Medieval India
The period from the 8th to 12th century in politicallife in
Indiais particularly dominated by the presence of large number of
states. The bigger ones tried to establish their supremacy in
northern India and the Deccan. The main contenders in this struggle
for supremacy were the Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas.
In the south the most powerful kingdom to emerge during this period
was that of the Cholas. The Cholas brought about the political
unification of large parts of the country but the general political
picture was that of fragmentation particularly in northern India.
It was in this period that India's contact with the new religion of
Islam began. The contacts began late in the 7th century through the
Arab traders.Laterin theearly 8th century the Arabs conquered Sind.
In the 10th century the Turks emerged as a powerful force in
Central and West Asia and carved out kingdoms for themselves. They
conquered Persia but their lives were richly influenced by Persian
culture and tradition. The Turks first invaded India during the
late 10th and early 11th century and Punjab came under Turkish
rule. Another series of Turkish invasions in the late 12th and
early 13th century ledto theestablishment of the Sultanate of
Delhi. Within a few centauries after therise of Islamin Arabia it
became the second most popular religion in India with followers in
every part of the country.
The establishment of the Sultanate marked the beginning of anew
phasein the history of medieval India. Politically it led to the
unification of northern India and parts of the Deccan for almost a
century. Its rulers almost from the time of the establishment of
the Sultanate succeeded in separating it from the country from
which they had originally come. The sultanate disintegrated towards
the end of the 14th century leading to the emergence of a number of
kingdoms in different parts of the country. Some of these like
Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms became very powerful. In society
new social groups -the Turks, the Persians, the Mongolsand
theAfghans besides the Arabs who had settled in India. There were
important changes in economic life also. Trade and crafts received
a stimulus and many new towns arose as centres of administration,
trade and crafts. New elements of technology were also introduced
during this period.Administration
Thekingdom was divided into a central region directly ruledby
theking and many areas or fiefs were governed by feudal lords. The
central region was divided into bhuktis or rashtras which were
under viceroys, vishayas under vishayapatis and finally villages
under grama patis. The village self-government weakened during this
period due to the domination of the feudal chiefs while at the same
time it was best under the Cholas in the south India.The army
consisted of royal retainers or the personalarmy of theking and the
contingents supplied by feudal lords. This was the main reason for
the lack of unity in the armies of the rulers of this period. The
military service became the monopoly of Rajputs.
Taxation during this period was heavier compared to earlier
times. This was mainly due to heavy expenditure over the royal
householdand thecourt. There was also fighting all around for
suzerainty. The burden was laid on the general public.There was no
clear instructions for maintain justice.In theBhuktis there was a
dandanayaka who was in charge of justice, police and prison. There
is no mention of any other officer. It is likely that most of the
cases were settled by caste and village panchayats.Some feudal
chiefs were government officers who were increasingly paid not in
cash but by assigning to them revenue-bearing villages. Others were
defeated kingsandtheir supporters who continued to enjoy the
revenues of limited areas. Some were tribal chiefs.Some of them
were village chiefs who had dominated the entire region.There was a
definite hierarchy among these chiefs. They constantly fought
against each other for supremacy.Society
Thecaste systemformed the basis ofthe societyas in earlier
periods but now the kshatriyas and the Brahmins were given more
privileges while more and more social and religious disabilities
were placed on the sudras and other lower castes. A large number of
sub castes such as potters, weavers, goldsmiths, musicians etc
proliferated. They were classified as jatis now. Most of the
workers were classified as untouchables. Women continued to be
denied theright to education. The age of marriage for girls was
further lowered. They were kept in seclusion and their lives were
regulated by the male relations fathers, brothers and husbands. The
practice of sati seems to have spread widely and was made even
obligatory at some places. The custom of sati was widespread in the
higher castes.
The attitude of higher classes became very rigid. They tended to
isolate themselves fromallscientific thought. Buddhism almost
disappeared from the land of its origin. There was a marked revival
and expansion of Hindusim.There was a growing popularity of Shiva
and Vishnu cults. A number of popular movements arose around the
worship of these gods.In theeastern India, a new form of worship
arose. This was the worship of Sakti or female creator of the
universe.
Economy
A very important development of the period was the rise of a
self-sufficient village economy where production was according to
the local requirements with little attempts at producing a surplus
to be used for trade or exchange. This existing system led to
accepting the standard of minimum production since the incentive to
improve production was absent. As a result pressure on peasantry
was increased and production stayed at a subsistence level only.The
subsistence economy of the village led to decline in trade. Trade
was further hampered by the emergence of wide range of local
weights and measures making long distance trade more difficult. The
unstable political conditions and internal fighting in India only
helped this process of decline in trade.
This decline in trade affected the growth of towns. In coastal
areas and Bengal towns however prospered because they continued to
trade with West Asia and South East Asia. The only prosperous class
in north India during this period was feudal lords. But the surplus
wealth was not invested in trade or craft production. It was on the
other hand used for conspicuous consumption. The huge amounts were
given to temples also thus attracting outsiders.
Literature in Medieval Period
In theearly medieval period in northern India, Sanskrit
continued to be thelanguage of literature. This is the period of
the works of two writers in Kashmir-Somadevas Katha-sarit sagar and
Kalhanas Rajataringini.Rajataringini is a work of great importance
as this is first historical work in India. Another famous work of
this period is Gitagovinda by Jayadeva.It is one of the finest
poems in Sanskrit literature.One of the earliest works in an early
form of Hindi was Prithviraj Raso by Chandbardai.It is a work on
heroic deeds ofPrithviraj Chauhan.Another important Sanskrit work
of this period is Bilhanas Vikramankadeva-Charita a biography of
the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.This period also saw development
in Dravidian languages.Nripatunga wrote a great work of poetry in
Kannada called the Kavirajamarga.Pampa wrote the Adipurana and
Vikramarjuna- Vijaya with the former dealing with the life of the
first Jain tirthankara and latter based on the Mahabharata.Ponna
wrote the Shantipurana, a legendaryhistory of the16th
tirthankara.Another great Kannada writer was Ranna a contemporary
of Pampa and Ponna.Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and
Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Rama a contemporary of Pampa and
Ponna.Two of the famous works are the Ajitapurana and
Gadayuddha.Kamban wrote the Ramayanam in Tamil.This was the period
of the composition of the great hymns of the Alvarsand theNayanars.
The hymns of the Alvars are collected into the Nalayira- Divyanam
in Tamil. This was the period of the composition of the great hymns
of the Alvars and the Nayanars. The hymns of the Alvars are
collected into the Nalayira- Divya Prabandham. Some of the Nayanar
works are the Thiruvasagam,the Thirumanairam and
Thiruttondattogai.The Delhi Sultanate saw great advancement in the
growth of Indian languages and literature.Braj Bhasha and Khari
Boli began to be used in literary compositions.The famous
Rajasthani ballad Alha Udal and the Vishaldeo Raso belong to this
period.Mulla Daud wrote the oldest poem in Awadhi language called
Chandayana.Persian was the court language of the Sultanate.A very
notable contribution of the Turks was in the field of historical
literature in Persian.There were many historians in this
period.Ziauddin Barani wrote the Tarikh-i- Firozshahi which gives a
detailed account of Khaljis and Tughlaqs. He also wrote a work
onpolitical theorycalled the Fatawa-i- Jahandari.The most
outstanding literary figure in this period was Amir Khusrau.He was
a poet,historian,mystic and composer of music. He was also a
disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.He wrote the Ashiqa,the Nuh Siphir
,the QiranalSadayan,the Khazain-ul- Futuh and several works of
poetry.
