Culture and Society: Hardware and Software of Our Social World

Culture and Society: Culture and Society: Hardware and Software of Hardware and Software of

Our Social WorldOur Social World

Culture and SocietyCulture and Society

►Society as hardwareSociety as hardware►Culture as softwareCulture as software

The Importance of SoftwareThe Importance of Software

► Culture makes societies unique. Culture is Culture makes societies unique. Culture is the way of life shared by a group of people.the way of life shared by a group of people.

KnowledgeKnowledge BeliefsBeliefs ValuesValues Rules or lawsRules or laws LanguageLanguage CustomsCustoms SymbolsSymbols Material productsMaterial products

► Culture provides a guideline for carrying Culture provides a guideline for carrying out tasksout tasks

Society: The HardwareSociety: The Hardware

► Societies are composed of Societies are composed of structuresstructures

Positions we holdPositions we hold Groups we belong toGroups we belong to InstitutionsInstitutions

Society: The HardwareSociety: The Hardware

► Society develops in stages Society develops in stages depending on many thingsdepending on many things

Availability of resources Availability of resources Contact with other societiesContact with other societies Cultural beliefsCultural beliefs Political events and changesPolitical events and changes

Evolution of SocietiesEvolution of Societies

► Mechanic societiesMechanic societies Small, simple, pre-Small, simple, pre-

modern societies modern societies Held together by Held together by

common beliefs, common beliefs, values, and values, and emotional tiesemotional ties

Labor is divided by Labor is divided by male/female male/female distinctions and distinctions and age groupings. age groupings.

► Organic societiesOrganic societies Large, complex Large, complex

societies societies Held together by the Held together by the

specialization of tasks specialization of tasks Division of laborDivision of labor EfficiencyEfficiency Institutions and Institutions and

bureaucratic bureaucratic organizations begin organizations begin to existto exist

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

► Hunting and Gathering Societies Hunting and Gathering Societies Rely on vegetation and animals to liveRely on vegetation and animals to live Organized around kinshipOrganized around kinship Nomadic Nomadic Small (between 20-50 members)Small (between 20-50 members) Gendered division of labor Gendered division of labor Resources shared fairlyResources shared fairly Actions and behaviors dictated through Actions and behaviors dictated through

tradition or survivaltradition or survival Lack material possessionsLack material possessions


► Herding and Horticultural SocietiesHerding and Horticultural Societies

Herding societiesHerding societies► produce small herds of produce small herds of

domesticated animals for food domesticated animals for food and survival, and and survival, and

Horticultural societiesHorticultural societies► maintain small garden plots for maintain small garden plots for

food and survivalfood and survival


►Herding and Horticultural SocietiesHerding and Horticultural Societies Semi-NomadicSemi-Nomadic Relatively small (50 - 3,000 members)Relatively small (50 - 3,000 members) Status differences become important and Status differences become important and

produce inequalityproduce inequality ““Traditional” gender roles emerge:Traditional” gender roles emerge:

Some material possessions Some material possessions


► Agricultural Societies Agricultural Societies Rely on raising crops for foodRely on raising crops for food Use technological advances for Use technological advances for

increased efficiency and higher increased efficiency and higher crop yieldscrop yields► PlowsPlows► IrrigationIrrigation► Use of animalsUse of animals► FertilizationFertilization


► Agricultural Societies Agricultural Societies Permanent settlementsPermanent settlements Use of advanced technologies Use of advanced technologies Populations can be large (1,000,000 or more) Populations can be large (1,000,000 or more) Stratification intensifiesStratification intensifies

►Peasant classesPeasant classes►Ruling classes Ruling classes

Institutions beyond the family are establishedInstitutions beyond the family are established►ReligiousReligious►PoliticalPolitical►Military organizationsMilitary organizations


► Industrial SocietiesIndustrial Societies Rely on mechanized productionRely on mechanized production Pronounced division of labor Pronounced division of labor Rise in standard of livingRise in standard of living

► Wide gaps between owners and laborersWide gaps between owners and laborers

Population concentrates in citiesPopulation concentrates in cities Kinship patters changeKinship patters change Social change more rapidSocial change more rapid


► Postindustrial SocietiesPostindustrial Societies Technology, or scientific knowledge used for utilitarian Technology, or scientific knowledge used for utilitarian

or economic purposes, is very importantor economic purposes, is very important Majority of labor force in service positionsMajority of labor force in service positions The division of labor more pronounced The division of labor more pronounced Technical and professional education increasingly Technical and professional education increasingly

importantimportant► Stratification based on technological knowledge and Stratification based on technological knowledge and

educationeducation Emphasis on science to solve social problems including:Emphasis on science to solve social problems including:

► Creating alternate energy sourcesCreating alternate energy sources► Finding automated ways of completing tasksFinding automated ways of completing tasks► Using computers and robots to complete tasks Using computers and robots to complete tasks

formerly done by individualsformerly done by individuals

Culture: The SoftwareCulture: The Software

► CultureCulture is the way of shared life by a is the way of shared life by a group of people—the knowledge, group of people—the knowledge, beliefs, values, rules or lays, beliefs, values, rules or lays, language, customs, symbols, and language, customs, symbols, and material products within a society material products within a society that help meet human needsthat help meet human needs

Real Versus Ideal CultureReal Versus Ideal Culture

► We teach new We teach new members of our members of our society the ideal society the ideal culture, or the culture, or the practices and practices and beliefs that are beliefs that are most desirablemost desirable

► However, the real However, the real culture of a society culture of a society refers to the way refers to the way things in society things in society are actually doneare actually done

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Ethnocentrism and Cultural RelativityRelativity

► EthnocentrismEthnocentrism is is the tendency to the tendency to view one’s own view one’s own group and its group and its cultural cultural expectations as expectations as right, proper, and right, proper, and superior to otherssuperior to others

► Cultural relativismCultural relativism is setting aside is setting aside personal beliefs personal beliefs and prejudices to and prejudices to understand a understand a culture by its own culture by its own standards or as a standards or as a member of that member of that culture wouldculture would

Society, Culture, and Our Social Society, Culture, and Our Social WorldWorld

Micro-level Analysis: Micro-level Analysis: MicrostructuresMicrostructures

► MicroculturesMicrocultures – organizations that – organizations that influence only a small segment of an influence only a small segment of an individual’s lives or only affects an individual’s lives or only affects an individual’s life for a small period of individual’s life for a small period of timetime

Meso-level Analysis: Meso-level Analysis: Subcultures and Subcultures and CounterculturesCountercultures

► A A subculturesubculture is a social unit smaller is a social unit smaller than a nation but large enough to than a nation but large enough to sustain people throughout the life sustain people throughout the life spanspan

Elements that make them uniqueElements that make them unique Share conventions and expectations of Share conventions and expectations of

dominant culturedominant culture Influence people’s lives in pervasive Influence people’s lives in pervasive

waysways

Meso-level Analysis: Meso-level Analysis: Subcultures and Subcultures and CounterculturesCountercultures

► A A counterculturecounterculture is a group with expectations is a group with expectations and values that contrast sharply with the and values that contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular societydominant values of a particular society

Values or practices that go against laws and Values or practices that go against laws and regulations of the dominant cultureregulations of the dominant culture► May wish to replace values of the larger culture May wish to replace values of the larger culture

Most often short-lived Most often short-lived Some aspects accepted by the dominant cultureSome aspects accepted by the dominant culture Countercultures can challenge unfair treatment of Countercultures can challenge unfair treatment of

powerless groups in society powerless groups in society

Macro-level Analysis: Macro-level Analysis: National and Global CultureNational and Global Culture

► Natural Culture and SocietyNatural Culture and Society Every culture intricately related to a Every culture intricately related to a

societysociety► Global Society and CultureGlobal Society and Culture

GlobalizationGlobalization is the process where the is the process where the entire globe is becoming a “single socio-entire globe is becoming a “single socio-cultural place”cultural place”► Globalization or Westernization?Globalization or Westernization?

Global cultureGlobal culture is the behavioral standards, is the behavioral standards, symbols, values, and material objects that symbols, values, and material objects that have become common across the globehave become common across the globe

Material Culture: The Artifacts of Material Culture: The Artifacts of LifeLife

► Material cultureMaterial culture includes all the includes all the objects we can see or touch, all the objects we can see or touch, all the artifacts of a group of peopleartifacts of a group of people

Nonmaterial Culture: Beliefs, Nonmaterial Culture: Beliefs, Values, Rules, and Language Values, Rules, and Language

► Nonmaterial culture is the invisible Nonmaterial culture is the invisible and intangible parts of cultureand intangible parts of culture

BeliefsBeliefs ValuesValues Norms/RulesNorms/Rules LanguageLanguage

Nonmaterial Culture: BeliefsNonmaterial Culture: Beliefs

► BeliefsBeliefs are ideas we hold about life, are ideas we hold about life, about the way the society works, and about the way the society works, and about where we fit into itabout where we fit into it

Based in tradition Based in tradition Influence choices we makeInfluence choices we make

Nonmaterial Culture: ValuesNonmaterial Culture: Values

► ValuesValues are nonmaterial shared are nonmaterial shared judgments about what is desirable or judgments about what is desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, good or undesirable, right or wrong, good or badbad

So much a part of the way of life that So much a part of the way of life that they can be hard to identifythey can be hard to identify

Groups in society can have different Groups in society can have different valuesvalues► can lead to group conflictcan lead to group conflict

