The Theoretical Assumptions of Polish Anthropology and the Morphological Facts by Jan Czekanowski

The present article was written at the editor's request as a commentary on the Bielicki and WierciAski articles and comments, presented together in the February 1962 issue of CA, uinder the title "Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views From Poland with Discussion." Dr. Czekanowski's comments were received at the CA office on January 26, 1962. The translation from Polish to English was done in Poland, un- der the supervision of the author.

IN THE PRESENT DISCUSSION there has been too much reasoning and too little attention given to the facts. It should not be forgotten that the essence of all scientific effort-and this is surely true of anthropology as well-consists in the description and ordering of observable facts. Hypotheses (assumptions) are of relevance only insofar as they facilitate summarization of the observed material. They are no more than mnemonic aids. In this respect, the geneticists' genic hypothesis is no exception. Meanwhile, in morphology this hypothesis is a use- ful analogy to the field of serology. Analogies, however, are not proofs.

The object of anthropology consists in the description of human groups. Anthropology becomes a mathematical- statistical problem if we consider the in- dividual as a point in the n-dimensional space of analytical mechanics. His posi- tion in n-dimensional space will then be determined by his n coordinates, which are given by the values of the respective anthropological features we take into account.

As early as 1909 I showed that the points corresponding to the individuals can be proved to form aggregations (condensations, concentrations), and the latter correspond to the various races or racial complexes of the mor- phologists. This is exemplified, for in- stance, by the graphic isolation from others of the skulls considered to belong to the Neanderthal race. It is notewor- thy, in this respect, that Pithecanthro-

pus, although altogether isolated, was found to be associated with the Nean- derthal group. Thanks to Rudolf Mar- tin's textbook (1914) the foregoing ex- ample became generally known. This was the first quantitative proof that the human races are anthropological (bio- logical) realities and not fictions of the morphologists. At the same time, it yielded the earliest quantitative solu- tion to the problem of anthropological typology of individuals, i.e., of their systematic determination.

In 1921 and 1922 I showed that the quantitative results of Karl Pearson's Biometric School in the field of heredity of anthropological features and Francis Galton's law of regression represent no more than deductions from the two fundamental laws of Mendel: namely, the law of dominance and that of split- ting. Simultaneously, fluctuations in the heredity coefficients of metric features were found to derive from Mendelian dominance. Indeed, I was able to prove that Pearson's coefficient of heredity has the value:

r p r= P ~~~~~~(1) 1 +p

on the assumption that the recessives contribute the part p and the dominant q; and that:

P + q- = 1(la) However, when heredity is not compli- cated by dominance, i.e., when:

p - 1 and q = 0, we have r = 0.5 (lb)

This was the earliest analytical biologi- cal constant.

In the process of computing the heredity coefficients by means of the fourfold-tables, which is the way of deal- ing with features not quantitatively measurable, the value of the coefficient is not lowered as a result of Mendelian dominance. Pearson was unable to ex- plain why the heredity coefficients of the metric features are considerably lower. He was, as it were, a prisoner of the anti-Mendelian position he repre- sented. For the same reason his repeated attempts to derive the "Law of An- cestral Heredity" remained unsuccess- ful. In 1933 I proved that this law is another deductive result of Mendelian laws and can be derived directly.

The assumption that the human groups investigated can be considered as statistical representations of inter- crossed populations brought to light important anthropological properties of these groups.

It is no longer contested that the fre- quencies of the isolated serological cate- gories correspond to Mendelian predic- tion as given by the following equation:

(p + q + r)2= 1 (2)

As late as 1925 I had to defend this formula before my friend Ludwik Hirszfeld, who rejected it flatly when I showed it to him for the first time in November, 1919. Thanks to Bernstein (1924), it has become generally known. Determination of the parameters p, q, r yields a satisfactory account of the human groups investigated with regard to participation of the serological com- ponents AA, BB, and 00. Herein the first and second are dominant with re- spect to the third, being at the same time mutually equivalent.

Similarly, it turned out that the data from morphological typology of Central European skull series, as I was to show in 1928, can be handled by means of the ensuing analogical formula:

(a + e + h + 1) = 12 (2a) The parameters a, e, h, and 1 account for contributions from the four races occurring in Central Europe: Nordic, Mediterranean, Armenoid and Lap- ponoid. Equation (2a) is referred to as the law of type frequency. It controls all typologies carried out (systematic determinations in craniology).

JAN CZEKANOWSKI, Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the State University in Poznafi. (Poland), was born October 6, 1882, in Gtuchow, Poland. He was educated in Warsaw, Libau (Latvia), and the University of Zurich, Switzerland. From 1906 to 1910 he was research assistant at the K6nigliches Museum fur Volkerkunde in Berlin, and was a member of the German Central Africa Expedition in 1907-1909. From 1910 to 1913 he was Scientific Custodian of the Ethnographic Museum of the Im- perial Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. He was Professor of Anthropology and Ethnology at the University of Lw6w from 1913 to 1941, and at the Catholic Uni- versity in Lublin from 1945 to 1949. In 1946 he became Professor of Anthropology at Poznafi. Since 1924 he has been a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences and was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland in 1961.

Among Dr. Czekanowski's many publications are Forschungen im Nil-Kongo- Zwlschengebiet. (5 vols. published, the 6th in preparation, 1911-1927), Wstep do Historii Slowian [Introduction to the History of Slavic Peoples] (1927, 1957), and Czlowiek w czasie i przestrzeni [Man in Time and Space] (1934, 1937, 1962, also in English).

Vol. 3 * No. 5 * December 1962 481

TABLE 1. SYNONYMOUS DESIGNATIONS OF THE EUROPEAN RACES

Surowiecki Kollmann Deniker Ripley Czekanowski von Eickstedt Biasutti 1824 1882 1898 1900 1928 1934 1959

Plowowlosa Leptoprosop Nordique Teutonic Nordyczna Nordische Nordica dolichocephal

Iberyjska Chamaeprosop Ibero-Insulaire Mediterranean Srodziemno- Mediterrane Mediterranea dolichocephal morska

- - Nord- - Polnocno- - Irlandese Occidentale zachodnia

(Hybr. 1 and 2)

- - Littorale - Litoralna -

(Hybr. 2 and 3)

- - ) Adriatique - Dynarska Dinarische Dinarica (Hybr. 1

and 3) Leptroposop J FArmenoidalna Armenide Anatolica

brachycephal

- - Subadriatique Alpine Alpejska Alpine Alpina

and 4) Laponska Chamaeprosop Ceveniole -Laponoidalna Lappide Lappone

brachycephal Slowianska Subnordique - Subnordyczna Osteuropide Baltica - - Vistulienne - Sublaponoid- -

alna (Hybr. 2

and 4)

Fin'ska Chamaeprosop Orientale - {Paleoeuropeid- Sibiride Forme europeidi mesocephal alna archaice

CPaleoazjatycka

Having at least ten (the more the better) systematically well-determined Central European skull series, one can solve the following set of i linear equa- tions with ten variables by the least squares method:

aiA + eiE + hiH + liL + kaeaiei(A-E) + kahaihi(A-H) + kalaili(A-L) + keheihi(E-H) +

keleili(E-L) + khlhili(H-L) = Mi (2b)

Herein, the parameters A, E, H, and L are the required fundamental averages of the skull index for the four races; kae, kahli kai, kehi, kel, and khl account for the results of Mendelian dominance which also must be determined; whereas the parameters ai, ei, hi, and li, as in equation (2a), give the contributions of the four races, as determined by typol- ogy, to the skull series i; finally, the Ml is the average of the skull index in series i.

The solution of the equation (2b) in 1930 enabled me to express the relation- ship between the anthropological com- position of the craniological series and the respective average skull indices with satisfactory accuracy by means of an em- pirical formula. For recent skulls from the 14th to 20th centuries inclusive it has the form:

mg = 76a + 68.5e + 88(h + 1) + 7.5ae + 12a(h + 1) (3)

This empirical formula establishes by induction that, at present, the brachy- cranial Armenoid and Lapponoid are dominant with respect to the meso- cranial Nordic, whereas the latter is dominant with regard to dolichocranial Mediterranean. Within the remaining three racial combinations no domi- nance occurs.

On the other hand, the analogous solution of equation (2b) for medieval skull series (from approximately the 4th to the 13th centuries inclusive), re- sulted in the following empirical for- mula:

Mg = 76a + 68.5e + 88(h + 1)- 7.5ae - 12ah - 19.5eh (3a)

It states that at that time, dolichocranial Mediterranean was dominant with re- spect to mesocranial Nordic and brachy- cranial Armenoid, and mesocranial Nordic was dominant with respect to brachycranial Armenoid. The three re- maining racial combinations reveal no dominance.

The foregoing statistical inductive re- sults necessarily lead to the following conclusions of quite general biological significance:

(a) The phenomena of dominance and recessiveness are linked to race.

(b) This connection provides the biological proof that the races of an- thropology are biological realities and not fictions of the morphologists. The

graphic proof that the anthropological races have their counterparts in the con- densations of points corresponding to individuals in n-dimensional space had brought me to this conclusion earlier (1909).

(c) A comparison of formulas (3) and (3a) shows that the process of brachy- cephalization of Europe's population during the 13th and 14th centuries is most easily explained by a re-tuning of dominance phenomena. This spares us the necessity of assuming an entirely improbable change in population dur- ing the late Middle Ages-a well-known period from which we possess a con- siderable number of historical sources, none of which, however, have anything to relate of a demographic catastrophe involving resettlement in Europe.

(d) Formulas (3) and (3a), referred to as the law of the anthropological mean value of the cranial index, control the anthropological quantitative analysis which led to the formulation of the law of type frequency of equation (2a).

Table 1 contains the synonymous designations of the anthropological races which rendered feasible the law of type frequency. This Table of anthropological syno- nyms shows that the leading anthro- pologists isolated the same components of Europe's population, albeit attach- ing to them their own designations. Such petty vanity gave rise to the opin-

48- 2 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

Czekanowski: POLISH ANTHROPOLOGY ion that anthropology is an inexact science, one in which different authors come to mutually contradictory results and nevertheless remain quite content.