The regional kingdoms provided a great stimulus to regional
languages and literature.There were two main forms of Hindi in this
period- Bhojpuri and Awadhi.Kabir wrote in Bhojpuri and his dohas
or couplets have become a part of the folklore.Malik Muhammad
Jayasi wrote the Padmavat in Awadhi.The famous Ramacharitmanas by
Tulsidas was also written in Awadhi in this period.Qutban a
disciple of the sufi saint Shaikh Burhan wrote the Mrigavati. In
Bengali the Ramayana by Krittivasa and the hundreds of lyricsby
thefamous poet Chandidas were written under the patronage of the
rulers. With Chaitanya the tradition of writing devotional songs
began.Narasi Mehta wrote devotional songs in Gujarati and Namdev
and Eknath in Marathi.Under king Krishnadeva Raya,telugu literature
reached new heights.He was Telugu and Sanskrit writer.He wrote the
Vishnuchittiya.The other famous poets in his court were Allasani
Peddana who wrote the Manucharita.Dhurjati wrote the Kalahasti
Mahatamya. In Mughal India,Babbar was one of the pioneers of
Turkish poetry and also author of biography in Turkish Babar
nama.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the Humayun
Nama.Jahangir wrote his autobiography the Tuzuk-i-
Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was a prolific writer and the last Mughal
Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable Urdu poet.Hindi literature
made a significant progress during Akbars reign.Tulsidas ,Keshavdas
wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or couplets are extremely
popular to this day.This was a period of many writings in Persian
language.Abu Fazl wrote the Ain-i- Akbari and the Akbar Nama.Akbar
had started a whole departmentfor translationof works like
Mahabharata,the Ramayana the Atharva veda,the Bhagvad Gita and the
Panchtantra.Some of the historians of this period were Abdul Hamid
Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim amd Sujan Rai Bandhari.One of the
most significant developments during the medieval period was the
birth of the Urdu language. Thisnew languagesoon developed one of
the richest literatures in the world.It produced great poets like
Wali, Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib
etc.Urdu prose also developed early in the 18th century when the
translation of most of the historical works from Persian and
Sanskrit into Urdu began.At the same time many original works in
Urdu were written like Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i- Akbari.The
Urdu novel was one of the earliest to develop in the Indian
languages.
Importance of Sher Shah Suri and Sur Dynasty
Surs had founded the Second Afghan Empire in India. They
introduced a new concept of sovereignty and effected a
reorientation of a political institution.But the importance of Surs
lies principally in having produced SherShah who by virtue of his
conquests and administrative reforms earned for himself a place of
honor among the rulers and empire-builders of India. His
administrative machinery with slight modifications was adopted by
Akbar and his successors as the basis of their government. Shershah
was the first Muslim sovereign who placed before himself the ideal
of promoting public welfare without distinction of caste or creed.
Secondly he sought to organize the Afghans in such a manner that
their defects might gradually wear off and their sovereignty might
acquire permanence. He wanted to strengthen the defence of the
frontiers so effectively that the restoration of the Mughals by
invasion from without or by rebellion within should become
possible.Sher Shahs government was as autocratic as that of Balban
or Alauddin but he got it approvedby theAfghan assembly itself.
Thus his despotism rested on a democratic foundation. Besides his
versatile genius and indefatigable industry enabled him not only to
lay downthe generalpolicy of all departments but also to
superintend and control its execution in detail in day to day
administration. He seems to have begun with the last rung of the
administrative ladder the village and had worked upto thepargana
and the sarkar level but failed to find time for touching up the
provincial and central government. But he could not make much
headway in provincial or central government.Sher Shahs land revenue
policy protected the interests both of the peasantand thelandlord.
He tried to prevent exploitation of the peasant but at the same
time he did not completely abolish the traditional rights of the
muqaddams and the assignees.He seems to have been conscious of the
evils of the jagirdari system and yet he could not dispense with it
everywhere lest it might cause discontent among the Afghan leaders.
Merits of Sher Shah lies in introducing a permanent schedule of
rates defining the mutual rights and obligations of the peasant and
the state through patta and qabuliyat adopting measurement as the
normal method of assessment and in harmonious adjustment of the
interests of all parties concerned.
To improve means of communicationin theEmpire,old roads were
repaired and new ones laid out. At intervals of four miles sarais
were built which soon became the nuclei of new market towns. Sher
Shah made separate provision for supplying food and water to Hindu
and Muslim wayfarers. Sher Shah planned these roads to connect the
capital with the various provinces of the empire so that in case of
necessity troops might be rapidly rushed to the affected region.
The sarais served as convenient camping grounds for the military
forces especially when a market town grew up around it. The sarais
was used as dak-chaukis where harkaras and mounted news carriers
were posted for carrying news to the next sarais bothup and downthe
road.The Afghans dominated politics from 1451 to 1555 and during
this period they did a number of remarkable things. They put an end
to the anarchy which had come in the wake of the weak rule of the
later Tughlaqs and the Sayyads and strove to build up a strong
centralised government.Independent kingdoms of Malwa, Jaunpur and
Bengal had ended and nobles of the central region were made
amenable to discipline and obedience.The Afghans introduced a new
ideal of government and instead of autocratic domination of the
nobles they tried to govern in collaboration with them. In
cooperation with the Hindus they tried to found a government based
on national solidarity. They were patrons of men of learning and
piety.They made administration of justice more efficient and
improved the lot of the peasantry. In establishing internalpeace
and securitythey made the people shoulder a part of the
responsibility which made them self-reliant and imparted stability
to the government.
Art and Architectural in Medieval India
Thecoming of the Turks inaugurated anew erain the history of
Indian architecture, the Turks brought with them architectural
ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into
contact with the traditions that had already been developed in
India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new
synthesis of architectural styles. The rulers of the Sultanate were
great patrons of architecture and under them the process of
synthesis started. It continued with many regional variations in
the different kingdoms. During the Mughal period the flowering of
this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of
India were built. Based on the interactionof the twotraditions a
unique Indian style of architecture was developed in this
period.
Main features of Islamic architectureThe Mosque consisted of a
large rectangular open courtyard surrounded by arcades on all four
sides. The mehrab which faces Mecca indicates the directionto
theprayer. The call to the worship was made from a tall tower or
minaret. In some mosques there were many minerats. Another
characteristic feature was the archin thegateway and other places.
