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CURRICULUM AND SOCIETY:
A SUBJECT ADVISORS' PERSPECTIVE
by
MAGDELINE OFENTSE MARGARET MAHUPELA
A mini-dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATION'S
in
CURRICULUM STUDIES
in the
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND NURSING
at the
RAND AFRIKAANS UNIVERSITY
SUPERVISOR: DR HC GEYSER
CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF HG VAN ROOYEN
DECEMBER 1996
This dissertation is dedicated to my late Grandfather
ABRAHAM KOAPE
who did not see the final product of my study
(iii)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude towards the following people:
My supervisor, Dr Hester Geyser, for her enduring interest, patience and many hours
she devoted to me together with my co-supervisor, Prof HG van Rooyen who, through
their constant guidance and assistance, I have been able to complete this dissertation.
To my son Tshepo, for remaining at home patiently while I was away and for his
loving support together with Nono and Vuyo, my niece and nephew, who kept Tshepo
company during my absence from home.
My father and mother, John and Grace Mahupela, for their financial and moral support.
To my sister, Pat, her husband, Nkululeko, who were always willing to assist me with
my son whenever a problem arose.
To Mrs Gouws who so meticulously typed my dissertation.
To the subject advisors who gave their time to be interviewed and enabled me to
complete this dissertation.
The Almighty, without whom I would never have had the ability to continue my study.
Thank you Lord!
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OPSOMMING
Opvoeding word as die sleutel tot kreatiewe en pro-aktiewe verandering in hierdie tydperk
van oorgang in Suid-Afrika beskou. In 1995 en 1996 is nuwe tussentydse aangepaste
skoolsillabusse landwyd gdmplementeer. Hierdie sillabusse het tot stand gekom deurdat
verskillende komitees die bestaande vaksillabusse inderhaas moes hersien. Alhoewel die
gemeenskap versoek is om verslae en voorstelle in te dien, is geen indringende situasie-
analise ondemeem nie. Hierdie studie maak deel uit van 'n groter projek waarin
gemeenskaps-behoeftes vanuit verskillende perspektiewe bepaal word en by wyse van
riglyne vir kurrikulumontwerp ondervang word.
Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie is om riglyne vir 'n relevante kurrikulum vir die senior
sekondere skoolfase daar te stel. Onderhoude is met vakadviseurs van die Gauteng
Onderwysdepartement gevoer om die behoeftes van die bree Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap
vas te stel.
`n Eksploratiewe benadering is gebruik om die persepsies wat vakadviseurs in senior
sekondere skole van hul werk het, na te vors en te beskryf. 'n Kwalitatiewe navorsings-
metode, wat 'n gedetailleerde beskrywing van die konteks, wyse van respons en 'n data-
analise bevat, is gevolg. Kwalitatiewe navorsing word deur die navorser beskou as die
geskikste wyse om die komplekse verskynsel van menslike gedagtes en gedrag weer te gee
en vas te le.
'n Literatuurstudie van relevante literatuur oor kurrikulumontwerp is ter fundering van die
beoogde riglyne ondemeem. Met die oog op fokusgroeponderhoude met 'n teikengroep is
navorsingsliteratuur bestudeer.
Die fokusgroeponderhoude is verbatim opgeneem en transkripsies is van die opnames
gemaak en 'n veldstudie is na afloop van die dataversameling geskryf. Die data wat van die
(v)
fokusgroeponderhoude verkry is, is volgens die emosionele reaksie geanaliseer en deur
tekstuele- en inhoudsanalise gerugsteun. 'n Kontekstuele beskrywing gebaseer op die
veldstudie is saamgestel om 'n oorsigtelike verslag van die respondente se response te
voorsien. Op grond van bepaalde behoeftes is die bree skoolkurrikulum en betrokke
vakkurrikulum aangespreek ten einde riglyne vir 'n relevante kurrikulum vir die senior
sekondere skoolfase daar te stel.
(vi)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (iii)
OPSOMMING (iv)
CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXTUALIZATION AND ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 RATIONALE AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 1
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 2
1.4 AIMS OF STUDY 3
1.5 METHODOLOGY 0 4
1.5.1 Research design 4
1..2 Research methods and techniques 4
1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 5
1.6.1 Curriculum 6
1.6.2 Needs analysis 6
1.6.3 Subject Advisors, Gauteng Department of Education 7
1.7 CONCLUSION 7
CHAPTER TWO: RESEARCH DESIGN
2.1 THE AIM OF THIS CHAPTER 8
2.2 TENETS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 8
2.3 COMPONENTS AND PROCEDURES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH 9
2.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH 10
2.5 THE NATURE OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 11
PAGE
2.5.1 Validity 12
2.5.2 Reliability 13
2.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 13
2.6.1 Observations 14
2.6.2 Interviews 15
2.7 KINDS OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS 15
2.7.1 Informal interviews 15
2.7.2 Unstructured interviews 16
2.7.3 Semi-structured interviews 16
2.7.4 Structured interviews 16
2.7.5 Focus group interviews 17
2.8 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 17
2.9 CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW 19
2.9.1 Preparations for data-gathering 20
2.9.2 The process of data-gathering 21
2.10 THE PROCESS OF DATA ANALYSIS 22
2.10.1 Holistic coding 22
2.10.2 Frequential coding 23
2.10.3 Categories obtained from data 23
2.11 CONCLUSION 25
CHAPTER THREE: DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 AIM OF THIS CHAPTER 26
3.2 THE PROCESS OF DATA-GATHERING 26
3.3 DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS 27
3.4 ANALYSIS OF DATA 27
3.4.1 Data analysis 27
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PAGE
3.5 DISCUSSION OF CATEGORIES AND FINDINGS 28
3.5.1 Category one: Skills-training 28
3.5.1.1 Sub-category: Practical skills 31
3.5.1.2 Sub-category: School-to-work 32
3.5.1.3 Sub-category: Communication skills 33
3.5.2 Category two: Multiculturalism 34
3.5.3 Category three: Morality and values 35
3.5.4 Category four: Subjects taught in the secondary school 37
3.5.5 Category five: Career guidance 38
3.5.6 Other aspects of needs 39
3.5.6.1 Teaching methods 39
3.5.6.2 Resources (teaching and learning aids) 40
3.6 SUMMARY 41
CHAPTER FOUR: CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.1 AIM OF THE CHAPTER 42
4.2 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 42
4.2.1 Curriculum 42
4.2.1.1 Learner-centred curriculum 43
4.2.1.2 Subject-centred curriculum 44
4.2.1.3 Society-orientated curriculum 45
4.2.1.4 Problem-centred curriculum 46
4.2.1.5 Conclusion 46
4.2.2 Curriculum design 47
4.2.3 Educational levels 48
4.2.3.1 Macro-level 48
4.2.3.2 Meso-level 48
PAGE
4.2.3.3 Micro-level 49
4.3 APPROACHES TO DESIGN 49
4.3.1 Technical-scientific approach 49
4.3.1.1 The academic approach 50
4.3.2 Non-technical - non-scientific approach 51
4.3.2.1 The experiential approach 52
4.3.2.2 The technological approach 52
4.3.2.3 The pragmatic approach 53
4.4 MODELS FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN 54
4.4.1 Criteria for curriculum design 54
4.4.2 The Walter's Model 54
4.4.3 Cawood-Carl-Blanckenberg model 55
4.4.4 Kriiger's model 56
4.5 INTEGRATION OF MODELS 57
4.6 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 58
4.6.1 Situation analysis 58
4.6.2 Aims, goals and objectives 59
4.6.3 Learning experiences 62
4.6.4 Selection of learning content 62
4.6.5 Learning opportunities 64
4.6.6 Evaluation 66
4.7 CONCLUSION 67
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
GUIDELINES
5.1 AIM OF THE CHAPTER 68
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES 68
5.2.1 Situation analysis 69
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PAGE
5.2.2 Setting of aims and goals 69
5.2.3 Selection of content 73
5.2.4 Learning opportunities, learning experiences and evaluation 76
5.2.5 Further recommendations 79
5.3 COMMENTS ON GUIDELINES FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN 81
5.4 VALUE AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH 81
5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 82
5.6 CONCLUSION 83
BIBLIOGRAPHY 85
ADDENDUM A 93
ADDENDUM B 94
ADDENDUM C 95
ADDENDUM D 101
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1
CHAPTER ONE
CONTEXTUALIZATION AND ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter the background of the study will be discussed, with the aim of giving a
contextual account of the theoretical framework, the research design and the methods and
techniques to be used. As motivation for the study the problem which will be addressed is
analyzed and specific research questions are set. The research aim is then highlighted.
1.2 RATIONALE AND CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
The challenges facing the society during these new and exciting times are to create an
education and training system that will ensure that human resources and potential are
developed to the full. As such, curriculum developers has seek a constructive partnership
between themselves and all the major stakeholders in education. Education is in the process
of transformation which strive to meet the needs of the society.
The broad goal of the curriculum is to enable the society to acquire the skills and knowledge
they need to participate effectively and democratically in their social, economic and political
environments (Gordon, 1995:186). The curriculum therefore seeks to assist the society to
participate fully, equally and confidently in their lives.
Decisions made about a curriculum are influenced by an educational philosophy (Geyser,
1995:2). The function of philosophy can be either the base in curriculum development or an
interdependent function with other functions in curriculum development (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1993:15). Two contemporary philosophies, namely reconstructionism and
2
society. Gutek (1988:299) maintains that social reconstructionism which contrast with con-
servative theories of the essentialists and perennialists are regarded as reflective theories that
mirror inherited social patterns and values.
In this study, the perceptions of subject advisors in the Gauteng Department of Education on
the needs of society will be explored. The problem being investigated will be discussed first,
followed by the aim of study and the clarification of concepts. Finally the methodology and
research design will be outlined which will include detailed descriptions of the context and
manner of responses as well as analysis of data.
1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Education and training is the major vehicle for human resource development. The national
project of reconstruction and development compels everyone in education to face up to the
challenge of creating a system which cultivates and liberates the talents of the society without
an exception (Gordon, 1995:8). New policies are needed to reverse the trends which
dominated the troubled history of South African education. The replaced system should now
meet the needs of society in curriculum reconstruction and development of the senior
secondary school.
The following focus questions will assist in the reconstruction and development of a
curriculum that will meet the needs of the society as perceived by the Gauteng Department of
Education subject advisors:
* What are the needs of society as perceived by subject advisors of the Gauteng
Education Department?
* How can these needs be addressed in the curriculum of the senior secondary schools?
3
To address the first question of societys' needs as perceived by the Gauteng Department of
education subject advisors, a diagnosis of needs of society in curriculum development need
to be made. This will form a basis as the initial phase for developing a new curriculum for
the senior secondary school. The existing curriculum was done without a scientific and
systematic investigation on societys' needs.
Though the Ministry of Education invited the goodwill and active participation of parents,
students, community leaders, religious bodies, non-governmental organisations, academic
institutions, workers, businesses, the media and development agencies, in designing a new
curriculum to meet the personal and social needs, and economic challenges, a comprehensive
situation analysis that will take into consideration the needs of the learners, the expectations
of the society was not conducted. An investigative approach used was not systematic and
scientific.
The second question will be answered after an empirical research has been conducted by
exploring the perceptions of the Gauteng Department of Education subject advisors, who are
the respondents in this study.
1.4 AIMS OF STUDY
The purpose of this investigative study is to explore the perceptions that subject advisors of
the Gauteng Department of Education have of the needs of the society. It is intended that this
empirical research will form the basis for the reconstruction and development of a senior
secondary school curriculum that will meet the needs of society. To identify the needs, focus
group interviews will be conducted. The researcher believes that such an investigation,
focusing on society's needs as perceived by subject advisors of Gauteng, will give guidelines
to the designing of a curriculum suitable for senior secondary schools.
4
1.5 METHODOLOGY
The methodology and research design followed in this study are outlined in the following
paragraphs.
1.5.1 Research design
The research design of this study is investigative and qualitative, with emphasis on empirical
and contextual aspects (refer to chapter two). Its purpose is to describe the perceptions of
subject advisors in the Gauteng Department of Education on society's needs. The study is
contextual in nature as its purpose is to describe how these needs can be addressed and how
this can be done to design a curriculum suitable for senior secondary schools.
1.5.2 Research methods and techniques
Miles and Huberman (1988:16) state that a field of qualitative research needs explicit
systematic methods to draw conclusions and to test them carefully. The methods in this
study are implemented to construct a qualitative investigation with emphasis on empirical,
contextual, interactive and constructive aspects of the study. Its purpose is to describe the
perceptions of Gauteng senior secondary schools subject advisors regarding the needs of
society concerning the curriculum of the senior secondary school. The study is contextual in
nature as subject advisors will be drawn from the Gauteng region Education Department. No
claim is therefore made that this group is representatives of the advisory corps of the
Department of Education. Nevertheless, the researcher believes that useful insights will be
gained from this study using the following steps in the methodology as outlined by Mouton
and Marais (1993;192).
Step 1
Contextualization of the study, identification of the problem, the aim of study and research
methodology will be discussed in chapter one.
5
Step 2
Relevant literature study will be undertaken on different research paradigms. Tenets of
qualitative research, advantages and strengths of qualitative research, data collection methods
and procedures and kinds of qualitative research will be discussed in chapter two.
Step 3
Focus group interviews will be conducted to identify the needs of society as perceived by
subject advisors in the Gauteng Department of Education. Responses from the interviews
will answer question one of the statement of problem. Data collected by way of focus group
interviews will be analyzed by identification of categories and sub-categories which will
describe the main findings. This will be discussed in chapter three.
Step 4
A study of relevant literature on curriculum design, models of design and principles of
organising the curriculum will be undertaken. The information gathered from the literature
will serve as theoretical guidelines or conceptual framework for the design of a curriculum
for senior secondary schools. This will be addressed in chapter four.
Step 5
Recommendations for curriculum design will be offered as guidelines presented by
integrating empirical data from chapter three with the theoretical guidelines for curriculum
design in chapter four. Value and limitations of research will be discussed. Then conclusion
of the entire study will be given. All this will be discussed in chapter five.
1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
Different concepts used in the study will be briefly explained.
6
1.6.1 Curriculum
A preliminary definition of the term "curriculum" will be discussed and an in depth
definition will be discussed in chapter four.
There are as many definitions of curriculum as are the authors. Ornstein and Hunkins
(1993:9) define the term "curriculum" as a plan of action or a written document that includes
strategies for achieving desired goals or ends. This position, popularized by Ralph Tyler and
Hilda Taba exemplifies a linear view of curriculum. The plan has a beginning and an end, as
well as a process (or means) so that the beginning can progress to an end. The steps of the
planner are sequenced in advance (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993:9).
Curriculum must take full account of the social situation, the pressures and the needs of the
society of which the school is a part. In fact, a curriculum comes into existence due to social
needs. Its function is to address identified social needs (Kruger, 1980:42). The assumptions
made here are that if the curriculum aims and goals do not meet the needs of the society,
problems may be experienced in trying to put it into operation and it may not achieve its aims
and goals.
1.6.2 Needs analysis
Sanders (1986:50) in the educational and psychological literature defines needs in terms of "a
deficit as discrepancy between an actual and optimal state". The optimal state is a condition
regarded as desirable for the individual, the actual state in its present condition. The above
definition adequately defines what is called "discrepancy needs" as a gap between the way
things ought to be and as they are. Needs analysis as cited by Marsh (1992:81) is a "very
valuable vehicle for bringing together parents, learners, teachers and citizens to discuss
alternative educational goals". Needs analysis activities can occur within a school community
or across a region or local education authority.
7
In this project a situation analysis to determine the needs of the society as perceived by the
Gauteng Department of Education subject advisors with regard to the curriculum of the
senior secondary school will be conducted. Though this situation analysis will not be
comprehensive as it will only focus on the Gauteng region, it is hoped that such needs
analysis will be considered as the recognition of some school problems especially the senior
secondary schools which then becomes a springboard for curriculum development that will
meet the needs of the society and the learners.