When, on the occasion of a synthetic review of the research results attained during the 19th century in the field of the anthropological composition of Europe's population, Ripley (1900) named only 3 races, whereas Deniker (1898) had managed to isolate as many as 10, it was generally felt that a public exposure had occurred. The situation became particularly critical when the discussion held in England (Huxley Lecture for 1904) relating to this an- tinomy was unable to elucidate the divergence between the views of those worthy anthropologists. It was only after the law of type frequency had been formulated that it became appar- ent that Ripley and Deniker had ar- rived at essentially consistent results, and that the divergence between their respective syntheses was but superficial. Indeed, it became clear that Ripley had restricted himself to isolating races, and that his "Alpine race" comprised the two brachycephalic, darkly pigmented Lapponoid and Armenoid races. Thus, he arrived at three races, as the Palaeo-

Europid component was overlooked by him. On the other hand, Deniker took into account not only the races, but their cross-products of the first degree. However, owing to the fact that he had included the Armenoid race and its Nordic cross-product, in his Adriatic race, and had taken into account the Palaeo-Europid component (race Orientale) characteristic of Northeast- ern Europe, he came to a total of 10 races. In this way the systematics of the components of Europe's population were put in proper perspective by Polish anthropology. At the same time, it was proved that the Polish linguist Surowiecki had isolated four of the five relevant components as early as 1824. His fifth race, which he related to the Slavs, was the Nordic-Lapponoid cross-product most frequent among the Northern Slavs. The Armenoid race, which Surowiecki had failed to take into account, was first isolated in 1882 by Kollmann.

The fact that only four races occur in Europe's population, and that the fifth-the Palaeo-Europid component characteristic of Northeastern Europe-

is represented but scantily in Central Europe, was proved by Wanke in 1953. An investigation of 3,353 students in the academic schools of Wroclaw, where a considerable number of Eastern Poles also studied, showed that these com- binations of anthropological features for which the number of realisations ex- ceed theoretical prediction by at least 50% correspond to the five races con- sidered here.

The most important analytical instru- ment of Polish anthropology is the Ap- proximation proposed by Wanke in 1952 at the Congress of Polish anthro- pologists at Wroclaw and published in 1953. This makes it possible to compute the racial components of the human groups investigated from their mean values, the basic assumption being that the masses of the anthropological com- ponents of the human groups under investigation, as concentrated in their respective centers of gravity, are at equilibrium if the values of these masses are inversely proportional to the squares of their distances from the center of gravity of the whole system (the mean values of the investigated

TABLE 2. RESULTS OF A QUANTITIVE ANALYSIS OF SWISS CONSCRIPTS

Observed Series Anthropological Elements in % Mean Values of Cephalic Index

Nordic Mediterranean Armenoid Lapponoid Observed Theoretical Divergence Berner Oberland 59.8 18.2 9.9 12.0 80.70 80.44 -0.26 Obwalden 54.6 21.7 11.7 12.0 80.57 80.53 -0.04 Bern 53.3 19.7 12.2 14.8 81.16 81.00 -0.16 Berner Mittelland 53.1 19.5 12.3 15.0 81.24 81.05 -0.19 Aargau 52.0 20.4 13.0 14.6 81.16 81.02 -0.14 BaSel-Land 51.1 23.2 12.4 13.3 80.48 80.58 +0.10 Solothurn 50.2 20.9 13.5 15.4 81.17 81.14 -0.03 Nidwalden 50.0 21.2 14.3 14.5 81.32 81.03 -0.29 SchaffhauSen 49.0 21.0 14.4 15.6 81.38 81.26 -0.12 ZUrich 48.2 21.0 14.5 16.3 81.40 81.35 -0.05 Luzern 48.2 20.9 14.4 16.5 81.44 81.37 -0.07

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..... ... . ... .... ... . ... .... ... . ... .... ... . ...... BaSel-Stadt 39.2 32.3 13.5 15.0 79.60 80.10 +0.50 Geneve 39.6 30.8 14.2 15.4 79.75 80.35 +0.60 Vaud 44.0 28.6 13.7 13.7 79.85 80.33 +0.48 Fribourg 45.3 24.4 14.4 15.9 80.70 81.00 +0.30 Neuchatel 44.1 24.9 14.7 16.3 80.64 81.04 +0.40 Zug 44.5 23.7 15.5 16.3 81.08 81.23 +0.15 GlaruS 43.7 22.8 16.0 17.5 81.29 81.49 +0.20 BernerJura 45.3 22.5 15.2 17.0 81.18 81.38 +0.20

Appenzell AuS. Rh. 46.4 20.8 15.5 17.3 81.60 81.59 -0.01 St. Gallen 45.4 19.8 16.0 18.8 82.01 81.92 -0.09 Uri 45.0 20.1 16.2 18.7 82.06 81.88 -0.18 Schwyz 44.1 20.4 16.7 18.8 81.81 81.92 +0.11 Thurgau 43.4 19.7 16.6 20.3 82.14 82.13 -0.01 *-- ----1- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GraubiUnden 35.5 25.0 20.5 19.0 81.49 81.86 +0.37 ValaiS 37.5 20.8 19.6 22.1 82.26 82.49 +0.23 Appenzell In. Rh. 37.7 19.0 20.6 22.7 82.85 82.82 -0.03

Ticino 27.7 18.0 28.5 25.8 83.66 83.80 +0.14 SwiSS ConScriptS 47.5 21.5 14.5 16.5 81.31 81.33 +0.02

Vol.3 -No.5- December 1962 483

human group). In this manner Wanke brought theoretical anthropology into closer connection with analytical me- chanics. Indeed, anthropological quan- titative analysis came to be based on the law of gravity. The great impor- tance of the positive finding thus reached is proved by the example, to be considered later on, of the Swiss anthropological assay.The success was all the greater as the attempt under- taken by Pearson (1894) failed.

In cases when the anthropological components of the human group were defined with sufficient accuracy, Wanke's Approximation led to analyt- ical findings which coincided with the law of the mean value of cranial index, i.e., that the mean values computed theoretically from equation (3) differ but negligibly from those yielded by direct computation. It should be stressed that at present the problem of applying Wanke's Approximation has been solved with respect to observations on the living only, and that formula (3) yields mean values of the cranial index. Thus, the latter has to be converted into mean values of the head index of the living. This is made possible by the empirical formula which I published in 1907: M s Ms + 8.6 (3b)

1.09721

wherein M. is the theoretical mean cranial index computed from formula (3), and Mk the corresponding mean of the head index of the living.

Anthropological quantitative analysis utilizing Wanke's Approximation was dealt with in detail by the present author in 1954. Hence, I restrict myself to giving the results of the anthropo- logical analysis of Swiss conscripts, in order to exemplify the degree of accu- racy attained (Table 2). The extensive agreement between the theoretical mean values as computed from formulas (3) and (3b) and the ones derived directly from observation makes possible the conclusion that the for- mulas and the Approximation con- stants are sufficiently exact. The latter were formulated as in Table 3. The mean values of eye and hair color were expressed in a-units (standard deviation), the figures in Table 3 giving the deviations from the mean values of all Swiss conscripts as computed on the assumption of normal (Gaussian) dis- persion of the frequencies of eye and hair color. Herein, for all Swiss con- scripts the mean value of eye color is .670 ditant from the boundary be- tween numbers 12 and 13 of Martin's scale; that of hair color, is .SO6c distant from the boundary of light hair be- tween the shades 0-P and P of the Fischer-Sailer scale.

The enormous importance of

TABLE 3. DEFINITIONS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL ELEMENTS (RACES)

Anthropological Elements (Races)

Anthropological Features . Mediter- Armenoid Lappo- ;Nordic ranean noid

Cephalic Index 78 71.5 89 89 Morphological Facial Index 89.5 88 86 80 Nasal Index 63 63 57 72 Eye Color -1.252 .984 2.170 .944 Hair Color -1.052 .074 1.146 .477

Wanke's Approximation is not only that it has made possible the analysis of large observational series, as the con- siderably reduced amount of labor does not depend on the size of the series analyzed. Previously, when one was re- stricted to the method of differential diagnosis, as is still the case in craniol- ogy, the amount of labor involved in- creased at the rate of .5n(n-1), where n denotes the number of individuals in the observational series analyzed. For this reason, only small observational series could be analyzed. It is no less important that this Approximation made accessible to analysis those papers limited to the publication of the mean values of metric features and the fre- quencies of the pigmentation classes, and which otherwise could not have served any further purpose.

Wanke's Approximation is especially important for anthropological system- atics. In particular, it allows a precise formulation of the anthropological pur- port of the various races introduced by different authors, provided the latter have taken the trouble to define them with sufficient accuracy, which is not always the case. Thus, for example, it not only enables us to come to an exact formulation of Schlaginhaufen's inter- pretation (1946) of Deniker's "six races" (1904), but also to show how the defi- nition of race has to be modified in order to provide a more accurate grasp of the anthropological components on the basis of the hypotheses of Polish anthropology. In Table 4 the results of

these modifications are given in paren- theses.

In this Table the Alpine race is seen to have gone over into the Lapponoid race of Polish anthropology as a result of its definition having been restricted to hyperbrachycephaly, eury and hyper- euryprosopy, and brown eyes. Similarly, the Dinaric race became the Armenoid race of Polish anthropology as a result of restricting its definition to hyper- brachycephaly, leptoprosopy, very dark eyes, and black hair.

The Littoral race turned out to be a mixture in which the Mediterranean and Armenoid races are the most strongly represented. I had already recognized it as such in 1928 when formulating the law of type frequency. This was confirmed 25 years later by Wanke's Approximation. Moreover, there can be no doubt as to the identity of Michalski's Cromanid and Deniker's Orientale which was termed East- Europid (Homo Vistulensis) by Schlag- inhaufen. This race had been termed Palaeo-Europid by Kocka (1958), who considered it as representing the char- acteristic component of Europe's meso- lithic population, and still playing an important part in archaic Northeastern Europe. Applying Wanke's Approxi- mation makes it possible to prove that, in the present case, we are not dealing with distinct races but rather with synonymous designations.

The fact that the results of typolo- gizing living individuals did not con- form to the results obtained from typol-

TABLE 4. SCHLAGINHAUFEN'S INTERPRETATION OF DENIKER'S RACES

Deniker's races, as interpreted by Otto Anthropological Elements Schlaginhaufen on the basis of Swiss Ob- . Mediter- Arme- Lappo- servational Data and the Hypotheses of Nordic ranean noid noid

Polish Anthropology % % % %

Nordic Race (Homo Europaeus) 92.7 3.9 1 .6 1 .8 Ibero-Insular Race (H. Mediterraneus) 9 .8 82.1 4. 6 3. 6 Alpine Race (H. Alpinus) 17.9 12.8 14.9 54.3

(2.6) (2.4) (6.6) (88.3) Dinaric Race (H. Adriaticus) 20.9 18.9 37.7 22.4

(4.0) (3.9) (79.4) (12.8) Littoral Race (H. Atlanto-Mediterraneus) 16.1 39.8 27.1 17.0 East-Europid Race (H. Vistulensis) 51 .1 16.2 9.7 23.0

C rom and.. . R.ae.

