Curriculum for Native American Students: Using Native American ValuesAuthor(s): Sandra M. StokesReviewed work(s):Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 50, No. 7 (Apr., 1997), pp. 576-584Published by: International Reading AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20201825 .Accessed: 19/07/2012 19:01

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Sandra M. Stokes

Curriculum for Native

American students: Using

Native American values

Educators must consider the

implications of curriculum and

instruction within the context of the

culture of students. One school

system has recently been engaged in

developing a curriculum based on

the values of its Native American

community.

Education for Native American children

in the United States has resulted, for the

most part, in poor outcomes for those

children. Curricula in schools attended by Native American children have tended to ig nore the culture, traditions, and strengths of

the students themselves; indeed, curricula for

schools attended by Native American children

have traditionally been decided upon by non

Native Americans (Adams, 1988). Many re

searchers believe that historically education for Native Americans deemphasized their cul

ture deliberately rather than out of ignorance.

According to Adams (1988), Protestant ideol

ogy, the paradigm of progress to civilization

from a savage state, and the desire for Indian

land were three perspectives that centered ed

ucation for Native Americans.

If only Indians would accept [the Americanizing lessons of Christianity, capitalism, and republican ism], they would come to enjoy the blessings of civ

ilized progress. But even then?and this was always

clearly understood?they must continue to give up the land. Such was the deep meaning of Indian ed

ucation, (p. 23)

The 1878 Annual Report of the Com

missioner of Indian Affairs states that one goal of schools was for the children to be "removed

from the influence of their parents..." (pp. xxv-xxvi) so that the children would not re

sume their traditional tribal ways. Indeed, states

Reyhner (1992), "Education in white ways was

seen as a way to destroy Indian tribal life..." (p.

576 The Reading Teacher Vol. 50, NO. 7 April 1997 ?1997 International Reading Association (pp.576-584)

3 191). The founder of one of the most well

known boarding schools, the Carlisle Indian

Industrial School, stated that "Carlisle has al

ways planted treason to the tribe..." (Cassidy, 1995, p. 338). Thus, Native American children

were educated at boarding schools either on

their reservation or far from their reservations

(e.g., the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in

Carlisle, Pennsylvania, located far from most

Indian reservations) and even spent the sum

mers with White families in the areas surround

ing the boarding schools. The curriculum at

many of these boarding schools included the so

called basics, but the emphasis was on voca

tional skills rather than on academics, with the

goal of producing farmers and farmers' wives

(Cassidy, 1995). "Although acquiring rudimen

tary academic skills was surely important, it

was even more fundamental to teach the Indian

child how to work" (Adams, 1988, p. 5).

Native American education today Although education for Native American

students today may not have the goal of de

stroying the Indian way of life, the lack of cul

turally appropriate teaching methods and

materials as well as the development of curricu

lum for Native American children by non

Indians often make schools for these students

ineffective (Reyhner, 1992). The Indian Nations at Risk Task Force (1991) found that "Our schools have failed to nurture the intellectual

development and academic performance of

many Native children, as is evident from their

high dropout rates and negative attitudes toward

school" (p. 1).

Thus, the situation for Native American

children today often reflects underachieve

ment, absenteeism, high dropout rates, and lack

of parental involvement (Gilliland, 1992a).

Reyhner (1988) clearly blames the curriculum for many of these problems, calling the tradi

tional curriculum taught to Native American

students "irrelevant." This curriculum has too

often been based on carefully sequenced learn

ing, with a concept being built up from the

myriad of details around it and then assessed by means of multiple choice tests, which general

ly focus on details (Gilliland, 1992c). Developers of such curricula assume that

children should talk about their learning. However, in their early years at home, Native