1.6.4 Subject advisors - Gauteng Department of Education
Little has been written about the services rendered by the subject advisors. The subject
advisory service of the then Department of Education and Training was established in its
present form in 1990. This was when it was becoming evident that large-scale, centralised
curriculum development projects were largely ineffective in improving the classroom
practice (Hopkins, 1986:1). It only became operational in 1993 and its objectives are broad
but may be summarised as the improvement of teaching and learning in the classroom. It
should be noted that the qualifications, experience and competence of these advisors are
usually required to have standard ten plus a three year teacher training qualification and a
number of years of classroom experience. These subject advisors are expected to give
guidance and co-ordinate the subject content and highlight problems that are encountered in
the senior secondary school curriculum.
1.7 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, an overview of the curriculum that needs to be reconstructed and developed is
discussed. The target group - subject advisors - are described with particular reference to their
perception of the society's needs in relation to senior secondary schools curriculum. The
research design and methodology of this study was described. In the following chapter the
context of the study will be established by a review of available literature on research design
and methods, interviews and data analysis.
8
CHAPTER TWO
RESEARCH DESIGN
2.1 THE AIM OF THIS CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the main tenets of qualitative research paradigm.
Subsequent to that, the design of the inquiry will be described. Procedures of data collection,
data analysis and data interpretation will be included. Important research notions such as
validity and reliability will also be discussed as they are exemplified within the paradigm. The
role of qualitative research as problem identification investigation strategy in educational
research will be discussed in this framework.
2.2 TENETS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Researchers in the social and behavioural sciences have employed qualitative research and
presently other practitioners, especially in the educational field, make extensive use of this
methodology. This is because research can be conducted by a team or an individual in natural
setting. "Slumbering variables" or unexpected phenomena can be encountered in the research
(Yin, 1993; Henning, 1993(a); Strauss & Corbin, 1991; Firestone, 1993).
The main tenets of qualitative research, which distinguishes it from quantitative research are:
the researcher is an instrument and declares his/her assumptions and presuppositions;
contextualizations of research activities in naturalistic settings;
focus on the emic perspective;
collection of verbal and iconic data which are processed qualitatively.
9
ideographically orientated research which implies depth and "verstehen";
the ontology of qualitative research does not distinguish sharply between subject and
object;
the theory of qualitative research is based on constructive principles; and
the methodology of qualitative research is compatible with post modernism and feminism
as philosophies.
2.3 COMPONENTS AND PROCEDURES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
According to Strauss and Corbin (1991:38) the components of qualitative research consist of:
data collection which mostly comes from interviews, observations and document studies;
data analysis - coding techniques that are implemented to organize and conceptualize the
data, consisting of different analytical or interpretative procedure. Analytic procedures
include non-statistical sampling, the writing of memos or diagramming of concepted
relationships;
data interpretation, a phase during which consolidated and analysed data are argued as
findings;
verbal or written reports presented as overviews or in-depth discussions.
The aim of qualitative research is to provide an in-depth account of the phenomena via data
collection by diverse naturalistic methods. The data are produced in natural language and the
detail can be structured in dendograms or other devise (Miles & Huberman, 1988:18). The
data collected and presented should provide an emic view of the phenomenon. It serves as
evidence to construct findings, analysed and interpreted against the background of the main
10
construct. The findings are not arrived at by statistical procedures but are inductively
constructed from empirical evidence which is generally contained in verbal information.
Subsequent to collection of data, reduction is often necessary as all the gathered data may be
overwhelming or some deemed irrelevant. The process of reduction is also a process of
categorisation. Wolcott (1990) maintains that it is not so much the collecting of information
that creates a problem in qualitative research as it is to reduce data to manageable quantities.
It is only necessary to communicate the essence of the phenomenon being studied because it is
not always possible to present all the accumulated data in a research study. According to
Miles and Huberman (1988:21), data reduction continues throughout analysis. Reducing and
ordering data imply selection and interpretation to present a more detailed utilisation of reality.
Interpretations reflect various degrees of abstraction and are not all theoretical in nature.
Detailed analysis and presentation of the findings in accurate descriptions are conventions of
qualitative research. A "think description" (Geeitz, 1973; Henning, 1993(a); Yin, 1993)
accommodates the emergence of patterns of qualitative traditions such as ethnography. The
epistemology of qualitative research states that there are "other ways of knowing" (Watson-
Gegeo, 1991) and that the emic perspective in the natural context of the phenomena needs to
be investigated.
2.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994:5) the word "qualitative" implies an emphasis on
process and meanings that are not rigorously examined or measured. Qualitative researchers
stress that the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the
researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints shape inquiry. They also
emphasize the value-laden nature of inquiry and seek answers to questions that stress how
social experience is created and given meaning.
In contrast, quantitative research emphasized the measurement and analysis of causal relations
between variables and not processes. Inquiry is purported to be within a value-free frame-
work. Ary, Jacobs and Razavigh (1991:444) is of the opinion that quantitative researchers
11
argue both the natural and social sciences. They also strive for testable and confirmable
theories that explain phenomena by showing how they are derived from a theoretical
assumption. In other words, both aim at a type of scientific explanation that includes the
discovery of, and appeal to laws governing the behaviour of the physical world, on the other
hand, and laws governing human behaviour on the other. Inquiry begins with a theory of the
phenomena to be investigated.
From the abovementioned differences, qualitative research seems more suitable for the
purpose of this study. It is endlessly creative and interpretative. The researcher does not just
leave the mountains of empirical materials and then easily write up findings. Qualitative
interpretations are constructed and finally the researcher produces the public text that come to
the reader. The researcher also has several methods of collecting empirical materials. These
range from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artefacts, documents and
cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experiences. Qualitative research
also relies on a different model of explanation and argues for a different goal of inquiry. It
holds that the search for generalizations is misguided. Finally, the process is inductive in that
researchers build abstractions, concepts and theories from details (Cresswell, 1994:45).
2.5 THE NATURE OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
The nature of research problems in education often tend itself to qualitative research. The
methods most applicable to the nature of the research area need to be indicated, which implies
that the research must make a selection from the methods of design (Pitout, 1991). The
research design is qualitative in that it explores the perceptions of the participants regarding
the needs of the society with regard to the curriculum of the senior secondary school. It gives
a holistic and "thick" description of their perceptions and attempts to extract the essential
qualities of these.
The research design is descriptive in attempting to convey both the content and manner of the
participants' responses regarding their perceptions, relying on their words as the primary data
as well as the interaction which gives rise to these responses (Marshall & Rossman, 1989:11).
Research needs to be valid, and in the qualitative paradigm reliability has to be obtained.
12
2.5.1 Validity
Validity must be checked throughout the entire research process. Henning (1993(b):3) sees it
more as a "hard" than a "soft" opinion in qualitative research as it has to be scaffolded into
every qualitative research act. Most authors on qualitative research suggest ways in which to
enhance validity.
According to Hammersly (1990:57) the term validity means truth, interpreted as an extent to
which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers. It must be
checked through the entire research process. The initial validity of the construct, obtained
both from theoretical and pilot empirical evidence, remains the foundation for validity of data
content and the argument around the findings.
According to Gay (1986:110) the standards for determining validity are as follows:
Content validity - refers to the degree to which a "test" measures an intended content area
or in which an observer observes reality in a fitting manner.
Concurrent validity - refers to the degree to which the scores on a "test" are related to the
scores on another "test" or in which replicated research procedures and settings deliver
compatible findings.
Productive validity - is the degree to which a "test" can predict how well an individual will
do in future or in which experimental research predicts behaviour or outcomes.
Validity in qualitative research is however, not obtained in this way as no tests are conducted.
Rather the researcher strives to state explicitly what he does step by step, arguing validity by
thoroughness and rigour and by strong theoretical substantiation (Henning, 1994:51).
13
2.5.2 Reliability
Reliability means dependability or trustworthiness. According to Hitchcock and Hughes
(1989:45) reliability concerns the extent to which any particular method of data collection is
replaceable, that is, if the research was to be repeated by someone else, using different
techniques, would the same findings result.
Seliger and Shohamy (1989:185) maintain that the criterion for reliability provides
information on whether data collection procedure is consistent and accurate. The idea of
reliability therefore concerns the question of whether or not the data are products of the
research technique employed.
Kirk and Miller (1986:72) argue that qualitative researchers can no longer afford to beg the
issue of reliability. While the forte of field research' always lies in its capability to sort out the
validity of propositions, its results will go ignored minus attention to reliability. For reliability
to be calculated, it is incumbent on the scientific investigator to document his procedure
(Silverman, 1993:46).
For the purpose of this study, a transcript of the focus group interview will be taken back to
the respondents for the first reliability check. This will be to check whether they agree with
data that has been transcribed. Additional information from the respondents will be accepted
and added to the transcript. An independent decoder, who is not connected to the study, will
be requested to analyse data on the transcripts of focus group interviews. Protocol outlined for
data analysis will be used to analyse data and code it. Categories derived from coded data will
be discussed with the researcher to establish any similarities and differences in categories
derived from coding.
2.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
According to Creswell (1994:148) data collection involves aspects such as setting boundaries
for the study, collecting information through observations, interviews, documents, and visual
materials and establishing the protocol for recording information. The paradigm and the
14
format of the investigation determine the nature of data collection methods, namely,
interviews, audio-tape recordings and observations. These methods are often used in
combination and not in isolation. According to Seliger and Shohamy (1989:109) the method
used to obtain the results must be considered and compared. This will be to show how
different methods and different approaches to the same research question can produce different
methodologies and different results. However, the diversity of the needs of the society
research questions implies that different methods may be equally valid in investigating a
question. On this study the data processing will have a strong interpretative focus, in other
words the research is conducted in the interpretative paradigm, where qualities of phenomena
in a holistic perspective are more than the sum of quantities.
2.6.1 Observations
Observation as a method of data collection is a fundamental strategy for evaluation, appraisal,
development planning, curriculum development and the acquisition of new teaching strategies.
According to Hopkins (1993:198) observation involves the evaluation in observing the
planning and activity process in a variety of real-life contexts. He further mentions that the
effectiveness of this approach is considerably enhanced when the observation is underpinned
by an agreed specification of the teaching strategy to be employed (Hopkins, 1993:198).
Anderson and Burns (1989:143) cite two weaknesses of observations. Firstly, observing is
labour intensive and expensive in terms of time and money. It is costly to place qualified,
trained observers for any length of time. When mechanical recording devices are used,
additional cost typically accrue. Secondly, evidence collected using observation is susceptible
to a variety of errors. For example, observers may interject their biases into the records or
unintentionally misinterpret events that were observed. In either cases the records may reflect
what observers thought occurred more than what actually occurred.
Therefore this method won't be used in this study for its weaknesses which are outlined above.
15
2.6.2 Interviews
According to Galfo (1985:35) interviewing is a process of obtaining information directly from
the respondents. Interviews are especially useful in obtaining data from other subjects who
cannot read questionnaires. It is, however, a good way of finding out what the situation looks
like from other points of view (Elliot, 1991:80) and to obtain information from the view of the
respondent. Using this method, the researcher aims at understanding the participants'
categories and to see how these are used in concrete activities which give end products. This
method will be mainly used for collecting data in this study.
2.7 KINDS OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS
Qualitative research provides a great opportunity to talk with people. Some interviews are
done during participant observation, when time is available and spirits are amenable. These
interviews are either formal or informal. Informal interviews may often flow from a situation
perhaps of its tag end, and usually occur with less prior planning. Formal interviews are rather
planned and conducted away from the action so that there is a chance to talk in peace and in
greater depth (Galfo, 1985:36).
An interview is "a purposeful conversation usually between two people or more, that is
directed by one in order to get information" (Ary et al, 1991:58). The purpose of an in-depth
interview, is to learn to see the world from the eyes of the person interviewed.
2.7.1 Informal interviews
This is a type of an interview lacking structure or control totally. Bernard (1988:204) cites
that it is the method of choice during the first phase of participant observation, when just
setting in and getting to know the basis of research. It is also used throughout fieldwork to
build rapport and to uncover new topics of interest that might be overlooked. This is an
unsuitable method of interview as questions in most cases are neither open-ended or closed.
Therefore there is a lack of proper control in the process.
16
2.7.2 Unstructured interviews
According to Hitchock and Hughes (1989:86) this type of interview is used in situations
whereby the researcher has lots of time. This is done on long-term fieldwork and interviews
can be conducted on many separate occasions. The idea is to get people to "open-up" and let
them express themselves in their own terms and at their own pace. Hitchcock and Hughes
(1989:87) further maintains that with unstructured interviewing, the interviewer and
interviewee both know what they are doing, and there is no shared feeling that only one party -
the interviewer is just engaged in party - the interviews is just engaged in pleasant chat. This
is suitable in group interview process and is what will be used in this study.
2.7.3 Semi-structured interviews
This type of interview is based on the use of an interview guide. It is used in situations in
which the researcher will not get more than one chance to interview someone. Bernard
(1988:206) maintains that it has much of the "freewheeling" quality of unstructured
interviewing, and requires all the same skills. This is a written list of questions and topics that
needs to be covered in a particular order. The interviewer still maintains discretion to follow
leads, but the interview guide is a set of clear instructions. Interview guides are built up from
informal and unstructured interview data (Bernard, 1988:206). For the purpose of the study,
this method will be used as the study requires to conduct interviews on many separate
occasions to gather enough information for research.
2.7.4 Structured interviews
These are types of interviews in which "all informants are asked to respond to as nearly
identical a set of stimuli as possible" (Bernard, 1988:208). One variety of structured
interviews involves use of an interview schedule. This is an explicit set of instructions to
interviewers who administer questionnaires orally. Other structured interviewing techniques
are tasks that require informants to role or rank-order a list of things. This type of interview is
not suitable for qualitative research as its most common form is the questionnaire which may
17
be self-administered, or may be administered over the telephone or in person. This method is
suitable for quantitative research which this study is not all about.
2.7.5 Focus groups
A focus group is a group comprised of individuals with certain characteristics who focus
discussions on a given issue or topic. According to Krueger (1988:19) focus groups produce
qualitative data that provide insights into the attitudes, perceptions and opinions of the
participants. Results are solicited through open-ended questions and a procedure in which
respondents are able to choose the manner in which they respond and also from observations
of these respondents in a group discussion. The focus group presents a more natural
environment than that of an individual interview because participants are influencing and
influenced by others. The researcher serves several functions in the focus group: moderating,
listening, observing and eventually analysing, using the inductive process (Krueger, 1988:19).
2.8 FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
For the purpose of this study, this is the suitable method chosen for collecting data. The
method is preferred as it produces qualitative data that provides insights into attitudes and
perceptions, opinions of the participants. The subject for the focus group are selected on the
basis of relevancy to the topic under study. According to Babbie (1992:254) in a focus group,
typically seven to ten people are brought together in a room to engage in a guided discussion
of some topic. Typically more than one focus group is convened in a given study, since there
is a serious danger that a single group of seven to ten people would be too atypical to offer any
generalizable insights (Babbie, 1992:255).
Richard Krueger (1988:47) in Babbie (1992:255) points the following advantages to focus
groups:
• the technique is a socially orientated research method capturing real-life data in a social
environment;
18
it has flexibility;
it has a high face validity;
it has speedy results; and
it is low on cost.
Focus group interviews can be successfully conducted in a variety of locations such as hotel
rooms, private homes or public buildings. A primary consideration is that the location is easy
to find. The room where interviews are conducted should be free from outside destructions.
Meeting places that have a visual or audio distraction should be avoided (Krueger, 1988:64).
As interviews are time-consuming, sixty to ninety minutes should be allocated to a session. If
an hour is allowed for the actual interviews, provision should be made for travelling time, and
time lost through anyone of numerous mishaps. According to Babbie (1992:184) time is
needed to consider what has been said during the interview, to go through the notes, to extend
and clarify points that may have been hastily noted. Therefore, the original interview plan
should take account of the time required for planning and conducting interviews, for coping
with cancelled arrangements, second visits and finding replacements for people who drop out
(Babbie, 1992:186).
The focus group interviews goes through several different types of questions, each of which
serves a distinct purpose. According to Krueger (1988:84) the following are the categories of
questions:
Opening questions - the round robin question that everyone answers at the beginning of
the interview. It is designed to be answered rather quickly (within 10-20 seconds) and to
identify characteristics that the participants have in common. Questions should be factual
as opposed to attitude or opinion based .
Introductory questions - these introduce the general topic of discussion and provide
participants an opportunity to reflect their connection with the overall topic. Usually these
19
questions are not critical to the analysis but foster conversation and interaction among the
participants.