........ . ...... ... ...... ... . .. ...... ... ...... ......... Cromanid Race of I . Michalski (1 949) 50.8 24.8 8. G6 15.8

484 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

Czekanowski: POLISH ANTHROPOLOGY ogizing skulls in accordance with formula (2a) led Wanke to the con- clusion that with respect to the living, the principle of type frequency should be expressed as follows:

(a + e + h + ?l) = I (2c)

The reason for this change in the prin- ciple of type frequency is not difficult to guess. Craniological typology is based on two sets of mutually independent features, namely, the neurocranium and the splanchnocranium (cranial and facial features). Hence the quadratic form of the principle of type frequency (2a). Independently of these two, typol- ogy of the living must take account of a third set of features, consisting of pig- mentation. This is the reason for the cubic form of the principle of type fre- quency as given by formula (2c). Here we are dealing with trihybrids. How- ever, if we restrict ourselves to two sets of features in typologizing the living- the face (photography) and pigmenta- tion-the quadratic form (2a) of the principle is valid, as shown by the investigation carried out by Pavelcik (1948). He established the anthropolog- ical composition of the inhabitants of the small township of Nivnice in Mo- ravia on the basis of their passport applications. These contained photo- graphs and data relating to pigmenta- tion. The racial differences in the ex- tremely mixed population of Europe are so great that such inexact obser- vational data are sufficient for a satis- factory anthropological analysis, pro- vided one is a good morphologist. This explains why eminent anthropologists after 1824 (Surowiecki), although un- aware of it, arrived at concordant for- mulations of the races, as shown by Table 1, which gives synonyms from the field of anthropological systematics.

The necessity for the cubic form of the principle of type frequency when typologizing the living is best exempli- fied by the computation of the theo- retical expectations with respect to the number of light-eyed (16-13 by Martin's scale) on the basis of the anthropolog- ical composition of the human groups investigated. With regard to the results of investigations by Rosinski (1947- 1948), it is only necessary to assume that the Nordic light eyes are dominant when mated with the dark eyes of the Lapponoid race. One is then led to the formula which I proposed in 1959 at the Conference of Polish Biometricians at Wroclaw:

Y = 100[(a + l)' - lP] (4)

Y denotes the theoretically predicted percentage of light eyes if a and 1 stand respectively for the proportions of the Nordic and Lapponoid races in the human group investigated.

In Table 5 the agreement between the observed and theoretical percent- ages is remarkably good. In only six cantons in which the number of con- scripts exceeded 401 was the divergence found to be greater than 3.0%, ranging between 3.21 and 3.79%. The only cases in which I could find still greater diver- gences were those of the semi-cantons Obwalden (+ 6.08%) and Nidwalden (+ 4.72%). Here, however, the con- scripts numbered no more than 206 and 219, respectively. There remains no doubt, therefore, that dominance of eye color and cranial form is intimately re- lated to race.

The statement that blue Nordic eyes are dominant is of great importance for practical reasons. It was generally believed that dark eyes were always dominant, and doubt had to be cast on paternity in all cases in which a child had eyes darker than its parents. This is especially often the case, as proved by the results of Rosinski (1947- 1948), in regions where the Nordic and Lapponoid components play an im-

portant part, as with the Northern Slavs and Northeastern Germans.

The fact that typologies of the living yield results which are in quite satisfac- tory agreement with the principle of type frequency (2c) is proved by Misz- kiewicz' North Polish observational series (1960), given in Table 6. As the critical value of the x2 sum is 27.6 in the present case, agreement can be said to be quite satisfactory between the typology results and theoretical ex- pectations. Theoretical expectations were computed after Wanke's Approxi- mation yielded the following composi- tion of the human group typologized: Nordic race .................. 44.8% Mediterranean race ........... 17.1% Armenoid race ............... 18.1% Lapponoid race . ............. 20.0% Mean cephalic index as

computed directly .......... 82.60 Mean cranial index from

formula (3) ................ 81.90 From formula (3b) the corre-

sponding cephalic index is larger by an amount of ...... 0.58

TABLE 5. AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE OBSERVED AND THEORETICALLY COMPUTED

PERCENTAGE OF LIGHT-EYED INDIVIDUALS AMONG SWISS CONSCRIPTS

Obevd Theoretical %l,Nmbro Observed Series Observed According to Divergence Conscripts

Formula (4)Cnsrpt

Berner Oberland 34.02 36.84 +2.82 Obwalden 23.29 29. 37 +6.08 206 Bern 29.34 31.26 +1.92 8,723 Berner Mittelland 28.79 31.24 +2.45 ? Aargau 28.34 29.23 +0.89 2,971 Basel-Land 25.73 26.47 +0.74 801 Solothurn 28.65 27.86 -0.79 1,139 Nidwalden 21.81 26. 53 +4.72 219 Schaffhausen 25.23 26. 58 +1.35 455 Zurich 25.79 26.40 +0.61 3,454 Luzern 23.09 26.63 +3. 54 1,971

Basel-Stadt 16.15 15.58 -0. 57 761 Geneve 19.64 16.27 - 3.37 401 Vaud 22.74 18.95 - 3.79 1,997 Fribourg 24.95 22.52 -2.43 1,467 Neuchatel 23.41 21.60 -1.81 698 Zug 20.76 22.04 +1.28 237 Glarus 22.02 22. 39 +0.37 346 Jura Bernois 27.19 23.69 - 3. 50 ? ........................... .......... ........... ........... ........... Appenzell Ausser Rh. 24.25 25.33 +1.08 670 St. Gallen 24.49 25.80 +1.31 2,627 Uri 24.63 25.19 +0. 56 274 Schwyz 21.01 24.22 +3.21 713 Thurgau 23.97 25.01 +1.04 1,320

Graubuinden 16.17 15.60 -0. 57 1,092 Valais 23.82 20.09 - 3.73 15364 Appenzell In. Rh 18.71 20.87 +2.16 259

Ticino 17.14 13.60 -3.54 1,209

Swiss Conscripts 25.14 25.77 +0.63 35,764

Vol. 3 - No. 5 - December 1962 485

TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF TYPOLOGY RESULTS AND THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS

BASED ON THE TYPE FREQUENCY PRINCIPLE (2c).

Terms qf Typology Theoretical Divergence Divergence x2

Formula (2c) Results Expectations Squared

a3 33 26.3 -6.7 44.89 1.71 3a2e 34 30.3 -3.7 13.69 0.45 3a2h 32 31.9 -0.1 0.01 0.00 3aW1 29 35.4 +6.4 40.96 1.16 6aeh 31 24.4 -6.6 43.56 1.79 6ael 32 26.9 -5.1 26.01 0.97 6ahl 26 28.3 -j2.3 5.29 0.19 6ehl .. 10.9 +10.9 118.81 10.91 e3 . . 1.5 +1.5 3ae2 13 11.5 -1.5 2.25 0.20 3e2h 2 4.7 +2.7 7.29 1.55 3e21 3 5.1 +2.1 4.41 0.86 h3 4 1.7 -2.3 3ah2 13 12.9 -0.1 0.01 0.00 3eh2 7 4.9 -2.1 4.41 0.90 3h21 3 5.8 +2.8 7.84 1.35 13 3 2.3 -0.7 3a12 18 15.8 -2.2 4.84 0.31 3el2 7 6.0 -1.0 1.00 0.17 3h12 3 6.4 +3.4 11.56 1.81 e3+h3+13 3 5.5 +2.5 6.25 1.14

293 293.0 +32.1 25.46 -32.1

Theoretical mean of the cephalic index .82.48

Hence, the divergence in cephalic index amounts to . 00. 12

The foregoing example helps to show that Polish anthropology attained a high degree of scientific precision in the investigation of the living. This is proved by the agreement achieved be- tween morphological typology and the analysis as carried out by means of Wanke's Approximation.

It should,be stressed, however, that, as yet, Wanke's Approximation cannot be satisfactorily applied in the field of craniology. I pointed this out as early as 1955. The following example is in- tended to show that, as yet, no exact craniological definition of the races is available.

The village Lowyn, at the boundary of the districts of Nowy Tomysl and Miendzychod, contains an epidemic cemetery in which only persons who died of the plague in the year 1710 were buried. The 45 well-preserved skulls ex- cavated by Wokroj in 1959 and 1960 were typologized by Gibowski (1961), who applied the method of differential diagnosis (Czekanowski 1909). The ana- lytical result obtained by this method is compared in Table 7: on the one hand, with analyses of conscripts of Nowy Tomysl and Miendzychod com- puted from Mydlarski's data (1928), and on the other, with the result obtained by applying Wanke's modified Approxi- mation, as introduced into craniology by K6c1ka (1958), to the Lowyn skulls.

From Table 7 a number of important facts can be derived. It is immediately obvious that Kocka's most recent at- tempt to apply Wanke's Approxima- tion to craniology is just another complete failure. For skulls which pre- sent the usual anthropological com- position of Greater Poland (Wielkopol- ska), as proved by the identity of the anthropolgical structure with that of the conscripts from the district of Nowy Tomysl, Kocka's procedure yields a fantastic analytical result. One might expect such an anthropological for- mation to occur somewhere near the Caucasus, though even there it would be improbable owing to the great di- vergence between the mean values.

The comparison in Table 7 of the human group represented by the Lowyn skulls with the conscripts shows that Polish anthropology has been successful in providing a satisfactorily exact solu- tion to the problem of comparing craniological results and observational data obtained from the living. Un- fortunately, in analyzing craniological data, it is as yet not possible to do away with-the necessity of utilizing the highly tedious method of differential diag- nosis.

The fact that those who died in 1710 present an anthropological composition identical with that of conscripts of our generation draws our attention to the great stability of anthropological struc- tures, primarily among the rural popu- lation. Wokroj was able to prove such stability in a number of cases. An ex- ample of stability reaching back into

the 14th century is to be found in the village of Podbereice, lying east of Lwow. The peasants of this village, which was founded towards the end of the 14th century by Wiadystaw Opol- czyk, have retained their Silesian an- thropological structure to the present day in spite of their complete cultural Ukrainization. However, they marry exclusively within their group, as they despise the surrounding Ukrainian population. Moreover, Wokroj was able to prove that the Germans from the Pfalz, whom the Austrian government settled in the Carpathian mountains subsequent to the partition of Poland, retained their Pfalzian anthropological structure intact for at least a century in entirely different geographical sur- roundings, because of biological iso- lation. Similarly, he showed that those who were forcibly resettled among the Ukrainian cossacks in the steppes of the Kuban region by the Empress Cather- ine II in 1775 retained their anthro- pological features. At the end of the 19th century their descendants had the same anthropological composition as had those in 1648 when the Bernardine cloister was stormed in Lemberg.