American children learn by observing their

parents, not by having conversations with

them (Gilliland, 1992c). Whereas in most

White, middle-class homes, children learn

from having their parents talk to and with

them, Native American children, by the time

they enter school, have "done most of their

learning through direct experience and partic

ipation in real world activities" (Gilliland,

1992c, p. 54). The mismatch between early

learning experiences at home and expected be

havior for school learning was described by

Philips (1972) in her seminal article on Indian

The experiences that most Native American children have

had prior to entering school directly affects later school suc

cess. Photo by Jan McKean, Little Bighorn Photos.

children living and attending school on the

Warm Springs Reservation in Oregon. Philips found, as did Gilliland (1992b) that Native

American children learn by observing some

one perform a task; they then reflect upon their

observation and practice it privately. Only af

ter they feel confident about their ability to

Curriculum for Native American students: Using Native American values 577

3 perform the task do Native American children

attempt to perform the task publicly.

Philips (1972) went on to detail the prob lems the Native American children she studied

had in adapting to school life where children

were expected to answer questions quickly without the kind of observation and reflection

they were used to in their homes. Gilliland

(1992c) also reports the mismatch and further

states that answering questions in mainstream

classrooms would not only seem foolhardy, it

would also be seen as a sign of disrespect to the

person posing a question because a quick re

sponse would indicate that inadequate serious

ness had been given to the question and, by im

plication, to the person posing the questions. Thus, Native American children would tend to

not answer questions quickly because of their

learning styles and their tradition of respect for

others.

Native American students learn much

more easily if they can see an overall

picture, unity and harmony in a

situation.

As Boggs, Watson-Gegeo, and McMillen

(1985) have stated, "When children enter

school, they are prepared to interact in ways that are familiar to them" (p. 120). These au

thors emphasize that the mismatch between

school and home, not a lack of intelligence or

ability, is the cause of poor performance. Thus, the experiences that most Native American

children have had prior to entering school may be direct contributors to their low scores on

standardized tests of language and cognition.

Curriculum at the Keshena

Primary School All of these problems have been prevalent

on the Menominee Indian Reservation in

Northeastern Wisconsin, which today compris es approximately 240,000 acres?a fraction of

the almost 10 million acres of land in both

Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula

once lived on by the Menominees. This reser

vation is also Menominee County, which, ac

cording to the 1990 U.S. Census, was the 13th

poorest county in the United States. Fully 64.2% of all children on the Menominee Indian

Reservation are living in poverty (Wisconsin

Department of Administration, 1990). The psy

chological toll of poverty on the Menominee

was expressed by Tribal Chairman John Teller:

"I think when there is a high degree of pover

ty, that leads to a feeling of low self-esteem and

sometimes a feeling of helplessness" ("Arrest

rate," 1996, p. A2). The correlation between poverty and lack

of education has been mentioned as a factor for

many problems nationwide. Studies by the

Menominee tribe and by the educational system on the reservation show that as students pro

gress through the grades, larger and larger num

bers of them fall increasingly behind in reading and math. This lack of success in school has led

to a high dropout rate; within the state of

Wisconsin, only the city of Milwaukee had a

dropout rate close to that of Menominee County (Menominee Indian School District, 1992).

As recently as the 1990-1991 school year, the Menominee Indian School District was us

ing the skills-based, mastery learning language arts program called ECRI from the Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction (Bryan &

Thompson, 1990) in an attempt to improve the

reading ability of children in the primary school. This language arts program has, for

some time, been marketed to school districts with "at-risk" populations. A study of the fac

ulty in the primary school conducted during the

fall of that school year revealed that 55% be

lieved that this language arts program was a

failure (Bryan & Thompson, 1990). According to this study, the parents were also quite dis

satisfied with the language arts program. Thus, it was obvious to all?staff, administration, and

parents?that changes would have to be made.

The school district contacted me for sug

gestions about implementing whole language into the primary school. Whole language is par

ticularly appropriate for Native American stu

dents. Brescia and Fortune (1988) found that

Native American children show strength in

holistic, right hemisphere information process

ing. Moore (1989) similarly reported that stud

ies of Native American students show that they are global learners who learn much more easi

ly if they can see an overall picture, unity, and

harmony in a situation before having that pic

578 The Reading Teacher Vol. 50, No. 7 April 1997

3 ture broken or segmented into pieces or details.