The dome was another prominent feature of the mosque and the
mausoleum. The chief decorative element was sculpturing the
building with geometrical designs and lettering in calligraphic
style. Some of these features were new to Indian architecture. The
ancient Indian buildings were decorated with beautiful carving and
sculpture while the Muslim buildings were marked by simplicity and
lack of adornment. When the new buildings began to be erected the
two styles were gradually synthesized into a new and unique
style.
Composite culture in Medieval India
Culturally medieval period marks the beginningof newstagein
thegrowth of India's composite culture. It saw the introduction of
new features in art and architecture of India and their diffusion
to all parts of the country. The architecture that developed during
this period was the result of the synthesis of the traditions of
Central Asia and Persia with the pre-existing Indian styles. During
the 15th and 16th centauries distinctive styles of art and
architecture also developed in the regional kingdoms which had
emerged with the disintegration of the Sultanate.During this time
notable advances were made in the development of languages and
literature. Two new languages-Arabic and Persian became a part of
India's linguistic heritage. Historical writingsfor thefirst time
became an important component of Indian literature.Under the
influenceof Persian, new forms of literature such as the ghazal
were introduced. The period saw two great religious movements. The
Bhakti movement spread throughout the country.
It disapproved religious narrow-mindedness, superstitions and
observance of formal rituals. The Bhakti saints condemned caste
inequalities and laid stress on human brotherhood. The other was
Sufi movement. The Sufis or the Muslim mystics preached the message
of love and human brotherhood. These two movements played a leading
role in combating religious exclusiveness and narrow -mindedness
and in bringing the people of all communities together. Sikhism
began to emerge as a new religion based on the teachings of Guru
Nanak and other saints. The growth of a composite culture reached
its highest point under the Great Mughals in the 16th and 17th
centuries. The Mughals built an empire which once again brought
about the political unification of a large part of the
country.Akbar the greatest Mughal Emperor followed the policy of
Sulhkul (peace with all).Some of the finest specimen of Indian
architecture and literature belong to this period. A new
significant art form was painting which flourished under the
patronage of the Mughal court. Influencedby thePersian traditions
the Mughal painting developed into a distinct Indian style. It
later spread to other parts of the country in various regional
styles. Another significant development was the emergence of anew
languageUrdu which became the lingua franca of the people of the
towns in many parts of the country.
Architecture under the Sultanate
The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local
designersandcraftsmen who were among the most skilfulin theworld.
The new fusion that started to take place avoided the extreme
simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish decoration of
the earlier Indian architecture. Among the first buildings to be
erected were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The
mosque built in Delhi was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque. It
measured about 70x30 meters. The central arch of this mosque which
is decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still stands and
is about 17 meters high and about 7 metres wide. The successor of
Qutbuddin Iltutmish was a great builder. He further extended the
mosque. He also completed the building of the Qutb Minar which had
been started by Qutbuddin and now stood in the extended courtyard
of the mosque.
This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one
of the most renowned monuments of India. The next important
buildings belongto thereign of Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the
Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a gateway to the
enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was
introduced to beautify the building. He also started building a
minar which was designed to be double the height of Qutb Minar but
the project remained unfulfilled. The Tughlaqs concentrated on the
building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah and
Ferozabad. A number of buildings was erected which differed in
their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong
structures like the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaqand thewalls of
Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were
significant from thepoint of viewof the development of
architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very
impressive.Mughal Architecture
The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughalsand
thenew architecture which had started taking shape with the
establishment of the Sultanate reached the pinnacle of glory. Babar
and Humayun the first two Mughal kings erected a number of
buildings with the help of Persian architects and these now in
ruins are not very impressive. Humayun had to flee the country in
the face of the rising power of the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri.
There was a short Afghan rule before Humayun recovered the Indian
territories for the Mughals. The most important buildings is the
mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram. It is well-proportioned building
and stands in the middle of a tank.
The Mughal architecture beganin thereign of Akbar. The first
important building of Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb at Delhi. In
this magnificent tomb the Persian influence is very strong
particularly in the construction of the dome. Indian builders used
stone and marble. The two significant features of the Mughal
architecture are the large gateways and the placement of the
building in the midst of the large park. The tomb provided many
architectural ideas for the building ofthe Taj Mahallater. Akbar
also built the forts of Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within
the Agra fort. Many new buildings were constructed in the fort and
old ones altered by his successors. For the first time living
beings -elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured
in the brackets. The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was
the building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri about 40 kms from
Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in a variety
of styles making it one of the most magnificent capitals in the
world. It had a circumference of over 10 kms. The arch of the
Buland Darwaza is about 41 meters high and is perhaps the most
important gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built in
white marble is exquisite in its beauty. Another notable building
is the Ibadat Khana or the House of Worship where learned people
belonging to various religions gathered together and discussed
questions of philosophy and theology in the presence of Emperor.
Then there is the Panch Mahal a five storeyed building modelled on
the Buddhist viharas.During the reign of Jahangir the mausoleum of
Akbar was constructed at Sikandara. This is a magnificent monument
as after a long time minar became architecturally significant. It
has beautiful arches and domes.But the whole structure is
inspiredby theBuddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the palace
buildings in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of
Itmad-ud-daula the father of NurJahan. The tomb was built in marble
and is notable for its beautiful coloured inlay work. NurJahan
built a beautiful mausoleum for her husband at Shahdara near
Lahore.
The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan. His reign
marks the highest development of Muhgal architecture. Some of the
finest monuments of our country were built during his reign. Under
him there was an exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate
decorative designs, variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The
list ofbuildings builtby ShahJahan is long with city of
Shahjahanbad, Redfort, Jama Masjid, TajMahal and many others. The
most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings is the Taj Mahal built
in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents India's culture
at its best and has been aptly described as the dream in marble. It
is remarkably well conceived and all its parts the gateways,
central dome, elegant minars, the delicate decoration, the inlay
work in coloured marbles anprecious stones, the lovely gardens
surrounding it and the fountains in front have been perfectly
executed. The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb the
last of the Mughals are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti
Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of the general
decline. The new style of architecture had a significant influence
on the construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of
the Rajputs during this period.Mughal Architecture
The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughalsand
thenew architecture which had started taking shape with the
establishment of the Sultanate reached the pinnacle of glory. Babar
and Humayun the first two Mughal kings erected a number of
buildings with the help of Persian architects and these now in
ruins are not very impressive. Humayun had to flee the country in
the face of the rising power of the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri.
There was a short Afghan rule before Humayun recovered the Indian
territories for the Mughals. The most important buildings is the
mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram. It is well-proportioned building
and stands in the middle of a tank.