The facts presented here, which could be expressed in a satisfactorily exact manner only as a result of the recent achievements of Polish anthro- pology, prove convincingly that neither selection nor mutations, about which geneticists are apt to speak so much, produce any noticeable changes in the anthropological composition of the sedentary rural population throughout many centuries. On the other hand, the highly exclusive aristocratic city of Basel presents a similar phenomenon. Anthropologically, its population has retained the characteristics of a Gallo- Roman municipium, whereas the semi- canton Basel-Land is inhabited by off- spring of Germanic peasants. Even re- settling in entirely new geographical surroundings would seem to produce no change in the anthropological struc- ture, if the settlers continue to live in biological isolation.

The most remarkable result of our analysis consists in the statement that the same values of the parameters A, E, H, and L occur in the computation of the theoretical mean values of the cra- nial index by formulas (3) and (3a), i.e., going back to the 4th century at least, whereas the mean values of the anthro- pological components shift correspond- ingly with changes in dominance. No relation has as yet been established be- tween these parameters, which seem to remain constant during considerable time intervals, and the "constants" of Wanke's Approximation (the mean values of the anthropological com- ponents, the definitions of the races)

486 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

Czekanowski: POLISH ANTHROPOLOGY which fluctuate in connection with dominance modifications. Nevertheless, there can be no doubt that the time factor has to be taken into account when utilizing Wanke's Approximation in craniology.

Much has already been achieved in the field of theoretical anthropology. It is to be regretted that this branch is so little known to those anthropologists who take their inspiration from zoology and, primarily, genetics. Theoretical anthropology can be said to be develop- ing towards a closer connection between biology and analytical mechanics and has already rendered many discussions pointless. The most important results achieved in this field by Polish anthro- pology are the following:

1. A solution was found to the prob- lem of anthropological typology of craniological material by means of the differential diagnosis method (Czeka- nowski 1909).

2. The quantitative results obtained by Karl Pearson's Biometrical School relating to heredity of anthropological features and Francis Galton's law of regression were proved to represent de- ductive consequences from Mendel's laws.

3. Results of typology were general- ized by the law of type frequency (for- mulas 2a and 2c).

4. Human groups were satisfactorily described on the assumption that they are representations of inter-crossed pop- ulations.

5. The problem of quantitative an- thropological analysis was solved.

6. The eminent anthropologists since 1824 were found to have distinguished the same races in the population of Europe, although using different desig- nations.

7. The racial designations intro- duced by various anthropologists were synonymized.

8. The apparent discrepancy be- tween the syntheses of Deniker (1898) and Ripley (1900) relating to the com- position of Europe's population was cleared up. This had been considered to represent a breakdown of anthro- pology.

9. Results of typology and Mendelian synthesis were verified by means of the law of light nordic eyes (formula 4).

10. Phenomena of dominance were found to be related to race, with respect to both head shape and eye color.

11. The necessity of taking into ac- count the biological reality of human races was proved.

12. The simplest explanation for the brachycephalization which occurred among the populations of Europe dur- ing the late Middle Ages was found to reside in a modification of dominance phenomena.

13. Far-reaching control of anthro- pological results was achieved through Wanke's Approximation, which derives from the increasingly close relationship between theoretical anthropology and analytical mechanics and is based on the law of gravitation.

14. The relationships between the races of Europe's population, according to various anthropologists, were given a precise formulation, thanks to the possibility provided by Wanke's Ap- proximation of presenting the anthro- pological content of these entities in quantitative form.

15. It was proved stochastically that only five races occur in Europe exclud- ing its Asiatic and African periphery.

16. The problem of comparing crani- ological results with those obtained from investigation of the living was solved.

17. Anthropological formations (pop- ulations) were proved to possess a high degree of stability.

18. The morphological basis of an- thropological typology (three mutually independent sets of features) was proved to reveal nothing that might be interpreted as traces of selection, mu- tation, or environmental influence.

19. The basic mean value of the races, going back to the 4th century, as obtained by the law of mean value (formula 3a), seems to remain constant; on the other hand, the constants in Wanke's Approximation (definitions of the anthropological races) undergo a shift which would seem to be related to modification of dominance phenom- ena.

20. Changes in dominance phenom- ena make it necessary to take into con- sideration the time factor when apply- ing Wanke's Approximation in the field of craniology.

These are the chief results reached by Polish anthropologists working in

theoretical anthropology. A number of relationships, checking one another, were formulated. At present, interest centers upon the development of a quantitatively controlled morphological method of investigation.

CURRENT ISSUES

In the current debate the Polish An- thropological School has been men- tioned repeatedly. I consider it neces- sary to discuss briefly the anthropolo- gists grouped under this term. So far, only members of the third generation of Polish anthropologists have taken part in the discussion, exhibiting to their foreign colleagues their Sturm und Drang attitude. This is the reason I am endeavoring to sketch the theoretical framework of Polish anthropology, as it was built up in the inter-war years in Lwow, and as it is now, in the post-war period, being further developed at Wroclaw and Poznai.

The so-called Polish Anthropological School was created in Poland by an- thropologists trained at Zurich by Rudolf Martin. Listed according to age, these were: Jan Czekanowski, Edward Loth, Stanislaw Poniatowski and Mi- chat Reicher. They specialized in trends which were timely at the beginning of the present century: Loth (killed in 1944 fighting the Germans) and Reicher represent the followers of Carl Gegen- bauer's Heidelberg Comparative Anat- omy School and became prominent macroscopic anatomists. Czekanowski and Poniatowski developed the field of biometry for the Zurich Anthropolog- ical School and later, for practical reasons, they also dealt much with eth- nology. In those days ethnologists had better prospects of participating in exotic research expeditions. Czekanow- ski entered the Prussian Museum Serv- ice and, 6 months later, in May, 1907, was assigned to take part in the ex-

TABLE 7. LOWYN SKULLS COMPARED WITH DATA ON CONSCRIPTS FROM NEIGHBORING DISTRICTS

Conscripts Skullsfrom Lowyn (1710) Conscripts Races from Dtowy DiPferential Procedure Ac- Miendzychod Racs

omysl District Diagnosis cording to K6ckaM District

Nordic 31.6 31.1 20.6 36.4 Mediterranean 12.7 13.3 4.7 15.6 Armenoid 18.8 18.9 46.5 19.0 Lapponoid 36.9 36.7 23.8 29.0 Palaeo-Europid ... ... 4.3 Mean cephalic or cranial index

Observed 85.18 84.75 84.75 83.75 Theoretical 84.52 84.05 86.60 83.59 Divergences -0.66 -0.70 +1.85 -0.16

Vol. 3 No. 5 - December 1962 487

TABLE 8. THE RACES OF MICHALSKI IN RELATION TO THE "POLISH SCHOOL"

Races Anthropological Elements Mean Values of Races t of Polish School, in % Cephalic Index

A ccordzng to I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Ireneus,-. Theoretically Michalski NVordic |vMediterranean |Armenoid Lapponozd Assumed Dzvergence pponoid Assumed

Calculated

Nordic 80.8 8.8 5.4 5.0 80.0 79.05 -0.95 Mediterranean 11.6 77.2 6.3 5.0 75.0 73.82 -1.18 Armenoid 3.1 2.5 85.9 8.4 88.0 87.32 -0.68 Lapponoid 5.0 4.3 9.9 80.9 89.0 87.25 -1.75

Cromanid 50.8 24.8 8.6 15.8 76.0 80.29 +4.29 Highland 21.8 51.5 11.5 15.2 74.0 77.91 +3.91 Oriental 14.0 67.0 9.3 9.7 72.0 75.54 +3.54 Berberic 20.4 34.7 16.7 28.2 76.0 81.13 +5.13

pedition led by Duke Adolf Friedrich of Mecklenburg; for two years he did research work in Central Africa. On the other hand, Poniatowski undertook an expedition to East Asia for American scientists in 1913. Later he became pro- fessor of ethnology and in 1943 was executed by the Germans in the Maj- danek concentration camp near Lublin. These men were the first generation of anthropologists belonging to the Polish Anthropological School; all of them took their doctor's degrees from Rudolf Martin in Zurich. They studied anat- omy with Georg Ruge, a pupil of Gegenbauer, and ethnology with Oskar Stoll; later, however, Poniatowski and Czekanowski joined the Vienna Histor- ical School of R. P. Wilhelm Schmidt. At the same time, Czekanowski took regular mathematics courses with the functional theorist Heinrich Burck- hardt and comparative anatomy courses with Arnold Lang.

The second generation of anthro- pologists of the Polish School were Czekanowski's pupils. Those trained by Poniatowski became ethnologists, and the pupils of Loth and Reicher became anatomists. The sole exception was the naval staff doctor Wiestaw Lasinski. He works in anthropology although he will shortly be made professor of anatomy. As pupils of Czekanowski the following prominent anthropologists should be mentioned: Jan Mydlarski, R. P. Boles- law Rosinski, Stanislaw Klimek (first lieutenant, killed in action in 1939 at Ozarow, a suburb of Warsaw), Stanislaw Zejmo-Zejmis (murdered by the Ger- mans in 1943 in the Oswiecim-Ausch- witz concentration camp), Salomon Czortkower (murdered by Ukrainians in the Lwow ghetto), Gisella Lempert- Bauer- (killed by Germans in the same place), Karol Stojanowski, Tadeusz Henzel, and Roscis1aw Jendyk. From this group of anthropologists who took their doctor's degrees in Lwow during the inter-war period, there remain alive only R. P. B. Rosinski and two women living abroad: Martyna Puzyna (South

Africa) and Irene Ulbrich-kudelska (Switzerland). Adam Wanke and Fran- ciszek Wokroj also survived the war. Before the war broke out, they had concluded their studies for the Master of Science; they took their doctor's de- gree after the war, and at present they are among the leading Polish anthro- pologists.

The third group of anthropologists, who in many instances should be as- signed to the Polish School only on a historical basis, consists of the pupils of Mydlarski, Rosinski, Wanke, and Stojanowski. This third generation is very much "de-Mendeled," if such an expression can be permitted, and the majority is more or less vehemently opposed to the biometric-morphological trend of the first and second genera- tions. Palaeontological morphological- anthropogenetic research is being con- tinued by Wanda Stenslicka-Mydlarska. Her most bitter opponent is Ireneusz Michalski, also one of Mydlarski's pu- pils. During the anti-Mendel years fol- lowing the war, he was passionately op- posed to biostatistical methods and represented a most primitive typolo- gism. This is due to the fact that he uses a subjectively conceived key of combi- nations in his systematic determination of examined individuals; he also estab- lishes new races based merely on his morphological impressions. In 1956, using Wanke's Approximation, I set forth (Table 8) the character of the anthropological content of Michalski's definitions of races (1949). Even so, he paid no attention to this characteriza- tion, as shown by the fact that he was very much surprised to learn from me in September, 1961, during a discussion at the Fifth Congress of Czechoslo- vakian Anthropologists at Mikulov, that his Cromanid race is almost identi- cal with Deniker's Race Orientale.