In language arts programs, this philosophy is

behind the practice of allowing students to en

counter and use language in a holistically mean

ingful, interrelated way. Many practitioners of

the whole language philosophy extend the lan

guage arts program into an integrated curricu

lum, where content area subjects are taught around the focus of a theme or several themes

without separate segments for the different con

tent areas. Integrated curriculum was agreed

upon by district officials, the reading specialist, and me as a subject for staff development; the

ready agreement was reached because of a

recognition of the holistic learning style of the

Indian children as well as of recent brain re

search, which provides a rationale for a curricu

lum in which subjects are related rather than de

livered in separate, discrete pieces.

Developing an integrated curriculum, as

Panaritis (1995) recognized, gives teachers the

opportunity to plan and work in teams; it also

requires a new role for teachers?that of deci

sion makers (Sadowski, 1995). The teachers

at the primary school met in grade-level teams

with and without me and the Menominee lan

guage teachers to create the themes that would

guide their curriculum for the coming years. While attempting to choose themes that would

appeal to the children and reflect concerns

voiced by the tribe, the teachers were especial

ly cognizant of the district and state guidelines for instruction by grade level as well as the

pressure being exerted from the community and state for the children's standardized test

scores to show improvement. Therefore, there were constraints on the freedom the teachers

had in choosing themes.

Native American values

Closely related in time with the decision to

move to an integrated curriculum, the Menom

inee tribe held a meeting for tribal members

to identify issues that the tribe felt the school

system should address. In earlier years and un

der different school administrators, parents and community members had not believed

their desires would have had an impact on the

schooling their children received. The fact that

this meeting took place was evidence of the

growing empowerment for the tribe.

Three issues were most often voiced by the tribal members: The adults felt that the stu

dents did not show enough respect for their el

ders, one another, or their surroundings; tradi

tional Menominee values seemed to have been

either deemphasized or eliminated from the

public school curriculum; and high absen

teeism was a problem. The values voiced by the tribe are ones

that are held by many Native American people. Gilliland (1992b), in discussing Native Amer ican values, states that, "Respect for people and their feelings is much more important in

Native American society than it is in the gen eral population...[Additionally], elders are

particularly to be respected...[whereas non

Indian] Americans often value youth and wish

they were younger" (p. 28). Another Native

American value is living in harmony with na

ture, recognizing that nature is the basic source

of knowledge by teaching through observa

tion of the stars, seasons, wind, animals, flora, and fauna (Gilliland, 1992b).

Native American culture should be a part of the curriculum, state Heidenreich, Reyhner, and Gilliland (1992), because through study of one's culture, social structure, knowledge, be

lief system, art, environmental adaptations, and other customs are learned.

Thus, the teachers, district officials, and I

decided that the values expressed as concerns

by the Menominee would become a central

component in planning themes. One of the

second-grade teachers, herself a Menominee, identified the central theme for all the grades:

Mother Earth. All curriculum planning in

Grades K-3 was done with that central theme

in mind. All of the themes across the grades

explicitly included respect for others and one

self and the environment. Although Menom

inee values would be an integral component of the new curriculum, there was widespread

agreement that the children on the Menominee

reservation needed to become cognizant of

values other than their own as well as how the

Menominee values fit into the concept of val

ues in general.