The Mughal architecture beganin thereign of Akbar. The first
important building of Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb at Delhi. In
this magnificent tomb the Persian influence is very strong
particularly in the construction of the dome. Indian builders used
stone and marble. The two significant features of the Mughal
architecture are the large gateways and the placement of the
building in the midst of the large park. The tomb provided many
architectural ideas for the building ofthe Taj Mahallater. Akbar
also built the forts of Agra and Lahore. He built his palace within
the Agra fort. Many new buildings were constructed in the fort and
old ones altered by his successors. For the first time living
beings -elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds were sculptured
in the brackets. The crowning achievement of the reign of Akbar was
the building of his new capital at Fatehpur Sikri about 40 kms from
Agra. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in a variety
of styles making it one of the most magnificent capitals in the
world. It had a circumference of over 10 kms. The arch of the
Buland Darwaza is about 41 meters high and is perhaps the most
important gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Chishti built in
white marble is exquisite in its beauty. Another notable building
is the Ibadat Khana or the House of Worship where learned people
belonging to various religions gathered together and discussed
questions of philosophy and theology in the presence of Emperor.
Then there is the Panch Mahal a five storeyed building modelled on
the Buddhist viharas.During the reign of Jahangir the mausoleum of
Akbar was constructed at Sikandara. This is a magnificent monument
as after a long time minar became architecturally significant. It
has beautiful arches and domes.But the whole structure is
inspiredby theBuddhist viharas. Jahangir also extended the palace
buildings in the Agra fort and built the beautiful tomb of
Itmad-ud-daula the father of NurJahan. The tomb was built in marble
and is notable for its beautiful coloured inlay work. NurJahan
built a beautiful mausoleum for her husband at Shahdara near
Lahore.
The greatest of the Mughal builders was Shah Jahan. His reign
marks the highest development of Muhgal architecture. Some of the
finest monuments of our country were built during his reign. Under
him there was an exceedingly liberal use of marble, delicate
decorative designs, variety of arches and beautiful minarets. The
list ofbuildings builtby ShahJahan is long with city of
Shahjahanbad, Redfort, Jama Masjid, TajMahal and many others. The
most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings is the Taj Mahal built
in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It represents India's culture
at its best and has been aptly described as the dream in marble. It
is remarkably well conceived and all its parts the gateways,
central dome, elegant minars, the delicate decoration, the inlay
work in coloured marbles anprecious stones, the lovely gardens
surrounding it and the fountains in front have been perfectly
executed. The only notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb the
last of the Mughals are the Badshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti
Masjid at Delhi. The period after him is one of the general
decline. The new style of architecture had a significant influence
on the construction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of
the Rajputs during this period.Mughal Paintings
The great era ofin theart of painting was ushered by the
Mughals. the great painter Behzad. They came into contact with
their counterparts in India and under Akbar the synthesis of two
styles was encouraged. He gathered together a number of painters
from Persia, Kashmir and Gujarat. The Ain-i-Akhbari mentions a
number of artists-Abdus Samad, Mir Saiyid Ali, Miskin, Daswant,
Basawan, Mukand and many others. They illustrated manuscripts like
the Dastan-i-Amir Hamza and Babarnama. Individual pieces were also
painted. By the end of Akbar's reign an independent Mughal style of
painting had been developed. Jahangir was a poet and patron of
painting. Under him the MughalSchool of paintingwas fully developed
and made remarkable progress.The painting was no longer confined to
book illumination. Portrait painting and depiction of subjects
drawn from life and nature became popular. Some of the finest
painters in this period were Nadir, Murad, Bishan Das, Manohar,
Goverdhan, Mansur and Farrukh Beg. The competence and skill of the
Indian artists are evident from the incident which Sir Thomas Roe
who came to the court of Jahangir mentions. The artists of
Jahangir's court made several copies of a painting which Roe had
presented to the emperor on the same day. The copies were so
perfect that Roe found it difficult to spotthe original.
In the course of few decades fine works of paintings were
created. The development continued under Shah Jahan. Dara Shikoh
son of Shah Jahan was a great patron of paintings. With Aurangzeb
the art declined in the Mughal courts. With the withdrawal of court
patronage many artists went to different parts of thecountry
andinfluenced the developmentof newschools of painting. Two of the
most important schools of painting that emerged were the
Rajasthaniand thePahari schools. The subjects of the paintings of
these schools were drawn from the epics, myths and legends and love
themes.Music in Medieval India
Themedieval periodwitnessed development inMusic in India. Music
was not a part of the original Islamic tradition but it developed
under the influence of the Sufis and became a part of court life.
Many new forms and instruments were developed. Mir Khusrau who had
contributed to literature and historical writings is believed to
have invented some of these musical instruments. He developed the
early form of the popular musical style known as Qawwali. Khayal
one of the important forms of Indian classical music is also
believed to be his contribution. The legendary figures of Baz
Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa and his queen Rupmati were accomplished
musicians and also introduced many new ragas. The most notable
figure in music in Medieval India as Tansen the court musician of
Akbar. His attainments in music have become a legend.
The patronage of music continued at the courts of rulersin
the18th century and the traditions evolved through the centuries
were kept alive. The contributions of the Bhakti and Sufi saints in
the development and promotion of music is very important. The
growth of Indian classical music has been a major force of India's
cultural unity. Apart from Hindu elements some of the greatest
masters of music have been Muslims. The Kitab-i- Nauras a
collection of songs in praise of Hindu deities and Muslim saints
was written by a 17th century ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah II. Both in
vocal and instrumental music two main classical styles evolved
-Hindustani and Carnatic. Some of the greatest figures in Carnatic
music were Purandaradasa, Thyagraja, Muthuswami, Dikshitar and
Syamasastri.
Babur(1526-30)Originally Babar wastheruler of Farghana.In
thefirst Battle of Panipat fought on 21April, 1526 between Babur
and Lodhi Emperor Ibrahim Lodhi in which victory of Babur over the
Lodhi laid the foundation of Mughal Empire in India.In 1527 Babur
defeated Rana Sanga in the Battle of Khanwa.Afghans under Muhmmad
Lodhi were defeated by Babur at the Battle of Ghagara in 1529.Babur
died at Agra in 1530 but according to his will his body was taken
to Kabul and buried there.Babur was a prolific writer as well as
poet has written his autobiography Tuzuk-i- Baburi in Chaghatay
Turki.
Humayun(1530-56)Humayun wastheeldest son of Babur .Sher Shah
Suri an ambitious ruler of Bengal had fought Humayunin theBattle of
Chausa in 1539 in which Humayun was defeated and Mughal force was
almost destroyed. In the beginning Humayun was helped by the ruler
of Amarkot Rana Virsal where Hamida Banu gave birth to Akbar in
1542. Humayun finally got shelter in the court of Emperor Shah
Tahmasp of Persia. Humayun reconquered his Indian empire with the
help ofShah of Iranin 1555 by defeating Afghans. He died in 1556.
Humayun was passionately devoted to the study of astronomy, loved
painting and wrote Persian poetry.Akbar (1556-1605)Akbar was born
at Amarkot in 1542.Attheage of 14 he became the emperor after the
death of his father Humayun.Bairam Khan was the regent up to 1560.