It appears from Table 8 that the in- terpretation of Deniker's races sug- gested by Schlaginhaufen most decid- edly agrees better with my law of mean values than does the definition of our

four races proposed by Michalski. More- over, his novel races show unexpected deviations of considerable magnitude in the opposite direction. This diver- gence between the results obtained by Schlaginhaufen and by Michalski calls attention to the necessity of revising the definition of races put forth by Michal- ski.

Cooperating with Michalski is An- drzej Wierciiski, a pupil of Rosinski who took his doctor's degree under Michalski. His negative attitude to- wards the Polish Anthropological School is made very clear in one of his papers in which his tabulation of various classifications of races entirely omits those of the Polish School (CA 3:18-19, Table 7 and 8.) whereas in Kroeber's American textbook (1948), the Polish School is mentioned promi- nently. That the theoretical basis of this young scientist's general judgment is not yet fully mature is shown by the fol- lowing blunder which he committed. After having repeatedly attacked my law of type frequency as did Michalski, he states in his article (1962:18):

In the end, a population is described by the hypothetical relative frequencies of its racial elements, which are computed on the basis of typological composition according to the following equation:

n. nx, nZ -

a-+_, +2~N_+---+ 2N if a1 + a2 + ... + a, = 1.

He still fails to perceive that this for- mula he recommends is just another way of expressing in its squared version the very law of type frequency he so vehemently opposes!

Wojciecj Kocka, chiefly a prehisto- rian who took his doctor's degree in an- thropology under Stojanowski, is op- posed to the law of type frequency as well as to the law of mean values of the cephalic index which, separated from its Mendelian basis, is being used as a plainly empirical formula even by Michalski. Misled by Wanke's determi- nation that the cubic formulation of the law of type frequency should be ap-

488 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

plied in typologizing observations on living individuals, Kocka conceived for Wanke's Approximation a cubic form which would astonish even a mediocre mathematician. He did not even bother to adjust the constants of this peculiar Approximation to the results of typo- logizing. With the skull from Lowysi, for example, it has been demonstrated that Kocka's "novelties" yielded absurd analytical results.

An altogether different level of scientific thought is represented by the critical approach adopted by Bielicki toward the morphologism of the Polish School. This attitude is brought about by his enthusiasm for genetics. In view of this fact we (Wanke and Czekanow- ski) sent him to the United States in

physical education and to sports; Krys- tyna Modrzewska is the best Polish specialist on problems of the sociolog- ical-anthropological boundary; R. P. Czestaw Biatek solved the problem of the analysis of the African population.

After this brief report on the young and youngest anthropologists who re- ceived their doctor's degrees on the bases of anthropological dissertations, I wish to add some remarks on the com- ments of several other participants in our discussion.

In anthropology also I consider it advisable to conform with the old, suc- cessful maxim of the Prussian staff officers: "march separately but strike unitedly." In the language of anthro- pology this means that morphology and

clusions are based on the presupposi- tion that morphological similarity cor- responds to biological relationship. This presupposition is open to discus- sion since sometimes differentiation be- tween homologies and analogies is almost impossible. But the presupposi- tion is the only feasible one. Any opin- ions that geneticists can express are merely analogies.

On the other hand, when considering anthropological characteristics in the perspective of sociological time, it is necessary in every concrete instance to prove satisfactorily that here is evidence of evolutionary progress. The process of evolution is by no means a theoretical assumption. It is a biological fact that can not be discussed seriously unless it

On Two-sided Selection

By TADEUsZ BIELICKI

[Wroclaw, Poland. 14.3.62] My reply to Garn's comments on my

article "Some Possibilities for Estimat- ing Inter-population Relationship on the basis of Continuous Traits" (CA 3:42) contains the following passage re- ferring to the recent Polish studies on differential survivorship in relation to head form:

The historically documented trend to- ward round-headedness did suggest that di- rectional selection may be involved in this case. Garn, however, remarks that selection is not always a one-sided process, and that in many morphological traits the possibil- ity of differential loss at the phenotypic ex-

tremes should also be noted. This, I thinik, is an excellent point . . . [Recent findings] ... fully confirm Garn's prediction; etc.

As one of my American colleagues remarked in a letter to me, the above- quoted sentences may make the reader think that the concepts of an adaptive peak and of stabilizing selection came to me only as a revelation after I had read Garn's comment. I am very sorry indeed if such an impression can really be gained from the passage in question. What I actually had in mind, when call- ing Garn's observation-on the possibil- ity of two-sided selection an "excellent point" and a "prediction," was simply that this exactly turns out to be the case with regard to the trait considered, i.e., head form-a result which, in the light of craniological evidence, did not

seem the most likely one. I did not mean, of course, that the possibility of selection directed against both extreme phenotypes simultaneously is a new and hitherto unexplored idea as far as some other metric traits or metric traits in general are concerned! In fact, a study aimed at detecting the possible operation of this type of selection on infants has for some time been in prog- ress in this country, too.

Perhaps the whole misunderstanding, for me a very embarrassing one, would not have arisen had I used the ex- pression "Garn reminds us," instead of "Garn remarks . . ." Unfortunate and misleading formulations do sometimes crop up when-as in my case-a person writes in a language which he knows not as well as his mother tongue.

order to obtain details on the successes gained by the young American genet- ically oriented anthropologists. We wanted this information because we were under the impression that, judg- ing from the last edition of Ashley Montagu's book (1951), they might not yet have passed much beyond serology. In his article (1962) Bielicki believed us to be much retarded due to our re- puted, and much criticized, isolation. Thus was he meant to report to us on the latest American accomplishments.

The remaining members of the third generation cooperate studiously with the old generation. Tadeusz Dzierzyk- ray-Rogalski should be mentioned first; while professor of anatomy he created in Bialystok an Anthropological Insti- tute which maintains contact with Africa. Bruno Miszkiewicz must be commended for having spread knowl- edge of the Polish methods of investi- gation in Germany; Halina Milicer and Zbigniew Drozdowski (the youngest member of the second generation) are prominent specialists dealing with the problems of applying anthropology to

human genetics must aim at their syn- theses independently, and only the comparison of both syntheses can yield noteworthy results. Working with mor- phological-genetic hash will lead to absolutely futile discussions. In the field of Slavics I have demonstrated that a satisfactorily exact placement of the primary Slav home in the Vistula and Odra basins has been obtained by com- bining the synthetic results of linguis- tics, floristics, prehistory, the scanty data from historical sources and, above all, anthropology (still only morphol- ogy, without genetics). During the last International Slavistic Congress (Mos- cow 1958), I had occasion to convince myself that this concept, which I for- mulated in 1927, although initially much contested, has since been accepted by the enormous majority of Slavists.

It should be kept in mind that an- thropology looks at man in two dif- ferent time perspectives: geological and sociological time. In the perspective of geological time, anthropology deals ex- clusively with morphological evidence of the process of evolution. Here, con-

has been proven beyond any doubt to be a fact. It must be kept in mind that man lives in an artificial environment created by his activities. Therefore, the possibility must be considered that, in the perspective of sociological time, the process of evolution may proceed very feebly or not at all in the artificial en- vironment. For example, as junior as- sistant to the well-known anatomist Georg Ruge, I prepared, in 1906, a paper on muscular variability in man; this paper was printed in a special issue published in honor of Franz Boas. In it I demonstrated that the process of evo- lution, which cannot be disclaimed in the comparative-anatomical perspec- tive, does not appear in Central Euro- pean man as far as myology is con- cerned. This is shown by the fact that it proved impossible to determine polarity of closed complexes of pro- gressive and regressive variants by the use of coefficients of correlation.

As regards processes of selection, I wish to state the following. When in- vestigating anthropologically the effects of processes of selection in the prosec-

Vol. 3 * No. 5 December 1962 489

tories of large hospitals, one notices that disharmonic combinations of anthro- pological traits occur uncommonly often, a fact which makes very difficult any attempts to typologize corpses. The constitutional types of pathology ap- pear to be disharmonic combinations of anthropological traits. This would ex- plain why the attempts at correlating them with races have led to very con- tradictory opinions. The correlation of the disposition to cancer with dis- harmonic combinations of pigmenta- tion features has already been observed by the old school of clinicians (e.g., Neisser 1855-1916). Since then, these observations have been corroborated by Polish anthropologists. However, ge- netics is bound to throw much more light on this subject than does morphology.

So far our fragmentary research on processes of selection have failed to yield an indisputable result. The re- peatedly determined stability of the an- thropological composition of the peas- ant population, extending over several centuries, seems to indicate that proc- esses of selection do not cause notable changes in the anithropological composi- tion of human groups. Nevertheless, Jacek Szmyt's investigations (1938) show that among those whose death was caused by cancer, the Mediterranean component is represented nearly twice as strongly as in the total population of Southern Poland. This tendency of se- lection is in accord with the continued shrinking, since the Neolithic, of the share of the Mediterranean component in the population of Europe inhabiting regions north of the Alps. It is well known that the shrinkage of the Medi- terranean component started the idle talk about the decay of the Nordic race -gossip which anthropologists with their extremely primitive methods were not able to refute critically. This yielded sorry results indeed for an- thropology also. The turning aside from morphology towards genetics is a further example. It should also be men- tioned that the determinations of homogamy proved to be sociological and not biological phenomena. The same explanation refers to the ostensi- ble determination of the selective char- acter of Landflucht (migration from open country to towns) and of emigra- tion. The anthropological results of these processes, as far as they may be determined quantitatively, are conse- quences of differences in the anthro- pological composition of the social strata of the population of Europe. As to Polish immigrants in America, who thoroughly intermingled there, no tend- encies towards homogamy of anthro- pological components were determined, as shown by investigations made by

Rosinski in Texas, U.S.A. 1929, 1931, and by Stolyhwo (1931) in Parana, Brazil. Processes of selection acting in different directions seem to counter- balance one another. This appears to be corroborated by the stability, estab- lished for the last several centuries, of the anthropological composition of sociologically combined human groups. Morphology makes it possible to as- semble synthetically the total effects of processes of selection. On the other hand, genetics merely supplies indica- tions as to certain components of the complex of processes of selection. Morphology and genetics supplement each other. Even so, thus far I consider the contribution of human genetics rather meagre, notwithstanding the great enthusiasm towards genetics shown especially by Anglo-Saxons.