Nonmaterial Culture: RulesNonmaterial Culture: Rules

► Norms are rules of behavior shared Norms are rules of behavior shared by members of a society and rooted by members of a society and rooted in the value systemin the value system

FolkwaysFolkways MoresMores TaboosTaboos LawsLaws

Non-material Culture: RulesNon-material Culture: Rules

► Sanctions are behaviors that Sanctions are behaviors that reinforce norms through rewards and reinforce norms through rewards and penaltiespenalties

Formal sanctionsFormal sanctions► Positive formal sanctionsPositive formal sanctions► Negative formal sanctionsNegative formal sanctions

Informal sanctionsInformal sanctions► Positive informal sanctionsPositive informal sanctions► Negative formal sanctionsNegative formal sanctions

Nonmaterial Culture: Nonmaterial Culture: LanguageLanguage

► LanguageLanguage is the spoken, written, or is the spoken, written, or nonverbal use of symbols to convey nonverbal use of symbols to convey meaning, objects, or ideasmeaning, objects, or ideas

The foundation of every cultureThe foundation of every culture Makes culture possibleMakes culture possible Takes three forms:Takes three forms:

► SpokenSpoken► WrittenWritten► NonverbalNonverbal


► Spoken languageSpoken language Uses a set of sounds to symbolize objects or ideasUses a set of sounds to symbolize objects or ideas Sounds generally hold common meaning to all Sounds generally hold common meaning to all

members of a culturemembers of a culture►Written languageWritten language

Uses a set of images to symbolize objects or Uses a set of images to symbolize objects or ideasideas

Societies tend to store information through Societies tend to store information through written languagewritten language

Makes communication over distances possibleMakes communication over distances possible►Nonverbal languageNonverbal language

Uses gestures, facial expression, and body Uses gestures, facial expression, and body posture to symbolize an object or ideaposture to symbolize an object or idea


► The The linguistic relativity theorylinguistic relativity theory posits posits that people who speak a specific that people who speak a specific language make interpretations of language make interpretations of their reality based on their their reality based on their knowledge of languageknowledge of language

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Symbolic Interaction TheorySymbolic Interaction Theory

► How we learn to share meanings of symbolsHow we learn to share meanings of symbols► Symbols are the basic element of all culturesSymbols are the basic element of all cultures► ““Humanness” comes from the impact we Humanness” comes from the impact we

have upon each other through shared have upon each other through shared understandings of symbolsunderstandings of symbols

► We learn meanings of symbols through We learn meanings of symbols through interaction with othersinteraction with others

► We define how we should act through our We define how we should act through our definition of situations and symbolsdefinition of situations and symbols

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Symbolic Interaction TheorySymbolic Interaction Theory

►Three steps through symbols gain Three steps through symbols gain meaning and importancemeaning and importance The symbol is createdThe symbol is created The symbol is objectified, assuming a The symbol is objectified, assuming a

reality independent of the creatorreality independent of the creator The group internalizes the symbolThe group internalizes the symbol

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism

► Looks for the functions or purposes Looks for the functions or purposes behind the actions and practices of a behind the actions and practices of a cultureculture

► Shared norms, values, and beliefs Shared norms, values, and beliefs serve the function of holding a society serve the function of holding a society or a subculture togetheror a subculture together

► However sometimes shared norms, However sometimes shared norms, values, and beliefs are dysfunctional values, and beliefs are dysfunctional for individuals or groups of individuals for individuals or groups of individuals within a societywithin a society

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

► Societies are composed of groups; each of which Societies are composed of groups; each of which protects its own self-interests and struggles to protects its own self-interests and struggles to make its own cultural ways dominant in the make its own cultural ways dominant in the societysociety

► Dominant groups may impose their cultural Dominant groups may impose their cultural beliefs on minorities and other subcultural groupsbeliefs on minorities and other subcultural groups

This practice can create conflictThis practice can create conflict► People with privilege and power in society People with privilege and power in society

manipulate agents of socialization so people learn manipulate agents of socialization so people learn the values, beliefs, and norms of the privileged the values, beliefs, and norms of the privileged group(s)group(s)

► However, conflict theory does not explain stable However, conflict theory does not explain stable societiessocieties

Policy and Cultural ChangePolicy and Cultural Change

Technology is bringing change to Technology is bringing change to societies around the worldsocieties around the world

Cultural lagCultural lag occurs when shifts in society occurs when shifts in society occur unequally between material occur unequally between material culture and nonmaterial cultureculture and nonmaterial culture

New technologies must be used New technologies must be used cautiouslycautiously► Some can save lives Some can save lives ► Others can disrupt and destroy culturesOthers can disrupt and destroy cultures

Documents

Culture and Society: Hardware and Software of Our Social World