In 1556 second Battle of Panipat was fought between the
HemuandMughals which Muhgals won under the generalship of Bairam
Khan.Raja Bharmal the Kuchchhwaha King of Amber married his eldest
daughter to Akbar and subsequently Raja Bhagwan Das and Man Singh
were inducted into the Imperial Mughal service. Almost all Rajput
states were subjugated and they submitted to Akbar but the Rana of
Mewar continued to defy Mughal suzerainty.
In thebattle of Haldighati in 1576, Rana Pratap was defeated by
the Mughals under Man Singh.In 1562 Akbar discontinued the practice
of enslaving the defeated soldiers in the battles. In 1563
pilgrimage tax was abolished. In 1564 the discriminatory jaziya tax
was abolished. In 1575 Ibadatkhana was built at Fetahpur Sekri for
religious discussions. Initially only Sunni were allowed later all
religious groups such as Shias, Hindus, Christians and Zorastrians
were allowed to participate. In 1579 Akbar read the Khutba composed
by Faizi in his own name. In September 1579 Mahzar was proclaimed
by Akbar which made him the Imam-i-Adil.In 1582 Din-i-Illahi or
Tauhid-i-IIahi was started by Akbar which is considered by some
historians a new religion started by Akbar.Akbar died in 1605.He
was buried at Sikandra.Jahangir (1605-27)Prince Salim
ascendedthethrone in 1695.He assumed the title of Jahangir.He
issued 12 ordinances after becoming emperor. In 1611 he married
Mehrunnissa who was later on called Nur Jahan, her father Gyas Beg
was given the title of Itmaduddaulah. During Jahangirs time
relations with Rajput of Mewar improvedandAmar Singhsubmitted in
1615to theMughal.The practice of enrolling Marathas into the Mughal
army and nobility was started.
In 1606 Jahangirs son Khusrau revolted but defeated and
imprisoned. Guru Arjun Dev 5th Guru of Sikhs was beheaded on the
charge of blessing Khusaru.In 1625 Mahabat Khan imprisoned Jahangir
and Nurjahan.Jahangir wrote Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. During
his time painting reached to its zenith in Mughal court.Jahangir
died in 1627 at Bhimbar in Kashmir. He is buried at Dilkushgardenin
Lahore.
Shah Jahan (1627-58)
Prince Khurram succeeded Jahangirandadopted the title of Shah
Jahan in 1627. In 1607 Jahangir had granted him a Mansab of 800
zat. In 1632 Portuguese were defeated by him near Hugli.In 1612
Shahjahan married Anjumand Bano Begum who later became famous as
Mumtaz Mahal.In 1636 Ahmadnagar was annexed by Shahjahan.His reign
is described by French travelor Bernier and Taverierand theItalian
traveler Manucci.
In 1638 Ali Mardan KhanthePersian governor of Khandhar
surrendered the portto theMughal government of Kabul. Bundelas
under Jujhar Singh rebelled during the Shahjahan reign.In the end
of his reign there was a bloody war of succession among his sons in
which Aurangzeb become successful due to Shahjahan; favour to Dara
Shikoh to the throne.Aurangzeb imprisoned Shahjahan at Agra Fort
and he died in captivity in 1666.He was buried besides his wifes
grave in Taj Mahal.Aurangzeb (1658-1707)Aurangzeb ruledforalmost 50
years. During his long reigntheMughal Empire reached its
territorial climax. At its height it stretched from Kashmirin
thenorth to Jinji in the south and from the Hindukush in the west
to Chittagong in the east. But much of the Aurangzebs time was
spent in trying to put down revolts in different parts of the
empire.Aurangzeb sent his army to the Deccan to curtail the rising
Maratha power and to prevent them from overpowering the kingdoms of
Bijapur and Golconda.Mansabdari System in Mughal EmpireAkbar
organized the nobility and his army by means of the Mansabdari
system. Every officer was assigned a rank valued in terms of a
certain number of mounted soldiers. The ranks normally given to top
officers and nobles were valued from 10 to 5000 later raised to
7000.The ranks were divided into two: zat and sawar.Zat means
personal where by the status and salary of the individual was
fixed. Out of this salary in addition to meeting his own personal
expenses, he had to maintain a stipulated quota of horses,
elephants, camels, mules and carts.The other rank indicated the
number of cavalrymen (sawar) a mansabdar was required to maintain.
For every sawar, a mansabdar was paid at a rate of Rs 240 per annum
over and above his salary. A person was required to maintain as
many sawars as his zat rank was placed in the first category of
that rank; if he maintained less than half then in the third
category. Thus there were three categories in every rank.No one
could have a higher quota of sawars than his zat rank.The mansab
was not hereditary.
The sawar rank was distinguished by two special features: For
every 10 cavalrymen the mansabdar had to maintain 20 horses and a
provision was made that the contingents of the nobles should be
mixed ones that is drawn from all the groups- Mughal, Pathan,
Hindustani and Rajput.This was intended to weaken the spirit of
tribal and ethnic exclusiveness. The mansabdars were assigned a
jagir in lieu of cash payment. Although modifications in the system
were made from time to time this remained the basic structure as
long as the Empire held together. The number of mansabdars rose
from 2069 at the time of Jahangirs accession in 1605 to 8000 in
1637 during Shah Jahans reign and to 11,546 during the latter half
of the Aurangzebs reign.Land Revenue System in Mughal
EmpireInitially Akbar adopted Sher Shahs system. But in 1580 Akbar
instituted a new system called Dahsala.Under this the average
produce of different crops and their average prices prevailing over
the last 10 years were calculated and 1/3rd the average produce
fixed in rupees per bigha was demanded as the states share.Later a
further improvement was made. Not only were local prices taken into
account,parganas which were the largest fiscal and administration
having the same type of productivity were grouped into separate
assessment circles. Thus the peasant was required to pay on the
basis of local produce as well as local prices. This system
continued till the end of the 17th century.
Central Administration in Mughal EmpireIn Islam the real
sovereign of the world in Allah and Khalifh is his representative
on the earth. Muslim rulers in India prior to Akbar recognized the
authority of Khalifa but the institution of Kingship as mentioned
by Abul Fazl in Aziz-i- Akbari that the Padshah or Shahansha is the
vice-regent of god on earth,Farr-i-Izadi has given new dimension to
the theory Kingship in India.Emperor- The form of Mughal government
was despotic,monarchy,the emperor was the head of the
executive,legislature,judiciary and the Army,the only limits on the
autocracy of the King were the mobility and the Ulema.
Vakil- Vakil was the representative of king and hence exercises
all powers on behalf and in the name of king.Bairam Khan was the
Vakil during Akbars time. Wazir or Diwan- In his capacity as
Diman-i-kulk he was the head of the revenue dept when there was no
vakil,he acted as the PM as well and hence called the wazir. Mir
Bakshi- Head of the military dept and also the pay master general
after the introduction of the mansabdari system.Sudr us Sadar- Head
of the ecclesiastical dept regulation of religion and charitable
works was his prime concern. Khan-i- Saman- Head of Royal household
and karkhans. Qazi-ul-Quzat- Head of the justice dept.Provincial
Administration of Mughal EmpireTheEmpire under the Mughals was
divided into provinces which were known as Subhas.In thebeginning
Akbars reign total number of subhas were 12 later on at the time of
his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan s time there were 19
subhas.During the Aurangzebs reign Mughal Empire had 21 subhas.
