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Current status of researchon women in the Arab worldAyad Al‐QazzazPublished online: 06 Dec 2006.

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Current Status of Research on Women in the ArabWorld

Ayad al-Qazzaz

This paper is based on a survey of approximately 150 items dealing with Arab women.Although further research for new areas is suggested, the purpose of the paper is tohighlight the types of information available in English about Arab women and toassess and evaluate it.

Simple classification of the available literature on Arab women is possible in threeways; one is by country, another is by specific periods in time, and the third is by theorientation of the writer. I chose the third way here for it criss-crosses countries, andtends to provide the reader with knowledge of generalised import and significance.

The literature can be classified broadly into three categories: (1) Literature ofReligious Orientation; (2) Literature of the Social Science Orientation; (3) Overview ofLiterature. Each of these categories is divided into subcategories, neither mutuallyexclusive of the other. They are used for the lack of a better term and as an heuristictool, to sensitise the reader to the basic orientation of each article. Below is a briefdiscussion of some representative articles that will be used to illustrate eachsubcateeorv.

LITERATURE OF RELIGIOUS ORIENTATION

The majority of authors in this category are pro-Islam, usually holding Islam as theirown religious faith. Taking a defensive posture, these authors generally feel that Islamis being unfairly blamed for the relatively low status of women in the Middle East.Consequently, their goal is usually to defend the Muslim interpretation of the role ofwomen, and writers who fall into this category tend to use four major strategies todefend, explain and justify the Islamic position of women. (1) Comparison of theposition of women before and after the establishment of Islam; (2) attributing the lowstatus of women to extra-Islamic culture; (3) comparison of Islam, Christianity, andJudaism in their relative treatment of women; (4) Islam's acknowledgement ofdifferences between men and women and attempts to justify these differences. Somewriters combine all four approaches while others use one, or a combination of thefour.

Comparison ofPre- and Post-Islamic WomenAminuddin's article 'Women's Status in Islam: A Moslem View', exemplifies thisapproach in which the author argues that women in pre-Islamic times had very limitedrights, privileges, status, or individuality. In fact, pre-Islamic women in Arabia werelooked upon as the most degenerate group in society. From this historical basis it isargued that Muhammad realised the lack of equality in the relative social position ofwomen and sought to gain reforms in this area. As a result of Muhammad the positionof women was transformed and raised to one of relative equality with men 'in almostall matters.' Aminuddin discusses the many improvements for women introduced byIslam: (1) Muhammad removed the stigma of 'original sin' which had made womanresponsible for the fall of man; (2) Islam restricted the practice of polygamy which hadbeen unregulated; (3) the Qur'an forbade infanticide; (4) furthermore, Muhammadstressed knowledge and education for both sexes as essential for a good Islamic life.

Attributing Low Status of Women to Extra-Islamic TraditionsThe first approach emphasises that Islam significantly raised women's status relative tomen and brought about a basic equality while the 'extra-Islamic' approach denies that

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RESEARCH AND WOMEN IN THE ARAB WORLD 3 7 3

Islam has contributed to the low status of women. This approach also maintains thatnon-compliance with Islamic laws has resulted in the present state of inequalitybetween the sexes, furthered by the assimilation of European culture leading to thelow status of females.

Seneya Seleh's article. 'Women in Islam-. Their Role in Religious and TraditionalCulture,' attributes sexual inequality to these 'extra-Islamic traditions.' When theposition of Middle Eastern women is examined from a historical perspective, one willnote that the decline of Islamic civilisation in the Middle Ages was accompanied bya deterioration of the social conditions of women. As Islamic civilization began todecline, the position of women did also, which is evidence that the abuse of Islamiclaw has put women in a subordinate position. Islam gave women the right to ownproperty, the right to an honoured family position, and the right to arrange her ownmarriage. As Islamic civilization deteriorated Islamic law was disregarded and as aresult, unrestricted polygamy, permitting under-age marriages of females without theirconsent, and unilateral repudiation of a wife by her husband became common inMiddle Eastern society. These are some of the 'extra-Islamic traditions' which haveresulted in a low status position for women.

There are also 'extra-Islamic traditions' which are a result of European civil lawsthrough the process of Westernisation, that have contributed to the low status andposition of women in the Middle East. Westernisation has resulted in a 'dual society'where European laws have been implanted in the modern urban areas and thetraditional patterns remain in the rural areas. Most Moslems wish to become part ofthe modern world, however, the western ideal of emancipation for women is lessadvanced than the Islamic. Islamic tradition offers less resistance to the emancipationof women than do the civil laws of European origin and these have become 'modernextra-Islamic traditions'.