Transition questions - these move the conversation into the key questions that drive the
study. They help participants envision the topic in a broader scope and serve as logical
link between introductory and key questions. During these transition questions, the
participants are becoming aware of how others view the topic.
Key questions - these questions drive the study. Typically there are two to five questions
in this category. These are usually the first questions to be developed. They also require
the greatest attention in the subsequent analysis.
Ending questions - these bring closure to the discussion enable participants to reflect back
on previous comments and are critical to analysis (Krueger, 1988:55).
The questions are the "stimulus" for the respondent. This stimulus can be of two varieties -
structured or free. The question for this research will be as follows:
"What do you, as subject advisors of the Gauteng Department of Education perceive as the
needs of the society concerning the education of the senior secondary school?"
"How can these needs be addressed?"
2.9 CONDUCTING THE FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS
In this study, the interviewer's task is to ask questions in such a way as to obtain valid
responses and record them accurately and completely. An audio-tape will be used to record
the discussions which will later be typed verbatim into transcripts. Initially the interviewer has
to create an atmosphere that will put the respondents at ease. After conducting himself/herself
in a friendly way, the interviewer should state briefly the purpose of the interview. Too much
information about the study should be avoided as this could bias the respondents (Burger,
1985:240). The respondents' attention should focus on the study to enhance the smooth
running of the interview. This is best obtained if the interviewer is thoroughly familiar with
20
the questions and their sequence. Questions should be asked in a conversational tone and
without pausing. The interviewer must refrain from expressing approval, surprise or shock at
any of the respondents' answers (Hitchcock & Hughes, 1989:94).
If comparable data are to be obtained, the interviewer must standardize the process.
According to Burger (1985:241) questions must be worded the same and presented in the
same order for all respondents. If the respondents start to disgress or give an irrelevant
response, or misinterpretated the question, the interviewer may probe by asking for an
explanation a little more further than the answer given. The interviewer must be careful not to
suggest or give hints about possible response (Burger, 1985:242).
A complete and accurate recording of the respondents' answers must be made. On the open-
ended questions, the respondents exact words must be recorded verbatim while responding.
This recording can be facilitated by abbreviating words and sentences or by using a tape
recorder. The tape recording has the obvious advantages of recording subjects' responses
verbatim. It also frees the interviewer to participate in the dialogue rather than taking notes.
However, many people feel uncomfortable about having their answers taped and may become
inhibited and excessively cautions about what they say (Hitchock & Hughes, 1989:98).
Recordings of the focus group interviews will be typed verbatim by a typist who has no
connection with the targert group (subject advisors). Identified features will be removed from
the transcripts by the researcher and where necessary pseudonyms will be given. Transcripts
will be checked for accuracy against the originals before being destroyed.
Field notes will be made on the focus group interviews by the researcher after the respondents
leave. These will be directed at describing the context of statements, respondents' attitudes,
perceived emotional states and anything which could significantly inform the study
(Hitchcock & Hughes, 1989:101).
2.9.1 Preparations for data-gathering
The stimulus for the focus group interview will be tested on a group of senior secondary
subject advisors of the Gauteng Education Department, choosing a region which will not be
21
used for the study. Modifications will be made and if these are extensive, further tests will be
carried out before the data gathering commences.
The researcher will make arrangements for the use of a suitable accommodation familiar to
participants. A tape-recorder will be used and will be tested before commencement of the
focus group interview. Adequate writing materials will be made available. Participants will
be notified telephonically to confirm the date, time and venue of the meeting two days
beforehand.
The venue will be arranged with chairs in a circle and the tape-recorder on a small table in the
middle. This is planned in a deliberate attempt to create an atmosphere of harmony and group
support. A "Do not Disturb" sign will be hung on the outside of the door.
2.9.2 The process of data-gathering
Throughout the process of data-gathering the researcher will attempt to put respondents at
their ease both regarding anonymity and in general terms. A reflection of respect for opinions
and persons, warmth and friendliness will be given. Useful skills for facilitating interpersonal
interaction including reflection, minimal verbal responses, comfortable silence, explanations
and clarification will be applied. Great care will be exercised in any attempt by the researcher
not to sum up or clarify as these can influence respondents.
In order to evidence unconditional acceptance, the researcher will attempt to bracket any
preconceived expectations, and own beliefs, values, knowledge, ideas and experience. This
will assist her to perceive the phenomenon, that is, the research situation and the opinions
expressed as objectively as possible.
Specific steps which will be followed for data-gathering will be as follows:
• All the respondents will be given cards with the following question printed:
"Please will you give your perceptions of society's needs in the education of the senior
secondary school?"
22
"How can these needs be addressed?"
Respondents will be told not to give their names when answering and that they have ten to
fifteen minutes to complete the answer. It will be emphasised that the content is important
rather than language.
For the focus group interview respondents will retain the cards. The tape recorder will be
switched on and the researcher will read the questions once to initiate discussion. It is
expected that the discussion continue for thirty minutes. Responses will later be
transcribed.
The focus group interview may lead to greater confidence in interaction and sharing of
perceptions. The two modes of response are used to give respondents maximum, non-directed
opportunity to share their perceptions and express insights which might have been
unconscious or not yet articulated. The whole data-gathering process is expected to take orie
to two hours.
2.10 THE PROCESS OF DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis involves the process of analysis, coding, consideration and interpretation of data.
The aim is to supply a protocol for the processing of data that has been collected by way of a
focus group interview.
2.10.1 Holistic coding
The data collected is categorised in units, in holistic phase one. Words spoken by respondents
will be transcribed in units indicating the number of the respondents' responses. The holistic
approach gathers data in order to ascertain a comprehensive and complete picture of the social
dynamic of the particular situation (Patton, 1991:49).
23
2.10.2 Frequential coding
By frequential coding or analysis, Seliger and Shohamy (1989:211) maintain that frequencies
are used to indicate how often a phenomena occurs based on counting the number of
occurrences. They also provide information on the performance of the subjects on the tests
before the results are used for analysing the data of the whole study. All the sources of data in
the inquiry are processed holistically and frequentially (Seliger & Shohamy, 1989:212).
2.10.3 Categories obtained from the data
After the data collection, methods are analysed holistically and frequentially and thereafter
coded. The interviewer who conducted the interview is also responsible for the processing of
the data. He/she now become the decoder. In the analysis of the data, the decoder applies the
following steps as cited by Poggenpoel (1993).
Step 1:
The decoder purposefully places aside all prior knowledge of the data or preconceived ideas
and focuses only on the answers in the transcription.
Step 2:
Decoder differentiates between relevant and irrelevant information.
Step 3:
Text is read through thoroughly more than once and key phrases and words repeated are
underlined.
Step 4:
Summaries of answers are read three or four times with the aim of indentifying main
categories.
24
Step 5:
Transcriptions are given over to an independent decoder. The independent decoder who
has nothing to do with the research repeats the steps one to three times in order to
determine whether he/she agrees with the
decoder's classification into categories
and also the kinds of categories that have been identified.
Step 6:
The decoder then writes his/her own report on the findings. When writing the final report,
the following factors should be borne in mind:
the group that participated in the interviews should be described without mentioning
names;
categories identified should be explained, per question;
links between categories should be indicated;
indicate which categories came strongly to the fore;
a report should be drawn of the results in respect of the answers to the questions.
The various categories will be woven from the unravelled data. The consolidation of data
in the next chapter will be organized by exposing how they interact. Glaser and Strauss
(1976) state that the analytical process of qualitative field data should have distinct generic
stages:
Data collection and initial generation of categories;
Validation of categories, and
interpretation of categories.
All these stages represent the procedures for the analysis of qualitative field data.
25
2.11 CONCLUSION
In this chapter the tenets of qualitative research paradigm were discussed. The overall
design of this field investigation was included with specific references to processes of data
collection, clustering and analysis. In the following chapter analysis of data will be
discussed.
26
CHAPTER THREE
DATA ANALYSIS
3.1 AIM OF THIS CHAPTER
The research design and methods of collecting data were discussed in the previous chapter.
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the procedures followed during the collection of data
and the process of data analysis. A protocol supplied (paragraph 2.10) for the processing
of data collected by way of focus group interviews will be followed. This will be done to
reach conclusion to the needs of the society as perceived by subject advisors in the Gauteng
Department of Education.
3.2 THE PROCESS OF DATA GATHERING
Four regions, namely North Rand, Central Rand, West Rand and East Rand were used in
all for the purposes of conducting focus group interviews with subject advisors from the
Gauteng Department of Education. The choice of these regions was on the basis of
convenience because of the existing restructuring of regions in Gauteng Department of
Education. The North Rand region subject advisors were interviewed in the pilot
interview, then the others by means of focus group interviews. Respondents were a
multiracial group except for the East Rand focus group where none were first language
English speakers. The groups consisted of Blacks, Coloureds, Indians and Whites.
Paragraph 2.9.2 of the previous chapter described the intended methods to be used when
gathering data. However, qualitative research requires the research to be flexible and to
modify methods of data collection to the needs of respondents in order to ensure frank,
unhibited responses. For this reason, and as a result of insight gained during the pilot
interview, a change was made in the format of the question. This was decided after
studying and discussing the pilot interview with the supervisor. The research question was
then changed to "What do you perceive as the needs of the society that can be
27
addressed in the education of the senior secondary school and how can these needs be
addressed?" The research design remains as described in chapter two.
3.3 DETAILS OF THE RESPONDENTS
The senior secondary subject advisors from the four regions mentioned participated
voluntarily. Each group consisted of five to six members. In all four the groups
interviewed, most participants were females and only three males made up the groups.
They varied in qualifications, experience and competence. There was an interactive and
constructive response in their participation. It is important to note that the respondents
recounted thoughts and consistently supported this research which sought to investigate
their perceptions of societys' needs concerning the education of the senior secondary
school and how these needs can be addressed. As the respondents' task is to improve the
quality of education and teaching in the senior secondary school, they responded readily.
They appeared increasingly spontaneous in their participation. When there were pauses the
researcher deliberately avoided attempts to elicit further comments preferring to allow
creative disequilibrium to develop through silence. The longest silence was of twenty five
seconds duration. Similarly the researcher avoided attempts to clarify or summarise,
bearing in mind Silverman's (1993:90-114) emphasis on how such interjections influence
responses.
3.4 ANALYSIS OF DATA
Different interviews were conducted at the North Rand, Central Rand, West Rand and East
Rand regions of the Gauteng Department of Education. The research carried on in a
disciplined and co-operative mood. Field notes were kept during the period of interview
which would later be analyzed. Analysis of data took place after a thorough listening of
the recorded interviews which were transcribed.
3.4.1 Data analysis
The researcher became the decoder and applied steps mentioned in the protocol supplied in
the previous chapter (paragraph 2.10) as outlined by Poggenpoel (1993:23).
28
Typewritten transcripts of the focus group interviews were then taken back to the
respondents for the first reliability check. This was to check whether they (respondents)
agreed with data that has been transcribed. No additional information was given by the
respondents. Firstly, all the prior knowledge of the data or preconceived ideas were set
aside when decoding data and focus was only on the answers in the transcripts. The
researcher read the transcriptions repeatedly to differentiate relevant and irrelevant
information. All relevant answers were underlined and eventually listed (see p. 29 and 30).
The classification was discovered when concepts where compared one against another and
appeared to pertain a similar phenomenon. Thus the concepts group together identified
categories.
The data of the focus group interviews were consolidated after analysis. The preliminary
categories identified were finally grouped into categories each with a number of sub-
categories. For the second reliability check, copies of the interviews transcriptions and
protocol were sent to an independent external decoder who has nothing to do with the
research but is a student at the same institution. He deduced his own categories.
Differences and similarities of categories were discussed. The only difference that
occurred was that he came up with seven categories as compared to the researcher's five
categories. After some discussions, we both agreed on the six categories identified. The
categories were identified in order of importance, and priority was based on the number of
times a concept was mentioned.
The categories identified from the list of relevant answers (paragraph 3.4.2) and external
decoders categories discussed and agreed upon, five categories were then identified in
order of importance. The following discussion of the categories includes a clarification of
the category (concept) as well as a literature check.
3.5 DISCUSSION OF CATEGORIES AND FINDINGS
3.5.1 Category one: Skills-training
The Oxford Dictionary (1993:1195) defines skills as "an expertise, practiced ability in
doing something with dexterity". Skills-training is the understanding and an ability to
29
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31
apply in practice. In other words skills developed must be seen in context of the subject
domains and be articulated within the curriculum design process for each subject area.
This category elicited by far the most responses positively and for this reason it will be
discussed in detail. Three sub-categories were identified:
Practical Skills: "South Africa .... needs hundreds and thousands of technically skilled
people ...."
School-to-work: ".... narrowing the gap at school-to-work transition ...."
Communication skills: ".... pupils encouraged to embark in class debates .... used to
improve communication skills."
3.5.1.1 Sub-category: Practical skills
By practical skills it is meant "the ability to apply a skill to perform a task, a theoretical
understanding of the task and the ability to transfer knowledge, skills and understanding to
other tasks and situations" (Gordon, 1995:80). Responses in this sub-category were in the
same vein and of particular significance. The subject advisors based their responses on the
rapid technological changes that the society experiences. They perceived these changes as
exerting pressure on the development of society itself and believed that a practical
education is seen as more desirable than an academic one. These perceptions are
exemplified in the following remarks:
".... education has been too academic .... today we do not have enough technicians", and
".... technological subjects should be taught in school .... computer studies "
Reference was made to a change in curriculum that will make provision for the present
economic needs, the pressure for economic demands which may pose threat to the learners,
who in an attempt to meet these needs may find that the school itself does not offer any
sanctuary. This is supported by interviewees in research by Dube (1990:89) who reported
that "learners must be exposed to successful role models in the technological field".
32
Schools should be encouraged to follow career education in order to avoid the excessive
academically biased-education, more people should be technically trained.
3.5.1.2 Sub-category: School-to-work
The school-to-work transition entails applying knowledge acquired in school into a work
place. Narrowing the gap between school and the work or outside world is accomplished
when what is taught in school can be applied relevantly to the outside world. The
respondents commented that "commercial subjects .... coupled with computer studies to
enable the learner to be competent when entering the business world ...." is needed. They
referred to ".... narrowing the gap at school-to-work transition".
Respondents believed that what is taught in school should have relevancy and be applied in
the world of work. Their perception is that skills offered at school should be filtered
through economic, social, political and cultural considerations and provide diverse
outcomes. The school should be able to produce engineers, plumbers and motor mechanics
by offering subjects related to these skills. Respondents are in agreement with the fact that
by investing in education, vocational and technical education and training will improve
thus narrowing the gap at school to work transition and develop policies of knowledge
empowerment. The integration of education and work must be done in such a way that it
enhances the education value of work, and not to theoretical understanding of the task and
the ability to transfer knowledge skills and understanding merely help the school leaver to
become a cheap labourer or totally unemployed.
Dube (1990:71) in his writing mentions that "the teaching-learning activities and the
learning content do not seem to have much in common with what children learn outside the
school. What is completely lacking in all these activities, is the correlation of learning
content to real life experiences of the pupils". There is no transformation of theoretical
information to practice.
The substance of what is said and the manner in which it is said, reflect feelings of
insecurity which may be evoked, which of course is a prominent factor in maladjustment.
To resolve this confusion, the curriculum must aim at providing for economic security by
33
providing the general knowledge and skills that are required to live and earn a living, and
specialized knowledge and skills that are fundamental to the vocational ends.
3.5.1.3 Sub-category: Communication skills
Communication skills means developing a more conscious awareness and use of language
through meaning, structure and functions. This involves an ability to deal with different
types of texts, developing a more skilled reading approach and complex listening skills to
be able to participate actively in co-operative discussion and to explain things (Gordon,
1995:79).
This sub-category includes responses regarding teaching of communication skills which
would involve the development of reading, writing and oral skills that have more practical
application than those presently taught at senior secondary schools. It was characterized by
comments on the wish to encourage pupils to embark in class debates, to read extra
material like newspapers and periodicals and library visits. This was illustrated with
responses such as: 64
.... learners are never given enough time to do the talking in class —. V,
".... the aspect of communication through reading, writing, speaking and listening ....
language teaching should .... emphasize communication instead of formal language
teaching."
Respondents perceived pupils as lacking self-confidence as they cannot communicate well
in English. Pupils are never given enough time to do the talking in class nor encouraged to
read a lot by referring to other learning materials to broaden their language proficiency and
communication skills.