A full statement of the oldest repre- sentative and co-founder of the Polish Anthropological School regarding the heterogeneous opinions expressed by so many anthropologists would fill a big volume. In order to limit my remarks in this interesting discussion, I shall confine myself to those few instances in which I may be able to present some- thing new and worth mentioning. Pro- fessor V. Bunak claims (1962):

Bielicki's article testifies to a new direc- tion in anthropological research in Poland. Bielicki concludes that the method of "in- dividual taxonomic diagnosis" (which forms the kernel of Czekanowski's method) is untenable; its premises are not recon- cilable with modern genetics. The author of this comment subscribes, for the most part, to the critical remarks of Bielicki and to objections in previous critical works.

To me, as a mathematician who has been dealing for almost 60 years with the application of the quantitative method in anthropology (morphology) and in sociology (linguistics and eth- nography), and who in his youth, at the beginning of this century, was much in- fluenced by Henri Poincare and Karl Pearson, the above quotation sounds somewhat too fideistic. Since no "re- vealed genetics" nor "infallible authori- ties" exist in science, scientific genetics must adjust itself to morphological facts, provided the latter are based on observations of satisfactory accuracy. After all, genetics consists to a consider- able extent of hypotheses which are upheld as long as they are not contra- dicted by facts based on observation.

After these preliminary remarks which have briefly summarized the Old Polish School point of view, I consider it most appropriate to limit myself to reporting the results which might be obtained by analyzing Professor Bunak's observations according to the analytical methods of Polish anthro- pology.

As early as 1898 Deniker had pointed

out that in the anthropological investi- gation of the Eastern European popula- tion, one must take into consideration the fifth component, his "race Orien- tale" which, in agreement with K6c1ka, I shall call Palaeo-Europid. After many trials, I decided that this fifth compo- nent may best be defined as shown in Table 9.

TABLE 9. DEFINITION OF THE

PALAEo-EUROPID COMPONENT

Length-Width Cephalic Index ............ 76.9

Morphological Facial Index ................ 79.3

Nasal Index .................. 74.3 Eye Color

(No. 13 of Martin's Scale). ... -0.978 Hair Color ................... -1.500

This is an entirely arbitrary assump- tion based on the results of the investi- gations of Michalski, Miszkiewicz, and my experience, as are my previously stated definitions of our principal races of the Central European population, i.e., the Nordic, the Mediterranean, the Armenoid and the Lapponoid. The regularities established on the basis of these definitions are the only justifica- tion for our assumptions. Similar in- stances occur in astronomy.

Let me stress the point that, accord- ing to experience, the Palaeo-Europid component should be considered in our analyses only in instances where the consideration of the fifth component leads to closer agreement between the mean values of the cephalic index (the index theoretically calculated on the basis of the law of mean values, and the index determined by observations). Here it turned out that the mean value of the cranial index of the Palaeo- Europid component equals 75.5, and that its effect on the mean value of the group is not complicated by the occur- rence of any dominants.

As to the "six typical groups" men- tioned by Bunak (1932:464), I analyzed them morphologically by means of Wanke's Approximation and compared the results with results dealing with the Cheremiss (Fedorov 1905), the Mord- vinians (Majnov 1891), the Merians (Bogdanov 1880, Jendryk in Czekanow- ski 1937), the prehistoric Tveritchians (Ibid.), and the skulls of the Fatjanovo culture population from the first half of the 2nd millenium B.C. (Drozdowski 1952). The analytical results are given in Table 10.

In the first place it is amazing how closely Bunak's "six characteristic groups" agree with my law of mean value of the cephalic index. In my opinion this is the best proof that Bunak is an excellent morphologist

490 CURRE NT ANTHROPOLOGY

(typologist). Thus, our quantitative methods make possible an impartial rat- ing of anthropologists.

The second result gained from Table 10 is the proof that anthropologically the Eastern Slavs very much resemble the population of the Vistula Basin and of the adjoining Baltic shore, and that they can by no means be looked upon as Slavicized Finns, an opinion occa- sionally voiced especially with regard to the Great Russians. It is only the Rjasanians who represent an exception; in their case the Finnish admixture is beyond any doubt, as already pointed out by Tschepurkowsky's investigations (1912). That the Slavs have replaced the Finns and, for the most part, failed to assimilate them, is shown by the com- parison of prehistoric skulls, probably from the 11th century, which attest the Finnish autochthons, with the present- day population of the Tver region which is anthropologically typically Slav. The old skulls reveal a charac- teristic Finnish constellation. Even so, there occur Great Russian groups that must be looked upon as Russianized Finns; this has been demonstrated by investigations made in the former Kostroma province.

The third important result obtained from our analyses is the determination that the Maris investigated by Bunak closely resemble the Cheremiss investi- gated by Fedorov (1905) on the one hand, and on the other, the series of skulls of the early historic Merians and Tveritchians as well as the prehistoric representatives of the Fatjanovo cul- ture. These series of observations, de- rived from various periods of time, constitute a sharply defined anthro- pological formation of the autochtho- nous population which was almost com- pletely replaced by Slavic super-strata and merely survives in scanty enclaves. The particular trait of this formation is the strong representation of the Palaeo- Europid component. In the Fatjanovo skulls and the early historic Tver- itchians this component constitutes a relative majority, whereas in the Merians it forms the strongest minority, and in the Finnish series of observations and the Rjasanians the next to strongest minority.

In a paper I read on May 27, 1961, at the Finno-Ugrian Society in Helsinki, I had occasion to mention that anthro- pology also testifies to a separation of the Finns from the Finno-Ugrian com- munity having taken place in the great bend of the Volga River. The extraor- dinary strength of the Mediterranean component might be ascribed most easily to an Arian (Indo-Iranian) stratifi- cation, since it is known that the oldest waves of the Indo-European invasion, anthropologically still very much re-

TABLE 10. ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE EAST-EUROPEAN OBSERVATIONS1

Anthropological Components Divergences

Observed Series: Medi- between Theoreti- Living Persons and Nordic terra- Arme- Lappo- Palaeo- cal and Observed

Skulls % nean nozd noid Europid Mean Values of % % % % Cephalic Index

White Russians 67.2 13.9 8.6 10.2 .... -+0.16 (-1.66) Great Russians

Rjasanians (55.8) (22.8) (9.6) (11.9) .... (+0.38) 48.2 19.7 8.3 10.3 13.5 -0.34

Aleksandrovians 51.0 17.8 13.7 17.6 .... -0.33 Tverians 49.9 15.1 16.2 18.8 .... -1.31 Vetlugans 47.5 16 8 15 3 20.4 ... -0.99

Mari (Cheremiss) 27.2 25.2 9.8 16.5 21.3 +0.21 (+1.39) Gornyje 26.9 21.7 11.3 19.3 20.8 -0.16 (+-1.19) Lugovyje 23.2 18.1 11.7 24.1 23.0 -0.13 (+1.04)

Merians 24.2 27.7 10.0 12.6 25.6 -1.32 Tveritchians, prehistoric 21.9 25.6 8.9 12.8 30.8 +0.23 Fatjanovo culture 15.4 34.6 .... 13.1 37.1 ? Mordvinians, Ersja 32.0 16.9 17.3 33. 8 .... +0.37 (-1.36)

'The numbers in parentheses refer to "the other alternative." If the divergence, as for instance among the people of Mari, takes the 5th component into account, then the num- ber in parentheses refers to the analvsis without considering it again. Otherwise, as in the case of the White Russians, the 5th component is not taken into account. There, the 5th component is already included in the number in parentheses.

sembling the Neolithic population of Europe, revealed the above-mentioned Mediterranean type. For the youngest waves of expansion, those of the Celts, the Germans, the Slavs, and the Baltic tribes, the predominance of the Nordic component is characteristic.

In his paper "Neues Material zur Aus- sonderung anthropologischer Typen unter der Bevblkerung Osteuropas," Bunak, following Deniker's example and applying the geographical method, distinguishes races and subraces. In or- der to throw light on this subject mat- ter, I analyzed these races and subraces, as I had previously analyzed the "six typical groups," by means of Wanke's Approximation; the results are pre- sented in Table 1 1. Unfortunately, with his races and sub- races Bunak has not been as lucky as with his "six typical groups." In our morphological perspective he merely presents a selection of local populations which happen to agree very well with our law of mean values of cephalic in- dex. I suspect that this selection was made with Bunak's approach in mind: "A complex of traits acquires the mean- ing of a racial characteristic only if it is closely linked to a definite territory" (Ibid. 24). I fail to perceive the scientific benefit to be gained from this debatable opinion. In his North-Pontic race there are joined subraces radically differing from each other, such as the Lower- Oka subrace disclosing a Finnish struc- ture and the Eastern Central European race showing a Scandinavian concen- tration of the Nordic element. The Polesian subrace and the Volga- Kostroma intermediate race are almost

identical. For the Eastern Central European race the definition gives a cephalic index of 80-82; however, if we enter value 82 in our analysis, we are face to face with the Waldai subrace!

Bunak states (Ibid. 25): "Both au- thors [Bielicki, Wiercifiski] assume that there is a definite number of races and that their complexes of characteristics have remained unchanged since the period of race formation. This is in- compatible with the theories of modern biology." The allegation that an as- sumption is incompatible with modern theories is by no means scientific evi- dence. Theories must be adjusted to facts, and this is the reason for their often being changed rather speedily. It has been demonstrated here that the present-day Wolga-Finns are successors to the bearers of the Fatjanovo culture. This authorizes us to assume a stability of the anthropological elements reach- ing far back. It is impossible to establish this duration by the methods used by Bunak. The law of mean values of the cephalic index reveals that the stability of anthropological components may be considered established back to medieval times. Anybody questioning the num- ber of anthropological components which we have taken into account is under obligation to divulge that it is possible to obtain a better description of the investigated groups by other methods; unless he can comply, nobody is going to take him seriously.

Concluding his comment Bunak writes (Ibid. 25): "It is evident that the so-called 'elementary racial types' are in reality conventional extraterritorial variants which do not characterize the

Vol. 3 No. 5 December 1962 491

racial history of the population studied." The term "evident" is a miraculous word, often employed for converting uncertain problems into cer- tain facts. Can it be considered admis- sible to call "elementary racial types" conventional illusions, in view of evi- dence showing that they are closely linked with the occurrence of dominant traits, such as is the case with eye color? Furthermore, I dare claim that Bunak's contribution to the "racial history" of the population of Russia has gained considerably by the application of our analytical methods based on "elemen- tary racial types." Not only have the Slav super-strata been separated from the autochthonous Finnish lower- stratum; on top of this, a perspective extending backwards as far as the 2nd millenium B.C. is now accessible.