Comparison: Islam, Christianity, and JudaismThe third technique for defending Islam is that of comparing it with Judaism andChristianity. In this approach the attempt is made to show that Islam treated women asequals from the time of Muhammad while Christianity and Judaism put women in aninferior position.

Dr. Gemal Badawi's article, 'Polygamy in Islam', compares Islam with Christianityand Judaism. He points out many facts about the other two religions which show theinequality in the treatment of women. Many figures in the Old Testament such asDavid, Solomon, and Abraham had more than one wife which is evidence thatpolygamy was well established, even under the auspices of Christianity and Judaism,long before Muhammad saw that polygamy was a cause of women's unequal and lowposition and took steps to restrict its use severely. Islam was perhaps more realistic inits attitude toward polygamy than either Christianity or Judaism because rather thanoutlawing polygamy altogether, Muhammad realised that in some instances, such as abarren wife, it is a much more practical answer than monogamy. In this way, thepracticality of polygamy prevented barren women from being singled out and placedin unrespected and unfulfilling roles through divorces by the husbands. In this respectonly, it is shown that Islam treated women with more concern and respect than eitherChristianity or Judaism.

Acknowledging DifferencesMost writers of this religious orientation acknowledge that there are a few sexualdistinctions made by Islam, usually mentioned in conjunction with a detaileddiscussion of sexual equality under Islamic law. The reasons for these exceptions are:men, due to qualities (or just more of certain qualities) given by God, are more able totake the leading role and care for the women. Islam declares that the men shouldreceive the equivalent of the portions of two females with regard to inheritance, is in

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charge of providing for the physical well-being of the wife, and that it is the duty of thehusband to attempt to keep his wife happy, making life delightful for her as waspointed out by Yusuf's article, 'In Defense of the Veil'. If these duties are not fulfilledand the wife is maltreated, she has the legal right to leave her husband; however, inreturn for her rights, she must fulfill her duties to her husband: including going to bedwith him when he wants, being faithful in his absence, and so on. These differences inthe treatment are justified on the basis that they are for the protection of the womenand they make life better for them. Thus, these few differences in rights and privilegesare not seen as variables that would cause women to be put in a lower status positionthan men.

LITERATURE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE ORIENTATION

The methods used in this category tend to be more scientific as most of the writers aresocial scientists using the methodology of their particular discipline, such as interview,questionnaire, participant observer, projective tests, content analysis, etc. Relationshipsare sought between specified variables and are described (objectively). A discussion ofsocial science literature can be divided into four separate categories: (1) Field Studies;(2) Comparative Studies; (3) Analysis of Specific Aspects; and (4) Historical Analysis.

Field StudiesWriters using this method have tended to describe conditions rather than to interpretor analyse them so that variables are delineated but no systematic effort is made todetermine causal relationships. When such an effort is made, the result is described interms of the structure, function or dysfunction of a given phenomenon as seen inWilliams' article where he deals with the extended family as a functional unit that hasfacilitated social change in a small Lebanese rural community. Rosenfield's paperanalyzes some of the processes which allow for structural change in an Arab villageextended family, Cohen's article deals with the latent consequences of mixedmarriages between Arab men and Jewish women, and Zenkovsky's paper on' Marriage Customs in Omdurman' provides the reader with a vivid picture of marriageceremonies and festivities. Besides sharing functional analysis in common, thesearticles rarely attempt to generalise from their specific narrow conclusions.

A good descriptive article written by Hansen entitled, 'The Pattern of Women'sSeclusion and Veiling in Shi'a Village' deals with a small village, Sar, twentykilometres southwest of Manama, the capital of Bahrain. The author describes in greatdetail women's activities; taking care of children, washing, cooking, making clothes,and so forth, as well as customs, such as that no woman can go visiting unlessaccompanied by husband or male relative; men and women eating in separate rooms,and the strict seclusion and veiling of women.

Descriptive field studies describe the role of women and include the most obvioustopographical variables of influence. These writings contribute to the reservoir of data,which others, who are unable to have firsthand exposure to the society, can use intheir writings and interpretations of Middle Eastern culture.

Comparative StudiesEither explicitly or implicitly, these studies specify causal relationships betweenvariables and some make predictions based on their analysis. Some compare theMiddle Eastern countries or communities with their counterparts in other developingnations.

