for the formation of political parties?

3. What Supreme Court justice was responsible for the policy of judicial review?

4. Explain the cause of the war with Mexico. 5. Why was there little industry in the South? 6. How did abolitionists support the antislavery movement? 7. During what years was the Civil War fought? 8. Describe the actions of the Freedmen Bureau. 9. What do you think were Lewis and Clark’s greatest

contribution or achievements? 10. After being elected president in 1828, Andrew Jackson

promised “equal protection and equal benefits” for all Americans. Do you think he included Native Americans in his promise? Why or why not?

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11. What did the discovery of gold in California lead to?

Task: If you were asked to make a film about one event described in this chapter, what would it be? In your journal describe the event and make a list of at least three people from history who would be in your movie.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Appleby, Brinkley, McPherson, The American Journey. Reconstruction to the Present. McGrawHill, Glencoe, USA, 2005

Hort, Lenny, Biography. George Washington, DK Publishing, Inc., USA, 2005

The New International Webster’s Quick Reference. Our Nation, Trident Press International, USA, 2002

Breidlid, Anders, Brogger, Frederik, Chr. (editors), American Culture, An Anthology of Civilization Texts, Routledge, USA, 1996

Fischer, Claude, S., Made in America. A social history of American culture and character, University of Chicago Press, USA, 2011

LeGood, Delk, Cheryl L., Discovering American Culture, University of Michigan Press, USA, 2008

Sundem, Garth, Hands-On History: American History Activities, Shell Education, USA, 2007

Pingry, Patricia A., (editor), The Ideals Treasury of Faith in America, Ideals Publications, Nashville, Tennessee, USA, 2006

Zinn, Howard, A people’s history of the United States: 1492 to present, Harper Perennial Modern Classics, SUA, 1981

Johnson, Paul, A history of the American people, Harper Perennial, USA, 1999.

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