Some of the important officials were: Subedar or Sipalibalar- He
was the governor, his function were the maintenance of law and
order, enforcement of imperial decrees and administration of
criminal justice in the subha.He was appointed by the Emperor.
Diwan-He was in charge of revenue administration of the province.
Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the central level.
Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the
provinces.Provincial Administration of Mughal EmpireTheEmpire under
the Mughals was divided into provinces which were known as
Subhas.In thebeginning Akbars reign total number of subhas were 12
later on at the time of his death it were 15.During Shah Jahan s
time there were 19 subhas.During the Aurangzebs reign Mughal Empire
had 21 subhas. Some of the important officials were: Subedar or
Sipalibalar- He was the governor, his function were the maintenance
of law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees and
administration of criminal justice in the subha.He was appointed by
the Emperor. Diwan-He was in charge of revenue administration of
the province. Bakshi-Discharged the duties as Mir Bakshi at the
central level. Qazi, sadr, Muhtasib were other official in the
provinces.
Local AdministrationThe Subhas were further divided into sarkars
which was headed by Shiqdar.Sarkar was divided into Parganas which
was a group of villages. Village was the lowest unit of
administration and Patwari and Qanuongo were the financial
officials. Mahals were the group of villages combined for fiscal
purposes.
Aurangzebs Deccan PolicyAurangzebs Deccan policy was influenced
partly by imperial interestsandpartlyby thereligious
considerations.In Deccan Aurangzeb failed to assessthesituation
realistically hence unable to take actions.Shivaji had carved out
an independent Maratha statein theterritoriesnorth and southof
Konkan. To contain the Marathas Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur under
Sikandar Adil Shah and annexed it in 1686.This brought an end to
Adil Shahi dynasty. Bijapur became the seat of the Mughal
provincial governor.Aurangzeb ordered attack against Abul Hassan
Qutub Shah of Golconda. In 1687 the Mughal army entered the fort
and Golconda was annexed to Mughal Empire. After the downfall of
Bijapur and Golconda Aurangzeb concentrated all his forces against
the Marathas.In 1689 Sambhaji was taken captive and executed and
his son Sahu was captured. Aurangzeb gave Sahu the mansab of 7000
and treated him well. But he misjudged the strength of Marathas.
The Marathas recovered themselves and commenced a peoples war which
exhausted Aurangzebs treasury and compelled him to be on the
defensive.The war booty from Golconda and Bijapur was insufficient
to cover the cost of the last phase of the Deccanwars. The
reputation of the Mughal army was undermined by continuous
rebellions and attacks from the Marathas in the Deccan. Aurangzebs
death in 1707 finally brought to an end on the Deccan. What caused
the real breakdown of the Mughal Empire was his faulty Deccan
policy.Aurangzebs Deccan policy can be divided into four
phasesPhase-I (1658-68)
It was led by Jai Singh.The Mughals failed to lay siege on
Bijapur in 1665 and Jai Singh died in 1667.Phase-II (1668-84)
It was unsuccessful because of a tripartite alliance between
Golconda,Shivaji and Bijapur in which Madanna and Akanna played a
crucial role.Phase-III
This phase saw the capture of Bijapur (1686) and Golconda
(1687).Phase-IV
In this phase Sambhaji the son and successor of Shivaji was
captured and executed.Economy in Mughal EmpireAgriculture has been
mainstay ofeconomy in Indiasince time immemorial. During Mughal
time also it was not only the largest source of income to state but
it was also the source of livelihood to the large majority of
people in India. Main crops that were grown were cereals, millets,
oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton, hemp, chilli, indigo and betel.Tobacco
and potato were introduced by Portuguese in India during Jahangirs
reign. Ajmer was famousfor thebest quality of sugar cane. Gujarat
and Agra was famous for indigo cultivation.Babur introduced many
central Asian fruits to India. During Akbars reign Firoz Shahs
Yamuna canal was repaired for the first time.In thereign of Shah
Jahan,Nahr-i-Bihisht was built by opening the canal at Khizrabad
for irrigation purposes.
The Muslim ruling class preferred to settle in the towns and
cities. The artistic life style of Mughal ruling clan encouraged
handicrafts, art and architecture andtrade in India. The merchants
and trader class was divided into big business magnates owing
hundreds of ships, rich merchants and traders and petty
shopkeepers. Hundi system was developed by shroffs for carrying out
large transactions. Trade both intra country and outside India grew
tremendously during the Mughal period particularly because of the
following factors:The political and economic unification of India
under the Mughal rule and establishment of law and order over
extensive areas created the favorable environment for trade and
commerce. The improvement of transport and communicationsby
theMughals.Encouragement given by the Mughalsto themonetization of
economy. Arrival of European traders from the beginning of 17th
century onwards and the growth of the European trade. Decca was the
famous centre of muslin and textiles. Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and
Lahore were the main centers of silk weaving. Surat, Cambay, Braoch
in Gujarat was the main ports for foreign trade.
Mughal Coinage
The Mughals attached a great importance to the coinage as Akbar
started to practice of issuing coins and established royal mint
with Abdus Samad the famous painter being the head of it. The
Mughal coinage was mainly based on the rupee and dam issued by Sher
Shah Suri.The rupee was the most famous of all Mughal coins.Muhar
was the standard gold coin of about 170-175 grain and it was very
popular. Jalali was a silver coin in square shape issued by Akbar.
Nisar,Nur Afshan and Khair qasul were the smaller silver coins
issued by Jahangir. Daun was the copper coin used by the common
people in day to day transactions. The copper Daun also known as
falus, sikah falus, Nisfi, damra and damri.Literature in Mughal
EmpireThe Mughal period saw great developmentsin thefield of
literature. Many Mughal emperors and members of the royal family
were great men of letters. Babar the first Mughal emperor was one
of the pioneers of Turkish poetry and also the author of a very
valuable autobiography in Turkish BabarNama which was later
translated into Persian.Gulbadan Begum sister of Humayun wrote the
Humayun Nama.Jahangir the great connoisseur of painting wrote his
autobiography the Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri.Aurangzeb also was a prolific
writerand thelast Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was a notable
Urdu poet.Hindi literature made significant progress during Akbars
reign.Tulsidas and the Surdas wrote in this period.Keshavdas a
great poet wrote on themes of love.Rahims dohas or couplets are
extremely popular. It was also in Akbars time that the great
Sanskrit work on styles of writing, the Alankarashekhara by Keshava
Misra appeared. This was the period of many notable writings in
thePersian language.Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar
Nama.Abul Fazls brother Faizi was a great poet of Persian and was
responsible for the translation of many Sanskrit works into
Persian.Akbar had started a whole deptfor translationof works like
Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Atharva Veda, the Bhagvad Gita and
the Panchatantra.