In the study on 'Differential Labor Force Participation of Women in Latin Americaand Middle Eastern Countries: The Influence of Family Characteristics', Youssefattempted to explain the difference in women's non-agricultural participation between

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these two groups of countries. The author concludes that in Latin America, due to thechallenge of the role of the kinship group in the system of control, a large number ofwomen are pushed into the work situation. In the Middle East, the kinship network'scontrol over women and females is legitimised in terms of honour and family esteem.Thus, women's position in the work force is low because of the restrictions whichkeep women in their traditional position. It can be seen that a comparative study can bevery analytical and from it many conclusions may be drawn.

Nelson's article, 'Changing Role of Men and Women: Illustration from Egypt',makes use of the urban versus rural comparison in the Middle East. The traditionalroles of women are described and ideal Islamic traditions and laws are examined andcompared with the newer roles of women in the changing Egyptian society. Theauthor concludes that women's roles are changing for the better. This is generallyattributed to the environmental factors present in the urban environment such aseducation, mass communication, etc., and absent in the traditional rural environment.

Specific Institutionalized Roles and Status of WomenThis subcategory deals with the analysis of aspects of the women's role in the MiddleEast exemplified by discussions of the women's position in family life, in thecommunity, and so forth. Some articles deal with the effect of the women's role set inadjusting or reacting to a specified situation.

Peter Dodd's 'Youth and Women's Emancipation in the United Arab Republic', isan example of analysing the role of women in one specific area. Weighing the factorsworking for and against the advancement of women in the U.A.R., Dodd concludesthat success is dependent on the acceptance of the idea by the young males. Hedetermines that an emancipated mother has great influence over her sons which inturn increases support for women's emancipation. As in this case, these studies arevery specific in nature, thus they lead to specific conclusions: education facilitates theemancipation of women.

Abu-Lughod analyses marginal status of persons placing advertisements for a mate,the existence of which is seen as symptomatic of the changes in Egyptian culturewhich have been undermining the traditional marriage institution. The mostunvarying requirement in Egyptian marriages is that the two partners be of the samereligion. More men place advertisements for a mate than women and the females werefound to be marginal in demographic characteristics, being both older and of a maritalstatus not valued highly by the culture. Men revealed their marginality indirectly, notthrough what they are but through the values they sought to achieve throughmarriage. Physical and social mobility seem to be important as a cause of marginality.While the man's higher education constitutes a prime value in advertisements placedby females, this item is ignored by most male advertisers, few of whom have therequested qualifications. The advertisements were examined not only to identify thecharacteristics of the advertisers but also to trace the values of the culture toward the'ideal' spouse which are both explicit and implicit in the advertisements.

Historical InterpretationMost often, this approach is used to trace the status of women throughout the historyof the Middle East. A few articles trace only the history of a given period and/or area.

Gordon's book supports the former view. He traces the progress of Algerian womenthrough four historical phases: (1) Status and place of Algerian women prior to Frenchcontrol; (2) the period of French control; (3) the seven years of Algerian revolution;and (4) the post revolutionary or new government era. While the new government iscommitted to modernisation and socialism, laws on behalf of women are primarilylaws only on paper. Current governments have expressed their support oftraditionalism, stating for example, that the westernised woman is a woman who 'has"conquered, to be sure, the right to adultery and sentimental nomadism" ' (p. 73).

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Gordon concludes that the independence and equality of Algerian women is yet tocome.

A study of the Sudan by Fluehr-Lobban describes the great strides made by thewomen's movement during the past twenty-five years. While her conclusion seems tocontradict the findings of Gordon, this contradiction is only superficial because Islam(an important variable affecting the status of women) is not monolithic, varying ratherfrom area to area, and depending upon the pre-Islamic culture of the area. In Sudan,women have been speaking out for their rights for the past twenty-five years. The firstwomen's group was in the Communist Party in 1946 and it led in 1951 to the foundingof the Women's Union which has been fighting for laws such as equal pay for equalwork, extended paid maternity leave, marriage and divorce laws, with some success.Under repressive governments the Women's Union has been declared illegal, asduring the regime of General Abboud, and under the rule of the Sudanese SocialistUnion. Even under these handicaps the progress of equal pay for equal work, theextension of maternity leave to three months, and government pensions foremployees, was achieved. These, as well as the current regime's commitment to havewomen as ministers and to enact reform for women, are examples of the success oftwenty-five years of organized struggle.

OVERVIEW

The majority of writers in this category are Westerners and tend to handle their subjectmatter in broad general terms rarely attempting long in-depth interpretations oranalysis. They attempt to provide the reader with some insights into the developmentand current status of woman's role in the Middle East. A number of these articlesbegin by considering the status of women prior to Islam and trace the changes whichhave taken place up to the present or near present. Others treated in this section givecursory attention to the historical development and attempt to provide a panorama ofwomen's position in the Middle East as a whole.