The process Teachers in the primary school were al

ready working in grade-level (kindergarten

through third grade) teams and even working in one another's classrooms. The district ad

ministration let it be known that they wanted

the teachers to develop a curriculum that they

Curriculum for Native American students: Using Native American values 579

3 would all own, as opposed to previous curric

ula that had been imposed. Grade-level teaming continued in creating

the themes. Two teachers of the Menominee

language (one for kindergarten and first grade, the other one for second and third grades) were

also part of the teams. Title I teachers were also

present at the meetings. One of the tribal offi

cials was present for many of the meetings with

the kindergarten team. Although all meetings were open to the community, no parents or oth

er tribal members participated. In the beginning meetings, I worked with

the teams on developing background knowl

edge on recent brain research as well as on the

various ways to create an integrated curricu

lum. Thus, each teacher was able to acquire a

knowledge of the same facts and theories, which Maeroff (1993) said was essential for

teams to bond. This time also enabled the

teachers to solidify their familiarity with group

work, including group process skills.

All team members met in their groups with

and without me to identify resources needed to

adequately teach the themes. The Title I teach

ers were invaluable resources during these

meetings; they were able to provide titles of

books that fit the themes and offer assistance

from the Title I budget. The team members

agreed that they would not need to duplicate re

sources so each child would have the same ma

terials; a better method was to share the mate

rials. Because the themes were broad enough, the teachers agreed to work on the narrower

components at different times during the over

all broader theme, thereby allowing the maxi

mum use of the materials for each theme as

well as for each transition theme (see Figure).

Working from the central theme of Mother

Earth, several broad topics were identified to

connect to this focal point. Then each broad

topic was fleshed out into narrower topics. In

order to ensure the interconnectedness of all

of the themes, there were transition themes

between the broader topics. For example, in

the third-grade curriculum, illustrated in the

Figure, the theme of Family Members was used

to connect the theme of Family, Friends, and

Me to the theme of Our Community. The pur

pose of these transition themes was to connect

one theme with another, thereby expanding the

idea of providing ties for the children's schema.

One point of agreement from the very be

ginning was the idea of involving community members in all grade levels. All of the partici

pants acknowledged that this might be a diffi cult task. Although attempts had been made to

involve community members and parents, all

of us were quite cognizant of the fact that they had not availed themselves of the opportunity to do so. As Comer found, parents who have

not done well in school are not anxious to re

turn to a setting in which they have not been

successful (in Goldberg, 1990). Beyond this factor is the deliberate policy found in Indian education not so long ago to specifically ex

clude parents in separating the children from

the tribal members so that Native American

customs, philosophy, language, and beliefs

would be replaced by the English language, Christianity, and American citizenship (Adams,

1988). The teachers who were Menominee re

lated stories of their relatives being beaten for

speaking Menominee in school.

The kindergarten team came to believe

that it would be important to invite tribal elders and other community members into their

classrooms to tell the children traditional

Menominee legends and stories to be refer

enced several times during the year. They

hoped this would build community trust and

pride in heritage. Then the children could tell

the stories to one another, thereby building a

knowledge of story structure, the development of which has been identified as being impor tant for reading comprehension (Stein, 1978; Stein & Glenn, 1975; Stokes, 1989).

Community participation would be neces

sary for the first-grade children to begin the

year learning to read the Menominee legends and stories they had heard during their kinder

garten year. The advantage here would be

twofold: (a) their stories would be further rein

forced, thereby keeping their culture alive and

(b) the processing load for the children would

be associating written symbols with words and

stories the children would already know. The

writing of these stories would depend upon the

willingness of tribal members to devote their

time to writing down what had been oral tales.

One tribal member, Carol Dodge, who attended

the kindergarten team meetings, had done this

many years prior and expressed a willingness to look at the stories again to see if they would

be suitable for first graders. These stories and

legends could then be retold by the Menominee

580 The Reading Teacher Vol. 50, No. 7 April 1997

Third-grade curriculum based on Native American values

Staying well

Menominee legends

sugaring

Measuring

Wild rice

gathering

Fact families

Making choices

Risk taking

Express opinions

Responsibility

My role

Family Community

Family members

Family tree

Time line

Ecology: Man as caretaker of the world

Ways we get food

Water

Life

Energy

Problem

solving

Results'

Analyzing

Collecting Posing data answers

Logging Reservation

Then and now

Mapping Wetlands, deserts, plains, woodlands, mountains

Problem solving

Using results

Analyzing

Collecting data

Posing answers

Posing questions

Literature

Language . Energy

Clothing Water

Adaptations Cultures

Animals

Responsibility, man's effect

Flora/fauna

Rocks, soil

Mapping

Curriculum for Native American students: Using Native American values 581

3 language teacher in order to build the culture.