Many important historical works were produced under the emperors
after Akbar.Some of the important historians were Abdul Hamid
Lahori,Khafi Khan,Muhammad Kazim and Sujan Rai Bhandari.Literature
in modern Indian languages also continued to grow. Thefamous bookof
Bihari called the Satsai in Hindi belongs to this period. One of
the most significant developments during the medieval period wasthe
birth ofthe Urdu language. This new language soon developed one of
the richest literatures as a modern Indian language. It produced
great poets like Wali,Mir Dard,Mir Taqi Mir,Nazir
Akbarabadi,Asadullah Khan Ghalib.Many original prose works in Urdu
were written like Muhammad Hussain Azads Darbar-i-Akbari.The Urdu
novel was one of the earliest development in the Indian languages.
Urdu became the language of the urban people of northern India and
the Deccan.Education under the MughalsUnder theMughalrule special
attention was given to education. During the Akbars reign important
changes were introducedin thesyllabus of education through the
efforts of Shah Fathullah Shirazi.Islamic schools were attached to
mosques, Khanqah of the Sufis and tombs. Special buildings were
also constructed for imparting education. Their expenses were met
from endowments.During the Mughal period theprincipalcentres of
learning were at
Lahore,Delhi,Ajmer,Sialkot,Multan,Ahmadabad,Allahabad,Lucknow,Murshidabad,Dacca.Many
scholars were attracted to these institutions from PersiaandCentral
Asia. Students received education free of cost. Famous scholars
received fixed stipends from the royal treasury.
Provisions were madefor theteaching of Persian; the official
language of the government in the Maktabs.Nizamiyah system of
education became popular during the later days of the Mughals. The
aim of this system was to create such ability in the scholar so
that he is able to acquire perfection in any branch of learning
through self-study and personal efforts. While Muslims received
education in Maktabs,Hindus had their pathsalas for imparting
religious instructions.
Mughal Society
Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basisand
thehead of the social system was Emperor. He enjoyed an unparallel
status. He was the ultimate authority in everything. Next in rank
were the nobility along the zamindars.The Mughal nobles monopolized
most of the jobs in the country. Socially and economically the
Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. There were men of every
type and nationality among the Mughal nobles. Clan or family links
were the most important considerations for recruitment and
admission to the aristocratic class of the society.Zamindars or the
chieftains also constituted the nobility. They had their own armed
forces and generally lived in forts or garhis which was both a
place of refuge and a status symbol. There was a large class of
merchants and traders. They had their own rights based on tradition
and protection of life and property. They also maintained a
highstandard of living.
During Mughal period the Indian society wasin theprocess of
developing into a common society for the religious groups of Hindus
and Muslims.Inter-mixing and adaptation of each others culture was
fairly common. Among the prevalent social practices the purdah
system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of
upper classes. The child marriage was prevalent. Though polygamy
was prevalent in upper sections of society the common people
followed monogamy.Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The
sati was prevalent though Akbar tried to discourage sati by issuing
orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was the only
Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The
Muslim society was also divided based on the place of origination.
The widow remarriage was prevalent inthe society. Economically
Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.The Hindu
society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and
their constant condemnation of thecaste systemmade the system more
rigid. The Hindu society in order to strengthen itself recasted the
Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic fold those Muslims
who were converts from Hinduism.It was a common practice to
maintain a large contingent of slaves bothmales and females. The
prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this
system. They were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But
they were not subject to torture.The lower class comprised of the
cultivators,artisans,small traders, shop-keepers ,household
servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard
life. Their lives were simple and their belongings were
meagre.Mughal ArmyTheMughal government was military in origin and
it retained its military character. The emperor was the head of the
army and its commander-in-chief. All the govt officials were
enrolledin thearmy and were commanders of a specified number of
horsemen. The Mughal force consisted of five branches of infantry,
cavalry, fire-arms, elephants and war boats. The cavalry was the
most important and was regarded as the flower of the army. Infantry
was the largest branch of the army but it was ill paid and rugged
branch. The firearms men consisted of gunners and musketeers.The
Mughals had no navy of their own. They delegated the navel defense
of thewestern coastto theAbysinians and Sidis of Janjira. In lower
Bengal the govt maintained a flotilla of boats of various types.
These boats were placed under a darogha and were equipped with
artillery. There was no regimental drill or discipline and no real
training. The actual number of troops was only a fraction of the
normal strength as recorded in Mir Bakshis register. There was no
contract between the commander-in-chief and the individual troops
who looked upon the Mansabdars as their immediate chiefs. The pay
of the troops was generally in arrears.
During the time of the later Mughals sometimes their
salariesforthree years or more were not paid. Originally the
strength of the Mughal army depended upon the mobility of the
cavalry. This mobility was lost in the hillsanddeserts of Rajputana
and Maharashtra.During the later days of Aurangzebs reign it became
a prey to Marathas and in the 18th century it proved hopeless
against the European trained battalions.Decline of Mughal
EmpireAurangzebs death in 1706 set offtherapid decline of the
Mughal Empire. His successors were weak and increasingly became
mere toolsin thehands of the nobles. Taking advantage of this the
Rajputs, Sikhs and the Afghans openly defied the authority of
Mughal emperor.Even more disturbing was the fact that the assertion
ofindependencehad spread to other parts of the empire. The
governors of Hyderabad, Bengal and Avadh established independent
kingdomsand theMarathas reorganized under a newsystem of
governmentthat of the Brahman ministers the Peshwas.They were
gradually extending their control towards north India.
At the time of foreign invasions such as those of Nadir Shah
(1729) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (1747-61) further weakened the empire.
The rising power of the Marathas was temporarily checked by their
defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in the third battle of
Panipat in 1761. The Mughals were now reducedto thearea around
Delhi. They continued to rule in name until 1857.Real political
power was shifted to the hands of the new kingdoms.Causes of
decline of Mughal EmpireAlthoughtheMughal Empire began breaking
upin the18th century, the causes of its decline can be traced back
much earlier.Aurangzebs long reign of constant and uninterrupted
fighting was not only a big drain on the exchequer but it also led
to the negligence of administration. Politically he made number of
mistakes which undermined the strength of the Mughal Empire.The
empire was also metwithfinancial troubles. There was neither enough
money nor jagirs to assign to various officers. This led to rivalry
among the noblesfor thepossessing the existing jagirs.They tried to
extort the maximum income from their jagirs at the cost of the
peasantry. Attempts were made to transform existing offices and
jagirs into hereditary ones.