One article, 'The Beginning of Emancipation of Women of the Arab World', tracesthe development of women's role. G. W. J. Drewes, the author, considers howMuhammad established provisions to protect women and how, after his death,'demands of convention', not religion, were instrumental in the determination ofwomen's role. Qasim Amin and his impact upon Middle Eastern thought as hestressed the necessity of education for women is also discussed. Drewes, however, alsomakes it clear that there are still barriers to women exercising their full rights.

Jean-Paul Charney in 'Social Relationships and the Condition of Women', alsowrites of the historically changing role of women due to Muhammad and how Muslimlaw was incorporated into the social system. Charney considers various areas ofchange such as divorce and marriage laws and views progress as taking place withincreased rapidity due to the discovery of energy sources and women entering publiclife.

Nada Tomiche in 'The Situation of Egyptian Women in the First Half of the 19thCentury', examines the traditional roles of Egyptian women and the influence ofpolitical and economic changes on these roles through the centuries. A summary ofwomen's role development in the Arab World as a whole is provided in ShwikarEl wan's. The Status of Women in the Arab World. The author emphasises theimportance of independence, modernisation, and urbanisation in influencing changesin traditional roles.

'The Evolution of the Moslem Family in Arab World Countries', by Kazem el-Daghestani is an article that provides a basic panorama of the Middle East as a wholedealing with marriage, the family, and the status of women. In treating these areas,social class as well as differences in communities (i.e. tribes, villages, cities) andcountries are considered. The author views familial affection and obedience to parents

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as common features of Moslem families throughout the Middle East on whichchanging conditions have had no effect.

Doreen Ingrams in 'The Position of Women in Middle Eastern Society', examinesthe traditional roles of women held throughout the Middle East and compares thedegree to which they are still in effect in various nations. The author states that womenhave made their greatest strides in countries which fought for independence and thosethat have strong nationalist sentiments.

Westernisation is seen as the principle force influencing women's roles throughoutthe Arab nation in Charles W. Churchill's article, 'The Arab World'. He envisionsother countries following the example of Egypt in moving toward increased rights andparticipation for women.

Several articles in this category convey negative connotations of the women'sposition in the Arab world. The authors of these articles tend to compare Arab societywith western Europe to reflect the backwardness of the position of the Arab womenand many overlook the changes taking place in the field of education, law andoccupation, etc. Patai's work is an example par excellence of this type of writing. Hefocuses mainly on the backward aspect of the women's position, discussing in detailher low status as exemplified in the socialisation process, with features such as thecircumcision of girls, high rate of illiteracy, veil, segregation, etc. Patai rarely dwellson the changes taking place and many times overlooks the action of the government inthe field of the legal rights of women, compulsory education, etc.

AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

At the outset of this article, I stated that it is based on a survey of 150 items; a numberwhich may give the impression that Arab women have been studied thoroughly andextensively. However, most of these writings are either of a religious or overviewnature, basically repeating the same points and providing the reader with littleinformation on the actual status of the Arab women and their changing role.

Research is much needed on various aspects of the Arab women's status and someexamples of areas where there is great need to gather, classify, and interpret statisticalinformation are as follow:1. Arab women and education. Many questions need to be investigated, such as the

relationship between education and political rights, type of occupation, marriagecontract, rate of divorce, and migration from rural to urban centres.

2. The political role of Arab women, particularly participation in conventional andunconventional politics. Who are the activist women? How has the process oftransformation occurred ? Is participation in politics the result of a need generatedby the requirements of the situation or does it represent a genuine change on thepart of male decision-makers and the male population at large ?

3 The relationship between class structure and women's position. Do women fromdifferent classes exhibit different sets of behavioural patterns and attitudes? If so, towhat extent are these differences changing in response to such factors as education,labour force participation, modernisation, and others?

4. A comparison of the position of women in different countries and regions of the Arabworld. What are the similarities and differences between these countries? How doesdifferential economic development affect the status of women? To what extent doArab countries copy from one another with respect to legal, political, and religiousrights of women? What impact have the Arab League and other Arab women'sunions had in effecting change ?

5. The history and development of women's organizations in the Arab world. What arethe factors which brought about these organizations? What are their activities? Arethey successful in changing women's position?These are but a few areas where researchers can enrich our understanding of Arab

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women. Also, this type of research will enable scholars to synthesise and integrate thedata on the Arab women in broader and generalized hypotheses and theories aboutwomen.

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