Dakota Resources

Dakota Resources:Historical Sketch and SelectedBibliography of Early Linguistic

Research in Dakota/Lakota Language*

JANETTE MURRAY

Many non-Indians have undertaken the study of the languageof the Sioux Indians for various reasons. In the early nineteenthcentury, missionaries studied and learned the language of theSioux tribes in Minnesota and Dakota Territories as a necessaryprerequisite to their work. In the 1880s, the federal governmentrecognized the need for accurate scientific information about thelives, customs, beliefs, and languages of the Indian tribes in-habiting the Great Plains and the West. Congress, through theBureau of American Ethnology, commissioned a number ofscholars to study these diverse tribes and to publish their find-ings in a series of bulletins and annual reports. After the 1930s,when English clearly became the dominant language on the reser-vations, language research became the province of university-trained scholars in field or applied linguistics.

The Siouan language family, as outlined by J. W. Powell in1891, covered a large territory, with speakers as far east as NorthCarolina and as far south as Biloxi, Mississippi, as well as west tothe Rocky Mountains and north into Canada.' Sioux tribes

• This essay was presented in slightly different form on 24 June 1978 at the Mid-Dakota Conference on Local History, Mobridge. South Dakota.

1. J. W. Powell, "Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico,"Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-86 (Washinglon, D,C.:Government Printing Office, 1891). pp. 1-142.

Copyright © 1979 by the South Dakota State Historical Society. All Rights Reserved.

338 South Dakota History

residing in North and South Dakota speak one of three dialectsbelonging to the Siouan family. Nakota, or the N dialect, isspoken by the Yankton on the Yankton Reservation and theYanktonai on the Standing Rock Reservation, the Lower CrowCreek Reservation, and the Fort Totten Reservation.^ Dakota, orthe D dialect, is spoken by the Mdewakantonwan at Flandreau;the Sisseton on the Sisseton and Fort Totten Reservations; andthe Wahpeton at Sisseton, Flandreau, and Fort Totten. The Ldialect, Lakota, is spoken by the largest group, the Teton, orWestern Sioux. The bands of the Teton are the Hunkpapa and theSihasapa (Blackfoot) at Standing Rock; the Minneconjou, theSihasapa, the Oohenonpa (Two Kettle), and Sans Arc at CheyenneRiver; the Brule and Oglala at Rosebud; the Brule at Lower BruleReservation; and the Brule and Oglala at Pine Ridge.^ There areonly slight differences in pronunciation and vocabulary amongthe dialects. A Lakota speaker has no difficulty conversing with aDakota speaker.

There are two major periods in the early study ofDakota/Lakota language though they are closely related andsomewhat overlapping. The first studies were the publications ofthe missionaries to the Santee, or Eastern Sioux. The secondgroup of publications deals mainly with the Teton and was spon-sored by the Bureau of American Ethnology.

Missionaries began their work among the Santee living in Min-nesota in the 1820s and 1830s. Joseph Renville, of French andIndian descent, established a trading post at Lac qui Parle on theMinnesota River in 1826. As was happening throughout the fron-tier, the traders were soon followed by the missionaries. In 1834,Samuel Pond and his brother Gideon left their Connecticutvillage to settle among the Sioux for the purpose of convertingthem to Christianity. Encountering the Sioux at Prairie de Chien,they began their language study by asking Dakota words for ob-jects. Later, when they settled at Lake Calhoun. they also usedthe word lists made up by army officers in the area. In 1836,Gideon Pond went to Renville's post at Lac qui Parle where hemet Dr. Thomas Williamson, a physician and Episcopal mis-sionary. A year later. Rev. Stephen Return Riggs joined this"Dakota Mission." The Pond brothers assisted both Williamson

2. While all of these groups were originally Nakota speakers, the N dialect hasnow mixed with the D or L dialects in many areas.

3. Ethel Nurge, ed.. Preface lo The Modem Sioux: Social Systems and Reserva-tion Culture (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 1970), pp. xii-xv.


Dakota Resources 339

and Riggs in learning Dakota. They began by translating hymnsand simple Bible stories, but their most ambitious project was thetranslating of both the New and Old Testament into Dakota.* EllaDeloria, daughter of the Episcopal minister Philip Deioria, givesthis description of how the work proceeded:

It is a log house, ample and many roomed, for it is the home of the Frenchand Dakota fur trader, Renville. a man of keen intellect, though withoutany schooling to speak of and without any fluency in English. In a hareroom with flickering candlelight he sits hour on hour of an evening after ahard day of manual work. Dr. Riggs and his helpers are across tne tablefrom him. They are working on the translations. It is a blessing in-calculable for all Dakota missions that Drs. Williamson and Riggs arescholars. One of them reads a verse — in Hebrew, if It is from the Old Testa-ment, or in Greek, if from the New. He ponders its essence, stripped ofidiom, and then he gives it in French. Renville. receiving it thus in hisfather's civilized language, now thinks it through very carefully and atlength turns it out again, this time in his mother's primitive tongue. Slowlyand patiently he repeats it as often as needed while Dr. Riggs and theothers write it down in the Dakota phonetics already devised By the Pondbrothers.'

Riggs and Williamson worked together for a number of years.Their work on a Dakota grammar was supported in part by theAmerican Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and theHistorical Society of Minnesota, In 1852. the Smithsonian Institu-tion printed A Dakota Grammar and Dictionary as part of itsContributions to Knowledge series. Although the title page notedthat the material was "collected by the members of the DakotaMission" and only edited by Riggs, the Pond brothers felt thatthey had not been given adequate credit for their part in the con-tribution." A translation of Pilgrim's Progress, entitled Cante-Teca, by Riggs, appeared in 1858.' John Williamson, the son of Dr.Thomas Williamson, also worked with the Santee, and his Dakota-English dictionary came out in 1868, wHh new editions in 1871,

4. John D. Nichols, Introduction to Dakota Grammar. Texts, and Ethnography,by Stephen Return Riggs (1893; reprint ed.. Minneapolis. Minn.: Ross & Haines,1973), pp. 2-4.

5. Ella Deloria. Speaking of Indians (New York: Friendship Press, 1944). p. 103.Deloria further informs us that "parts of the New Testament had been translatedby 1840 and it was completed in 1865. The whole Bible was ready by 1879" (p. 102).The American Bible Society in New York published the entire Bible in 1879. underthe title Dakota Wowapi Wakan, and credited the translation to Williamson andRiggs.

6. Nichols. Introduction to Dakota Grammar, p. 4.7. Doane Robinson. A History of the Dakota or Sioux Indians from Their

Earliest Traditions and First Contact with White Men to the Final Settlement ofthe Last of Them upon Reservations and the Consequent A bandonment of the OldTribal Life (1904: reprint ed.. MinneapoJis. Minn.: Ross & Raines. 1974). pp. 173 75.


3JtO South Dakota History

WOWIHAMNA ITECECA ;

OICIMANI WAN IYOÖPTA YE CIN.

OEYUHPE TOKAHEYA.MAEA kin de ñewonkan opta îcimani mda

unkan îhnuhanna wamaniti wan en wai, qa henmistinbe kta c irnunka. Mixtinma unkan wo-wihanmde wan iwaharana. Wiwahamna unkaninyun wicaxta wan heyake xica koyake ça iyeti kin en etonwe xni uajin ; wowapi wan napeohna yuhe ça tapete akan waqin tanka wanyanka.*

• I3a. C4:6; Luke U : 3 3 ; Paa. 38:4.

1886, and 1902. In 1890, an expanded version of the 1852 Riggsdictionary was republished as the seventh volume in the Con-tributions to North American Ethnology series of the Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology, a series originally supervised by the U.S.Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky MountainRegion. Rigg's Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography wasthe ninth and last volume in this series in 1893. Listed asstorytellers in this 1893 volume were four Dakota speakers:Michael Renville, the son of Joseph Renville; David Grey Cloud, a



Presbyterian preacher; Walking Elk, a Yankton Dakota; andJames Garvie, a teacher at the Nebraska Indian School estab-lished by Rev. Alfred Riggs, the son of Stephen Return Riggs."The inclusion of these stories was significant because it markedthe first printing of native speakers telling their own stories intheir own language rather than Dakota translations of Englishstories.

There can be no doubt that the dictionaries, grammars, andtranslations were of great value to the many missions in theDakotas, and they continued to be used for a number of years.However, the purposes of Riggs and his colleagues were not topreserve the culture and language of the Dakota but to use thelanguage as a vehicle for bringing about the transition to Englishand non Indian customs. In the "Ethnography" of his DakotaGrammar, Texts, and Ethnography, Riggs wrote:

Let a well arranged severalty bill be enacted into law, and Indians beguaranteed civil rights as other men. and they will soon cease to beIndians.

The Indian tribes of our continent may become extinct as such; but ifthis extinction is brought about by introducing them to civilization andChristianity and merging them into our great nation, which is receiving ac-cretions from all others, who will deplore the result? Rather let us labor forit, realizing that if by our efforts they cease to be Indians and becomefellow-citizens it will be our glory and joy."

While the above publications were based on missionary workwith the Santee, other missionaries also worked among theLakota, or Teton Sioux. For example. Rev. Eugene Buechel, anative of Germany, began his official ministry at the Holy RosaryMission on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1907 under the auspicesof the Catholic church. For nearly forty years, he collectedLakota words for a dictionary. In 1939. he published a detailedgrammatical study, A Grammar of Lakota. His dictionary ofLakota, which is the best source currently available, was pub-lished in 1970. Valuable as all of these scholarly works are, theydo have limitations in the linguistic study of Dakota/Lakotalanguage. Dr. Franz Boas of Columbia University commented onBuechel's work: "The analysis of Dakota in Buechel's Grammar isbased on the theory that every syllable has a meaning. The ar-rangement is that of an English Grammar with Dakotaequivalents. Since much of the material is based on Bible transla-

8, Stephen Return Riggs. Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography, U.S.Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributionsto North American Ethnology, vol. 9 (Washington. D,C.. 1893), pp. 83 152.

9. Ibid., p. 167.


South Dakota History

tions and prayers, many unidiomatic forms occur."'" The same istrue of the Riggs work.

Following the Civil War, the United States government turnedits attention to the problems of the western territories. For pur-poses of treaty-making and administration, the governmentneeded to locate, identify, and classify the various western tribesunder some sort of central system. In 1879, Congress authorizedthe creation of the Bureau of American Ethnology, under theSmithsonian Institution, to undertake this work, which hadbegun earlier under the U,S. Geographical and Geological Surveyof the Rocky Mountain Region in the Department of Interior.Congress further authorized the publication of a series ofbulletins and annual reports. The Bureau of American Ethnologyultimately produced 48 volumes in its series of annual reportsand 200 bulletins in its series of anthropological papers, in whichthe topics were "as broad as were contemporary interests in thefield of anthropology.""

One of the first publications of the Bureau of Ethnology was"Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico," com-piled by J. W. Powell, in the Seventh Annual Report of theBureau of American Ethnology, 1885-86. With comparatively fewchanges, Powell's outline has continued to hold up to scholarly in-vestigations to the present time. James Owen Dorsey's "Study ofSiouan Cults" was also published by the bureau in 1894 {EleventhAnnual Report... 1889-90). Dorsey had been a missionary to thePonca Indians in Nebraska from 1871 to 1873. He did comparativestudies of the languages of the Ponca, Omaha, Kansa, Winnebago,and Biloxi. Unlike other missionaries, Dorsey adopted an objec-tive approach to language and legends. By his own experience, hediscovered a principle that Franz Boas of Columbia Universitywas to stress with his linguistic students; that is, "it is safer to letthe Indian tell his own story in his own words than to endeavor toquestion him in such a manner as to reveal what answers are

10, Franz Boas. Preface to Dakota Grammar, by Franz Boas and Ella Deloria,Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 23, 2d memoir (Washington,D.C.. 1941), p. vii.

11. List of Publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, with Index toAuthors and Titles, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American EthnologyBulletin no. 200 (End of Series) ( Washington. D.C.. 1971), p. iii. See also FrederickWebb Hodge, ed.. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico, SmithsonianInstitution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 30 (Washington, D.C.,1907). pp. 171 76,



desired or expected."'^ Although Dorsey did not include theDakota/Lakota texts, he cites as his native informants JohnBruyier, a Dakota speaker, and George Bushotter, a Lakotaspeaker.'^

James Mooney's work "The Ghost Dance Religion of theAmerican Indian" appeared in 1896 in the Fourteenth AnnualReport... 1892-93. In his introduction, Mooney writes, "the mainpurpose of the work is not linguistic, and as nearly every tribeconcerned speaks a different language from all the others, anyclose linguistic study must be left to the philologist who can af-ford to devote a year or more to an individual tribe. The only oneof these tribes of which the author claims intimate knowledge isthe Kiowa."'* His Lakota-speaking informants included AmericanHorse, Fire Thunder, and George Sword of Pine Ridge, SouthDakota. With the exception of some words and phrases, Mooneydoes not include the original language texts in his work on theSioux.

Yet another important study published by the Bureau ofEthnology was Frances Densmore's Teton Sioux Music in 1918.Densmore listed as informants Robert P. Higheagle, a graduateof Hampton, and Mrs. James McLaughlin, the Dakota speakingwife of Major James McLaughlin at Standing Rock, and manysingers from Standing Rock.'^ Densmore recorded the words ofthe Lakota songs, but most of the text is in English. The manyreports and bulletins written for the Bureau of AmericanEthnology contain a wealth of information about the Sioux. Eventhough the scholars did not include the original language versionsin their publications, most of the manuscripts were preserved inmuseum collections.

In 1917, the American Museum of Natural History publishedThe Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division ofthe Teton Dakota by J. R. Walker. Walker was a physician at thePine Ridge Agency who became close friends with many of theLakota religious leaders. Although he consulted many sources,

12. James Owen Dorsey, "A Study of Siouan Cults," Eleventh Annual Report ofthe Bureau of Ethnology, 1889-90 (Washington. D.C.: Government Printing Office,1894). p, 365.

13. Ibid,, pp, 362-63,14. James Mooney, "The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890."

Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. 1892-9S. pt. 2 (Washington,D.C.; Government Printing Office, 1896), pp. 654-55,

15. Frances Densmore, Teton Sioux Music, Smithsonian Institution. Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology Bulletin no. 61 (Washington, D.C. 1918), pp. v. xxvi-xxvii.



Walker relied heavily on the accounts of George Sword. Sword,an Oglala, was the chief of the Indian police at the Pine RidgeAgency in the 1890s and had also been a prominent member of hisband before its close contact with the whites."' Although he couldneither write nor speak English, he wrote pages and pages in oldLakota, using the phonetic forms. Walker wrote of him that he"was a man of marked ability with a philosophical trend farbeyond the average Oglala."'' Much of what is known about thesocieties, mythology, and religion of the Tetons before white con-tact is derived from the Sword manuscripts. Unfortunately, theWalker volume also fails to include the entire Lakota texts,giving only words and phrases.

Research in Indian languages entered a new phase in the 1930sunder the direction of Franz Boas of Columbia University. In hisearlier introduction to the Handbook of American IndianLanguages, published in 1911 by the Bureau of AmericanEthnology as Bulletin 40, Boas had given "a clear statement offundamental theory and of basic methodological principles whichdemonstrate the inadequacy of the old methods and point to newpaths of research which were to lead to impressive results."'^Basically, Boas stressed that thorough knowledge of the languagewas the key to understanding everything else: "we must insistthat a command of the language is an indispensable means of ob-taining accurate and thorough knowledge, because much informa-tion can be gained by listening to conversations of the natives andby taking part in their daily life, which, to the observer who hasno command of the language, will remain entirely inaccessible."'''Boas was conversant in Dakota/Lakota, but he trusted more tothe authority of the native speaker than to the linguist workingthrough translation. In 1929, Boas invited Ella Deloria to accept aposition as Dakota language researcher in ethnology andlinguistics in the Department of Anthropology at ColumbiaUniversity, It was certainly a logical choice.

Ella Deioria was born in 1888. She was raised at Saint

16. J. R. Walker, The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division ofthe Teton Dakota. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of NaturalHistory, vol. 16. pt. 2 (New York, 1917). p. 159.

17. Ibid.. p. 59.18. Preston Holder, ed.. Preface to American Indian Language (Lincoln: Univer-

sity of Nebraska Press, Bison Books, 1966), pp. v-vi.19. Franz Boas, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages,

Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 40, pt, 1(Washington, D.C, 1911). p, 60,



Elizabeth's Mission on the Standing Rock Reservation where herfather, the Reverend Philip Deloria, was the Episcopal priest.She grew up in a large circle of relatives and friends, speakingthe Dakota dialect of her parents and the Lakota dialect of theHunkpapa. The Riggs and Williamson books were her first text-books. As teachers arrived from the East, she also learned tospeak and write in English. She was intelligent, eager to learn,and had a natural faculty for language learning. After completingsecondary school at All Saints School in Sioux Falls, Deloriastudied at Oberlin College and, finally, at Columbia University(19134914). Deloria was trained in linguistic theory, researchmethods, and phonetics. For nearly twelve years, she workedwith Boas. The general arrangement was that she spend half hertime on the Sioux reservations, collecting stories and varifyingaccounts, and the other half in New York, editing and tran-scribing the manuscripts of Bushotter, Sword, and others.^"

Deloria's abilities differed from those who preceded her in twoimportant ways. Unlike the non-Indian missionaries who learnedDakota/Lakota as adults working through translations, Deloriaknew the nuances and subtle shades of meaning accessible only toone who has grown up in the culture. Unlike Sword and othernative informants, she was proficient in English as well. Theresults of her work are two remarkable volumes. Dakota Texts,published in 1932, is a collection of sixty-four tales and legendsrecorded directly and exactly from Lakota storytellers fromStanding Rock, Pine Ridge, and Rosebud. One tale, "The DeerWoman," is in the Nakota dialect from her father. Deloria in-cluded the original text in phonetic transcription, literal transla-tions, and free translations with explanatory grammatical notes.In collaboration with Boas, she produced Dakota Grammar (1941),which is the most complete and detailed grammar available. Thisgrammar describes the language in terms of its own structureand uses categories as they function in Lakota rather than apply-ing the categories as they occur in Latin, German, or English.Ella Deloria continued her research throughout the 1960s, pro-ducing numerous magazine articles and other books, but hermanuscript for a Lakota-English dictionary remained incompleteat the time of her death in 1971. This manuscript and others are inthe Ella Deloria Collection at the University of South Dakota.

20. Janette Murray, "Ella Deloria: A Biographical Sketch and Literary Analysis"(Ph.D. diss.. University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, 1974).



During the present decade there has been a revival of interestin language study. Many young Indian college students, desiringto maintain their tribal identity and cultural participation, areseeking to learn the languages of their grandparents. The de-mand for written texts has resulted in reprints and facsimilereproductions of many of the earlier works. The following biblio-graphy of Dakota/Lakota language studies includes the majorworks discussed in this essay as well as texts and tales printed inthe last decade. It does not, however, include the translations ofthe Bible or of hymns and other religious material that werepublished abundantly during the latter half of the last century.

Bibliography

DAKOTA/LAKOTA TEXTS

Buechel, Eugene. Lakota Tales and Texts. Red Cloud, S.Dak.:Lakota Language and Cultural Center, 1978.

Deloria, Ella. Dakota Texts. Publications of the AmericanEthnological Society, vol. 14. New York: G. E. Stechert & Co.,1932. Reprint. New York: A M S Press, 1976: Vermillion:Dakota Press, University of South Dakota, 1978.

. "Short Dakota Texts, Including Conversations." Internartional Journal of American Linguistics 20, no. 1.

"The Sun Dance of the Oglala Sioux." Journal ofAmerican Folklore 42:354-413.

Densmore, Frances. Teton Sioux Music. Smithsonian Institution,Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 61. Washington,D.C, 1918. Reprint. New York: De Capo Press, 1972.

Riggs, Stephen Return. Dakota Grammar, Texts, andEthnography. U. S. Geographical and Geological Survey of theRocky Mountain Region, Contributions in North AmericanEthnology, vol. 9. Washington, D.C, 1893. Reprint. Marvin,S.Dak.: American Indian Culture Research Center, 1977.

DICTIONARIES AND GRAMMARS

Boas, Franz, and Deloria, Ella. Dakota Grammar. Memoirs of theNational Academy of Sciences, vol. 23. 2d memoir,Washington, D.C, 1941. Reprint. New York: A M S Press, 1976.

. "Notes on the Dakota. Teton Dialect." International Jour-nal of American Linguistics 8:97-121.



Buechel, Eugene. A Dictionary of the Teton Dakota SiouxLanguage, Lakota-English: English-Lakota, with Considera-tions Given to Yankton and Santee: Oie Wowapi Wan, Lakota-Ieska: Ieska-Lakota. Vermillion and Pine Ridge, S.Dak.: In-stitute of Indian Studies, University of South Dakota, and RedCloud Indian School, 1970.

. A Grammar of Lakota, the Language of the Teton SiouxIndians. Saint Francis, S.Dak.; Saint Francis Mission, 1939.

Riggs, Stephen Return. A Dakota-English Dictionary. Edited byJames Owen Dorsey. U.S. Geographical and Geological Surveyof the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to NorthAmerican Ethnology, vol. 7. Washington, D.C., 1890. Reprint.Minneapolis, Minn.: Ross & Haines, 1968.

. Dakota Grammar, Texts, and Ethnography. Edited byJames Owen Dorsey. U.S. Geographical and Geological Surveyof the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to NorthAmerican Ethnology, vol. 9. Washington, D.C., 1893. Reprint.Marvin, S.Dak.: American Indian Culture Research Center,1977.

Williamson, John. An English-Dakota Dictionary: Wasicun KaDakota, Ieska Wowapi. New York; American Tract Society,1902.

MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS AND GUIDES

Chippewa and Dakota Indians: A Subject Catalog of Books, Pam-phlets, Periodical Articles, and Manuscripts in the MinnesotaHistorical Society. Saint Paul; Minnesota Historical Society,1969.

DeMallie, Raymond, Jr. "A Partial Bibliography of ArchivalManuscript Material Relating to the Dakota Indians." In TheModem Sioux: Social Systems and Reservation Culture,edited by Ethel Nurge. Lincoln; University of Nebraska Press,1970. App. 3, pp. 312-43.

Freeman, John, and Smith, Murphy D. A Guide to Manuscripts inthe Library of the American Philosophical Society.Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1966.

Vermillion. University of South Dakota. Ella C. Deloria Papers.

STUDIES OF THE SIOUAN LANGUAGE FAMILY

Boas, Franz, and Swanton, John R. "Siouan; Dakota (Teton andSantee Dialects), with Remarks on the Ponca and Winnebago."


348 South Dakota History

In Handbook of American Indian Languages, edited by FranzBoas. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American EthnologyBulletin 40, pt. 1. Washington, D.C, 1911. Pp. 879 964. Thisstudy does contain one Lakota text by George Bushotter.

Hoijer, Harry. Introduction to Linguistic Structures of NativeAmerica, edited by Cornelius Osgood. Viking Fund Publica-tions in Anthropology, no. 6. New York, 1946. Reprint. NewYork: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1963.

Pilling, James C Bibliography of the Siouan Languages. Smith-sonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no.5. Washington, D.C. 1887.

Powell, J. W. "Indian Linguistic Families of America North ofMexico." In Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau ofEthnology, 1885-86. Washington. D.C: Government PrintingOffice, 1891. Reprint. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1966.


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Typewritten Text

All illustrations in this issue are the property of the South Dakota State Historical Society except those on the following pages: pp. 291, 292, 293, 313, from the Robinson Museum, Pierre; pp. 295, 301, from the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York; p. 296, from the Robinson Museum and the Milwaukee Public Museum, Wisconsin; p. 297, from the Robinson Museum and the South Dakota Historical Resource Center, Pierre; p. 298, from the Gold Seal Company, Medora, North Dakota, and Ian M. West, Reigate, Surrey, England; p. 299, from Fort Buford Museum, North Dakota; p. 300, from the Museum für Volkerkünde, Berlin, Germany; p. 302, from the South Dakota Historical Resource Center; p. 305, from George S. Kingsbury, History of Dakota Territory and George M. Smith, ed., South Dakota: Its History and Its People, Vol. 5 (Chicago: S. J. Clarke Publishing Co., 1915); p. 312, from Otto L. Sues, Grigsby’s Cowboys (Salem, S.Dak.: James E. Patten, 1900); p. 321, from the Quinn Courant, 9 Aug. 1923; pp. 329, 333, from the Sioux Falls Daily Press, 26 and 24 Oct. 1924; p. 335, from the Evening Huronite, 25 Oct. 1924; p. 340, from Stephen R. Riggs, trans., Cante-Teca: The Pilgrim’s Progress by John Bunyan, in the Dakota Language (New York: American Tract Society, ca. 1858); p. 355, from William Seale, Recreating the Historic House Interior (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1979); p. 375, from the W. H. Over Museum, Vermillion.

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