As regards the comment made by Hiernaux (1962) I wish to say: On June 30, 1907, I crossed the frontier of Mporoto, at that time nominally part of Ruanda; afterwards, on De- cember 14, I left Rutshuru in or- der to roam in many directions all over the northeastern part of the Congo and the Uganda Protectorate. During this period I examined 4,500 Negroes and Pygmies and collected 1,019 skulls. These experiences entitle me to discuss morphologically the genetic results ob- tained by Hiernaux.

My pupil, Biatek, succeeded (1962) in adjusting Wanke's Approximation to the needs of anthropology in Africa on the basis of the definitions of race components published in 1939 by Mydlarski. I merely replaced the defini- tion of the Austro-African component by the Pygmy component. The results obtained so far are shortly to be pub- lished in a monograph honoring Freiherr Egon von Eickstedt. From this report I am taking the analyses dealing with Ruanda and its adjoining regions. Unfortunately, up to now it has been impossible to establish a law of anthro- pological mean value for the African population; thus the African analytical results are less certain. Even so, these analyses present a picture with marked regularities and therefore seem to be trustworthy. The analyses are based on the definitions of the anthropological components in Table 12.

On the basis of these definitions de- rived from our observations and repre- senting our empirically founded pre- suppositions, the analytical results in Table 13 were calculated by the use of Wanke's Approximation in which they were entered as constants.

Table 13 shows that by using param- eters calculated with Wanke's Approxi- mation the results of investigations may be arranged in a satisfactory man- ner. However, unless one rejects the

TABLE 1 1. RACES AND SUBRACES ACCORDING TO PROFESSOR V. BUNAK IN THE LIGHT

OF WANKE'S APPROXIMATION

Races and _______ - Anthropological Components Divergences be-

Subraces _______ - ________ - _______ - tween Theoretical Subraces ~~Medi- Arme- Lappo- Palaeo_ and Observed According Nordic terra- noid noid Europid Mean Values of to V. Bunak nean Cephalic Index

Ural Race Middle Volga Subrace 28.8 19.3 9. 8 16.5 25.6 -0.25 (+1.22)

Proto-Asiatic Race Wjatka-Kama

Subrace 27.5 14.3 17.4 21.2 19.6 -0.31 (+1.35) North-Pontic Race

Lower Oka Subrace 38.8 25.0 12.7 9.4 14.0 +0.33 (+1.10) Central Eastern-

European Race 70.5 12.1 8.0 9.3 - -0.92 Polesian Subrace 50.9 11.9 14.0 23.2 - -0.16

Baltic Race Waldai Subrace 63.7 11.6 12.2 12.6 - -0.47 Upper Dnepr Subrace 82.1 8.6 4.6 4 7 - -1.15 Volga-Kostroma

Intermediate Race 49.5 14.6 16.5 19 4 - -0.53

hypothesis of the validity of anthro- pological (morphological) types (races), these parameters throw light on the an- thropological constellations of the in- vestigated groups. This hypothesis, so very useful for practical purposes, is based on the assumption that the ob- servational series may be regarded as statistical representations of intermin- gled populations.

The geneticists' attitude towards these morphological facts expressed in our table of parameters is of interest to the morphologists, althouglh it is by no means decisive. It would only be deci- sive if the geneticists suggest a better solution to the problem of comparing the investigated groups. In my opinion, they are still far from this achievement.

The morphological treatment of the problems of anthropology in Ruanda yields the following conclusions:

1. The ruling class of shepherd no- bility living in the lake district, apart from Buganda and Bunyoro, is not an- thropologically homogeneous. In this sociological formation two markedly different strata may be distinguished. The topmost stratum, including the dynasty ruling in Ruanda, differs from the common shepherd nobility by the fact that it reveals an absolute majority of the Oriental component characteris- tic of Semitico-Hamitic populations. It

might be mentioned here that the mothers of legitimate royal offspring, entitled to succession to the throne, must belong to the Bega clan. This name reminds one of the Bedja, a Lower-Cushitic tribal group. On the other hand, the common rank of shep- herds discloses feeble relative majorities of the Mediterranoid component. This indicates a marked influence of Niloto- Hamites, who are even more Negroid: namely they disclose larger shares of the Negritic component.

2. Our analysis solved the Buganda problem. Predominance of the Medi- terranoid component is characteristic for so-called Niloto-Hamitic tribes, as for the Bari from the Nile Valley. The very fact that anthropologically they can hardly be distinguished from each other illustrates their origin. At present they are typical lake district Bantu in culture as well as language. As to their origin we remained in the dark; it was known only that they had nothing in common with the Shilluck who subdued the Bunyoro. Present evi- dence is that the Buganda are Niloto- Hamites who have been assimilated by the Bantu.

3. The Bahutu and Bahiru, Bantu soil-tillers ruled by the shepherd tribes, show relative majorities of the Negritic component, whereas the strongest mi-

TABLE 12. DEFINITIONS OF AFRICAN TYPES OF RACES

Anthro.pological Ty.pes Ce.phalic Morphological Nasal of Races Index Facial Index Index

Negritic Type 71 78 95 Austro-African Type (Pygmy type) 80 80 92 Mediterranoid Type 72 82 72 Oriental Type 73 94 62 Australoid Type 72 87 100

Standard Deviation 3.45 4.80 9 .97

492 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

Czekanowski: POLISH ANTHROPOLOGY norities consist of the Mediterranoid component; here the admixture of the Austro-African component is already so marked that it always occupies third place.

4. Anthropologically the Batwa con- stitute a very heterogeneous group. Without exception, the forest Batwa show absolute majorities of the Austro- African component. On the other hand, in the Batwa scattered beyond the for- est area, majorities of the Negritic ele- ment may be observed; there, these people seem to represent very old relicts, perhaps dating back to the pe- riod before the invasion of the Niloto- Hamites.

5. The forest tribes show absolute majorities of the Austro-African com- ponent characteristic for the Pygmies.

These are the most significant con- clusions obtained with little effort by the use of Wanke's Approximation. However, ending his comment, Hier- naux states (Ibid. 30):

In this area, component frequency analy- sis would have overlooked most of the facts revealed by the analysis from D2 values, though three components Tutsi, 'Bantu,' and Pygmy) are actually present, and it would have required an arbitrary defini- tion of the 'typical' values of each com- ponent prior to its mixture with the other two.

At the end of the paragraph starting with the above opinion we find this au- thor's conclusion: "It would lead to results resorting more to fiction than to a real analysis of the data." At least this is concise and straightforward.

Since in this subject matter we are dealing with problems of considerable scientific significance, I would suggest to Hiernaux that he demonstrate by means of his "D2 values," in his opinion "the best ever elaborated for continuous traits," which "facts revealed by the analysis from D2 values would have been overlooked by the component fre- quency analysis." This would be a most valuable lesson for us. In view of the fact that Hiernaux discusses Ruanda- Urundi, I collected from the sixth volume of my publication "Research in the region between the Nile and the Congo," on which I am working, the analyses dealing with Ruanda and pre- sented them in Table 13; I would like Hiernaux to comment on them, and to demonstrate the advantages to be gained from the laborious D2 method.

The sureness shown by Hiernaux in his discussion of our analysis based on Wanke's Approximation implies his being very familiar with this analysis. Thus I am astonished at his not per- ceiving that Bielicki's remark on the number of traits to be taken into ac- count when assuming a certain number of components does not refer to Wanke's Approximation but to the

solution of equations. Yet, this tiresome method has been made irrelevant by Wanke's Approximation. It seems to me that Hiernaux's critical comment on this subject is also irrelevant.

In keeping with Hiernaux's approach is his remark (Ibid. 30): "It [our quanti- tative method] works with fancied com- ponents. It is evident that sound knowl- edge cannot be gained from such a procedure." Reading these peremptory words one gains the impression that an- thropological research of Africa is in its infancy. Nevertheless, as early as the beginning of this century the compo- nents of the African population were known to Sir Harry Johnston and Bern- hard Ankermann to such an extent that later on only a more exact formulation of their definitions was needed. This task was undertaken in 1939 by Myd- larski, as I have already mentioned. In Table 13 I presented the results ob- tained for Ruanda. I am looking for- ward to amendments from Hiernaux, who puts his faith in having made use of "the best method ever elaborated."

I consider most sensational the claim made by Hiernaux (Ibid.): "I could show a shift of the morphology of the Bantu tribes who are recent immigrants to the equatorial forest of Eastern Congo towards that of the Pygmies, contrasting with the absence of a similar shift in blood groups." This would be the one subject of significance to come out of this controversy. There is only the question how far this discovery is based on sufficiently accurate observa- tions; it is contrary to European knowl- edge. Since Hiernaux and I have been working in the same territory at a time interval of half a century, it should be mentioned here that in my time there did not exist any Bantu tribes that were considered tropical forest immigrants arrived from the east. On the other hand, the tropical forest Bantu, i.e., the Babira, were on the move in a north- eastern direction and in Stanley's time, 1887, their first waves had long before deeply penetrated the grasslands. Per- haps Hiernaux has in mind the tribes which have been pushed into the tropi-

TABLE 13. MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE INHABITANTS OF RUANDA AND ITS

ADJOINING REGIONS

Negritics Austro- Mediter- Orien- Austra- Anthropological Components Africans ranoids tals loids of the African Population % % % % %

Uppermost Batutsi Stratum Royal house and court 21.0 4.0 16.2 54.3 4.6

Batutsi and Bahima Batutsi from Kakoma 28.1 5.2 30.5 28.0 8.3 Banyambo from Nkole (Kabula) 26.0 7.6 33.1 27.3 6.0 Bahima from Busongora 27.4 6.9 39.8 19.0 6.9

Nilo-Hamites and Baganda Bari from Nile valley (Nyonki) 30.7 6. 8 45.0 9.2 8. 3 Baganda, carriers, hired in Kampala 32.3 6.2 44.2 8.2 9.1

Bahutu and Bahiru Banyoro from Fort Portal region 38.2 12.0 32.6 6.5 10.7 Balera from Ruasa 38.5 16.6 27.0 6.8 11.2 Banya-Ruanda from Kakoma 37.5 14.5 29.7 6.2 12.1 Balera, Muhawura slope 38.4 12.7 29.6 7.2 12.2 Barondo, Rutshuru region 36.1 20.7 21.3 9.5 12.4 Bagoye, Nyundo region 39.0 17.5 20.1 7.5 15.9

Batwa, Bakondjo and Morphologically Linked Bahutu

Batwa, court musicians, Niansa 50.6 19.4 14.8 3.4 11.8 Bahutu from Issawi, Mission 48.3 21.7 14.1 3.6 12.3 Batwa potters from Marangara 47.1 30.4 11.9 2.8 7. 8 Bakondjo, Vichumbi region 35. 3 31.4 15.8 6.7 10.8 Batwa from Bugoye, Bigogo tribe 35. 3 35.8 7.4 4.1 17.4

Forest-dwellers Babira, Tropical Forest Edge at Irumu 35.0 49.4 6.4 2. 1 7. 1 Batwa from Muhawura Tropical Forest 33. 3 52.2 5.5 1 .9 7. 1 Banande (Tropical Forest-Bakondjo),

Beni region 30.7 50.7 7.8 3.1 7.6 Babira, Tropical Forest, Beni region 30. 1 58.6 3.9 1 .5 5.9 Baamba, Ruwenzori foreground 19.3 73.0 3.3 1 .3 3.0 Batwa, Bugoye Tropical Forest 14.9 81 .8 1 .3 0.5 1 .5 Pygmies, Giapanda region near Ma-

wambi 5.9 93.4 0.2 0.1 0.3

Vol. 3 * No. 5 * December 1962 493

cal forest area from the north? I demon- strated in 1924 that the southward migration of the Bantu is very well re- flected in terms of numbers, and that these terms represent a reliable basis for classifying Bantu dialects. A claim of such importance, contrary to all our anthropological observations, must be dealt with very accurately. I would be much interested to find out how we are to know the morphology of the Bantu

during the period before their migra- tion into the tropical forest?