Strauss (1990:43) points out that language across the curriculum can be viewed as a
curriculum compromise. The language teacher acknowledges that language as a subject in
the senior secondary years, needs more justification than being a vehicle for personal
growth and experience. The language teacher owes it both to the pupil and the society to
teach the practical application of this subject.
34
It thus appears from the substance of what is said that English as a language suffers as
much as other subjects from the academic orientation which does not cater for the needs of
the vast majority of pupils in the senior secondary school. English content more suitable to
the majority of pupils should be made available. What is envisaged is not a narrow,
circumscribed course offering business letters and technical terms, but one that will
provide learning, problem solving and communication skills.
3.5.2 Category two: Multiculturalism
The concept "culture" is the root of the word multicultural; a culture being the achievement
of a human group that distinguishes itself from other human groups. A culture is the
pattern of behaviour that characterizes people or a social group. It includes all the attitudes
and beliefs that the group has about the things it considers important (Le Francois,
1985:351). Metge (1986:45) further says: "A culture is a system of symbols and
meanings, in terms of which a particular group of people make sense of their world,
communicate with each other and plan and live their lives."
This category includes responses regarding the diversity of culture and language which
should be acknowledged and protected. The respondents addressed the aspect of failing to
teach learners subjects such as civics which takes the pupil's home background into
cognisance. Reference was based on the different or diverse cultures which should be
included in the curriculum to protect the cultural identity of individual pupils. This
category elicited negative and positive responses and it would have been interesting to
have investigated this issue further to find out if this feeling of cultural identity protection
was paramount amongst the respondents. Extract typifying this category was:
"to be taught at an early stage about the dynamism of our culture that is not static ...."
The discourse on the multicultural education is presently a high priority on the educational
agenda for South Africa. In fact, multicultural education is seen in many circles as a
potential "panacea" to the problems facing the present racist education.
Respondents regarded the manifestation of culture as dynamic, creating a common ground
for pupils from diverse cultural ethnic and socio-economic background. Cultures should
35
be accommodated equally and be given another dimension by including the culture of
learning as well. Schools should move away from ethnicity, tribalism and racism and
focus on creating educational environments in which pupils from all cultural groups will
experience educational equity.
The literature supports the perception that multicultural education is a solution and it is
going to pull all the cultures at par with one another. Janeke's (1994:83) view is that
"multicultural education is not simply education about cultures, but education aimed at
producing a truly multicultural society and preparing citizens to live in it". Nkotoe
(1996:14) states that "South Africa is a pluralistic country with a multiplicity of languages,
culture, ethnic groups and races. Schools as cultural systems themselves need to reflect
this diversity.
The substance of what is said, reflect feelings of • multicultural education as one major
response towards attaining a multicultural society. Multicultural education is concerned
with modifying the total educational environment so that it is more reflective of the ethnic
diversity with a society. Lynch (1986:22) emphasizes that the "school should be a cultural
environment where acculturations takes place: both teachers and pupils should assimilate
some of the views, perceptions and ethos of each other as they interact". Concluding the
issue with regard to multicultural education, it is worth noting respondents' viewpoint that
in the present climate of political change, education can play a healing role whereby new
approaches will allow diverse groups to have a right to ensure the protection of their
language, religion and culture. Education systems need to acknowledge cultural diversity,
and allow for the retention and development of one own culture while achieving a greater
understanding and respect for other cultures.
3.5.3 Category three: Morality and values
The Oxford Dictionary (1993:785) defines morality as "principles points of ethics
inculcating conduct", and values are defined as "qualities on which desirability depends".
According to Gunter (1980:84) "a child at birth is a potential being". A child is a free and
self-conscious subject of thinking, choice decision and action. Therefore, it can and must
be educated morally, helped and guided to realize its moral possibilities so that at a later
36
stage it will as an adult be obedient to and fulfil the moral demands , or imperatives (Gunter,
1980:85).
This category includes responses regarding formative values, character forming, moral
forming, upholding of one's identity, appreciation of the creation and the acquisition of
cultural traits. The respondents viewed the present curriculum as academically inclined.
There was a reflection of a certain amount of contradictory evidence on this issue. It was
felt that though most learners do behave well, some learners still encounter difficulty in
understanding the concept of moral standards. The issue was conducted with responses
such as:
"curriculum should reflect or strive to project the values, culturally and socially of the
society."
Respondents' perception is that today's pupils do not know their values and what society
expect from them. A child should learn and grow along certain standard guidelines of how
to portray himself/herself in the society. There must be a voluntary obedience to specific
norms which are standard of how to behave thus relevant subject teaching morality and
values should be included in the curriculum of the senior secondary school.
The findings in the category reflected that moral standards and religion are not taught to
these pupils and do not feature in their conception of learning. The perceptions are that
moral lessons should be brought into the curriculum, since pupils should reflect a good
behaviour. The literature does support the perception that "morals is something that must
be lived out since they should be reflected in good behaviour" (Fletcher, 1993:144).
The respondents reflected a certain amount of contradicting evidence on this issue.
Though most learners do behave well, their failure to do school-work, disruption of classes
in schools, indicate that some learners still encounter difficulty in understanding the
concept of moral standards (Fletcher, 1993: 144). This issue may elicit many different
views, therefore it may suffice to say the respondents did consider the teaching of morals
and values as important. Subjects such as Biblical Studies and Religious Instruction build
the morality of the child which in turn builds the moral values which will make this child a
better and accepted person in the society.
37
3.5.4 Category four: Subjects taught in the secondary school
Cawood eLal. (1982:69/70) in Carl (1995:37) defines the subject as ".... a more detailed
aspect of an area of knowledge which should be presented to the learner". He states that
these instructional contents are usually prescribed for a fixed period by an educational
authority or an examining body. This content must therefore, comply with specified
standards and requirements, and is chosen in accordance with the particular level of
development and intellectual ability of the pupils (Carl, 1995:37).
This category includes reference to relevancy and importance of subjects taught in the
senior secondary schools. The respondents' perception is that subjects taught are too
academic and are taught as separate entities. Grouping of subjects should meet the needs of
the learners and the society. Learners as school-leavers should not encounter problems of
how to relate content learnt at school with the outside world. Subjects like History should
be relevant to the present situation and subjects such as Agricultural Science are not
relevant to be taught in urban areas as there may be no interest in acquiring agricultural
knowledge. This was illustrated with the following comment: ".... it is a grave mistake to
include a subject like agricultural science in cities."
The literature appears to support the view that the learning-teaching activities are dictated
upon by the requirements of subject contents. Dube (1990:81) suggests that content choice
should be determined by the needs of the community. Subject boundaries should form no
barrier. The needs of the community for which the curriculum is meant, should influence
the choice of content.
Respondents perceived most subjects taught in the senior secondary school not relevant to
life experiences. Knowledge acquired cannot be associated with school-leavers existing
frame of reference. Pupils cannot link what they have studied in school to their
environment or the world around them. There must be emphasis on preparing pupils for
alternative pathways and the world of work.
Respondents felt that teachers are trapped in subject barriers. There is no meaningful link
between the different subjects. English as second language is perceived hopelessly
38
inadequate. It was suggested that there should be a restructuring of the curriculum in
subjects taught in the senior secondary school. Ndimande (1992:49) in his report
emphasizes the uselessness of subjects such as Vernacular and Biblical Studies because
most employers or employment do not require it.
3.5.5 Category Five: Career guidance
Career planning is an ongoing process of exploring different options, so that a person can
be better equipped. It is always good and important for a person to match personal
characteristics to the demands and characteristics of the world of work and the training that
one must get to do a particular job.
This category encompasses responses referring to the emphasis on Guidance as being one
of the examination subjects. Guidance will teach the child vocational and professional
aspects in education. The subject Guidance encompasses life-skills which should be
offered as one of the core subjects - life-skills should not be seen only as skills but also as
insight, awareness, knowledge, values, attitudes and qualities that are necessary to
empower individuals and their society to cope and engage successfully with life and its
challenges. This was articulated in the following response: ".... all learners are able to plan
their careers with full knowledge of available options."
The respondents expressed enthusiastically that Guidance as a compulsory subject should
be included in the school curriculum. It was clear that the respondents could not
understand why this subject is ignored in schools for the fact that head of departments were
allocated them work in other departments. Guidance teachers would also provide life-
skills programmes in schools.
Access to information and appropriate career guidance for all learners should be integral to
the national learning system. Respondents reflected that pupils are not exposed to
programmes that bring awareness to careers to follow after leaving school. It was
suggested that learners must be exposed to successful career role models in technological
fields. Meaningful career information must be made available to the pupils. To make
subjects such as Business Economics and Economics meaningful, pupils must be exposed
39
to the world of work. Schools should be encouraged to follow career education in order to
avoid the excessive academically biased education. This notion is strengthened with
comments that when teaching shares in Business Economics, pupils should be taken to the
Stock Exchange and that production process lessons should be extended to the factories
and firms.
The literature appears to support the view that it appears that learners in the senior
secondary school are not well informed about what career to follow when leaving school.
Dube (1990:38) quotes responses of pupils interviewed in senior secondary schools who
almost all suggested that they want to do white-collar jobs or being doctors when leaving
school. These pupils name these careers or occupations because they are not aware of
other careers which they may follow. If these pupils were aware of careers offered when
leaving school, they may avoid naming a few known to them because they look down upon
other careers. This is because of lack of knowledge available in career guidance.
3.5.6 Other aspects of needs
3.5.6.1 Teaching methods
Reference was also made to teachers and teaching methods. Respondents referred to in-
service training courses and guidance in professional aspects of education. Enthusiasm
was expressed about teachers attending courses to gain new expertise and improve their
teaching methods. This was characterized by comments on the wish to encourage teachers
to improve their teaching strategies, followed by qualifying statements as to why this has to
be improved. The following extract illustrates this: "activities and tasks should be
differentiated to meet the needs of the pupils ...."
The methods of teaching implies the most effective ways that can be used by the teacher to
make the basic principles known to the pupils (Duminy, 1980:18). The teacher must
realize that he is one of the main motivating factors in the educational situation. His
attitude and approach to a subject will, to a large extent, determine what is achieved in the
classroom. The way he approaches a subject can determine whether or not the pupils will
be interested and his attitude will stimulate pupils or result in a negative reaction.
40
The literature does support the perception that teaching methods should improve. Strauss
(1990:67) emphasizes that teachers should be encouraged to consult a variety of literature
for reference and avoid using prescribed textbooks only. Introduction of new approaches
to subjects such as Mathematics are mentioned and that a teacher remains a learner whilst
rendering a service in teaching.
Tiley (1994:89)reiterates that the methods of teaching must be selected carefully to make
use of the richness of diversity of cultures that are available in the classroom situation. The
teacher-centered approach would not work very well because all educational activities will
focus on the pupil. As a result, a wide range of approaches to teaching should be utilized
for the best results.
Respondents had many suggestions as to how to improve teaching methods as this is their
designation. Their perceptions are in agreement with the thinking of efficacy of courses for
teachers. Emphasis is laid on attending in-service courses both locally and overseas.
Continuous teacher evaluation was suggested in order to assess the progress and methods
carried in the classroom.
3.5.6.2 Resources (teaching and learning aids)
Respondents regarded lack of adequate teaching material and resources as hampering
teaching and learning. They felt that most of the practical subjects such as home
economics, woodwork, physical science and biology are not provided adequate material to
be taught practically. To alleviate these circumstances schools are encouraged to raise
funds so as to improve these learning centres. It was felt that business sectors should play
a role in the improvement of education by contributing materials and equip schools with
what is needed. This was expressed with utterances such as:
U.... business sectors should provide school with .... resources."
".... through fund-raising, donations, schools can improve ...."
41
3.6 SUMMARY
The changes which recently took place in South Africa appeared to be more than just
political but also included changes in the economic, social and educational values. After
large scale changes in education, new curriculum frameworks have been compiled and the
process of implementing these curricula is ongoing (Gordon, 1995:80). The transformed
curricula emphasize the notion of relevant and appropriate subject matter which must strike
a balance between the needs of the society and that of the learners. Now this research was
conducted at an appropriate time when society's needs are broad and diverse educationally,
and there is a need to address them, focusing on the curriculum of the senior secondary
school.
In this chapter, the results of the research have been discussed, background necessary to
understanding of responses have been given, the transcriptions of the focus group
interviews have been analyzed and in certain instances further explored. Findings have
been deduced from the results. However, interpretation of findings will give guidelines on
how to design a curriculum that will meet the needs of the society concerning the
curriculum of the senior secondary school. This will be discussed in the next chapter.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
CURRICULUM DESIGN
4.1 AIM OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of the chapter is to gather information from the relevant literature concerning
curriculum design. The views of different writers on the design of curriculum, models of
design and principles of organizing the curriculum will be investigated and explained.
Definitions of the term "curriculum" will be given. The information gathered from the
literature will serve as theoretical or conceptual framework for design and will be integrated
with the empirical data gathered in chapter three.
4.2 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
4.2.1 Curriculum
The literature abounds with definitions of what constitutes the "curriculum", ranging along a
continuum from broad meanings to very narrow ones concerned with syllabus content. For
example, curriculum will be taken to simply mean the range of subjects, with their individual
syllabi, that are approved for a study at a particular level. Definitions on the other end of the
continuum see "curriculum as embracing virtually every aspect of life in school, which
presents the problem that it becomes virtually synonymous with education" (Lawton,
1983:16).
There is however a need to achieve some clarification over what should be understood by the
term "curriculum". It is therefore the intention of this study to offer definitions by different
authors, which are of eclectic nature and relevant to the study.
In Longstreet and Shane (1993:49) various authors give different definitions of the term
"curriculum". These definitions directly or indirectly refer to distinct conception of
curriculum design related to the selection of content. Each represents a set of values about
43
what is important in education. Taken together they are generally representative of the
thinking of the field. They are as follows:
Learner-centred curriculum
Subject-centred curriculum
Society-centred curriculum
Each of the categories involve a different set of purposes underlying the selection of content
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1991:61).
4.2.1.1 Learner-centred curriculum
The learner-centred curriculum revolves around emphasis on learners' interests and needs. It
also encourages childhood self expression, creativity and freedom essential for children's
growth, thus Hilda Taba (1962) in Longstreet and Shane (1993:49) writes: "A curriculum is a
plan of learning; therefore what is known about the learning process and the development of
the individual has bearing on the shaping of a curriculum". Meanwhile Harold Alberty
(1953) in Longstreet and Shane (1993:49) cites "... all the activities that are provided for
students by the school constitutes a curriculum". Given this as a fundamental premise, all
learner centred curricula involves a dynamic conception of content (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1991:63).
Proponents of the learner-centred curriculum defend this design from the progressive point of
view. They emphasize the learners' needs and interests, creativity and freedom as essential
for the child's growth. This view also emphasizes both the affective and cognitive growth.
The variations of this view - relevancy, hidden and humanistic curriculum are of particular
concern in this study because they emphasize relevance, the effects of the informal system
and affective growth. This point is elucidated by Maslow, when highlighting the function of
the humanistic curriculum stated "its goal is to produce self-actualizing people" (Ornstein,
1982:447).
Critics of this view points to the disorganized, untidy and noisy classrooms with little
cognitive learning taking place. In learner-centred education, discipline and order are lacking
and critics charge that this approach is not feasible for mass education.
44
4.2.1.2 Subject-centred curriculum
Where the purpose of school study is to transmit knowledge which is most "important" to all
of humankind, the subject-centred curriculum design would position objectively based
knowledge at the heart of the curriculum. Henix (1962) in Longstreet and Shane (1993:49)
writes, "the curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from the
disciplines (while) education should be conceived as guided recapitulation of the processes of
inquiry which gave rise to the fruitful bodies of organised knowledge comprising the
established disciplines" whilst Orlosky and Smith (1978) in Longstreet and Shane (1993:50)
defines curriculum "as the substances of the school programme. It is the content that pupils
are expected to learn". From these definitions, the selection of knowledge, the forms it shall
take, and the relative importance of different forms of knowledge to the long-term well-being
of society are topics of endless discussions among curriculum makers (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1991:76).
Some curriculum planners are concerned with the results from learners interacting and
experiencing the curricula. They only concentrate on what the learner has achieved from
content. Johnson, Jr (1967) in Longstreet and Shane (1993:50) defines curriculum "as a
structured series of intended learning outcomes" whilst Popham and Eve (1970) write "... all
planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible". According to Tanner and
Tanner (1975) "... the planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences
under the auspices of the school for the learners' continuous and wilful growth in personal-
social competence".
Proponents of the subject-centred curriculum defend it on the following grounds:
that subjects are a logical way to organize and interpret learning;
that such organization makes it easier for people to remember information for future use;
that teachers (in secondary schools) are trained as subjects matter specialists; and
that textbooks and other learning and teaching materials are usually organised according
to subject content.
45
This view is criticized as being fragmented, mass of facts and concepts are learned in
isolation, as de-emphasizing life experiences, failing to consider adequately the needs and
interacts of pupils, teacher domination of the lesson and allowing little pupil input; and that
this view only emphasizes the teaching of knowledge and the recall of facts (Ornstein,
1982:404).
4.2.1.3 Society -orientated curriculum
Beauchamp (1981:104) defines curriculum as the design at a social group for the in-school
experiences of children. This curriculum design can be interpreted from a number of
fundamentally different perspectives, each of which affecting the kind of content that will be
selected. The view is that the curriculum is an instrument of society that is designed to
influence children and youth in ways prescribed by their culture. This curriculum is
interpreted as a plan for passing on knowledge and skills that children will need as adults to
fit into the current social order and to perpetuate it essentially unchanged.
Emphasis on this view is that education should become an organic response to the developing
needs of the society as opposed to being a fully organized institution of government with a
pre-established curriculum plan. Another view is that the purposes of education are to
enlighten the masses about the inequities that their social order inflict upon them and to
empower them to acquire their freedom.
Thus critics cite, reading is not taught to prepare people for a job or for the sake of coming to
know great literature, but so that learners may become aware of the oppression that
characterizes their lives (Ornstein, 1985:66). The question that arises from this is: which
curriculum design should the school adopt to be effective? Dewey (in Ornstein, 1992:234)
realized that the educators needed to be in touch with the needs of society when designing a
curriculum. His intention was to establish a curriculum that struck a balance between the
different views. This balance will produce a good curriculum that will develop both
cognitive and affective growth equally. James B. MacDonald summarizes this succinctly as:
46
"A good curriculum then is a moral curriculum in the sense that it maximizes the opportunity
for moral interpersonal relationship to occur, and by so doing focuses on the personal
meaning of knowledge and the worth and integrity of the person" (Kruger, 1980:51).
4.2.1.4 Problem-centred curriculum
Another type of curriculum is the problem-centred design which focuses on the problems of
living on the perceived realities of institutional and group life, both for the individual and
society in general. It is designed to reinforce cultural traditions and also to address those
community and societal needs that are currently unmet. It also addresses individuals'
problems. Although it places the individual in a social setting, it is unlike learner-centred
curriculum in a major way (Ornstein, 1992:254).
Because this design draws on social problems and needs, interests and abilities of learners,
several variations exist. Some focus on persistent life situations, other centres on
contemporary social problems and others address areas of living, and some are concerned
with the reconstruction of society. What distinguishes these various types is the relative
degree of emphasis they place on social needs as opposed to individual needs (Preedy,
1987:26).
Finally, from the above expositions, a number of implications can be drawn. Of particular
concern for this study, is that during curriculating the phase of situation analysis should focus
on the aspects of the society and its needs. This focus will be on designing a curriculum that
is society-based not forgetting to accommodate learners needs and interests as essential for
the child's growth.
4.2.1.5 Conclusion
From the above-mentioned definitions some underlying and implicit assumptions can be
drawn. If the purpose of curriculum revolves around meeting the needs of society as a whole,
then the curriculum designer pursuing a logical format asks questions and seeks content that
are relevant to those needs.
47
In this context, a goal of schooling might be to prepare children to rethink the problems
confronting society and enable them to participate in the solutions. From the definitions
given, a relatively broad summary can be adopted as a working guide. A school curriculum
consists of all those activities designed or encouraged with its organisational framework to
promote the intellectual, personal, social and physical development of its pupils. It includes
not only the "formal" programme of lessons, but also the "informal" programmes of the so-
called extra-curricular activities as well as those features which produce the school ethos.
These ethos are the quality of relationships, the values exemplified in the way the school sets
about its tasks and the way in which it is organised and managed.
Although this is a broad curriculum summary, it strives to cover all the learning and teaching
activities, the social and personal guidance of pupils which will be later discussed in the kinds
of curricula.
For the purpose of this study, cognisance will be taken of Kriiger's operational definition
because his model will be adopted as ideal for this study. Kruger (1979:44-45) defines a
curriculum as:
"Geselekteerde en geordende onderriginhoude wat 'n program vir die onderrig daarstel
waarin 'n funksionele samehang tussen situasie analise, doelstelling, beplande leerervaring,
aktualiseringsgeleenthede en evaluering aan to wys is".
Kruger sees a curriculum as a document which should bring about change in education. A
curriculum should be critical, rational and constructive. A curriculum according to Kruger,
should be more pupil orientated.
4.2.2 Curriculum design
Kruger (1985:88) states that curriculum design requires insight and skill in the workings of
the curriculum - the so-called curriculum process. There are principles which underlie
curriculating. These principles are presented in a cyclic model (Kruger, 1989:97) and form
an important basis for curriculum design. The cycle referred to as curriculum-cycle,
elucidates the interplay and interwoveness of the components or phases within the cycle
48
(ibid), and that one component cannot exist in isolation but depends on others for its
meaning. Another crucial point to note is that there is no starting and ending point in the
cycle, since all these are greatly involved.
Curriculum should be relevant to the life experience of the learner. All the school activities
should be centred around the felt needs and interests of the learner (Ornstein, 1982:407).
Situation analysis as a component of curriculum design, certainly takes cognisance of the fact
that the learner is a goal-directed or a purpose-orientated being, that is, he has meaningful
life. Proper analysis of situation during designing a curriculum, will produce a conducive and
relevant school climate which might have a positive influence on the self-perceptions of the
learner.
4.2.3 Educational levels
There are different views as to what level should a curriculum be designed. It is clear that the
nature and extent of curriculum design will differ, depending on the level on which one
moves. The nature of activities of a curriculum developer on national level with a curriculum
committee, will differ from that of the subject teacher curriculating for specific pupils at
micro-level. Carl (1995:82) cites the following views on the three levels:
4.2.3.1 Macro level
This level is concerned with the identification of the final destination of national level, within
a particular context, within a school phase for a particular group or broad curriculum
development for a particular subject.
4.2.3.2 Meso level
This level has to do with the identification of aims within a specific school curriculum or
more complete subject curriculum development.
49
4.2.3.3 Micro level
This level has to do with the identification of aims within a specific subject lesson or lesson
unit. This entails school activities (Carl et al, 1988:33).
4.3 APPROACHES TO DESIGN
The way someone designs a curriculum is partially rooted in the person's approach to and
definition of curriculum. An approach expresses a viewpoint about the design and
development of curriculum, the role of the learner, teacher and curriculum specialists. These
approaches can be viewed from a technical scientific and non-technical-non-scientific
perspective (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1992). An approach expresses views of schools and
society. Many educators do not have a single or pure approach, rather in some situations they
emphasize one approach, and in other cases they advocate several approaches.
Carl (1995:49) also cites various approaches to the process of curriculum design which may
serve as theoretical foundations. The approaches described are, the academic, experience-
based technological and pragmatic approaches. As there are many different models, for the
purpose of this study they will be discussed in groups in order to choose an appropriate
model.
4.3.1 Technical-scientific approach
A technical-scientific approach to curriculum is a way of thinking. It coincides with
traditional theories and models of education and reflects established and formal methods of
schooling. It is a way of planning curricula to optimize students' learning and to allow them
to increase their output. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1992:265) these approaches are
behavioural; managerial; systematic and academic. They require that educators use a rational
approach to accomplish their tasks and that they believe that it is possible to outline
systematically those procedures that will facilitate the creation of curricula. Thus this
approach is subject-centred.
50
In outline, models of this approach identify a number of main stages - deciding what you
want to achieve, reviewing the options, selecting and introducing one scheme, and
monitoring its effectiveness for a group of pupils. These are main elements of what has been
the traditional and dominant approach to curriculum design, based on a rational and ordered
sequence of steps with the pre-specification of objectives (Preedy, 1987:21).
Models of this approach have a weakness of being simple and linear. It is also acknowledged
that the linear model is too crude and that a design is better seen as a cyclical and continuous
process with evaluation (review feeding back into formulation of modified objectives
(Skilbeck, 1982:101). However, the model does not take account of the context in which it is
operated. Skilbeck (1982:102) in a discussion of curriculum design, suggests that it is not
enough to import "objectives, syllabi and learning materials into the school and require pupils
and teachers to fit themselves to these externals".
Instead curriculum design at the school level must not start with given objectives or
objectives drawn up abstractly, but with a critical appraisal of the situation, the learning
situation as it exists and is perceived at school level. Thus this led to develop the notion of
situational analysis as an (initial) stage in the curriculum design process before the
formulation of objectives (Skilbeck, 1982:25).
Walters (1985:6-17) in Carl (1995) makes a useful contribution in this connection. He
describes approaches such as the academic, experience-based technological and pragmatic
approaches. The academic approach relates to the technical-scientific approach.
4.3.1.1 The academic approach
According to this approach curriculum design is a systematic process directed by academic
rationality and theoretical logic. The approach is academic as it is based on the application of
studied logic - subject-centred in educational decision-making. It is a proponent of
intellectual maturity and academic rationality. In this approach the curriculum specialists
team is placed in a position where (i.e. without the teacher and others involved) curriculum
decisions can be taken unilaterally. The process of curriculum design begins with the
identification of objectives and goals and then follows the further procedures of selection of
51
content, the classification thereof, design of methods and the eventual evaluation of the
outcomes (Carl, 1995:49).
From the findings discussed and interpreted in the previous chapter, this approache does not
conform to the theoretical guidelines on how to design a curriculum of the senior secondary
school that will meet the needs of the society as perceived by the subject advisors of the
Gauteng Department of Education. The guidelines will be outlined in the next chapter.
4.3.2 Non-technical - non-scientific approach
The non-technical and non-scientific approach sometimes referred to as the intellectual or
knowledge orientated approach, tend to challenge established and formalized practices of
education. Advocates of this approach stress the subjective, personal, aesthetic and
transactional. They stress not the output of production but rather the learner, especially
through activity-orientated approaches to teaching and learning (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1992:273). This approach considers that the curriculum evolves rather than being planned
precisely. The major assumption is that curriculum development is a dynamic process
fraught with much uncertainty. Greater emphasis has been laid on a process approach to
curriculum design, which stresses procedures and interactions rather than ends, broad
principles rather than products or behavioural outcomes (Preedy, 1988:24).
Adopting a non-scientific - non-technical approach to curriculum design includes the
consideration of learning objectives, but these should be defined in terms of intellectual
development and cognitive functioning rather than in terms of quantities of knowledge
absorbed or changes of behavioural performance (Kelly, 1982:120). These approaches, it is
suggested, are based on broad principles which act as guidelines in developing curricula
appropriate to specific contexts or needs. They are therefore concerned with the development
of understanding with "how" rather than "what" children learn. Advocates of this approach
to designing curriculum support child-centred and to a lesser extent problem-centred designs.
They challenge assumptions about whether all aims and goals of education can be known
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1992:274).
52
Looking at designing a curriculum from this angle, the subjective and democratic models
described in Carl (1995) are likely to prove most applicable. Walter (1985) in Carl (1995:49)
describes a few approaches namely, experienced-based; technological and pragmatic
approaches. These approaches reconcile to the findings which were interpreted after the
analysis of data in the previous chapter. (refer 3.5). The following is a synopsis of his
(Walters, 1985) descriptions of these views.
4.3.2.1 The experiential approach
This approach is subjective, personal, heuristic and transactional. It lays stress on the role of
teachers and pupils and their co-operative curriculum decisions. Though this approach is
learner-centred there may be difficulty in maintaining order in the classroom as it makes use
of self-directed, unstructured and personalized instruction programmes at "self-paces". This
approach is best used in primary schools curricula as its basis is that children only learn what
has meaning for them personally and they create their own learning through selective
perception. This approach might be of a disadvantage to the senior secondary curriculum as
it is not feasible for mass education (Carl, 1995:50).
4.3.2.2 The technological approach
Recent large-scale technological development has an influence on the curriculum design.
According to Walters (1985) this approach has its point of departure "system-analysis" which
is defined as "the total analytical procedure for progressing from the assessment of an
educational need and the specification of the terminal outcome of an educational need" (Carl,
1995:54).
This approach sees learning as a "system" which can be reduced to its component parts or
steps. It takes place in a predictable, systematic and controllable manner. Its effectiveness
can be increased by the application of good control according to management principles
(Carl, 1995:54). South Africa as a developing country in technology, needs a curriculum
designed according to this approach. This will be enhanced by combining other models.
Curriculum based on this approach are among others, computer-supported teaching
programmes, vocational and technical teaching subjects and competency-based teacher
53
education programmes which are a requirement to a curriculum that will meet the needs of
society (Walters, 1985:13-17).
4.3.2.3 The pragmatic approach
This is an eclectic process in which a large collection of concepts and principles, derived
from various theoretical models are used (Carl, 1995:56). It is alleged that this approach is
neither systematic nor rational. It is rather the outcome of a long and dynamically complex
process of involvement and interaction. The proponents of this approach allege that
curriculum practice is reactive and takes place fragmentarily.
This seems to be an interactive approach which may be suitable as guidelines in designing a
senior secondary curriculum that meet the needs of the society. For the fact that it is a
combination of the other two approaches discussed above, it forms a basis as a criterion in
designing an approved and applicable curriculum.
To sum up these approaches therefore suggest the importance of:
curriculum design which can take into account contextual demands and needs;
the role of the teacher in exercising professional judgement in interpreting the curriculum;
the need to focus on the whole curriculum as experienced by the child; rather than a
fragmented subject-based approach which has been characteristic of what is offered by
secondary schools; and
curriculum negotiation to accommodate differing perspectives, between teachers and
teacher and pupil, seeing the pupil as an active participant in the learning-teaching
process (Preedy, 1988:26).
54
4.4 MODELS FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN
Curriculum design as a phase within curriculum development, refers to the way curriculum is
conceptualized and how its major components such as subject matter content, instructional
methods and materials are arranged. This is to provide direction and guidance as the
curriculum is developed (Ornstein, 1993:18). It also relates both to the creation of a new
curriculum as well as the replanning of an existing one after a more complete evaluation has
been made. There are therefore various opinions and points of view as to what should be
included in the design (Carl, 1995:81).
Barrow (1984:40-41) offers a perspective which should be fully taken into account by every
curriculum planner. He alleges "curriculum design is therefore not a fixed recipe consisting
of components and fixed rules, but a process characterized by a flexibility within which the
specific variables exercise a strong influence".
4.4.1 Criteria for curriculum design
For curriculum design it is essential to develop the design in the light of accountable criteria.
Various writers have set out classifications of criteria for curriculum design. When these
classifications are compared, the resemblance is clear but in others it would appear as though
there are certain basic criteria which may not and must not be disregarded (Carl, 1995:86).
Walters (1978:91-92) in Carl (1995) states that there should be clarity as to the sources which
serve as guidelines in forming criteria. He states that existing curricula literature and
interviews with curriculum developers may make a significant contribution in this regard.
Contributions to curriculum design are valuable in that criteria are set out for each of the
separate components. Therefore a number of models will be discussed, analysing its
components, to choose an ideal model for this study.
4.4.2 The Walters' model
Walters (1978:91-92) in Carl (1995) cites that when designing a curriculum, there should be a
critical acceptance of criteria. Criteria which is valid for one component should also be
55
applicable to another. Thus this model shows a dynamic interaction between the components
as well as a close relationship and flexibility between them.
The various steps are as follows:
INITIAL EVALUATION - there is situation analysis.
SELECTION OF GOALS - through progress evaluation.
CLASSIFICATION AND ORGANIZATION - selection of contents and planning of
methods.
OUTCOME EVALUATION - evaluation of end results of the educational undertaking.
This model is designed at national level, which is the macro level in education. Walters'
model begins with an initial evaluation which entails the process of situation analysis. This
method of evaluation obviously comprises the collection and interpretation of all information
which may influence curriculum development. This strengthens the model because all
information and variables which may play a role in goal achievement will be included. Each
variable must therefore be examined and interpreted (Carl, 1995:97).
Another advantage of this model is the process of initial evaluation serves as a starting point
for curriculum design, but it also takes place on an ongoing mode through progress
evaluation and through outcome evaluation.
4.4.3 Cawood-Carl-Blanckenberg model
This model is more detailed in respect of the variable components. It has usage possibilities
at any curriculum level that is, macro, meso or micro levels. However, it is assumed that not
all components will be applicable at all levels (Carl, 1995:94).
The various steps are as follows:
Situation analysis (includes initial evaluation and contextual evaluation).
Selection of goals.
56
Selection and classification of learning experiences.
Planning and application of the instructional learning situation.
Pupil evaluation.
Looking at this model, not all the components will be applicable at all levels. According to
Carl (1995:95) two components, goals and core contents represents a syllabus. As against
that, the other stated components jointly form a possible subject curriculum. Learning
contents are found in a more comprehensive and more detailed form, inter alia, in textbooks,
subject literature, teaching media and other literature.
Advantages of this model may be that there is a dynamic interaction of the various
components which is stressed and it does not necessarily show a fixed progress programme.
As with Walters' model, continuous evaluation is strongly placed. Contextual evaluation
which includes situation analysis is centrally placed and shows a dynamic interaction with
each of the other components. Because this model can be used at any curriculum level as
already mentioned it promotes systematic design.
4.4.4 Kriiger's model
Krfiger (1985:88) states that curriculum design requires insight and skill in the workings of
the curriculum process. There are principles which underlie curriculum design. These
principles are presented in a cyclic model (Kruger, 1985:97) and form an important basis for
curriculum design. The cycle referred to as curriculum cycle, elucidates the interplay and
interwovenness of the components or phases within the cycle, and that one component cannot
exist in isolation, but depends on others for its meaning. Another crucial point to note is that
there is no starting and ending point in this cycle, since all these phases are greatly involved.
Curriculum should be relevant to the life experiences of the learner, that is, all school
activities should be centred around the felt needs and interests of the learner (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1982:407). According to Kruger (1984:29-31) these interrelated and interacting
areas are:
situation analysis
57
selection of aims, goals and objectives
learning experiences - organization and integration
selection of learning content
learning opportunities
evaluation.
According to Kruger (1980:15-16) the basic requirements which every curriculum must fulfil
in order to be regarded as a curriculum, is that it should be a harmonious teaching-learning
programme where there is a functional interrelation among the principles of design
mentioned above. Therefore for the purpose of this study, Kruger's model is regarded as
relevant and important for the teaching-learning level where the curriculum is of utmost
importance.
4.5 INTEGRATION OF MODELS
Three models have been discussed namely, Walters; Cawood-Carl-Blackenberg's and
Kruger's models, respectively. These models have common components. Because ICrliger's
model is ideal for this study as mentioned in (4.4.4), some components of the other models
will be taken and integrated into Kruger's model. Walter's model which is based on an
ongoing progress evaluation forms basis which relates to Kriiger's phase of a situation-
analysis phase. Carl's model also resembles Kruger's when analyzing its components, and
this strengthens Kriiger's model. Therefore some of the components of the other models will
be integrated into Kruger's model.
A few of the problems which, however, come to the fore by studying such curriculum models
and the various components thereof, are that they are either not comprehensive or not
discriminatory or cannot be utilized on all curriculum levels, or cannot be applied in every
particular educational system and community (Carl, 1995:94).
Following on the above in regard to approaches to curriculum design, the curriculum model
is based on the premise that nothing is real and meaningful unless it is perceptible and subject
to objective analysis. The technological approach makes use of the means-end paradigm
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based on the principles of system analysis, empirical methods and management effectiveness.
This approach sees learning as a system that can be reduced to its component parts and takes
place in a predictable, systematic and controllable manner. Curriculum design based on this
approach focuses on the learner-centredness where the child is placed in the middle and takes
place in need analysis as a point of commencement in design.
4.6 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
According to Carl (1995:94) Kruger's model is comparable with that of Nicholls and
Nicholls (1972:80), with an additional refinement of planned learning experiences. The
principles of curriculum design are six, according to Kruger (1980:334). These are situation-
analysis; aims, goals and objectives; learning experiences; learning content; learning
opportunities and evaluation. In evaluating any of these principles, the evaluator cannot
simply look at one principle without involving the other principles because they are
functionally interrelated; they are only separated for the sake of convenience and description.
4.6.1 Situation analysis
A situation-analysis, according to Kruger (1984:29) implies an investigation into the needs
and demands of the society in regard to a given-learning programme. This component of
curriculum design, certainly takes cognisance of the fact that the learner is a goal-directed or
purpose-orientated being with a meaningful life. Kruger (1984:29) refers to this as
"meaning-giving existence". Proper analysis of situation during curriculating will produce a
conducive and relevant school climate which will have a positive influence on the self-
perceptions of the learners.
Another pointer towards the fact that thorough investigation of needs has not, so far been
undertaken is the fact that findings (refer 3.5) from the previous chapter of data analysis
indicate that the secondary school curriculum does not cater for the different societal needs.
Looking at the curriculum more stress is laid on literary analysis and insight.
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As far as learner needs are concerned the designers of curriculum seem determined to keep
the aims as broad as possible. Pupils suffer from this lack of a more precise analysis of their
needs. The needs of a matriculation pupil who intends attending a university are not the same
as fellow pupils who wish to join the work force after school. It is likely that their abilities
and interests will differ dramatically too. It is unlikely that the curriculum developers are not
aware at some of the constraints and unfortunately this undesirable position is, to a large
extent determined by practicalities.
A careful balance has to be struck between the needs of the society and that of learners.
Barrow (1984:79) warns of the dangers of seeing a useful, relevant, realistic curriculum in
terms of curriculum geared directly to economic needs. At the moment, South African
educationalists cannot deny the realities of living in a third world country. At the moment
South African education must cater for a school-going population that will enter adulthood in
incredibly difficult and demanding times. Gray (1980:26) in Barrow (1984:81) says that in
situations of great need and of limited resources a pragmatic approach should be a priority.
It must be stressed however, that need analysis is a difficult and specialised task. There are
many factors which must be taken into account e.g. existing curriculum theory, the demands
of society, learners and teachers. This research is a limit of society needs and only one target
group, the subject advisors of the Gauteng Department of Education was used to do a
situation analysis on society's needs.
4.6.2 Aims, goals and objectives
In a curriculum the aims, goals and objectives, the so-called ends of education (Kruger,
1984:30) should be clearly elucidated. In this respect the core syllabus should conform fully
to the requirements of the curriculum.
Global aims are explained fully at the beginning of the syllabus and the aims for the specific
areas are clearly set-out and discussed. According to Marsh (1992:86) aims are long-term
broadly phrased statements which give general guidelines for teachers. They can be modest
or they can be ambitious. Some examples of aims of education include:
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mastery of basic facts and theories in fundamental subjects;
cultivation of personal talents and interests;
development of democratic attitudes; and
good study skills and work habits (Marsh, 1992:86).
Goals are more specific statements which represent the purpose of a particular course. It is
necessary that all education should be goal emulating. Curriculum designers must have a
clear understanding of the educational and teaching goals. The determination of goals is an
important and necessary step in order to make maximum use of instruction time. Instruction
time is valuable and schools should place a high premium on what is to be instructed with a
view to realizing the set goals (Carl, 1995:100).
According to Marsh (1992:86) many writers agree on common goals for schooling such as
academic, social, vocational and personal, but they disagree on the emphasis to be given to
each school curriculum.
Academic goals
Academic goals consist of two sub-categories, a mastery of basic skills and fundamental
processes and intellectual development. Pupils who are not proficient in basic skills will be
severely restricted in their abilities to function in our society. The sub-category of intellectual
development contains many elements including problem-solving skills, and an ability to use
and evaluate knowledge and a positive attitude towards intellectual activity.
Vocational goals
These goals are geared to assist learners make decisions about career options and to be able to
make well-informed choices. They also include developing habits and attitudes about
productive participation in economic life.
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Social; civic and cultural goals
Sub-categories include interpersonal understandings, citizenship participation, enculturation
and moral and ethical character.
Personal goals
These goals include the sub-categories of emotional and physical well-being, creativity and
aesthetic expression, and self-realization. They emphasize self-awareness and self-
development - all the aspects of what it means to be a human being.
Goodlad (1984) noted that academic goals are perceived by pupils, teachers and parents as
the major goals at all levels of schooling (Marsh, 1992:88). Emphasis for the three other
goals categories is very similar for teachers and parents, both in terms of preferred emphasis
and perceived actual practices. It is only the pupils' results which deviate from the common
pattern, to the extent that pupils at Senior Secondary School prefer vocational goals.
Objectives can be defined as specific statements of what learners should be able to do after
having experienced an instructional unit. In formulating objectives it must be ascertained
what is it that is hoped to be achieved, and it must be determined what content should be
taught in order to achieve goals. The teaching-learning activities too, must be effective in
helping the learner to achieve goals that are set. Carl, Volschenk, Franken, Ehlers, Kotze,
Louw and Van der Merwe (1988:41) and Oliva (1988:282) find a strong connection between
aims and objectives, stating that the objectives are the further expression and refinement of
aims. A precise and clear description of objectives gives clear direction and cuts out the
vagueness regarding what pupils must know or do. Well-formulated objectives also give
direction to the determination of methods, media and evaluation strategies. According to
Carl (1995:107) objectives therefore offer a frame of reference against which a value
determination may be made regarding the success of the curriculum development action.
In this research, it is hoped that the needs of the society as perceived by subject advisors of
the Gauteng Department of Education should be addressed by encouraging the learners to
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pursue their studies with interest. To make this possible, the objectives should be rooted
from the learner's social conditions.
4.6.3 Learning experiences
It would appear that the curriculum offers a possible sequence of structural learning
experiences, but they are inclined to be one-sided. Emphasis is so strongly on personal
development, thus the statement "the understanding of themselves and their own emotional
and moral responses to life and the world around them" (Core Syllabus, 1984:2). In respect
of Kriiger's model the planned learning experiences must develop into a "vertical" and
"horizontal" educational spiral. The idea of a spiral build-up of knowledge, implies on the
one hand a vertical deepening of specialized knowledge experience in every subject terrain,
and on the other hand a horizontal integration of experiences across the different subjects in
order to develop pupils' general education and all the values that go with it (Carl, 1995:94).
John Dewey's observation (Tanner and Tanner, 1975:16) to learning experience is that "the
scheme of a curriculum must take account of the adaptation of the studies to the needs of
existing community life; it must select with the intention of improving the life we live in
common so that the future shall be better than the past".
According to Wheeler (1983:34) learning experiences are specific and may be classified into
general categories which deal with man's functioning in particular ways. In order to achieve
ends, appropriate means are required. The means of instilling or changing behaviour are
through learning experiences has as a parallel the proposition that a certain situation will elicit
a certain kind of behaviour. The proposition that a certain behaviour is produced by means of
certain learning experiences. A selection of adequate learning experience will help learners
achieve set goals, and learning experience is a psychological matter controlled by the learner.
4.6.4 Selection of learning content
Selecting learning content is a question of deciding what knowledge, concepts, principles,
generalizations, theories, techniques and procedures in a particular subject shall be used.
Content is the component included in a school subject. The criteria for selection are almost
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invariably importance, difficulty and relevance to the organization of the field of the subject
(Wheeler, 1983:38). When content has been selected, suitable experiences are designed on
the basis of relevance to that content.
According to Carl (1995:109) content must be seen much more broadly as there are many
other contents which form part of a child's development and education, for example, life
contents and contents with which they have to do outside the school context. Content within
educational and school context are normally more formal by nature. It is normally the
selected content which determines the nature and extent of the curriculum as the content is
used to achieve the set of goals or aims. It is then first of all necessary to illustrate the
different dimensions given to content. Content is therefore more than just what is reflected in
one subject, as a collection of subjects, it is also regarded as content.
According to Kruger (1980:65) selection and classification of contents cannot take place in a
haphazard manner, as irrelevant and incorrect contents can by their impact, drastically
influence the path of life of the pupil. There should be a careful selection mode as to what
contains the highest priority value for the child's future adult life. Similar knowledge
contents must be subjected continuously to evaluation in the light of rapid development
particularly in the field of technology, so that the essential is retained and less important
omitted (Carl et al., 1988:43).
According to Marsh (1992:96) how subject matter (content) is organized for learning and
teaching depends very much on one's philosophy of what counts as important knowledge.
The terms "scope" and "sequence" are useful bases for initiating the discussion.
Scope refers to the extent and arrangement of curriculum elements that can occur across
topics or subjects. It is sometimes termed horizontal organization with the following
characteristics:
gradual expansion of scope of curriculum at higher levels of schooling;
changes from level to level as some elements are reduced or deleted while others are
added, e.g. specific lessons on handwriting - for lessons on physics;
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the breadth of coverage and depth of coverage as an important decision for the scope of
curriculum;
consideration of common processes/skills which should occur in all subjects.
Sequence on the other hand, is concerned with the order in which content is taught and what
is to follow other contents. Some traditional ways of establishing sequence includes the
following as outlined in Marsh (1992:99):
going from the simple to the complex;
movement from whole to part, e.g. geography;
chronological ordering of events, e.g. history;
movement from the present into the past;
concentric movement spiralling of concepts, e.g. based on developmental psychology;
movement from concrete experience to concepts.
It is clear that content must be related to learning experiences and to organization, and that all
these must be carefully considered in relation to goals.
4.6.5 Learning opportunities
This aspect of the curriculum is a matter of making provision for a certain type of learning to
take place. According to Kruger (1984) learners are free to choose their own experience. It is
in this aspect that difficulties are encountered in the stipulations of the core syllabi (Kruger,
1984:33).
Learning opportunities are didactical matters which are controlled by teachers whereas
learning experiences are psychological matters controlled by learners. In the planning of
learning opportunities where pupil activity is to take place, existing principles or instructional
learning may serve as guidelines (Carl, 1995:114). Wheeler (1979:130/131) puts the
following principles as determinants for instructional learning:
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learning is an active process in which the pupil must be involved;
learning takes place more effectively if the pupil is involved and understands what must
be learnt;
learning is strongly influenced by the individual objectives, values and motives;
regular repetition is of cardinal importance in acquiring skills;
immediate reinforcement promotes learning. Cognitive feedback is more effective if
time-lapse is limited.
Gow and Casey (1983:118-120) link up with these principles by framing their principles that
must be feasible within the boundaries of limitations of programme requirements, availability
of sources and personnel supply; the learning opportunity with the objectives, goals and
contents must correspond; the learning opportunity must adapt to the relevant pupils, learning
styles and that they must integrate with the subject contents, sequence and continuity (Carl,
1995:115).
Learning opportunities will be described in terms of guidelines on the macro and meso levels,
on micro level it will be described as methods (subject didactics) applied in the classroom by
the teacher. All relevant factors and aspect should therefore be thoroughly considered before
decisions are made as to teaching methods. Oliva (1988:404-408) highlights five main
sources which should be jointly considered in choosing a suitable teaching method. These
sources are the objectives and goals; subject-content (facts, skills, degree of difficulty); the
pupil (abilities, preferences, interests, learning style); the community (parent, parent
aspiration, type of community) and the teacher (personal style, ability, initiative).
From the above it is clear that skills cannot be acquired in isolation but need to be developed
in an integrated process, including learners' own experience (Kruger, 1984:34).
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4.6.6 Evaluation
After the objectives have been clarified and operationally stated, experiences and content
selected, integrated, organized and translated into classroom practice, a double operation is
needed. Kriiger (1984:35) maintains that actual evaluation practice and evaluation of content
should be in accordance with the learning experiences laid down in the different areas of the
curriculum. The importance of evaluation lies in the fact that it enables teachers to compare
the actual outcomes with the expected outcomes and to arrive at conclusions about this
comparison that will enable them to take future action (Wheeler, 1983:269).
Evaluation tries to determine to what extent learning has taken place with pupils or how
successful the teaching methods were. Therefore, it is essential that formative and
summative evaluation are thoroughly done and that curriculum designers have clarity as to
where they wish to place the emphasis. Pupil-orientated evaluation is mainly adopted to
determine to what extent pupils have made progress on the road to goal-realization in regard
to the lesson, series of lessons or the annual programme (Carl, 1995:119).
There are different forms of evaluation that can be used by teachers and they may be
distinguished as summative and formative evaluation. The summative evaluation is normally
carried out at the end of the course of study and formative evaluation is used to help a pupil at
some stage during a unit or course (Marsh, 1992:103). It (formative) is an ongoing
evaluation which may take place at one's discretion in the course of the instructional learning
process after the finalization of a goal or goals. Feedback is applied in this case to improve
instruction and in this way also the pupils themselves. Oliva (1988:445) is of the opinion that
this may take place in a formal or informal manner.
Unfortunately guidelines in the core syllabus as to methods of evaluation are cursory and
vague from the researcher's target group (interviewees) point of view. Far more attention is
paid to what is to be assessed than how it is to be assessed. An example of this is the fact that
the core syllabi make provision for integrated examination papers, presumably to link up with
the underlying assumption of the syllabi. Therefore theoretical guidelines will be needed in
the setting of examination papers that will require considerable skills, insight, imagination
and flexibility to ensure that all aspects prescribed are tested effectively and meaningfully.
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4.7 CONCLUSION
South Africa cannot afford the luxury of the traditional academic approach. If the final
years of senior secondary school are to be meaningful, then practical considerations must
be taken into account. It is necessary to start by acknowledging the society and pupils are
different and that their needs differ and that they are not equally gifted in the same fields.
To acknowledge this is to allow those pupils whose bent is not academic to excel in other
fields. It must be accepted that these areas are as vital to the progress and prosperity of the
country as are the academic ones.
The various principles of curriculum design, that is situation analysis; aims, goals and
objectives; learning experiences; selection of learning content; learning opportunities and
evaluation as interrelated and interacting components have been discussed. Therefore,
from the guidelines on how to design a curriculum that will meet the needs of the society,
the next chapter will discuss guidelines and recommendations on curriculum design.
Empirical data from chapter three and the conceptual framework in this chapter will be
integrated to come up with recommendations in the next chapter.
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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
5.1 AIM OF THE CHAPTER
The aim of this chapter is to provide a conclusion with regards to the whole study.
Recommendations will be offered as guidelines, presented by integrating empirical data
(chapter three) with the theoretical guidelines on curriculum design (chapter four).
These recommendations or guidelines are recommended from curriculum design at macro-
level which is concerned with the identification of the final destination at national level,
within a school phase for a particular group; and at meso-level which has to do with the
identification of aims within a specific school curriculum (Carl, 1995:102). The micro-
level, which has to do with the identification of aims within a specific subject lesson unit
will be excluded because it represents short term objectives. Furthermore, the study will be
reviewed critically, limitations noted and recommendations given for further research. In
conclusion, the strengths and weaknesses of the study will be considered.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS AND GUIDELINES
This was an empirical study using a research design characterized as qualitative,
contextual, descriptive and interactive. The researcher has undertaken a limited situation
analysis by examining the needs of the society as perceived by some of the subject advisors
of the Gauteng Department of Education with regard to the curriculum of the senior
secondary school.
The following considerations should form a curriculum design that will address those
needs.
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5.2.1 Situation analysis
A curriculum must take full account of the social situation, the pressures, and the needs of
the society of which the school is a part. In fact, a curriculum comes into existence due to
social needs. A comprehensive situation analysis should be conducted, that will take into
consideration the needs of the learner, teacher, content and the society or the community.
It would in fact be an identification of needs which includes needs at national and regional
level to school and classroom level.
At national level identification of needs would be able to lead to the design of a broad
curriculum in that various school types may be implemented, new subjects brought in, or
obsolete subjects even abolished. The broad society's needs are therefore taken into
consideration. In respect of a specific school community, for example, it must be
determined what the local community's needs are (for example for a more academic school
curriculum). The needs will differ depending on the level on which one is moving.
After a comprehensive situation analysis, relevant information has to be gathered and
interpreted in terms of the curriculum. In chapter three, findings have been formulated.
These findings represent the product of this research and they form the basis for setting
aims and goals.
5.2.2 Setting of aims and goals
Aims and goals represent the focal point of every curriculum. They reflect the depth and
width of a curriculum and are interrelated and defined in relation to the situation analysis.
It is not the purpose of this study to state and formulate objectives as they are short-term
and are usually expressed in terms of learners behaviours.
It should not be concluded from what follows that these are the only aims and goals
possible because they are derived from a limited situation analysis. The following aims
and goals should be taken into consideration when designing a curriculum for the senior
secondary school:
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Skills-training category includes practical education which is more desirable than an
academic one. The senior secondary curriculum should aim at developing the following
skills: Practical skills; Communication skills and narrowing of the gap between school-
to-work transition (refer to 3.5.1).
Aims
The aims of such a curriculum should be:
to enable pupils to develop practical skills that would be needed in the economic and
social context of every life in South Africa;
to enable pupils to develop communication skills that will improve their language
proficiency and abilities in using language in the society.
Goals
The goals of such a curriculum should be:
to teach pupils skills that will enable them to perform a task, a theoretical understanding
of the task and be able to transfer knowledge acquired in school;
to expose learners to successful role models in the technological field;
to teach pupils skills that will narrow the gap between the school and the world of work;
to teach pupils commercial subjects coupled with computer studies to enable them to be
competent when entering the business world;
to teach pupils vocational and technical education that will develop policies of
knowledge empowerment;
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to provide the general knowledge and skills that are required to live and earn pupils a
living, and specialized knowledge and skills that are fundamental to the vocational ends;
to help pupils broaden their language proficiency and communication skills;
to develop a more skilled reading approach and complex listening skills in pupils;
to enable pupils to participate actively in co-operative discussions;
to develop self-confidence in pupils that would enable them to communicate well in
other languages.
The curriculum of the senior secondary school should be based on the value of
multiculturalism (refer to 3.5.2). The aim should be to develop a respect for people of
different cultural background and to protect the cultural identification of individual pupils.
The Goals of this curriculum should be:
to teach pupils that different cultures should be accommodated equally;
to teach pupils to be more sensitive to cultural differences;
to teach pupils to appreciate and respect human differences in order to reduce prejudice,
tension and estrangement;
to teach pupils how to deal critically and creatively with reality and discover how to
participate in the transformation of their world;
Morality and values should be taught at the senior secondary school (refer to 3.5.3). This
will aim at cultivating a good behaviour in pupils and develop a sense of morality which
will make the learner a better and accepted person in the society.
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The goals of this curriculum will be:
to teach pupils to distinguish right from wrong in real life situations;
to develop values that would enable pupils to judge what is important, worthwhile and
good;
to teach pupils discipline and respect and to portray good manners to their fellow human
beings;
to teach pupils the importance of doing school work;
to teach pupils the consequences and outcomes of disruption of classes which may lead
to school drop-out or a high failure rate;
The curriculum of the senior secondary school should allow pupils to learn subjects which
channels a learner to an intended career when leaving school. This will aim at equipping
learners with abilities to deal with their daily needs, allow them to engage effectively with
a range of contexts and also lay the foundation for further education.
The goals of such a curriculum should be:
to teach pupils to assume responsibility in own learning and interest in continuing to
learn;
to teach pupils relevant subjects that will meet their needs;
to teach pupils know how to relate content learnt at school with the outside world;
to teach pupils subjects that they can cope with.
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Career guidance (refer to 3.5.5) should be included in the curriculum of the senior
secondary school. The aim of teaching this would be to provide pupils with a useful
knowledge and general awareness of career opportunities afforded by what was taught in
school.
The goals of this curriculum should be:
to teach pupils vocational and professional skills;
to teach pupils life-skills that will enhance insight, awareness, knowledge, values and
attitudes;
to teach pupils programmes that bring awareness to which career to follow after leaving
school;
to teach pupils that there is a wide choice of careers to choose from when leaving school
by exposing them to what occurs in the world outside the classroom, for example,
undertaking field excursion trips.
In conclusion, the overall aims and goals of education should be concerned with the
relation of the curriculum to the society. Goals may serve as basis for the decision-making
process during the process of designing a curriculum for the senior secondary school.
Aims will give a direction influence on the didactic design of the instructional learning
situations for pupils. Implementing the above guidelines could lead to curricula for the
senior secondary school that will address the needs of the society.
5.2.3 Selection of content
In any curriculum design, the selection of content is of major importance. The criteria for
selection are almost invariably important, difficult and relevant to the organization of the
field of the subject. Apart from these criteria, special guidelines regarding content
selection should also be borne in mind. For the purpose of this study it is not possible to
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identify sequence (refer 4.7.2) because the target group (subject advisors) did not give
enough data to detect sequence.
If curricula is conceived of materials to guide teaching, then they can be viewed as
embodiments of knowledge about what to teach to pupils in the senior secondary school.
Fields of study such as skills training will include practical skills, communication skills
and the school-to-work transition that needs the gap to be narrowed (refer to 3.5.1).
Content selected to teach these skills will constitute the following:
Teach pupils subjects such as woodwork, computer studies and commercial subjects
that will enable the learner who are unable to continue with their studies to be
competent when entering the business world.
To be able to communicate in any language, pupils should be taught reading, writing,
speaking and listening skills that have more practical application.
Pupils should be encouraged to embark in class debates and to read extra materials like
newspapers and periodicals and make frequent library visits.
Pupils should be taught that communication skills will develop their self-expression,
extend the uses of languages; expose them to new vocabulary which relates to their
interests and activities.
Teach them to develop listening skills by listening to peers, teachers and other people
around them.
Pupils should be exposed to and be aware of other languages, different sounds and
different ways of making a request across languages.
Various theories to morality and values (refer to 3.5.3) in the school and in society should
form an essential part of the senior secondary school curriculum. Inclusion of subjects
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such as Religious Education, Biblical Studies and Moral Education will uphold the values
which make learners better and accepted citizens in the society. Selection of content will
constitute events of a young adult or teenager as every day of life such as stealing, usage of
obscene language, telling lies, being destructive and lack of respect. Thus when selecting
content, the following should be considered:
Pupils should be taught that life is valuable and they must have a sense of self-respect
and respect to property, environment and self.
Teach them to portray themselves in an acceptable manner so as to be valued in the
society.
Teach them discipline, what it entails and its values. Pupils should be taught that a well
disciplined person will always succeed in life.
Pupils should also be taught how to respect others and what would be regarded as
disrespect of oneself; that they must always be kind and helpful.
Multiculturalism (refer to 3.5.2) includes subjects (refer to 3.5.4) in which selection of
content has to carry the consent and ideals of all legitimate cultural groups and address
major areas of commitment. When selecting content, the following has to be taught:
Pupils should be taught content which should be rational, socially relevant, action
orientated, broad and balanced.
Content should be seen as a living subject which encourages pupils to interpret, read,
speak and write it.
Content should allow openness, recognition of other cultures and interrelatedness with
other fields of study in order to avoid stereotyped learning and to allow broad
imaginative and creativeness.
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The senior secondary school curriculum should also skill pupils on making a good choice
of career (refer to 3.5.5). Pupils should be allowed to make career choices and be aware
of the various careers to follow when completing the senior secondary phase by offering
subjects such as Guidance, Civics and Vocational Guidance. It is through these subjects
that pupils should:
be taught lifeskills that will build their insight, awareness, knowledge, values, attitudes
and qualities that are necessary to empower them and their communities.
be taught about the education support services which render services such as
counselling, school health, social work and the psychological services.
As outlined in the discussion on aims and goals, the whole issue of impartiality should be
given attention. The selection of content for the senior secondary school curriculum should
be related to the other principles of curriculum design. A close correlation exists between
aims and goals and the selection of content. The interrelatedness also means that the
guidelines for the selection of content must be in accordance with the recommendations
concerning the inclusion of the needs of the society concerning the curriculum of the senior
secondary school. Categories of content have been identified and not individual items in
each category.
5.2.4 Learning opportunities, learning experiences and evaluation
During the process of curriculum design, particularly at classroom level (micro-level) the
question is asked "what is the best method of achieving aims and implementing the
planned lesson?" At macro-level a national curriculum committee would not normally
prescribe teaching methods in a syllabus. However, sometimes broad guidelines are given,
as this may possibly dampen the teacher-initiative. It is therefore normally and eventually
the subject teacher who must find an answer to this question within a micro-curriculum
situation (Carl, 1995:113).
To ensure dynamic curriculum design, the designer must identify and utilize teaching
approaches that will ensure maximal teacher and pupil participation. To determine what
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progress is made or success achieved, the aspect of evaluation arises. Evaluation is an
ongoing process at macro, meso and micro-level during the process of curriculum design.
Practical skills such as dressmaking, woodwork and computer studies when taught in the
senior secondary school, will develop the potential of the pupils if only the teacher
considers ways or means (methods) which will acquaint the pupils with content in such a
way that it will lead to learning. Learning is an active process in which the pupil must be
involved. In the planning of learning opportunities where pupil activity is to take place,
relevance of the skills mastered in the classroom to those applied in daily life should be
considered. Skills may be acquired through discussions, self-activity and lecture methods
used in the classroom. Pupils may also learn through dramatization, simulation and
language laboratory learning.
To determine the success of instruction or the quality of the learning outcomes, articles
made in woodwork and dressmaking lessons will • be allocated marks which may be a
quantitative description of behaviour by means of a number (percentage).
The greater the variety of learning experiences offered to the pupil, the greater the chance
that the latter will be able to generalize and discriminate (Wheeler, 1983:73). To narrow
the gap of school-to-work transition, when teaching subjects like Business Economics,
lessons should be extended to the relevant places with content, for example, when giving a
lesson on the different kinds of shares, pupils should be taken to the Stock Exchange;
production lessons should be extended to the factories and firms. Experiential learning will
create and reinforce the learning opportunities. Learning to a large extent will be
determined by the pupils observations and impressions.
To evaluate meaningful learning experiences, pupils may be given a task to write about
what they have experienced in the field excursion in relation to the lesson offered in the
classroom.
The fact of multiculturalism, morality and values (refer to 3.5.2 and 3.5.3) forming
should be anticipated in the learning opportunity and learning experiences of the
curriculum of the senior secondary school. A diverse religious approach which teaches the
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learners about good morals and values can be applied when teaching Biblical Studies
and/or Religious Education. Self-activity by the pupils can be enhanced whereby they
(pupils) dramatize some versions in their lessons. Discussions can be conducted between
the teacher and the pupils in connection with the learning content. To appreciate the
cultural heritage, and a respect for cultural diversity, demonstrations of different cultural
attires, dramas and symposiums can be conducted. Cultural days can be organized by the
schools to highlight the fact of multiculturalism.
The curriculum designers have to check whether the learning experiences and learning
opportunities achieve the intended purposes. Tyler (in Marsh, 1992:109) points out that
the pupils' data should be collected at various stages during the teaching of a unit, and not
just at the end of a unit to obtain a "summative evaluation". Observations on the different
cultural attires, dramas and work samples will evaluate pupils' potential and their
appreciation to cultural heritage - multiculturalism. - Thus more values would be attached
to pupils' understanding of and respect for other cultures.
Informal methods of evaluating pupils such as observation could be applied to check
whether the learning opportunities and experiences have been achieved. From the Biblical
Studies and/or Religious Education lessons offered through self-activity by the pupils and
dramatization, observations can be made. Good behaviour by pupils, self-respect and
insight into own uniqueness would result from the inclusion of morality and values
education in the curriculum of the senior secondary school.
Provision should be made by the curriculum of the senior secondary school whereby pupils
are made aware of career guidance (refer to 3.5.5) and relevancy of the subjects taught in
the senior secondary school. The learning opportunity with the aims, goals and content
must correspond and must adapt to the relevant pupils with their abilities, development
level, learning styles and interests. They must integrate with the subject contents thus it is
important that subjects such as History must be relevant to the period in which they are
taught. Paper stories can be used as a lesson in History to acknowledge relevance to what
is studied. Panels can be organized to discuss content pertaining to the lesson.
Symposiums can be arranged whereby pupils can be made aware of what careers to follow
79
after completing the senior secondary phase. Programmed learning can be organized
whereby content is taught through audio-visual aids. With the correct structuring of
subjects, for example commercial subjects, natural sciences and humanities pupils will be
able to choose careers which will aim at exposing pupils to successful career role playing
in the technical and technological fields.
In order to check whether the pupils where offered subjects (refer to 3.5.5) which are
relevant to their needs and whether they may enable them to choose correct careers,
standardized tests which are centrally developed may be used as a form of evaluation.
Scores (results) from these tests will channel individuals to the correct careers to follow
when completing their studies in the senior secondary school.
In conclusion, there is a close connection between learning experiences, learning
opportunities and teaching methods. This connection may be described by means of
instruction and learning actions on the part of the teacher and the learner, a learning
opportunity is created for the pupils also to be personally and actively involved with a view
to deriving the most meaningful experience from this involvement (Carl, 1995:114). The
curriculum designer should thus be informed as to available methods so that the right
choices may be made, based on the guidelines mentioned.
The curriculum designers should also be aware of all the applicable methods of evaluation
and apply them with a view of ensuring that curricula still remain relevant and meet the
needs of pupils and that of the society. To give direction to curriculum design and to
ensure that curricula still remain relevant and topical in order to meet all the requirements,
it would be most desirable that each component receives attention. The involvement of
curriculum developers and their handling of curriculum design at their relevant levels, will
enhance the process of empowerment and eventually make the difference.
5.2.5 Further recommendations
The respondents show clearly that the teaching methods should be extensively
considered when designing a curriculum for the senior secondary school. The exact
80
formulation of aims may give rise to a greater variety of teaching methods (refer to
3.5.6.1) and techniques. The way the lesson is presented in class, the methods applied,
will aim at mastery of the basic facts and theories in fundamental subjects. Goals may
serve as a basic for the decision-making process during the drawing up of an accountable
and manageable lesson. Implementing the correct teaching methods could result in
proficiency in solving problems and thinking critically.
Teaching methods which create learning opportunities could be realized in forms of group
work, discussions, lecture, self-activity and experiential learning. It is within the learning
opportunities that the pupils may have optimal learning experiences. Learning would take
place more effectively if the pupils are involved and understand what must be learnt
through the correct choice of the teaching methods.
To determine the success of instruction or teaching method used in a particular lesson,
judgment with respect to some criteria would be used as a term for the process of •
investigating the status of an individual or group, usually with reference to expected
outcomes (Wheeler, 1983:268).
It was also recommended that the curriculum of the senior secondary school should include
resources (learning and teaching aids) as a component of curriculum. Inclusion of
resources in the curriculum would aim at the acquisition of knowledge from the academic
disciplines. For example, usage of the overhead projector, computers and apparatus in a
science laboratory during an experiment would enable learners to acquire knowledge of
how to use these instruments, thus enabling them to acquire skills and reinforce knowledge
acquired from the lesson. The goal thereof will result in the learner having proficiency in
solving problems and thinking critically.
Provision of resources in the senior secondary curriculum will give immediate
reinforcement which promotes learning. Activity in lessons such as demonstrations,
project work, programmed learning and teaching machines could promote effective
learning. Experiential learning through laboratory learning, simulation could lead to the
achievement of aims and goals.
81
To evaluate whether the usage of resources is successful and to monitor progress,
competitions can be run. Carl (1995:122) mentions illuminative evaluation which is a
form of process evaluation during which change of programme as a whole is intensively
studied. Instruments such as observation and interviews form part of the whole process.
Thus the curriculum committee may use illuminative evaluation in order to determine the
learning outcomes at classroom level.
5.3 COMMENTS ON GUIDELINES FOR CURRICULUM DESIGN
In the process of curriculum design - situation analysis - reference to the pupils and
teachers tend to be ignored. This should in future be an important aspect of curriculum
design. Although the research provided a positive picture, the process of curriculum
design for senior secondary school should be ongoing, since the nature of knowledge
changes constantly. This will help to maintain relevancy. Schools should shift from
concentrating on intellectual development only, but strike a balance between cognitive
achievement, socio-emotional or affective growth and physical growth. More extra-
curricular activities, for example, more sporting codes should be introduced in schools as
this will make schools more inviting and exciting places to be in.
5.4 VALUE AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS RESEARCH
The research confined the researcher to the Gauteng region of the Education Department.
The way the target group (subject-advisors) were selected might offer problems as they
may not give a true reflection of the situation analysis in the whole region of the Gauteng
Department of Education, which is broad.
The research project is limited because of time allocated to the study and because it is an
academic project which should not exceed eighty pages. The study is a part of a group
project in which seven researchers had to identify needs of the society from the seven
perspectives namely, parents, religious leaders, community leaders, senior secondary
pupils, lecturers from colleges, employers and subject advisors which made up the
researcher's target group.
82
The value of this study is that through the focus group interviews, the existing needs of the
society were identified and the researcher went a step further to interpret needs in terms of
guidelines for curriculum design for the senior secondary school. The research did,
however, bring to light definite categories and most problem areas such as skills-training,
morality and values, multiculturalism, career guidance and many others.
The findings of this study are not statistically generalizable, however, the implications for
research can be argued on the basis of qualitative research practice. The validity of the
data, the circumstances during which data are obtained and the researcher's efforts to
ensure validation all contribute to the quality of the data that is collected. By conducting a
literature review and by referring to theory during the interpretation of the data, the
researcher tried to keep an open mind and checked for rival explanations.
The researcher complied with the research assignment that was decided upon in
compliance with chapter one. It was elucidated on how various findings could be
implemented with special reference to an improved curriculum design.
Guidelines that have emerged will lead to an improvement in the curriculum, thereby
adding to improved education in the senior secondary school. Having completed the
research and having stipulated and interpreted the findings of this research, further research
on society's needs to curriculum at the senior secondary school will be recommended.
5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
A set of further guidelines to design a curriculum for senior secondary schools that will
meet the needs of the society should be developed. Research should be carried out in
following areas:
• A comprehensive situation analysis should be carried out on the needs of the learners,
the expectations of the society, the teaching, competence and the constraints within
which it operates.
83
The child psychology and learning theories in order to write guidelines to the
organization of learning content, for example, sequence of learning content is
somewhat haphazard.
An educational philosophy to guide curriculum design.
The guidelines for evaluation, as presently only two main sections of evaluation,
namely oral work and written examination, are used in the senior secondary school.
The relationship between the principles of curriculum design for the senior secondary
school.
5.6 CONCLUSION
The challenges facing the society during these new times are to create an education and
training system that will ensure that human resources and potential are developed to the
full. The broad goal of the curriculum is to enable the society to acquire skills and
knowledge they need to participate effectively in their social, economic and political
environment. The curriculum therefore, seeks to assist the society to participate fully,
equally and confidently in their lives.
Although this study makes only a small contribution to the body of research on guidelines
for the design of the senior secondary school curriculum based on the needs of the society
as perceived by subject-advisors of the Gauteng Department of Education, it is believed by
the researcher to be of value. In the light of this focal point, the context and rationale of the
study was set out in chapter one and the parameters were drawn.
If one accepts the fact that individuals differ and that society needs the contributions of
individuals on the different levels, then it would make good sense to design a curriculum
that will cater for the needs of the individual and the different needs of the society. The
findings of this research have been encouraging as they tentatively indicate that curriculum
of the senior secondary school needs to be re-designed with the marked emphasis on the
84
personal, cognitive, social and emotive development of the pupils. It must make way for a
more balanced approach where the needs of pupils and that of the society are accorded
equal balance. If these guidelines are followed, then it might be possible to design a better
curriculum for the senior secondary school.
85
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ADDENDUM A
PERSONAL HISTORY READ TO RESPONDENTS
I am studying for a master's degree at the Rand Afrikaans University. As part of the course I
am doing research into the perceptions that the Senior Secondary Subject Advisors have on
the needs of society concerning the curriculum of the senior secondary school and how these
needs can be addressed.
For my research I need you to write about your perceptions. After that we will discuss your
perceptions and this discussion will be recorded. Finally, you will have an opportunity to
add to what you have written.
If you participate, your name will not appear anywhere. I will only read what you have
written and hear what you say. There are no good or right answers, because I need to have
your honest opinions and ideas.
When I have analyzed the responses, I will write a report which I will let you read before I
submit it as part of my research, so that you can see whether you are satisfied that it reflects
your opinions.
I hope the results will be used to design a curriculum for the senior secondary school that
will address the needs of the society. I think the discussion will take about one and a half
hours.
Are you willing to participate in this? If you are, I will obviously be pleased. However, you
should feel completely free not to participate and I will accept it.
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ADDENDUM B
STIMULUS FOR FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW
I would like us to have a discussion on your perceptions of society's needs with regard to the
curriculum of the senior secondary school.
How can these needs be addressed?
You can include what you perceive in the education of the senior secondary school.
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ADDENDUM C
INTERVIEW WITH SUBJECT ADVISORS
FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW: Number 3
TARGET GROUP: Gauteng Department of Education Subject Advisors
NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS: Five
Personal history read by the researcher:
"Good morning, ladies and a gentleman."
Response:
"Good morning"
I am Miss Mahupela, studying at the University of RAU. I am doing Master's degree en
Education (curriculum studies). As part of my study, I am doing a research on your
perceptions as subject advisors of the needs of society to be addressed in the education of
senior secondary schools. This discussion will be recorded. If you participate your name
will not be mentioned. I will only listen to what you say and there are no good or bad
answers. All I need is your honest opinions and ideas. After analysing your responses I will
write a document which will be available for you to read and confirm whether it reflects your
opinion. Hoping to receive your full participation.
Thank you.
Can we start?
Interviewer:
What do you perceived as the needs of society that can be addressed in the education of
senior secondary schools and how can they be addressed?
Respondent:
South Africa is a under-developed country concerning education and training.
Interviewer:
How can you elaborate, please.
Respondent:
Our education has been too academic that today we don't have enough technicians,
engineers, technologists, accountants and the like, in our society. We fail to do things on our
96
society. We fail to do things on our own, school-leavers are not well trained to be effective in
the society.
Interviewer:
How should they be trained, if I may ask?
Respondent:
Though the word training is not appropriate for our senior secondary schools, what I mean is
that subjects taught in high school mostly prepare pupils to be academic rather than being
self-sufficient technically.
Interviewer:
How do you determine self-sufficiency?
Respondent:
Eeh ... when a child leave school, he must possess certain skills which will benefit the
society and to acquire these skills some sort of graining should be given right in the
secondary school and not in tertiary institutions.
Respondent:
Today in our region, we have established a finishing school, youth college and community
college. It will be through these institutions whereby for the first time matriculants and
adults are exposed to education which equips them with skills after matriculating.
Interviewer:
But the finishing school still caters for matric failures who repeat subjects, academic subjects
they could not pass?
Respondent:
Fine, though the subjects taught are academic the methods used are different from the ones
used in the senior secondary schools where most pupils come from ... they are improved.
Interviewer:
Now the youth college and community college, how different are they?
Respondent:
The curriculum of the youth college is integrated with technical subjects, some as the
community college. Pupils who finish their matric in these institutions will be well equipped
with a certificate that opens many channels for them technically and technologically.
Subject taught are relevant to what the society expects from school-leavers, for example the
97
subjects offered are motor mechanics, carpentry, technical drawing which are really relevant
to most the needs of the society.
Respondent:
Subjects taught in senior secondary schools must have relevancy to life. What is the fun of
teaching pupils about Hitler in History, this is very irrelevant. History should be relevant to
the present situation.
Respondent:
Again, mentioning History, it is high time that these subjects are made live. Teachers must
refrain from using textbooks and lecturing methods when teaching History, Geography,
etcetera. These subjects end up boring pupils because they are being abstract, pupils do not
see what they are actually learning about.
Interviewer:
How can that be improved?
Respondent:
Today's pupils are more advance than those of the yesteryears. There is a lot of awareness in
them therefore to make a lesson lively and interesting, teaching aids such as videos, overhead
projectors should be used,. This will also stimulate their thinking.
Respondent:
The present education of the high school does not prepare language proficiency in our
learners. Coming to the aspect of self-expression especially in official languages English or
Afrikaans, it is so embarrassing to hear how our children express themselves in English.
Interviewer:
What causes that embarrassing situation?
Respondent:
Whilst I was still a principal, one pupil brought in some application form to be completed by
me in principal's protion. She had already filled in some other parts but three quarters of the
form was wrongly completed. I felt so disgusted that I requested her to destroy that form and
ask for the other one.
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Respondent:
Ja ... that's very true, our pupils are never taught communication skills. They hardly
comprehend what is taught. But one wonders, funny because they obtain A's and B's
symbols at the end of the year in the exams.
Respondent:
Gone are the days where pupils were encouraged to embark in pleas, debates, or rather
school debates. This exercise really used to improve communication shills as pupils would
really go out and express themselves thoroughly in English. Pupils are not even encouraged
to ask or answer questions in English in the classroom. You'll find a situation whereby a Std
10 teacher allows a pupil to ask a Biology question in his mother tongue.
Interviewer:
Yes, lady, let's hear.
Respondent:
We will only address this problem of communication skills only if there is a full
participation of learners in class. Pupils should be given enough chance to express their
views in class, they must also be encouraged to read a lot, refer to other learning materials in
order to broaden their language proficiency.
Respondent:
Another problem that we as subject advisors perceive is that subjects are not made practical.
When teaching shares in Business Economics, pupils should bet taken to the Stock Exchange
to learn more about shares. Production lessons should be extended to the factories and firms
where pupils are exposed to the actual factory layout. Field excursions trips should be
undertaken to broaden knowledge acquired in class and enable the pupils to relate it to the
world around him/her.
Interviewer:
Can we give the gentleman a chance?
Respondent:
Yes, thank you, much as we emphasize introduction of technical subjects to be taught in
schools, our pupils should also be taught life-skills. This can be taught in Guidance. In our
schools guidance is not well catered for. Principals do not ensure that it is allocated in the
school's time-table. Pupils who are exposed to many factors such as poor group pressure,
99
need to be assisted at school level by being taught the life-skills. This will empower them to
become better being in the society.
Respondent:
To add to that, with life skills taught, the child will develop in social and community
responsibilities. Youth clubs established in the communities will definitely improve and
curb social problems such as violence, drug abuse and the like. Learners will be responsible
citizens thus improving the quality of society's life-style.
Interviewer:
You mentioned Guidance, can you elaborate?
Respondent:
Well, these aspects are embedded in Guidance. Guidance and life-skills taught will enable
learners to take rightful position in the society.
Respondent:
We should also move from a situation whereby schooling stresses training for work, but
neglects the basics of literacy and numeracy. In one forum I attended it was said "the state
has infrastructure but poor curriculum and linkage with jobs". It is said NGO's are strong on
the curriculum but weak on large scale provision. The private sectors participation in adult
basic education are limited but their needs and profits afford them to train their workers. So
in all this means there is a need for partnership among NGO's and the education sector. The
business sector should provide schools with resources which will enable pupils to perform to
the required standards when entering the work-situation.
Interviewer:
Will that meet the needs of society?
Respondent:
By investing in education, vocational and technical education and training will improve thus
narrowing the gap at school to work transition, and develop policies of knowledge
empowerment.
Respondent:
Again the integration of education and work must be done in such a way that it enhances the
education value of work, and not merely help the school leaver to become cheap labour or
totally unemployed.
100
Interviewer:
Any more to say?
Respondent:
Eeh .... that's it.
Interviewer:
Thank you ladies and gentleman for your time and patience. This was quite an interesting
talk. Hoping to see you soon with your responses processed.
Thank you.
J. V J.
rum,"
A U
ADDENDUM D
RANDSE AFRIKAANSE UNIVERSITEIT
Posbus 524 Aucklandpark Johannesburg
Republiek van Suid-Afrika
2006
RANDSE AFRIKAANSE UNIVERSITEIT Telegramadres Rauniv Teleks 424526 SA Telefoon (011) 489-2911
+ 27-11-489-2911
Faks(011) 489-2191 + 27-11-489-2191
DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES 14 February 1996 Telephone: (011) 489-2704
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Ms MM Mahupela is a registered M.Ed. student at RAU doing research in Curriculum Studies.
It would be appreciated if she could interview a group of Senior Secondary Subject Advisors of the Gauteng Department of Education during March 1996.
Yours faithfully
DR HC GEYSER SUPERVISOR
DINAMIES TOEKOMSGERIG