Another idea for community member in

volvement in the first grade was to invite el

derly members into the classrooms to act as

unofficial grandparents throughout the year for

fostering community relationships as well as

for providing a person to be present during class plays and the like for those first-grade children whose parents and relatives worked

during the day. Tribal elders and relatives would be invit

ed into the second-grade classrooms during the

year. Two of the teachers on this team were

Menominees and had prior success in attract

ing community members to their classrooms.

The third-grade team likewise wanted to

have community members be part of their

classrooms in revisiting the Menominee leg ends and stories. Writing development was

identified as an area where the legends and sto

ries would provide good learning tools for the

children since the correlation between reading and writing has been established for some time

(Hall, 1981; Graves, 1973,1982; Loban, 1963; Stotsky, 1984; Wittrock, 1984). Community connections would also be within the various

themes as the children explored traditional ac

tivities such as wild rice gathering, maple sug

aring, and logging (see Figure).

The themes planned by the teachers are

based on Native American values, which

should result in a working partnership between school and community.

Prior to the end of the year, the fourth

grade moved to the primary school. The fourth

grade teachers had met with me and the Title I

teachers during the end of the year to begin

working on themes. Several of the team mem

bers shared their experiences in attempting to

use some themes with fourth-grade students;

they discussed how excited the children had

been when themes were used. The themes used

by these teachers, however, had been isolated

events during the school year; themes had not

been the major focus of their curriculum, and

there was no centralized theme. After several

meetings, this team, two of whose members are

Menominee, identified social studies as hav

ing a major impact on the curriculum required

by both the state and the district; therefore, they decided upon themes that centered around so

cial studies.

According to Heidenrich et al. (1992), so

cial studies is an excellent avenue for teach

ing Native American culture along with tradi

tional content because the

overall goal of the study of the social sciences is to understand the social forces and institutions which

affect us [as well as to] help us understand human

and institutional behavior and to establish facts and

theories which will provide a basis for more rational management of human affairs in both our personal and group life. (p. 79)

These authors say social studies curricula

should include historical and contemporary so

cial, economic, and political issues that affect

Native Americans.

Expressed throughout the meetings was a

desire to have the Menominee children learn

about their culture and history at the same time

that they learn about the world outside the

reservation boundaries. That this is a difficult

task was expressed by Tribal Chairman John

Teller: "Today as Menominees, we must walk

two roads?European values versus American

Indian values...It's very difficult to maintain

our Indian beliefs in the modern society" ("Arrest rate," 1996, p. A2).

Because the integrated curriculum at each

grade level is more congruent with Native

American learning styles, better learning out

comes for the children on the Menominee

Reservation may be possible. A precedent for an optimistic outlook can be found in Boggs et al. (1985) who reported that the KEEP

(Kamehameha Early Education Program)

program, guided by a similar philosophy,

produced significant academic success for

Hawaiian children.

Lessons learned

Many lessons were learned during the cre

ation of the themes. Two of the most important lessons were how to work in teams and how

to create a curriculum. These lessons should

help to ensure that the teachers will be able to

add to, revise, or eliminate themes as they see

fit. As long as the teachers continue to meet

582 The Reading Teacher Vol. 50, No. 7 April 1997

3 regularly to discuss ideas and share visions,

they should be able to take ownership of the curriculum. If the teachers do not continue

working in teams, they may well need an out

side facilitator to get them started again. Another lesson was that it takes more time

to collaborate with others than it does for a sin

gle teacher to plan alone. Maeroff (1993) called for teachers to have time together on a regular basis, free from routines and the demands of

regular duties. Although the district did attempt to provide whole and half days for each teacher

team to work on creating its grade-level curricu

lum, the way in which school time was calcu

lated by state, district, and contract regulations nationwide was an impediment to providing teachers with time to plan and work together.

Because the district administrators provid ed time for the language teachers and the Title

I reading teachers and their aides to attend all

of the planning meetings, far more collabora

tion occurred than had the teams consisted

only of the grade-level teachers. The collabo

rative themes produced at each grade level

went far beyond what each member might have achieved individually. Maeroff (1993) said that this happens because each team mem

ber can "take advantage of the strength of col

lective thought" (p. 515). It is vital to involve the community, in

cluding Board of Education members, during the planning process. By doing so, it is possi ble to accomplish many things at one time:

The contemplated change is more likely to meet the needs of the community; the commu

nity members are able to give immediate feed

back on the project that is underway; because

community members know what changes are

taking place, rumors are forestalled; there will

be support for the change as well as for the

teachers and administrators who involved the

community members; and a true working part

nership is built in this fashion.

Finally, and perhaps most importantly, an

awareness of ongoing progress is the most im

portant result.

Conclusion

Although the district has made good strides, much work needs to be done. Parental

involvement initiatives taken by the district need to be maintained. Historically, as noted

previously, Native American children were

taken from their parents in order for schooling to take place and for the children to become as

similated into White society (Reyhner, 1992). This was true on the Menominee Reservation

as well. The Menominee Indian School District

has made, and is making, many efforts to in

volve parents in the school life of their chil

dren. The themes planned by the teachers ex

plicitly called for participation by tribal members and parents, which should result in

a working partnership between the school and

the community. In speaking to several parents of children in the Menominee Indian School district who have become familiar with the themes, I found tremendous interest and ex

citement among parents about the newly

planned curriculum in the primary school. It

is hoped that this excitement, coupled with the

continued efforts of the Menominee Indian

School District in involving parents, will lead to increased parental participation.

Another area to be explored is that of as

sessment. The teachers have expressed a desire

to begin portfolio assessment in the district.

Portfolios have been identified as being a par ticularly well-suited type of assessment for

Native Americans by Callahan and Mclntire

(1994); demonstrations or performances are

also well suited to Native American learning

styles, according to Bordeaux (1995). Wisconsin's reliance on standardized tests

hurts Native American students (Bordeaux,

1995; Johnson, 1991) and "is likely to produce invalid results" (Brescia & Fortune, 1988). The use of standardized tests on the Menominee

Reservation should be deemphasized because

their inaccurate results may well lead to the

demise or modification of the theme-based cur

riculum; Brescia and Fortune (1988) have re

ported that many very well-designed curricula

for Native American children have been aban

doned because it was mistakenly thought that

poor scores on standardized tests reflected a

poorly designed curriculum, rather than the fact

that poor scores on standardized tests are reflec

tive of an inappropriate means of testing Native

American students (Bordeaux, 1995; Brescia

& Fortune, 1988; Johnson, 1991). The deem

phasizing of standardized tests, however, may be difficult for this district because the state of

Wisconsin and its political leadership are

strongly wedded to the idea of mandated stan

dardized testing for all of Wisconsin's children.

Curriculum for Native American students: Using Native American values 583

3 Despite the problems mentioned above, there is reason for optimism on the Meno

minee Reservation: A new curriculum more re

flective of Native American learning styles, a

faculty taking ownership of the curriculum,

parent and community involvement, and a

commitment by the district administrators to

excellence in curriculum and instruction may well lead to improved learning and outcomes

for the Menominee people.

Stokes helps teachers develop integrated cur

riculum and implement action research. She

may be contacted at 416 Wood Hall, Univer

sity of Wisconsin-Green Bay, Green Bay, WI

54311, USA.

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