The officers invariably reduced their expenditure by not
maintaining their full quota of troops thus weakening the empires
armed strength. The condition of the peasant had also gradually
worsened. Higher revenue demands, a greater level of exploitation
by jagirdars because of frequent transfers tried to extract as much
as possible during their tenure as Jagirdar.The practice of farming
the land revenueto thehighest bidder after the death of Aurangzeb
increased peasant discontentment. The rebellions of the Satnamis,
Jats, and the Sikhs were indicative of this. The Zamindars too
became rebellious and withheld revenue. The Mughal Empire might
have continued to exist for a long time if its administration and
armed power had not broken down.Short Question and Answers
1. What was Jalauddin Khilji before he came to power in
1290?Warden of marchesin thenorth-west
2. Who ended the Turkish monopoly of high offices in the Delhi
sultanate?TheKhiljis
3. Who was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to put forward
the view that the state should be based on the willing support of
the governed?Iltutmish
4. Which ruler gave the idea that the state could not be a truly
Islamic state?Jalaluddin Khilji
5. How did Jalaluddin Khilji try to gain the goodwill of the
nobility?Toleranceandavoiding harsh punishment
6. Who was the Delhi Sultan to start the policy of giving harsh
punishment even to the wives and children of rebels?Alauddin
Khilji
7. When did Timur invade India?1398 AD
8. Why did Turkish sultans want to annex Malwa and Gujarat?These
were fertile andtrade routesnear the sea
9. When did Alauddin Khiji launch an attack on Gujarat?1299
against Rai Karan
10. Where did Alauddin captain Malik Kafur?Cambay during the
Gujarat Expedition
11. What was the first state against which Alauddin launched an
attack?Ranthambhor
12. Who was the famous poet who accompanied Alauddin in the
Ranthambhore campaign?Amir Khusrau
13. The Padmini legend is associated with which
place?Chittor
14. Malik Kafur led campaign against which two places in south
India?Warangal and Malabar
15. Which was the Deccan state against which Muhammad bin
Taghlaq had to suffer reverses initially?Warangal
16. Alauddin Khilji brought reforms in market control after
which campaign?Chittor Campaign
17. How many markets did Alauddin establish?Three
18. Under which officer markets of Alauddin
functioned?Shahna
19. Which medieval historian wrote about Alauddins market
control?Ziauddin Barni
20. What was the price of a first grade horse fixed by
Alauddin?100-120 tanks
21. Who brought fine quality cloth to Delhi from various parts
of the country?The Multani traders
22. Why did Alauddin realise the land revenue in cash?To pay his
soldiers in cash
23. Who was the first Delhi Sultan to introduce the payment of
soldiers in cash?Alauddin Khilji
24. What was a major objective of Alauddins market control
according to Barauni?To punish the traders
25. Who was the first Delhi sultan to insist that in the
doab,land revenue would be assessed on the basis of measurement of
land?Alauddin Khilji
26. Who was the Delhi Sultan who conversed with Muslim mystics
along with Hindu yogis?Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
27. Which ruler opened offices on the basis of merit?Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq
28. Who was the famous sufi saint whom Muhammad Tughlaq
threatened to punish?Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya
29. Which was Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs first expedition?Khorasan
expedition
30. In which metal was the token currency introduced during
Muhammad bin Tughlaqs time?Bronze
31. With whom did Muhammad tughlaq fight the battle of
Jhelum?Tarmashrin the Mongol leader
32. Where did peasant rebellion take place during Muhammad Bin
Tughlaqs reign?Gangetic Doab
33. Where did Muhammad Bin Tughlaq live after leaving
Delhi?Swargadwari
34. Where was Swargadwari located?Ganges near Kanauj
35. Who was the Delhi sultan to set up the department of
diwan-i-amir-i-kohi?Muhammad bin Tughlaq
36. Who succeeded Muhammad Bin Tughlaq on the throne of
Delhi?Firoz Shah Tughlaq
37.Firoz Shah Tughlaqs longest campain were against which
states?Gujarat
38. Which Sultan abolished the practice of torturing
nobles?Firoz Shah Tughlaq
39. Which sultan prohibited the practice of Muslim women going
to worship at the graves of saints?Firoz Shah Tughlaq
40. Who were exempted from paying the jiziya during Firoz Shah
Tughlaqs reign?Women,the disabled
41. Which sultan opened the employment bureau?Firoz Shah
Tughlaq
42. Which was the longest canal during Firoz Shah Tughlaqs
period?From Sutlej to Hansi
43. What were the new towns built by Firoz Shah
Tughlaq?Jodhpur,Jaunpur and Hissar
44. How many slaves did Firoz Tughlaq had?1, 80,000
45. What did Amiran- i- sada mean?Foreignnobleswho were amirs of
hundred villages.
46. Which medieval chronicler commented on the plague during
Muhammad bin Tughlaqs reign?Isami
47. Which were the two groups that rose to prominence during
Alauddins reign? Afghans and Indian slaves
48. Who was the first Delhi Sultan first to introduce the
practices of Dagh and chehra?Alauddin Khilji
49. Who was the First Delhi sultan to provide for a permanent
standing army?Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
50. What was sarai-i- adl?A separate bazaar dealing with
cloth,sugar,herbs,dry fruits etc.
51. What was the rate of taxation in the pre-Islamic India?1/6
of the produce
52. What was Kharaj?Islamic land tax
53. Which school of Islamic law was permitted in the Sultanate
period?Hanafi
54. Rani- Padmini was immortalized in the Padmavat by which
poet?Malik Mohammd Jaisi
55. Who was the ruler of Warangal when it was invaded by the
Sultanate forces?Pratap Rudra Deva
56. When did the Turkish army first intrude into southern
India?In 1295 led by Alauddin Khilji
57. What was the most well known architectural project of Nur
Jahan?White marble mausoleum she built near Agra for her father
Itimad ud-Daula
58. Where was Shaikh Salim buried?Jami Mosque
59. Where did Akbar make 14 pilgrimages on foot ?To the dargah
of Muinuddin Chisthi
60. How long did Akbar live in Fatehpur Sikri?15 years
61. Who has given an account of the Agra Fort?Abul Fazl
62. When was the Agra fort completed?1571
63. Where were the fort palaces built by Akbar?Agra,Lahore and
Allahabad
64. Who was the most renowned figure in the Muslim orthodox and
revivalist movement of the Mughal period?Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
65. Who was considered to be the most influential writer on the
Dharmashastras during the medieval period?Raghunandan of
Navadwipa
66. Who was the saint poet born in Gujarat lived mostly in
Rajasthan and preached a non-sectarian path?Dadu
67. Who was the Sikh Guru who completed the compilation of Adi
Granth ?Guru Arjan Das
68. Which Mughal Emperor was an accomplished veena
player?Aurangzeb
69. From which Mughal Emperors reign did Hindi poets begin to be
attached to the Mughal court?Akbar
70. Which provincial style of painting combined the themes of
western India or Jain school of painting with the Mughal style?The
Rajasthani style
71. Who introduced European paintings at Akbars court?Portuguese
priests
72. Who were Jaswant and Dasawan?Two famous painters in Akbars
court
73. Moti Masjid is built in which stone?Marble
74. Who was Abu Fazls brother who helped in the translation
department?Faizi
75. Who was the great artist of portrait painting in Mughal
court?Mansur