Our present debate can be continued only after my questions have been an- swered.

In answering the comment made by Mourant (1962) I am restricting my- self to a remark that might interest him. When maps are available which show the range of aspects at various periods, and the quantitative similar-

ity of such maps is grasped with the help of their correlation coefficients, one attains the relative chronology of the appearance of the aspects il- lustrated by the maps. I demonstrated this, for example, with regard to the processes of differentiation of Slavic languages (1929-1931). Perhaps it would be possible to obtain the relative chronology of mutations by the same method?

References Cited

BERNSTEIN, F. 1924. Ergebnisse einer bio- statistischen zusammenfassenden Be- trachtung iuber die erblichen Blutstruk- turen des Menschen. Klinische Wochen- schrift, Berlin. J. Springer, 3:1495-97.

BIALEK, C. 1962. Stosunki antropologiczne Afryki Srodkowej w swietle aproksy- macji Wankego. Unpublished Disserta- tion, University of Poznani.

BIASUrTI, R. 1959. 3rd ed. Le Razze e i Po- poli della Terra, Torino.

BOGDANOV, A. P. 1880. Doistoriceskije tveritjane po raskopkam kurganov. Iz- vestija Obsestva Ljubitelej Jestestvoz- nanija, etc. Trudy Antropologiceskago Otdiela 4:382-92. Moskva.

Merjane v antropologiceskom ot nosenii. Ibid.: 404 et seq.

BUNAK, V. 1932. Neues Material zur Aus- sonderung anthropologischer Typen unter der Bevolkerung Osteuropas. (Ver- gleich der geographischen Karten fiir Kbrpergrosse und des Kopfindex). Zeit- schrift fur Morphologie und Anthro- pologie 30:441-503.

1962. Comment on Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views from Poland, with Discussion. Current Anthropology 3:24-25.

CZEKANOWSKI, J. 1907. Untersuchung fiber das Verhaltnis der Kopfmasse zu den Schadelmassen. Archiv filr Anthropol- ogie N.F.T. 6:42-89.

1909. Zur Differentialdiagnose der Neandertalgruppe. Korrespondenzblatt der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Anthro- pologie 40:44-47.

---. 1921. Les Lois de Mendel et Galton et les coefficients de l'heredite de Pear- son. Revue Generale des Sciences 32: 671-75.

1922a. Prawa Mendla i Galtona i wsp6lczynniki dziedzicznosci Pearsona. Archiwum Tow. Naukowego we Lwowie. Dzial Matemn.-Przyrod 1:301-44.

1922b. Przyblizone mierniki wsp6l- zaleznosci przy zalozeniu praw Mendla. Prace Komisji Matem.-Przyrodniczej. Pozna?'zskie Tow. Przyjaci6l Nauk 1:244- 73.

1925. Wyniki badani serologicznych Wojskowego Zdjecia Anthropologi- cznego. Polska Gazeta Lekarska nr. 3 Sep. 1-6.

---. 1928. Das Typenfrequenzgesetz. An- thropologischer Anzeiger 5:335-59.

1930. Das anthropologische Mittel- wertgesetz. Verhandlungen der Ges. fiir Physische Anthropologie 4:15-20.

---. 1932. Coefficient of Racial Likeness" und "Durchschnittliche Differenz." An- thropologischer Anzeiger 9:227-49.

1933. Mendelistisches "Law of An- cestral Heredity." Zeitschrift fiir in-

duktive A bstammungs- und Vererbungs- lehre 54:154-68.

---. 1934, 2nd ed. 1937. Czlowiek w Czasie i Przestrzeni. Biblioteka Wiedzy T. IX. Warszawa. Trzaska, Evert i Michalski. --. 1954. Die Schweizerische Anthro- pologische Aufnahme im Lichte der Pol- nischen Untersuchungsmethoden. Prze- glqd Antropologiczny 20:218-314. --. 1955. Na marginesie Konferencji Ethnogenetycznej 1952 r. (Aproksymacja Wankego i wyniki W.Kocki). Ibid. 21: 830-56.

DENIKER, J. 1898. Les races de l'Europe L'Anthropologie 9:113-33. --. 1904. Les six races composant la population actuelle de l'Europe. Jour- nal of the Royal Anthropological Insti- tute of Great Britain and Ireland 34: 181-286.

DROZDOWSKI, Z. 1952. Ludnosc Kultury Fatjanowskiej. Dysertacja Magisterska. Poznaii.

EICKSTEDT, E., v. 1934. Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der Menschheit. Stutt- gart.

GIBowsKI, M. 1961. Analiza antropolo- giczna ludnosci Lowynia z przelomu XVII-XVIII w. Dysertacja Magisterska. Posnaii.

HIERNAUX, J. 1962. Comment on Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views from Poland, with Discussion. Current An- thropology 3:29-31.

K6OKA, W. 1958. Zagadnienie etnogenezy lud6w Europy. Materialy i Prace An- tropologiczne 22:1-288.

KOLLMANN, J. 1882. Europaische Menschen- rassen. Mitteilungen der Anthropologi- schen Gesellschaft in Wien 11:1-8.

KROEBER, A. L. 1948. Anthropology, 2nd ed. MAJNOV, V. N. 1883. Rezultaty antro-

pologieeskich izsliedovanij sredi mordvy- erzi. Zapiski Imperatorskago Geografi- ceskago Obsestva po otdielenii T. IX. S. Peterburg. --. 1891. Materialy po antropologii. Mordvy-Erzi. Nizegorod-Skago uiezda. Dnevnik Antropologiceskaga. Otdiela.

MARTIN, R. 1914. Lehrbuch der Anthro- pologie in Systematischer Darstellung. Gust. Fischer. Jena.

MICHALSKI, I. 1949. Struktura antropol- ogiczna Polski. Acta Anthropologica Uni- versitatis Lodziensis 1:18, 110, 236.

1962. Comment on Issues in the Study of Race: Two Views from Poland, with Discussion. Current Anthropology 3:32-35.

MISZKIEwIcz, B. 1960. Struktura antro- pologiczna autochtonicznej ludnosci Warmii. Materialy i Prace Antropol- ogiczne 51.

MONTAGU, M. F. ASHLEY. 1951. An Intro- duction to Physical Anthropology. Charles C. Thomas. Springfield, Ill.

MOURANT, A. E. 1962. Comment on Issues

in the Study of Race: Two Views from Poland, with Discussion. Current An- thropology 3:35.

MYDLARSKI, J. 1928. Przyczynek do poznania struktury antropologicznej Polski i za- gadnieni doboru wojskowego. Kosmos 53:195-210. --. 1939. Rasa. Czlowiek, jego rasy i zycie. Trzaska, Evert i Michalski. War- szawa.

PAVELCIK, J. 1948. Mestys Nivnice. Zpravy Anthropologicke Spole6nosti F.4 1:3-4.

PEARSON, KARL. 1894. On the Dissection of Frequency Curves. Phil. Trans. Royal Society 185A:71-110.

RIPLEY, W. Z. 1900. The Races of Europe. London: Kegan, Trench, Triibner & Co.

RoSINSKI, R. P. BOLESLAW. 1929. Anthro- pogenetische Auslese. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 6:49-64. --. 1931. Emigracja Polska w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Zagadnienia Rasy 13:49- 64.

---. 1947-48. 0 dziedziczeniu barwy oczu u czlowieka. Przegl4d Anthropologiczny T. XIV:32-45.

SCHLAGINHAUFEN, 0. 1946. Anthropologia Helvetica. Zurich: Archiv der Julius Klaus-Stiftung.

STOLYHWO, K. 1931. Korpergrosse, ihre Vererbung und Abhangigkeit von dem neuen Milieu bei polnischen Emigranten in Parana (Brasilien). Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fur Physische Anthro- pologie. Stuttgart 4:94-106.

SUROWIECKI, W. 1824. Sledzenie pocz4tk6w narod6w slowianiskich. Roczniki Kr6lew- sko-Warszawskiego Tow. Przyjaci6o Nauk 17:2, 193.

SZMYT, J. 1938. Sklad rasowy i Konstytuc- jonalny chorych na nowotwory zlosliwe lwowskich zaklad6w leczniczych. Prze- glqd Antropologiczny. 12:223-55.

TSCHEPURKOWSKY, E. M. 1912. Anthropolo- gische Bestandteile der altesten und j ungsten slavischen Bevolerung Russ- lands. Korrespondenz-Blattder Deut- schen Gesellschraft fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. Jahrgang 43. Braunschweig.

WANKE, A. 1952. Czestogc zespol6w cech an- tropologicznych. Prace Wroclawskiego Tow. Naukowego Seria b, Nr. 29:1-58.

---. 1953. Metoda badani czestogci wyste- powania zespol6w cech czyli metoda stochastycznej korelacji wielorakiej. Przeglqd Antropologiczny 19:106-47.

WOKROJ, F. 1938. Kozacy Kubansky pod wzglqdem anthropologicznym. Przeglqd Antropologiczny 12:419-40. --. 1948. Ludnosc ukraiAiska wsi Pod- bereice pod wzglhdem antropologicznym. Sprawozdania Polskiej Akademii Umie- jqtnosci 49:458-63. --. 1954. Charakterystyka demograf- iczno-antropologiczna ludnosci kolonii podkarpackich. Przeglqd Antropolog- iczny 20:341-427.

494 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY