Curs Drama Unit

8/10/2019 Curs Drama Unit

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CONTENTS

PRELIMINARIES

Drama vs. theatre3

THEATRE AS A SEMIOTIC SYSTEM......4

Typologies of the (theatrical) sign..6

THEATRICAL COMMUNICATION..9

Encoding and decoding: signals messages codes systems...9

TEXT vs. PERFORMANCE!"

Te#t!"

$tr%ct%re....!"

&onstr%ction of plot...!4

$tory and plot..!'

lot in time or time in plot..!6

The rea*ing of time+ time limits+ temporal conventions...!,

CHARACTERS.!-

Types of characters...!-

ctor vs. character"/

DIALOGUE..."!$tage Directions....""

SPACE"'

The meanings of space: pro#emic relations.."'

0inetic factors..."6


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GESTURE AND SPEECH..."6

1ovement and lang%age as complementary+m%t%ally s%stit%ting

systems."6

araling%istic factors ",

DRAMA SINCE THE 1950s."9

2ohn sorne...3!

THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD...34

1ain feat%res of the Theatre of the s%rd.34

ntrod%ction 5 defining concepts...34

The message(s) of the plays..36

The comic of the plays..3,

&haracters..39

Time and space..4/

ang%age...4!

7arold inter44

$am%el 8ec*ett....4,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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PRELIMINARIES

Drama vs. !"ar"

n an age in hich the ritten te#t has reached rich and daring approaches the te#t of a

play as o%nd to e#perience the same scr%tiniing. The theatrical disco%rse aims at tac*ling

social prolems and at %ilding a te#t as a living pro;ection of the social realities 1 (%t not

necessarily a pro;ection of reality) on the one hand and at forming a ne te#t that o%ld e#ploit

its on methods and techni$ then a semiotic approach to theatre and drama ill deal ith

the process of signification and

the process of comm%nication.

8y analying ? the different sign-systemsand

? codes at or* in a society as ell as

? the actual messagesand textsprod%ced

the decoder oserves the ays in hich meanings are oth generated transmitted and

e#changed the hole process giving rise to a ne and clearly individ%ally defined disco%rse 5

the theatrical disco%rse. nd eca%se there ere voices% that claimed+ maintained that a reader

cannot catch the real meaning and cannot grasp the tr%e style off a printed page as he cannot see

the three@dimensional %nfolding of the te#t at or* differences have een traced eteen the

terms theatre and drama. Th%s theatrehas een regarded as =the comple# of phenomena

associated ith the performer5a%dience transaction i.e.ith the prod%ction and comm%nication

of meaning in the performance itself and ith the systems %nderlying it.> 5n the other hand

drama is regarded as =that mode of fiction designed for stage representation and constr%ctedaccording to certain (=dramatic>) conventions.>&

!$hepherd $imonA Ballis 1ic* ("//4):Drama/ Theatre/ Performance Co%tledge p. !."Elam 0eir (!9-/): The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama 1eth%en p. ".3Ibidem p. !.4$hepherd $imonA Ballis 1ic* ("//4):op. cit. p. !/.'Elam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p.".6Ibidem.

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nalying the ad;ectives derived from the to terms theatricalhas een considered to

refer to =hat ta*es place eteen performers and spectators> hile dramatic refers to =the

netor* of factors relating to the represented fiction>.'7ence e are dealing ith to types of

te#t%al material:

5 one prod%ced in the theatre (the theatrical+ performance te#t) and

5 one composedfor the theatre (the ritten+ dramatic te#t).

ther approaches(have disting%ished eteen not to %t fo%r layers or circles fo%r

concentric overlapping circles o%t of hich

drama is the smallest at the centre standing for the riters te#tA

scriptrepresents the asic code of the event the interior map or oo* of the prod%ctionA

theatre is the event enacted y a specific gro%p of actors comprising the specific set of

gest%res and movements performed y the actorsA the manifestation or representation of

the drama and+ or scriptA

performanceis the roadest circle comprising the hole constellation of events that ta*e

place eteen oth performers and a%dience from the time the first spectator enters the

field of the performance to the time the last spectator leaves.

THEATRE AS A SEMIOTIC SYSTEM

These road perspectives %pon theatre and drama have led to the idea that a semiotics of

the theatre and drama has to incl%de prolems of disco%rse speech acts theory of possile

orlds socio@semiotics. Th%s the decoder has to consider the te#t and the performanceA the

organiation of the te#t or the sho as a holeA the organiation of the semiotic systems that

ma*e %p oth te#t and performanceA the dynamics of the processes of meaning and their

comm%nication thro%gh the participation of oth performers and a%dience. 9Th%s to ma;or

aspects hich foregro%nd to ma;or characteristics of the semiotics of theatre:

!. its main concern ith the mode of meaning prod%ctionA

,Ibidem.-$chechner CichardDrama, Script, Theatre and Performance in The Drama Reie! vol. !, (T@'9) !9,3 p. ,

apud &a%fman@8l%menfeld dette (!99/):Perspecties in the Poetics and Semiotics of the Theatre =l. . &%a>

niversity ress pp. !35!4: =The drama is the domain of the a%thor the composer scenarist shamanA the script isthe domain of the teacher g%r% masterA the theatre is the domain of the performersA the performance is the domain

of the a%dience> (


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". the development of a =synchretic> system in hich many lang%ages of e#pression are p%t

into action: space gest%re m%sic etc.

The fo%ndations of a semiotic approach to theatre and drama can e traced in the

preocc%pations of the rag%e $chool. t is in !93! that to st%dies ere p%lished in

&echoslova*ia (ta*ar Fichs $esthetics of the $rt of Drama and 2an 1%*aGovs*Hs =n

ttempted $tr%ct%ral nalysis of the henomenon of the ctor>) that roadened the perspective

%pon drama and theatre ta*ing it to oservations concerning the heterogeneo%s %t

interdependent systems of the entire dramatic representation (not granting a%thority either to the

ritten te#t or to the acted te#t) or concerning the classification of the repertory of the gest%ral

signs and their f%nctions.

The rag%e str%ct%ralism developed %nder the ;oined infl%ence of the C%ssian formalist

poetics on the one hand and the $a%ss%rian str%ct%ral ling%istics on the other hand. t is from$a%ss%re that it inherited

!. a definition of the sign as a to@faced entity lin*ing

a materialehicleorsignifierith

a mentalconceptorsignified

". as ell as the pro;ect for analying all of mans signifying and comm%nicative

ehavio%r ithin the frameor* of a general semiotics.

1%*aGovs*H10identified the or* of art (the theatrical performance in its entirety) as the

semiotic %nit hose signifier or sign ehicle is the or* itself as an ensemle of material

elements and hosesignifiedis the =aesthetic o;ect> residing in the collective %nconscio%sness

of the p%lic. The performance te#t ecomes a macro@sign hose meaning is constit%ted y its

total effect. Th%s e oserve that all contri%tory elements are s%ordinated to a %nified te#t%al

hole for hich the a%dience ecomes the %ltimate ma*er of meanings. t the same time this

hole has to e ro*en don into smaller %nits in the attempt of vieing the netor* of semiotic

%nits elonging to different cooperative systems =a real informational polyphony>11 =a density

of signs>1#.

This is ho semioticians have reached the concl%sion that stage radically transforms all

o;ects and odies defined ithin it giving them a signifying poer hich they lac* in their

normal social f%nction. $tarting from Ireimass general definition of the sign as =something

!/$pudElam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p. ,.!! 8arthes Coland =ittJrat%re et signification> in %ssais criti&ues $e%il aris !964 p. "'- apud &a%fman@

8l%menfeld dette op. cit. p. !,.!"Ibidem.

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hich is there to represent something else>1$ the perspective as enlarged to vieing theatre as

=a system of signs hich sends %s to the real y signaling it>.1%The general concl%sion has een

that in a theatrical performance e assist a process ofsemioti'ation of the ob(ecteca%se =all that

is on the stage is a sign>15 or =everything is a sign in a theatrical presentation>1&. Be assist a shift

from the emphasis eing laid on the %tilitarian+ practical f%nction of the o;ect in real life to an

emphasis eing laid on the signification of the o;ect on stage.

t is ovio%s at the same time that eyond the asic denotation that these o;ects hold

the theatrical sign vehicle (signifier) ears secondary meanings for the a%dience depending on

the social moral and ideological val%es operating in the comm%nity of hich the performers and

a%dience are part. The sign ac


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associated to some signifieds. s%ally to a signified can correspond several signifiers elonging

to different systems (setting gest%res lang%age etc.)

The theatrical signifiers have een classified into:

a. vis%al (perceived in the mise en sc*ne)A

. a%ditory or te#t%al (comm%nicated thro%gh the a%ditory channel)

II. n a similar %nderta*ing Coland 8arthes1'inferred that =the nat%re of the theatrical sign

hether analogical symolic or conventional the denotation and connotation of the message 5

all these f%ndamental prolems of semiology are present in the theatre.> 7oever it as not

8arthes %t the olish semiotician Tade%s 0oan than managed to dra an initial typology of

the theatrical signs and sign@systems i. e.to classify as ell as descrie the phenomena.

The distinction that 0oan dras depending on the presence or asence of

=motivation> is that eteen: =nat%ral> signs 5 determined y strictly physical las meaning that the signifier and

signified are o%nd in a direct ca%se@and@effect relationship (e. g. symptoms indicate a

diseaseA smo*e signifies a fire)

=artificial> signs 5 depend %pon the intervention of h%man volition.

0oan also tried to estalish another typology of the theatrical sign and sign systems

reaching !3 gro%ps: a.a%ditory 5 lang%age tone m%sic so%nd effects (incl%ding noises off)A

.vis%al 5 facial mime gest%re movement ma*e@%p hairstyle cost%me

props dJcor lighting.

To see the ay in hich these types of signs can f%nction here is a chart 1(shoing the ay in

hich one signifier (e it vis%al or a%ditory) can denotatively lead to a signified and at the same

time ear a distinct connotation:

$INOEC$ $INOED$ &NNTTN

$ETTNI to@storey corner %ildingeathered stairs and galleries

the l%e t%r


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a character elloing impatience coarseness

&$T1E a character ro%ghly dressed in

l%e denim

the profession of a

or*er

primitive strong instinct%al

man

1ME1ENT %ncertainty in al*ing hesitation fragility an easy prey

III. nother typical classification of the theatrical sign is derived from &. $. eirces tripartite

typology of the sign

19

:@ the icon5 hose principle of f%nctioning is that of similit%deA the icon represents

its o;ect mainly y similarity eteen the sign@vehicle and its signified (e. g. of

iconic signs are the fig%rative painting and the photograph)A

@ the index5 inde#ical signs are ca%sally connected ith their o;ectsA the nat%ral

signs mentioned previo%sly are indicesA indices also have the f%nction of shoing:

a *noc* on the door points to the presence of someoneA veral dei#is+ deictics

(regarded as the most significant ling%istic feat%re of drama) (personal and

demonstrative prono%ns s%ch as => =yo%> =this> =that> and advers s%ch as

=here> and =no>) is also incl%ded in this categoryA

@ the symbol5 the relationship eteen sign@vehicle and signified is conventional

and %nmotivated.

ierce indicates that there can never e s%ch a thing as a =p%re> icon inde# or symol.

Theatre seems to e the territory of the icon: see the principle of similit%de at or* in the case of

the voice and the ody of the actor as icons. This analogo%sness eteen the representational

odies and the represented h%man odies can even e asol%te hen the actors on stage play

their on role+ life. 8%t these =mathematical> sit%ations are rather fe and the spectator has

alays to pass eyond the mere icon:

? hat happens for e#ample ith the interpretation of the =asol%tely p%re> icon in an

Eliaethan conte#t hen oy+ male actors represented omen or aged actors still played the

roles of yo%ng loversA

? or hat happens hen the spectator realies that a cost%me may denote iconically the mode of

dress of the dramatic fig%re %t at the same time it may stand inde#ically for a social position or

professionA

? another e#ample of the ay in hich the icon ears deeper meanings than there is e#pressed in

its allegedly =p%re> f%nction is the ay in hich an actor moves: iconically (s)he ;%st al*s

treads tramps strolls %t his+ her movement ill sim%ltaneo%sly sho a certain frame of mindA

!9$pud Elam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p. "!.

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? oth gest%re and lighting can s%rpass their iconic f%nction and perform an inde#ical f%nction.

THEATRICAL COMMUNICATION

E/*3)/2 a/3 3"*3)/2: s)2/a+s m"ssa2"s *3"s s8s"ms

$tarting from the asic scheme of comm%nication in hich the sender and the receiver

y means of a m%t%ally shared and accepted code e#change signals+ messages and sitch places

ecoming in t%rn sender and receiver semioticians have applied the same analysis in theatre as

ell.

n !969 the Orench ling%ist Ieorges 1o%nin inferred that the relationship performer5

spectator does not follo the same pattern. $tarting from the fact that the to do not share the

same code (i. e. the Orench lang%age) 1o%nin holds that the information@giving process is

%nidirectional and the participants roles fi#ed: =the sender@actors remain alays s%ch as do the

receiver@spectators.>#0n this stim%l%s5response model the senders one@ay signals provo*e a

n%mer of more or less a%tomatic refle#es in the receiver %t these refle#es do not comm%nicate

in t%rn along the same a#is. 7oever this cannot e said to e happening in contemporary

theatre or in the theatre of the as%rd here the spectator can e said to initiate or at least

contin%e the comm%nicative circ%it the a%diences signals eing an essential contri%tion to the

forming+ encoding and reception+ decoding+ %nderstanding of the performance@te#t. comm%nication process can e descried starting from Ecos elementary model of

comm%nication#1(see the graph on the ne#t page##) in general terms as the transmission of a

signalfrom asourceto a destination along a channel. The channel might e %nder the infl%ence

of some *ind of noiseand efore reaching the destination point the receiver pic* %p the signal

and transforms it into a coherent comprehensile message. t the same time it is ovio%s that it

is not possile to tal* of a single theatrical message: the performance is rather made %p of

multiple messagesin hich several channels or several modes of %sing a channel

in comm%nication are %sed sim%ltaneo%sly in an aesthetic or percept%al

synthesis#$.

"/ 1o%nin Ieorges (!969): Introduction + la s"miologie es Editions de 1in%it aris p. 9" apud Elam 0eir

(!9-/): op. cit. p. 33."!Eco merto (!9-"): Tratat de semiotic general Edit%ra PtiinQificR Pi enciclopedicR 8%c%rePti p. 4,.""$pud Elam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p. 36."31oles raham (!9'-):Information Theory and $esthetic Perception niversity of llinois ress rana !,!

apud Elam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p. 3-.

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These messages incl%ded in hat the receiver5spectator ill see as an integrated text ill e

interpreted according to different codes: c%lt%ral theatrical dramatic ideological etc. t the

same time the spectators ecome transmitters in t%rn and emit to the performers s%ch signals as

appla%se la%ghter oos etc. e#pressing their approval sympathy shoc* hostility and so on.

Bhat is important to ear in mind hen referring to the actor5spectator transaction+

comm%nication is that it ill alays ta*e place ithin the theatrical contextmediated y a

dramatic context5 the te#t itself. t is in this conte#t that y means of a code the spectators ill

decode the systems that the performers %se.

system ill e %nderstood as =a repertory of signs or signals and the internal syntactic

r%les governing their selection and comination>#%as a formal netor* of elements having a

differential str%ct%re (that is they are defined thro%gh m%t%al opposition e.g. the colo%r of traffic

lights).

codeis =hat allos a %nit from the semantic system (a signified) to e attached to a%nit from the syntactic system> or in other ords =an ensemle of correlational r%les governing

the formation of sign@relationships>.#5E#amples of codes may incl%de s%ch simple associations

as in the case of traffic lights (red 5 dangerA green 5 clearance of crossing) or more comple# r%les

as in the case of ling%istic codes (incl%ding s%ch r%les as dialectal paraling%istic rhetorical

pragmatic conte#t%al). The theatrical performance ill engage virt%ally all the codes operating

in society (*inesic scenic ling%istic).

sr*"; ra/sm)"r

;

s)2/a+; *!a//"+

;

s)2/a+; r"*")v"r

;

m"ssa2"

;

3"s)/a)/

an idea+imp%lse in the

mind of the

spea*er

thespea*ers

voice

phonemes an electricire

so%nds anamplifier

speech

an act%al event

(see ;o%rnalistic

comm%nication

)

an

electric lamp

graphic

signs

light

aves

movement

s

the eye gest%re

a state of affairs

to ecomm%nicated

(e.g.

dangero%slyhigh levels ofater)

a comp%ter an electric

imp%lse

so%nd

aves

smells the ear m%sic

the dramatist+

the dramaticte#t

a typeriter movement

s

olfaction scenic

contin%%m

the director a

tele#machine

so%nds tactile

channel

"4Elam 0eir (!9-/): op. cit. p. 49."'Ibidem p. '/.

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set designer the odies and

voices of the

actors

smells

lighting

designer

the actors

cost%mes and

accessories

cost%me

designer

elements of

the set + props(electric

lampsm%sical

instr%mentstaper

recorders

film

pro;ectors)

composer

stage manager

technicians

actors

a model of theatrical communication

n hat theatricalsystemsare concerned e have already mentioned in the preliminaries

Tade%s 0oans identification of !3 systems operating in a theatrical performance:

a.auditory5 lang%age tone m%sic so%nd effects (incl%ding noises off)A

.isual5 facial mime gest%re movement ma*e@%p hairstyle cost%me props dJcor lighting.

To these there co%ld also e added architect%ral factors (the form of the playho%se and

stage) or technical options s%ch as film and ac* pro;ection. n decoding all of these systems the

spectators ill activate their theatrical competence and ill ma*e %se of the theatrical anddramatic codes and of their on c%lt%ral ideological or ethical codes hich form their general

%nderstanding of the orld.

To other aspects orth mentioning hen the process of coding5decoding is ro%ght

%nder analysis are those of overcoding and %ndercoding#&:

!. oercoding5 it implies the formation of a secondary r%le or set of r%les on the asis of one

(constit%tive) r%le or set of r%les. E#amples of dramatic s%codes prod%ced y overcoding are:

@ dramatic s%codes: the aside the informative monolog%e the marriage at the clima# of

romantic comedyA

@ theatrical s%codes: the rising and falling of a c%rtain to mar* temporal o%ndaries of a

performance the %se of distinctive *inds of e#aggerated movement ma*e@%p or voice pro;ection.

". undercoding 5 the process herey arely recognied ne r%les emerge. t is present

henever e are confronted ith a ne dramatic or theatrical e#perience that e are not ale to

"6Eco merto (!9-"): op. cit. pp. !-!5!-'.

!!


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3. rising action 5 that part of a play hich precedes the clima#.

4. clima#A

'. falling action+ resol%tion 5 the part of a play hich follos the dJno%ement or clima#

forming the o%tcome.

6. catastrophe 5 the tragic dJno%ement of a play or storyA e. g. the 1oors m%rder of

Desdemona and his on s%icide at the clima# of $ha*espeares 0thello.

nother division of the str%ct%re of a play may e3/:

(a) protasis (1ree=stretching forard>) 5 the opening section of a play (or

narrative poem) in hich the characters are introd%ced and the sit%ation

e#plained. t precedes the epitasis.

() epitasis (1ree=near intensification>) 5 the part of a play developing the main

action hen the dJno%ement or clima# approaches hen the plot thic*ens. t

leads to the catastrophe.(c) catastasis 5 the dramatic complication that immediately precedes the clima# of

a play or that occ%rs d%ring the clima# of a play.

(d) catastrophe 5 the tragic dJno%ement of a play or story.

&ontemporary theatre hoever respects almost no conventions concerning str%ct%re.

The five acts are %s%ally replaced ith three or even to ($am%el 8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot)

and the evol%tion of the plot does not lead the reader+ spectator toards e#periencing a clima#

and then moving toards a discovering a deno%ement and finding a resol%tion. &ontemporary

plays tend to e timeless in plot th%s presenting only one perspective %pon the characters lives

hich does not have to move necessarily toards finding a concl%sion.

The importance of perceiving the division of a dramatic te#t into scenes and acts eyond

the mere conventional act resides in the fact that a specific =loc* of te#t presented as an act is

offered oth as a self@contained %nit and as a lin* in the str%ct%ral chain>. $1 Each time e

e#perience a moment of clos%re ith the end of an act e also e#perience a passage toards a

s%se


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sometimes rightf%lly give %s the right to interpret the evol%tion of the characters %t other times

it may not transmit s%ch a message at all. three@act play may seem to give %s the right to

interpret the play as presenting an initial conflicting moment hich e#periences a moment of

crisis in the mid part only to find a sol%tion 5 in a ne perspective or thro%gh a coming ac* to

the initial state 5 in the last act. to@act play may seem to lead %s toards the ;%dgment that

the second act ill ring a revearsal of plans giving %s the possiility to vie the characters in a

hole ne light or in a ne stage of their evol%tion. 8%t this does not happen for instance in

8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot in hich act " does not change anything in the state of conf%sion

oth of the characters and of the a%dience. Even if the action in act " happens the =ne#t day> the

latter half of the play seems to e at times a froen frame of the former half as long as everything

ta*es place at =$ame time.> and the =$ame place.>

n hat the aspect of estalishing the orders of time thro%gh str%ct%re is concerned the

action may progress in s%se in a close dependence eteen the %nity of the act

and the segmentation of the dramatic conflict.$#Traditionally the conventions of act and scene

division or* in direct association ith the constr%ction of the dramatic plot contri%ting to the

shaping or the signposting of the %nified eginning middle and ending point of drama.

n hat the constr%ction of the plot is concerned classical analyses$$have identified a

model ased on

e#positionA

conflictA

catastrophe.

ther investigations$%have made a connection eteen the constr%ction of a dramatic

plot and the Dionysiac rit%al:

3"Meltr%s*U 2. (!9,,): =Drama as iterat%re> in Semiotics of iterature 5 2C ress apudston E.A $avona I.

op. cit. pp. !,5!-.338radley . &. (!96!): The Director and the Stage 1eth%en ondon apudston E.A $avona I. op. cit. pp. !-5

!9.343f.ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. pp. !9.

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(!) gon or contest (a conflict eteen the protagonist and the antagonist)A

(") athos or disasterA

(3) 1essengerA

(4) amentation and possile re;oicingA

(') Discovery or recognitionA

(6) Epiphany or res%rrection.

ll of these f%nction more or less evidently in contemporary drama. $ometimes a hole

play may act%ally lay an emphasis not on presenting this hole caref%lly %ilt str%ct%re %t it

may insist on only half of them or even on one. The theatre of the as%rd does not offer the

reader+ spectator the possiility to identify this hierarchy in the evol%tion of the character as it

insists on presenting ;%st one episode e#ploiting not the shaping of the character %t his+ her

pec%liarities of ehavio%r tho%ght or speech in a partic%lar circ%mstance.

$tephen $tanton

$5

identified the folloing seven feat%res of a ell@made play in hat itsconstit%ent parts are concerned:

@ plotA

@ pattern action and s%spenseA

@ %ps and dons of the heros fort%nesA

@ co%nterp%nch (+co%nterlo) of peripeteia (V a s%dden t%rn of events or an %ne#pected

reversal) andsc*ne + faireA

@ central mis%nderstanding *non to the spectators %t not *non to the charactersA

@ logical deno%ementA

@ overall pattern of action.

7oever there is no %niversal recipe for a play and playrights have ta*en all of these

feat%res and have po%red them into ne patterns forcing critics to come ith ne theories and

classifications that o%ld s%pport the practice.

Sr8 a/3 ,+

Storyis =the asic narrative o%tline> andplotcomprises =the means y hich narrative

events are str%ct%red organied and presented>$&. The modern dramatic te#t ill alays have a

plot %t readers feel sometimes at a loss in finding a story of the play. The narrative o%tline ith

3'$tanton $. $. (!9',): 3amille and 0ther Plays 7ill W Bang Ne or* apudston E.A $avona I. op. cit. pp.

!95"/.36ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. "!.

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all its stages is sometimes replaced y the presentation of a single episode one moment from the

characters lives not necessarily aiming at shoing an evol%tion of the character.

P+ )/ )m" r )m" )/ ,+

n hat time is concerned in the ma*ing of a play it has een oserved that it plays an

important role and that it has close relations to the str%ct%ring of openings developments and

clos%res. Time in each of these stages o%tlines a conte#t dras a frame that ill help the

%nderstanding of the hole plot.

Traditionally the opening scene s%pplies information ao%t the setting it introd%ces the

characters and estalishes the eginning of the action %t in hat the story is concerned it does

not necessarily start at the eginning. The de%t of the play might find the characters in the

middle of the conflict and there might e t%rning ac*s so as to e#plain the eginning of the

conflict to trace its ca%ses or provide a conte#t for the etter %nderstanding of the characters

their actions and the general conte#t of the age. ll these might e revealed grad%ally and+ or

partially creating a ne chronology of drama or of the dramatic emotions. t is precisely this

non@linearity that allos drama to generate tension s%spense and increase the interest in the est

moment possile.

ston and $avona$'identify the folloing f%nctions of time in a play:

!. time present 5 the location of the spectator in the =here and no> of a fictional %niversehich %nfolds in the play.

". chronological time 5 the linear time se.

4. performance time 5 the finite period of time hich the spectator perceives as the frame

for the %nfolding of events.

ther critics$( also introd%ce a fifth dimension 5 that of the historical time i.e. the

historical time of the real orld as e#perienced y the spectators in relation to the dramatic

orld.

D%ring a performance the spectators aareness of these temporal planes in relation to

the dramatic action may e arisen y the employment of techni


17/47

of m%sic the tic*ing of a cloc* the loering and rising of the lights. The str%ct%ring of the

dramatic action %nder these temporal frames seems to lead the reader+ spectator toards the

sense of an ending %t the ending of a play may not coincide ith the ending of the narrative

line. $ometimes the ending seems ;%st to e an opening toards a f%t%re e it immediate or

distant ta*ing the s%spense or the tension of hat co%ld e happening f%rther than the last ords

of the play.

T!" r"a)/2 - )m"= )m" +)m)s= "m,ra+ */v"/)/s

&ontemporary drama has ro%ght important changes in hat the handling of time(s) is

concerned. Mery often plays deviate from the traditional shaping of the dramatic plot mi#ing

chronology or having no chronology hatsoever that is relating a series of episodes ith no

apparent connection or hich seem to happen in an indefinale frame of time. 8ec*etts

%ndgame has no Sending as s%ch %t it seems to ind don to no logical p%rpose. The second

act from 2aiting for 1odotta*es place on the =Ne#t day. $ame time. $ame place> as if defying

the normal passing of time as if everything may e st%c* in a %niversal time eyond any

evol%tion.

CHARACTERS

!,


18/47

T8,"s - *!ara*"rs

1ore or less e#hiitionist more or less e#travagant discarding more or fe conventions

the dramatic te#t co%ld never discard or evade one presence 5 that of the h%man eing. t is

%niversally accepted that the presence of man co%ld not e separated from the developing of the

dramatic te#t 5 h%man concerns constit%te the s%;ect@matter of the dramatic te#t the theatrical

performance is carried o%t y h%man agents so one co%ld say that =h%man eings are oth the

contentand theformof the theatre>.$9. $trinderg oserves the shift toards a psychological

interest over the characters and %nderlines the fact that they are %ilt as prod%cts of the times

they inhait:

1y so%ls (or characters) are agglomerations of past and present c%lt%re scraps

from oo*s and nespapers fragments of h%manity torn shreds of once@fine

clothing that has ecome rags in ;%st the ay that a h%man so%l is patched

together.>%0

This constr%ct %nder hose form a character is (re)presented has een also een ;%dged

according to the f%nction it plays or the sphere of action to hich they elong. ropp identified

seven =spheres of actions> as follos%1:

!. villain

". donor (provider)

3. helper

4. princess (a so%ght@for person) and her father

'. dispatcher

6. hero

,. false hero

Bor*ing on the model set y ropp Ireimas %#proposed 6 f%nctions of the characters as

follos:

$ender $%;ect Ceceiver

39Bilson E. (!9,6): The Theater %xperience 1cIra@7ill Ne or* apud ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. 34.4/$trinderg . (!9,6): reface to6iss 7ulie translated y 1ichael 1eyer in $trindergPlays Eyre 1eth%en

ondon pp. 9!5!/3 apudston E.A $avona I op. cit. p. 3'.4!ropp Mladmir (!96-):6orphology of the 8oltale niversity of Te#as ress %stin and ondon apud ston

E.A $avona I op. cit. p. 36.4" Ireimas (!9-3): Structural Semantics Translated y D. 1cDoell C. $chleifer and . Melie niversity of

Neras*a ress incoln and ondon p. !99 apud ston E.A $avona I op. cit. p. 3,.

!-


19/47

7elper ;ect pponent

hich can e e#plained as follos: =the sender is a force or eing hich acts on the s%;ect

therey initiating the s%;ects f e ta*e the e#ample of a love@%%.

n hat the manner of transmitting the information ao%t characters is concerned there

have een identified the folloing narrative conventions%5:

!. self-presentation5 a character may introd%ce himself+ herself from the start of the play.

". exposition 5 all the information ao%t time events and characters is f%rnished at the

eginning.

3. choric commentary 5 the information necessary to the spectators %nderstanding

concerning the developing action is provided y a character or characters ithin or

o%tside the frameor* of the narrative or y a formal chor%s ith a collective identity.

4. character as confidant9e: 5 the ma;or character confides in a minor character th%s

revealing himself+ herself.

'. character as foil5 a minor character p%ts into light the ma;or character y acting as a

similar or different co%nterpoint.

6. Deus ex machina 5 (=Iod form the machine>) the iss%es are raised thro%gho%t the play

only to e solved at the end.

,. silent characters5 the information is given e#cl%sively in vis%al terms.

-. character names.

430eir Elam op. cit. p. !/4.44Idem p. !/6.4'ston E.A $avona I op. cit. p. 44.

!9


20/47

A*r vs. *!ara*"r

Bithin the theatrical conte#t the actor represents the agent thro%gh hich the character is

mediated to the spectator. Even if there are other important factors hich contri%te to this

mediation (c%lt%ral historical) it is nonetheless important and %ndeniale that the actor

constit%tes the primary channel thro%gh hich the character is transmitted+ comm%nicated+ given

life to. The actor plays a character that f%nctions

(!) as a psychological constr%ct

(") as a thematic symol and+ or ideological =*ey>

(3) as a mirror@image of the individ%al spectator.

These categories are m%t%ally e#cl%sive they can ;%st as ell f%nction sim%ltaneo%sly.

nother aspect concerning the performance of the actor is that he might e faced ith the

proaility of role@play at the level of character. 1a*ing %se of the metaphor of the orld as a

theatre stage playrights have created roles for actors as actors ithin the play. Three variants

have een identified%&:

!. the actor plays a character that plays a role =refle#ively> i.e.as a theatricalised e#tension

of social acting.

". the actor plays a character that ass%mes a second identity y the adoption of disg%ise or

y some other means.

3. the actor plays a character ho participates in a formal second@level enactment (a play@

ithin@a@play).

n contemporary drama the iss%e hich seems to e more e#ploited in hat the characters are

concerned seems to e that of presenting a character dran from reality ith his+ her common

daily socially rooted tensions or as in the theatre of the as%rd hat seems to prevail in the

presentation of the character is one psychological feat%re. The as%rdity comes form the fact that

this feat%re is the only one that the character seems to manifest in the play creating th%s osessed

characters ho seem not to move toards the finding of a sol%tion.

D)a+2"

46Ibidem pp. 4,54-.

"/


21/47

t is clear that dialog%e is important in the analysis of the dramatic disco%rse as a hole

not only from the point of vie of lang%age %t also for the fact that it helps %nderstanding the

characters ho ill e ;%dged as prod%cts of the lang%age they %se.

8efore starting to analyse dialog%e or to %ild a semiotics of dialog%e e need to

disting%ish eteen to components hich form the %nitary ody of the dramatic te#t:

@ the dialogue5 the main ody of the dramatic te#tA

@ the stage directions5 a separate te#t e#isting on its on.

The role of the dialog%e in dramatic te#ts is that of estalishing the character space and

action. t is represented as a t%rn@ta*ing system in hich one character listens and then replies

ecoming in t%rn spea*er. ts mode is essentially deictic. 0eir Elam%'states that

Bhat allos the dialog%e to create an interpersonal dialectic XY ithin the time

and location of disco%rse is dei#is.

nstead of prepositions or descriptions e have references y the spea*ers to themselves asspea*ers (I) to their interloc%tors as listener@addressees (you) and to the spatio@temporal

coordinates (here no!) sometimes pointing to an o;ect or a fact ( this that). The sit%ation can

e s%mmarised in Elams ords in: =an I addressing a youhereand no!>%(to hich e co%ld

add that these to spea* ao%t a this or a that.

Dialog%e also has to e analysed according to the three levels of speech as action%9:

@ loc%tionary 5 %ttering a sentence that ma*es senseA

@ illoc%tionary 5 the act performed in %ttering the sentenceA e.g. ma*ing a re


22/47

". &uality5 one m%st e tr%thf%l not lie or ma*e an %tterance itho%t ade51 (see for e#ample 8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot hich

a%ses the cooperative principle).

s a concl%sion e oserve that the contemporary dramatic disco%rse relies almost

e#cl%sively on a mode of r%le@rea*ing. n these dialog%es the said is %nsaid (=n the morning

they race yo% and in the evening they calm yo% don. nless its the other ay ro%nd.> 5#) there

is never any certainty as to =meaning> no ay of *noing if the characters are sincere or

insincere. The conventions of classical dialog%e are s%verted %ndermined or overt%rned only to

form a dramatic chaotic as%rd %niverse e it ling%istically or logically.

Sa2" D)r"*)/s

Oor a long time stage directions have een regarded as e#ternal to the play not part of the

literary str%ct%re. Things have changed greatly and this =ancillary te#t> (as they have een

called5$as to differentiate them from the =primary te#t> i.e. the act%al dialog%e of the characters)

is no s%;ect to interpretation y the director designer actors and technicians. They are more or

less respected more or less %nderstood. Oormally they are italicised they either precede thelines are interspersed or s%cceed the dialog%e. Their importance in the semantic constr%ction has

een ac*noledged even if in relation to the dialog%e they occ%py a s%ordinate position.

The perspective has changed from vieing them as

Z mere lirettos mere materials that can e %sed to constr%ct the or* of art5%

to regarding them as

Z literary devices in their on right e#ercising a poetic f%nction hich arrants

e#amination.

'!Ooler C. (!9-6):inguistic 3riticism #ford niversity press apud ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. 6,.'"ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. 6-.'3ngarten C. (!9,3): The iterary 2or as $rt translated y I. I. Iraoic Northestern niversity res

Evanston apud ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. ,".'4Meltr%s*H apud ston E.A $avona I. op. cit. p. ,4.

""


23/47

ther times the stage directions operate in playf%l modes hich complement the operations of

the dialog%e. 8%t the main f%nction of stage directions is that of identifying characters offering

physical and vocal traits conventions of delivery design elements and technical elements55:

I. &haracter: identification:

!. identification (description at first entrance) ". detailed description at or prior to first

entrance

3. occ%pation 4. dominant traits

'. relationship to others

II. &haracter: physical definition:

6. entrance ,. e#it

-. manner (thro!ing off: 9. carriage 9stands, staggering)!/. post%re (sits hunched up) !!. gest%re (!ith a gesture relief)

!". movement (halts) !3. action: self@directed (puts a hand in his

pocet)

!4. action: other@directed (gies her a hug) !'. action: self and o;ect (puts the eys in

his pocet)

!6. action: other and o;ect (pushes him bac; closes the door)

!,. reaction (they giggle) !-. d%m sho (performing a dance)

III. &haracter: voca%lary definition

!9. facial e#pression (almost crying) "/. mode of delivery (in praise)

"!. tone:


24/47

3". addressee: a%dience 33. aside

34. silence+ pa%se 3'. song

>. Design elements

36. setting: place (bac yard) 3,. setting: stage pict%re

3-. stage level+ areas (rooms don left %p right) 39. onstage+ offstage relationships (he is

heard from distance)

4/. offstage geography (a flight of steps leading to..)4!. time of day

4". time: season 43. time: relative to play overall (a year

later/ earlier)

44. cost%me (distinctive mar*s) 4'. cost%me: occasion@specific

46. cost%me: disg%ise+ role ithin a role 4,. properties: movale (in front of a

blacboard)4-. properties: personal (carrying a bunch of eys)

>I. Technical elements

49. lighting: offstage so%rce (the sun shines from/ through


25/47

The theatrical te#t is defined and perceived aove all in spatial terms. The stage is in the

first instance an =empty space> or a place. The analysis ill first t%rn to hat the merican

anthropologist Edard T. 7all has termed pro#emic relations.Proxemicsis the science devoted

to spatial codes and 7all disting%ishes three types of pro#emic space5&:

@ the fixed feature 5 the fi#ed feat%re type of space refers to the architect%ral

config%rations of the playho%se itself the shape and dimensions of stageA

@ the semi-fixed feature5 involves f%rnit%re the set the lightingA

@ the informal feature5 the informal feat%re space refers to ever shifting relations of

pro#imity and distance eteen individ%als i.e.the actor5actor interplay the actor5

spectator and the spectator5spectator interplay.

The history of the theatre has een mar*ed y shifts in dominance y one or other of the

3 classes. Oor e#ample in the !9th

cent%ry space as characterised y ma#im%m of grande%r and

fi#ity res%lting in a ma#im%m of formality. 1odern and contemporary theatre has tended to

transform architect%ral fi#ity into dynamic pro#emic informality in order to emphasie personal

rather than social perception and response. n the contemporary theatre the stage is often divided

into definite ones s%ch as do!n centre up centre do!n left up left. Oor e#ample don stage

positions have een adopted in order to ens%re dominanceof a given fig%re. &haracters dra

attention y coming closer and sharing something to the p%lic or y moving aay and th%s

draing the spectators attention toards the retreat.

Distance partic%larly performer5spectator performance distance ill have a significant

effect on other systems and channels. Th%s their movement on the stage ill e do%led y an

appropriate %se of tone of voice and pitch.

nother important element hich helps creating virt%al space on stage is lighting. t helps

modify perspectives create false spaces foregro%nd a character or on the contrary hide one. t

helps to dra attention toards certain o;ects on the stage highlighting their importance and

potential employment as symols or on the contrary concealing them only to e revealed to the

p%lic in important moments of the play. ighting also helps defining orders and limits

estalishing territories of the characters in the play ringing them into the foregro%nd hen

addressing another character or directly the a%dience or shoing a clos%re in themselves.

?)/")* -a*rs

'6$pud0eir Elam op. cit. p. 6".

"'


26/47

nformal space relates directly to the most dynamic aspect of theatrical disco%rse hich

is the movement of the ody on stage.

The *inesic components of performance are: movements gest%res facial e#pressions

post%res etc.

ntonin rta%d dreamt of =a p%re theatrical lang%age> freed from the tyranny of veral

disco%rse 5 =a lang%age of sings gest%res and attit%des having an ideographic val%e as they e#ist

in certain %nperverted pantomimes.>5'

0inesics is the science st%dying ody motion as a comm%nicative medi%m. ltho%gh

critics have spo*en ao%t comple# *inemorphic constr%ctions having the properties of the

spo*en syntactic sentence in reality and ith the contemporary theatre partic%larly gest%res do

not e#ists as isolated entities. They cannot stand alone. Iest%res have a deictic f%nction of

defining the protagonist the addressee and the conte#t th%s setting %p a comm%nicative sit%ation.

n theatrethe essential modality (and at the same time the f%nction) of the gest%re is its

capacity to s*etch o%t the sit%ation@of@%tterance to ecome deictic a sign hich

indicates the presence of the stage and of the actor.'-

GESTURES AND SPEECH

Mv"m"/ a/3 +a/2a2" as *m,+"m"/ar8= ma++8 ss))/2 s8s"ms

Iest%re and speech as mar*ers of the performers or the space cooperate in the

prod%ction of meaning in the theatrical disco%rse. The ma;or role of movement and gest%res on

stage is to indicate the intentionality of a given %tterance. t serves to emphasie the *ind of

speech act eing performed y the spea*er. 1ovement and gest%res ecome signals that can e

interpreted as illocutionarymar*ers related to the illocutionaryforce of lang%age. Oor e#ample

they can serve to disting%ish a serio%s from an ironical command to emphasie the intensity of a

demand or the degree of oligation eing imposed on the addressee to render a and

they constit%te a form of disco%rse independently of speech. Oor e#ample a pointing finger may

',Idem p. 69.'-avis atrice (!9-!):Problems of a Semiotic of 1esture= in Poetics Today(!9-!) apud0eir Elam op. cit. p. ,".

"6


27/47

e e =pic* %p that o;ect> =close the door> =move

over there> =e =e caref%l>.

nother type of mar*ers on stage revealing the nat%re of the spea*er5gest%rer intention

are the attitudinalmar*ers. They indicate not the act intended %t the attit%de adopted in

spea*ing in relation to the orld to the addressee or to the content of the %tterance. Th%s head

nods finger ags and eyero movements may f%nction similarly to the ling%istic modality

e#pressed y means of the modal vers. $o they can indicate *noledge elief permission

oligation prohiition volition etc. t the same time meaning in contemporary theatre

partic%larly is created y means of the contradiction eteen theatrical gest%re and the

sim%ltaneo%s lang%age %tterances sit%ation hich creates a comic effect: =ets go. (They do

not move)>.

nother aspect concerning the %se of speech on the stage is its total lac* from the

theatrical disco%rses. 1oments of silence rea*s in the flo of speech pauses are veryimportant and they point o%t toards a certain state of things. $ilence in the contemporary

theatre shos either hesitation in ansering or ref%sal to tal* e#pectation of receiving an

anser or as normally characteristic of the Stheatre of the as%rd total lac* of attention. The

characters pa%se and do not anser their interloc%tor eca%se they are engaged in a separate

se vocal characteristics deriving from physiological factors

gender age %ild etc.)A

'9Trager Ieorge . (!9'-):Paralanguage> $ 8irst $pproximation in Dell 7ymes (ed.)anguage in 3ulture and

Society Ne or*: 7arper and Co ",45"-- apud Elam 0eirop.cit. p. ,9.

",


28/47

@ voice etc).

ll of these elements contri%te to facilitating the process of decodification of a dramatic

te#t and a theatrical disco%rse. This process of decoding is connected to the spectators

familiarity ith other te#ts and to his aility to infer the common r%les of perceiving them. The

spectators *noledge of te#ts te#t%al las and conventions their general c%lt%ral ac*gro%nd

ma*e %p his horion of e#pectations and of interpretation. That is hy every spectatorsinterpretation of the te#t is in fact a ne constr%ction of it. 7e himself ma*es sense of it in his

on ay starting and ending theatrical comm%nication.

DRAMA SINCE THE 1950s

Drama as often considered as eing ale to e#press more clearly and more speedily than

other arts the reality in hich e live and to render more a%thentically the deep patterns and

"-


29/47

changes registered in this reality. nd this eca%se of the large gam%t of means of manifestation

on stage:

[ light and dar*nessA [ voice and pitchA

[ pa%ses and silenceA [ m%sicA

[ movement and positioningA [ post%re and gest%reA

[ clothing and cost%mesA [ propsA

[ actor5a%dience interactionA [ or even improvisation on stage etc.

t the same time modern times have ro%ght great changes in hat the instit%tion of the

theatre is concerned. part from this the physical space has changed and plays egan eing

played o%tdoors so e can spea* ao%t open stages or theatre@in@the@ro%nd&0 thr%st stage&1

promenade theatre the areho%se theatre&$ street theatre&% p% theatre alley theatre&5

environmental theatre&& st%dio theatre&'or it is that the stage that has s%ffered transformations.

1oreover the relationship eteen riter director actor and a%dience has een modified.1odern drama does not necessarily aim at transmitting a message so as to achieve social reform

%t they simply ant to signal one aspect of everyday reality or they ant to e#ploit the ne

means of e#pression (the nonveral for e#ample). &ontemporary theatre has een characteried

y fle#iility of form: fantasy film clips m%sic@hall t%rns circ%s elements find their place in

contemporary plays. Bhat is not said verally is no as important as hat is act%ally said and

the inartic%late finds ne ays s%ch as gest%res (mime) the choice of the dJcor or the choice of

one evocative scene (see sornes *itchen@sin* plays&() or topic (prolems of feminism) hich

do not necessarily dra on the so%rces of grand narrative.

E#periment is the ne principle of s%ch plays and playrights s%ch as 2ohn sorne

7arold inter or $am%el 8ec*ett created or*s in hich the classical principles of playma*ing

(str%ct%re plot development clima# deno%ement character time space lang%age) appeared to

6/Theatre@in@the@ro%nd+ arena theatre+ central stage+ island stage 5 theatre stage in hich the a%dience s%rro%nd thestage area.6!Thr%st stage+ platform stage+ open stage 5 one that e#tends into the a%dience on three sides and is connected to the

ac*stage area y its %p stage end.6"romenade theatre 5 type of theatre in hich there is no formal stage oth the actors and the a%dience eing

placed in the same space.63The Bareho%se Theatre 5 a professional prod%cing theatre ith one h%ndred seats in the centre of ondon

8oro%gh of &roydon ased in an oa*@eamed former cement Mictorian areho%se having its first performance in

!9,,.64$treet theatre 5 a form of theatrical performance and presentation in o%tdoor p%lic spaces itho%t a specific

paying a%dience. These spaces can incl%de shopping centres car par*s s


30/47

e no longer important eca%se they ere no longer capale of e#pressing a%thentically mans

position ithin the contemporary c%lt%ral political and social milie%.

The first sign of change as ro%ght ao%t y the loss of order in the contemporary orld

fact hich led to the appearance of a series of negative attit%des and concepts hich created the

conte#t for the appearance of a non@hero ho itnesses the disintegration of an as%rd orld.

Th%s it is the material aspect of everyday osessive fears fr%strations ill%sions hopes and

happy moments that ill form the s%stance of these plays in an %nderta*ing that ill

sometimes seem trivial and v%lgarly plain.

@OHN OSBORNE 619#9199%7 Look Back in Anger

The premiere of oo 4ac in $nger (-th 1ay !9'6 p%lished !9',) mar*ed the

eginning of a ne manner of ringing English contemporary life on stage. t only "6 years of

age and after a rapid series of ref%sals the play finally as p%t on stage at ondons Coyal &o%rt

Theatre and hen after the performance the theatres press agent descried the a%thor as an

3/


31/47

=angry yo%ng man> English drama ceased to e hat it had een efore and yo%ng playrights

folloed the path opened y sorne.

They o%ld no longer place their characters in co%ntryside ho%ses (the so called draing@

room comedies) and o%ld no longer present their comfortale lives %t they o%ld e#press

their rage at class distinctions their scorn at the socio@political order of the co%ntry their disli*e

at the =phoney> that posed as highros their resentment toards the hypocrisy and mediocrity

of the %pper classes and they o%ld plead for a coming o%t of the ro%tine of daily life. Their

attempt to spread their enth%siasm and animation in the orld aro%nd res%lted in plays that seem

to e the o%t%rst of %ninhiited tho%ght and lang%age in a dJcor that seemed trivially familiar. t

is no that the concept of itchen-sin dramaappears designating drama that depicts family life

in or*ing@class or loer@class families in its gen%ine %ncensored domestic aspects sometimes

in its sordid corr%pt appearance. Th%s e vie on the stage petty family s


32/47

The first victim of his attac*s is his on ife. $he is the first one ho receives this lesson in

feeling for she is the one in 2immys opinion ho is lac*ing animation more. 7e calls her

=ady %sillanimo%s> for she has no determination toards any goal:

%sillanimo%s. d;ective. Banting of firmness of mind of small co%rage having a little mind.

Orom the atin p%sill%s very little and anim%s the mind. ( Slams the boo shut.). Thats my ife.

(ct p. "")

7is acc%sations passion and t%r%lence do not have as a so%rce ;%st a revolt at the void andapathy the orld as floating on %t they also arise from his fr%strations eca%se of lisons

origins in an %pper@middle class military family (hile he himself comes from a or*ing@class

ac*gro%nd) from the impossiility of %sing his ed%cation and from the limitation to r%nning a

seet stall. 7is press%re ithin the marriage eca%se of the ovio%s social incompatiility is

evident and it gives rise to one of the ittiest remar*s in the play ringing a insome description

for the relationship that he had ith his mother@in@la and ma*ing 2immy seem a charming

*nave:

1%mmy and too* one


33/47

ne of the strongest points of the play is the handling of )m"5 the passing of time is felt

emotionally therefore it seems m%ch more intense. Even if 2immy constantly complains that time

is slipping from %nderneath him it is the revolt or at times lamentation of his speech that ma*e

time stop in a %niversal cry o%tside or eyond time.

s for the %se of s,a*" the reader can oserve the passing from a concrete crammed

space of press%re fr%stration disill%sion and conf%sion at the eginning of the play to an astract

space of togetherness in the end. This idea is s%pported y the %se of prono%ns 5 at the eginning

of the play 2immy distances himself from the other y the constant %se of the separative => and

=yo%> hile in the end he %ses the %niting =e>A and y the %se of the tenses 5 the present tense

%sed at the eginning of the play shos their entrapment hile the f%t%re tense %sed at the end

introd%ces a glimpse of hope.

n the end the hero is almost pitiale as in his last %t one line in the play he seems to

notice the f%tility of all his actions %t ho can lame someone for his idealism e ite#acerated as 2immys is:

Bas really rong to elieve that theres a 5 a *ind of 5 %rning virility of mind and spirit that

loo*s for something as poerf%l as itselfK The heaviest strongest creat%res in this orld seem to

e the loneliest. i*e the old ear folloing his on reath in the dar* forest. Theres no armpac* no herd to comfort him. That voice that cries o%t doesnt haeto e a ea*ling does itK (ct

p. 94)

t is this d%ality of st%ornness and oedience to%ghness and sensiility that ma*es of 2immy

one of a *ind character and one that manages to render drama even in the most common

incidents of life even in the most frivolo%s occ%rrences. n the end his ords seem to elong to

the a%thor in this %nderta*ing of descriing his characters potentialities and inning the readers

favo%rs:

Even their trivialities ecome indispensale to yo%. ndispensale and a little mysterio%s. (ct p. 33)

THE THEATRE OF THE ABSURD

MAIN FEATURES

1otto:

The theatre should aim at expressing

!hat language is incapable of putting into !ords.(1artin Esslin 5 The Theatre of the $bsurd p. 3,4)

I. I/r3*)/ 3"-)/)/2 */*",s

33


34/47

n the contemporary orld in hich mans action co%ld no longer e e#plained on the

asis of some %niversal systems of eliefs in hich the previo%s firmly@fi#ed philosophical

principles of life lost their val%e man started loo*ing for a different means of e#pressing his

feeling of loss p%rposelessness disill%sion and eilderment at the mysterio%s indecipherale

orld that s%rro%nds him. t as the Theatre of the s%rd that gave e#pression to s%ch feelings

y ringing a ne perspective on s%ch iss%es hich had nothing of the philosophical deates %t

merely signalled at a series of e#istential iss%es not trying to offer a sol%tion %t letting the

readers+ a%dience onder. t as in the very or* of &am%ss e#istential assessment from The

6yth of Sisyphus (!94") 5 that the h%man sit%ation is essentially as%rd devoid of p%rpose 5 that

the plays of the '/s and early 6/s fo%nd their s%stance.

The ne trend as laelled =the Theatre of the s%rd> y one of the *ey theorists and

analysts of this literat%re that is 1artin Esslin in his st%dy The Theatre of the $bsurd (!96!).

=s%rd> as Esslin e#plains in his st%dy means literally =o%t of harmony> (=o%t of harmonyith reason or proprietyA incongr%o%s %nreasonale illogical>) and moves aay from the

simplistic meaning of =ridic%lo%s> coming to designate &am%ss vie of the sit%ation of the

h%man modernity 5 strangers in an inh%man %niverse.&9 The critic contin%es y offering

onescos definition of the term from his on perspective:

s%rd is that hich is devoid of p%rpose. XY &%t off from his religio%s metaphysical and

transcendental roots man is lostA all his actions ecome senseless as%rd %seless.'0The orld is presented as senseless and lac*ing a %nifying principle that o%ld give it definition

and tangily fi#ed coordinates in space and time. This %niverse is permeated either y a feeling

of melancholy and f%tility orn o%t of =the disill%sionment of old age and chronic hopelessness>

or y an aggressive earthy note =tinged ith social and political overtones> or it ears a

=fantastic *noc*@ao%t flavo%r of tragical'1cloning.>

Bith a constant variation eteen the as%rdly straightforard comic and the itterly

s%tle tragic the Theatre of the s%rd presents a vision of h%manity str%ggling vainly to find a

p%rpose and to control its fate. The h%man eing is left at the end of this %nderta*ing hopeless

eildered and an#io%s eca%se the hole action seems itho%t a gen%ine motivation and at first

sight nonsensical.

The Theatre of the s%rd appeared as a reaction against the logical str%ct%res of

traditional theatre and th%s it parodies or dismisses realism and the concept of traditional

69Esslin 1artin (!9,,): The Theatre of the $bsurd revised and enlarged edition eng%in 8oo*s p. "3.

,/E%g]ne onescoDans les armes de la ille 3ahiers de la 3ompagnie 6adeleine Renaud ) 7ean-ouis 4arrault

aris no. "/ ctoer !9', apud 1artin Esslin op.cit. p. "3.,!

Esslin 1artin The Theatre of the $bsurd in 0ostelanet Cichard (ed.) (!969): 0n 3ontemporary iterature

von p. "/6.

34


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str%ct%re. lays elonging to this genre have =neither a eginning nor an end>'#and present not

f%lly developed episodes of life and the manners of life %t are mere =reflections of dreams and

nightmares>'$. Their str%ct%re instead of presenting an evol%tion toards a final sol%tion have a

cyclical constr%ction ringing the characters at the end in the same position as at the eginning

and hinting at a potential similar cycle in the f%t%re (see 2aiting for 1odotand%ndgame). No

plot develops %t plays are %ilt on an acc%m%lation of small trivial happenings spontaneo%s

associations of aerrant memories and meaningless everyday speech.

1artin Esslin in his Theatre of the $bsurd defined plays of the as%rd as those that

present mans metaphysical as%rdity in an aerrant dramatic style that mirrors the h%man

sit%ation. These plays do not arg%e about the as%rdity of the h%man condition %t they merely

presentit in the simplest concrete stage images as Esslin p%ts it. 1odern theatre is not interested

in disc%rsive and narrative elements %t concentrates instead on one poetic image as a

materialiation of the inner reality of the individ%al s%conscio%s. t emerges as hat as called=a theatre of sit%ation> rather than =a theatre of events in se'%and th%s lang%age develops

not as arg%mentative disc%rsive speech %t rather as a system ased on concrete images.

ittle dramatic action as it as %nderstood conventionally is developed %t on the

contrary there is a re;ection of narrative contin%ity. lays of the Theatre of the s%rd are not

concerned ith telling a story so as to teach a moral lessonA they do not follo the evol%tion of

h%man passions %t they render only one episode of the a%thors personal orld. t the level of

the narrative thread they seem to e plays in hich =nothing really eer happens>'5%t they

simply ant to create thro%gh the images and themes developed as comple# an image as possile

of a asic and static sit%ation. This fact is only hinted at thro%gh the development of the action or

is plainly stated as in 8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot:

Nothing happens noody comes noody goes its af%l\ (p. 4!)

This does not mean hoever that there is no dramatic s%spense. n trying to anser the

the a%dience does not have only the anser stated

aove %t can also arg%e that =$nything may happen ne#t> and th%s the p%lic is challenged into

form%lating the '& the dar*ness of

,"Esslin 1artin !9,, op.cit. p. "".,3Ibidem.,4Idem p. 393.,'Ibidem.,6Idem p. 4!6.

3'


36/47

him not *noing his tr%e nat%re and p%rpose the feeling of living in a vac%%m ro%ght on y the

destr%ction of a set of eliefs that had een %niversally accepted and %nified in its constr%ction.

1an does not fear death anymore as the %ltimate so%rce of misfort%ne and depression %t his

tragedy emerges no from an attempt to recreate a coherent hole o%t of the chaotic orld in

hich he lives and o%t of the chaotic inner layrinthine orld of memories desires hopes

fr%strations regrets lang%age.

II. T!" m"ssa2"6s7 - !" ,+a8s

&onse

''

This meaning loo*ed for y the artists of the S'/s and S6/s can e decipheredaccording to the critic at to levels: on the one hand the as%rd presented in these plays

castigates satirically the as%rdity of o%r lives lived %naare and itho%t an alert conscio%sness

at hat happens in the o%ter reality 5 they signal at o%r =feeling of deadness and mechanical

senseless>A e live half developed lives and e do not even control this half %t rather are orne

into it o%t of inertiaA on the other handthe theatre of the as%rd signals at the as%rdity of h%man

life ro%ght on y the decline of religio%s eliefs hich has deprived man of the feeling of

certit%de and ro%ght him in the midst of indetermination and hesitation.'( Despite the

parado#ical or illogical simplistic or h%moro%s grotes


37/47

1artin Esslin in his st%dy(0may seem to e that of ma*ing man face and come to terms ith the

orld in hich he lives 5 he ill s%rpass his disappointment and feeling of %nfitness if he frees

himself from the orld of ill%sions and if he copes ith the h%man condition as it is.

III. T!" *m)* - !" ,+a8s

The so%rces of the comic e#ploited in these plays can e traced in commedia dellarte

va%deville m%sic hall circ%s cloning ith elements of the acting incl%ding no mime and

acroatics. t is oven either in lang%age or in the gest%res of the characters or in the incidents

they are dragged into.

ts p%rpose is that of shoing men the tr%th ao%t themselves y challenging them into

seeing their disli*es fr%strations and dissatisfaction in a ay hich generates ridic%le anger or

horror 5 this is the device *non as +a* !mr 6also *non as 3ar= mr)3 !mr or

+a*= 3ar *m"38

(1

). These plays ;%#tapose morid or ghastly elements ith comic ones andtreat serio%s iss%es of life in a itter ironic or sarcastic manner. 1ost of the times the =as%rd>

predicament in hich the characters are presented shos h%man eings itho%t convictions and

little hope la%ghing hoever at their so%r despair in the notes of sardonic h%mo%r. (# Th%s

iss%es in ones life s%ch as death s%icide domestic violence disease insanity addiction ar are

approached h%moro%sly or satirically ma*ing man deride them or regard them ith h%mo%r %t

stopping at the level of contemplation and not ta*ing serio%sly action of protest or revolt. Traces

of s%ch a device can e fo%nd even in sornesoo 4ac in $nger here the reader is faced

ith s%ch a vie %pon death:

nyone hos never atched someody die is s%ffering from a pretty ad case of virginity. (ct

p. ',)

The reader+ a%dience react only ith h%moro%s toleration toards the e#istential prolems that

are ro%ght onto the stage and %se la%ghter as an antidote to lifes hardships. 8ec*etts definition

of la%ghter seems to s%m %p est the ay in hich man can choose to cross the line toards

la%ghter hen finding himself on the edge of the thin line eteen tears and la%ghter. ccording

to his definition given in his novel 2att the highest form of la%ghter is =the la%gh la%ghing at the

-/Idem p. 4!-.-!Iallos h%mo%r is to e disting%ished from lac* h%mo%r in the fact that it is a type of grim and ironic h%mo%r

that arises from stressf%l tra%matic disastro%s life@threatening sit%ations s%ch as accidents disease artime eventsnat%ral disasters in hich case death is most of the time impending and %navoidale. t also differs from lac*

h%mo%r in that it is made y the person affected.-"3f.&%ddon . 2. (!999): The Penguin Dictionary of iterary Terms and iterary Theory fo%rth edition eng%in

p. -,.

3,


38/47

la%gh the eholding the sal%ting of the highest ;o*e in a ord the la%gh that la%ghs at that

hich is %nhappy.>($

7%mo%r lac* or otherise is created thro%gh s%ch elements as:

lac* of %nderstanding eteen the characters

>+a3)m)r: the third says that oth of them a%sed him. 5 Esra2/: BhoK 5 >: BhatK 5 E:

Bhats all this ao%tK %sed hoK 5 >: The $avio%r. 5 E: BhyK 5 >: 8eca%se he o%ldnt save

them. 5 E: Orom hellK 5 >: mecile\ Orom death. 5 E: tho%ght yo% said hell. 5 >: Orom deathfrom death. 5 E: Bell hat of itK (2aiting for 1odot pp. !45!')

the %se of astract no%ns as concrete

>+a3)m)r: dont %nderstand. 5 Esra2/: se yo%r intelligence cant yo%K 5 XMladimir uses his

intelligenceY >: X8inallyY remain in the dar*. (p. !9)

the playf%l illogical ta*eover of the other ones flo of speech and ideas

Esra2/: nd hat did he replyK 5 >+a3)m)r: That hed see. 5 E: That he co%ldnt promise

anything. 5 >: That hed have to thin* it over. 5 E: n the : &ons%lt hisfamily. 5 E: 7is friends. 5 >: 7is agents. 5 E: 7is correspondents. 5 >: 7is oo*s. 5 E: 7is an*

acco%nt. 5 >: 8efore ta*ing a decision. (p. "/)

the hypocritical miming of %nderstanding

Esra2/: L%e vo%le@vo%sK 5 >+a3)m)r: eg yo%r pardonK 5 E: L%e vo%le@vo%sK 5 >: h\

L%e vo%le@vo%s. E#actly. (p. 6/)

childish s: 1oron\ 5 E: Mermin\ 5 >: ortion\ 5 E: 1orpion\ 5 >: $eer@rat\ 5 E: &%rate\

5 >: &retin. 5 E: X2ith finality.Y &rritic\ 5 >: h\ Xe !ilts, an&uished, and turns a!ay.Y 5 E:

No lets ma*e it %p. 5 >: Iogo\ 5 E: Didi\ (p. ,/)

slapstic* comedy(%incidents

Esra2/: Bhy dont e hang o%rselvesK 5 >+a3)m)r: Bith hatK 5 E: Be havent got a it of

ropeK 5 >: No. 5 E: Then e cant. XSilence.Y 5 >: ets go. 5 E: Bait theres my elt. 5 >: ts

too short. 5 E: o% co%ld hang on to my legs. 5 >: nd hod hang on to mineK 5 E: Tr%e. 5 >:$ho all the same. X%stragon loosens the cord that hold up his trousers !hich, much too big forhim, fall about his anles. They loo at the cord.Y t might do at a pinch. 8%t is it strong eno%ghK 5

E: Bell soon see. 7ere. XThey each tae an end of the cord and pull. It breas. They almost fall.Y

5 >: Not orth a c%rse. (p. -,)

pse%do@aphoristic or itty remar*s

Esra2/: X$phoristic for once.Y Be are all orn mad. $ome remain so. (p. ,')

%ne#pected t%rnovers

Mladimir and Estragon after trying in vain for some time to get %p finally come toa +a3)m)r: No harm in trying.XThey get up.Y 5 E: &hilds play. 5 >: $imple


39/47

ll of these strategies hoever are not simply and p%rely meant to stir la%ghter %t they

signal in fact the f%tility of the protagonists actions to give them the ill%sion of an active life.

The itterness of the a%thor permeates the characters lines and the sit%ations they pass thro%gh

or it is o%tardly e#pressed in strangely profo%nd ;%dgements emitted y one or other of his

heroes:

Esra2/: Be alays find something eh Didi to give %s the impression e e#istK (p. 64)

I>. C!ara*"rs

The characters in modern theatre are engaged in a frantic as%rd permanent %syness of

irrational tho%ght and conf%sed gest%res hich ants render their =activism> %t in fact hich

only proves their inaility to really change anything in their e#istence. They have no coherence

hatsoever and the rigidity of their logic leads to as%rd concl%sions. n the conte#t of the ne

society ased on cons%mption they have %ndergone important metamorphoses in their

manifestation on stage and conse (5

marionettes a%tomatons doing and saying the same thing in different moments of their e#istence

(not to say each day as in 8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot) they have no clearly defined

individ%ality and often change condition completely (see the change that oo and %c*y in

$am%el 8ec*etts 2aiting for 1odot%ndergo). They seem to e helped y their creators y eing

placed


40/47

to ma*ing asic choices (to go 5 to live+ to stay 5 to die to s%mit to+ to reel against to defend+

to acc%se). 8%t despite this apparent str%ggle in finding a path in life they have no clear goal and

their motives and actions are highly incomprehensile. 8eca%se the a%dience finds it diffic%lt to

identify themselves ith s%ch characters they remain simply comic. The p%lic co%ld not

possily identify ith someody ho loses his tro%sers or ith a pair of characters ho

indefatigale e#change their hats in an attempt deciphered y %s as the innermost stren%o%s

effort they co%ld do so as to find their tho%ghts or their poer of thin*ing (see 8ec*etts 2aiting

for 1odot). That is hy s%ch a scene remains highly and e#cl%sively comic despite its somre

violent and itter s%;ect@matter. $%ch iss%es made critics infer that =the Theatre of the s%rd

transcends the categories of comic and tragedy and comines la%ghter ith horror.>(&

>. T)m" a/3 S,a*"

The main change appearing in the Theatre of the s%rd in hat time and space areconcerned is the fact that there are no temporal or spatial mar*ers to set the action against. f in

traditional theatre there as alays a reference to a certain real age and the characters ere

pro;ected against a ell determined topology or chronology ith the Theatre of the s%rd the

spatio@temporal frame is not defined it is anonymo%s and at the same time it seems to e

%niversal. = co%ntry road> =a room> =a mo%nd> =the living@room of a ho%se in a seaside

ton> =desert> =are interior> or =r%ral so%nds> define a type of space hich co%ld e#ist on

almost any coordinate of the gloe. = morning in s%mmer> =a night in inter> =evening> are

as vag%e temporal mar*ers. n these plays reality o%ter e#istence seem to encompass all the

temporal dimensions and they are vieed themselves as processes of temporaliation. 1ore than

this time often t%rns into a character and it ecomes a series of no!s (8ec*ett) or it is felt as a

gap eteen past and present (inter).

The type of space hich s%pports mans manifestation in s%ch a time is small isolated (see

the small crammed eca%se of crodedness room in inters The 3aretaeror see the to ins

in hich Nell and Nagg from 8ec*etts %ndgame live) creating and enhancing mans

impossiility to comm%nicate his efforts in ta*ing a ref%ge. r if it is an open space (see the

co%ntry road from 2aiting for 1odot) s%ch spatial dimension acts as a trap %pon the characters

hich cannot escape it for they do not move.

>I. La/2a2"

-6Idem p. 4/!.

4/


41/47

ne of the greatest revol%tionary aspects ith the Theatre of the s%rd came ith its

treatment of lang%age. 8eca%se playrights have felt the deval%ation of the ord and its slippage

onto a more and more denotative slope they responded y performing an e#periment ith

lang%age itself.

The e#periments to hich it as s%;ected gave rise to a lang%age hich is dislocated

dis;ointed and f%ll of:

clichJs

p%ns('(V play on ords)

repetitions

non se.(9Th%s it can e said that it develops ero degree of comm%nication 5 characters replies

are incoherent there are comm%nication gaps and incongr%ences eteen


42/47

8%t even if they go eyond the s%rface plot it is thro%gh the lines of these isolated monologues

(revolving aro%nd a central concept) or duologues90(s%pported y silences and pa%ses) that the

dramatic tension is created.

The radical deval%ation of lang%age is derived from the scepticism ao%t the meaning of

lang%age ao%t its possiility of yielding an e#planation to mans p%rpose in the orld and its

possiility of achieving gen%ine comm%nication eteen h%man eings and passing eyond a

s%perficial layer hich only mimics a meaningf%l veral e#change eteen people. The

relativiation deval%ation and criticism of lang%age seem to e in accordance ith the trends in

the philosophy of those times (see Bittgensteins system of thin*ing and his ord games) in an

attempt to disentangle lang%age from the conventions of r%les of grammar hich do not

necessarily have to e the r%les of logic.

lays in the Theatre of the s%rd seem to give e#pression to an open aandonment of

rational devices and disc%rsive tho%ght.

91

nli*e classical theatre in hich lang%age ore a m%chdeeper meaning at the level of arg%mentation the lang%age of the Theatre of the s%rd orros

from the interplay of the circ%s and m%sic hall and it f%nctions as an interdependent component

in a m%ltidimensional artistic imagery of vis%al elements (cost%me) movement (e#its and

entrances mime gait pratfalls emraces and ehavio%r) voice and light (light and shado).

8%t the main feat%re of lang%age in plays of the Theatre of the s%rd is that it appears as more

and more in contradiction to the reality that it states:

Estragon: 2ell, shall !e go@

Mladimir:Aes, let?s goXThey do not moveY

8%t this does not mean that s%ch e#periments are meant to re;ect any meaning attached to

lang%age hatsoever. Even if the general tendency of this interplay of the lines in a dialog%e is to

thro the reader+ vieer in a ;%ngle of ords seemingly ro%ght together y a Dadaist fl%*e

there are isolated moments in hich the characters %tter s%rprising apothegms (=7ait is a great

deadener> says Mladimir in 2aiting for 1odot p. -4) or iss%e ;%dgements hich seem


43/47

$ome feat%res of lang%age shoing the ay in hich it developed incl%de:

one characters remar* contin%es the other ones line of tho%ghtA

characters manifest a concern ith lang%age itselfA

lang%age helps crystalliing inaction into dramatic actionA

the presence of cross@p%rpose dialog%e9#and farcical (Vl%dicro%s ridic%lo%s as%rd) ansersA

ris* rhythms of dialog%e ased on shortness of speechesA

the %se of half sentences and half meaningsA

speech and action are distorted and emptied of meaningA

lang%age does not s%pport the action %t the precario%s identities of the charactersA

lang%age has many of the


44/47

complete as in the case of 8ec*etts plays. ne of the characteristic elements of inters plays

(as part of the Theatre of the s%rd) is that despite its as%rdly comical elements (of setting

sit%ations and dialog%e) the play passes eyond the notes of any comedy earing more of the

elements of lac* h%mo%r and ma*ing the reader give a itter smile at eing presented so

straightforardly ith the feeling of loss and conf%sion in his life. t co%ld not e otherise in

the conte#t of fear horror and mystery created thro%gh the violence of speech or long

ine#plicale omino%s moments of silence. inter himself shoed large preocc%pations ith

theoriing %pon silence. This is ho he descries it:

There are to silences 5 one hen no ord is spo*en. The other hen perhaps a torrent of

lang%age is eing employed. This speech is spea*ing of a lang%age loc*ed eneath it. That is itscontin%al reference. The speech e hear is an indication of that hich e dont hear hen tr%e

silence falls e are still left ith the echo %t are near na*edness. ne ay of loo*ing at speech is

to say that it is a constant stratagem to cover na*edness.9$

mong the !"m"s of inters The 3aretaer e can identify: truth lies reality vs.

fantasy (disg%ised ehind mental disturbance) the str%ggle for po!er+ domination+ control

thro%gh manipulation5 the play is as an odd mi#t%re of acco%nts or promises all made on the

false gro%nds of inning the interloc%tors favo%rs or of manip%lating him into complying ith

ones re


45/47

he first ref%ses and then yearns for or even pleads for. 7is f%ssiness on the mater is itterly

comic.

nother theme is that of the family relationships vieed in a somehat nostalgic

permanent presence that never fades aay from its affection despite the hardships eteen

memers of the family. The origins of s%ch a topic have een identified y critics in inters real

life and his ac


46/47

La/2a2" signals one of the ma;or themes of the play that is breado!n in

communication. The devices achieving s%ch meanings incl%de: ro*en sentences non se


47/47

Documents

Curs Drama Unit