Andean Past

Volume 11 Article 12

12-15-2013

Dating the Wari Remains at Espiritu Pampa(Vilcabamba, Cusco)Javier Fonseca Santa Cruzjavierfonsecasantacruz@hotmail.com

Brian S. BauerUniversity of Illinois Chicago, bsb@uic.edu

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Recommended CitationFonseca Santa Cruz, Javier and Bauer, Brian S. (2013) "Dating the Wari Remains at Espiritu Pampa (Vilcabamba, Cusco)," AndeanPast: Vol. 11 , Article 12.Available at: https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/andean_past/vol11/iss1/12

DATING THE WARI REMAINS AT ESPÍRITU PAMPA (VILCABAMBA, CUSCO)

JAVIER FONSECA SANTA CRUZ

Ministerio de Cultura, Perú

BRIAN S. BAUER

University of Illinois, Chicago

INTRODUCTION

In 2010 a large Wari occupation was found

in the valley of Espíritu Pampa. Located withinthe Vilcabamba region on the eastern slopes ofthe Andes, this site is the first major Warisettlement to have been identified in the low-lands (at an altitude of 1500 m.a.s.l.). Contin-ued excavations have uncovered four D-shapestructures that, in Wari contexts, are associatedwith ritual activities. The excavations have alsorevealed numerous tombs, both within thebuildings and outside of them. These includethe most elaborate burial professionally exca-vated at a Wari site. In this article, we providean overview of this lowland colony and threeradiocarbon dates, which place the Wari occu-pation at Espíritu Pampa comfortably within theknown period of Wari expansion efforts.

Traveling through the central Andes in thelate 1540s, the Spanish foot soldier Pedro Ciezade León stopped to visit the ruins of an ancientcity called Wari in the province of Ayacucho inhighland Peru. An astute observer of antiquities,Cieza (1979 [1553] Part 1, Chapter 86, p. 249)surmised that the city, based on its ruinous stateand unusual architecture, was constructedbefore the Inca came to power. Andeanarcheologists now know that the ruins were theformer capital of an early state that rose toprominence around A.D. 600 (Williams 2001,2002, 2006) and that rapidly declined between

A.D. 1000 and 1100 (Bauer and Kellett 2010;Williams 2001). This article provides threeradiocarbon dates for the first major Wariinstallation found in the lowlands of Vilcabambaand describes the connections that this remark-able outpost may have held with the paramountcity of Wari (Figure 1).

As the city of Wari was mapped in the1970s, sprawling residential areas were identifiedsurrounding the site and distinct zones of craftspecialization and elite compounds were foundnear its center (Benavides 1991; Isbell andMcEwan 1991). Field research within the Aya-cucho Valley documented a hierarchical settle-ment system supported by terrace agriculture(Isbell and Schreiber 1978; Lumbreras 1974).Furthermore, analyses of the large corpus ofWari iconography revealed a complex religioussystem that shared some fundamental elementsof the South Andean Iconic Series with popula-tions located in the altiplano at Tiwanaku andelsewhere (Cook 1994, 2012; Isbell and Knob-loch 2009).

As other monumental Wari sites wereidentified across the central Andes, scholarsbegan to envision Wari as an expansionisticstate, which conquered and incorporated vari-ous regions into its empire (Isbell and Schreiber1978). Because the three largest Wari sitesoutside of the Ayacucho area are found inwidely separated regions–the site of Pikillacta in

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the Cusco Region, the site of Cerro Baúl in theMoquegua Region, and the site of Viracocha-pampa in Huamachuco, La Libertad Region–these sites were presumed to be provincialcenters that helped to define the territorialboundaries of state influence (Lumbreras1974:165-174; McEwan and Williams 2012;Menzel 1964). Furthermore, many of the inves-tigations promoted a fixed, sovereign territoryapproach to Wari studies, emphasizing thedemarcation of boundaries between the Wariand other major polities, such as the altiplanostate of Tiwanaku to the southeast.

More recent research on the Wari has begunto question the normative model of Wari societyas a traditional expansionistic state, and hashighlighted the variable nature and intensity ofWari hegemony across the Andes (Jennings2006, 2010; Jennings and Craig 2001; Schreiber1992:62). For example, a series of archaeologicalsurveys and excavation projects in the Cuscoregion have revealed that Wari influence waslargely focused in the areas immediately sur-rounding Pikillacta and its related settlements inthe Huaro Basin (Glowacki 2002), and thatWari had little influence in many other nearbyareas (Bauer 2004:62-67; Covey et al.: in press).The great variability in Wari influence has beennoted by Schreiber (1992:69) who writes that:

The resulting mosaic of different levels ofpolitical control, ranging from very indi-rect to entirely imposed and direct, is doc-umented in the archaeological record. Insome areas more visible remains of theimperial occupation are to be expected; inother areas the evidence may be minimal. In other words, while we know that the

Wari constructed large installations at greatdistances from their homeland, we can nolonger assume that their influence in the inter-vening areas was continuous, even, or direct(Covey et al.: in press). As more regional sur-

veys are completed, it is becoming evident thatthe Wari established an archipelago of coloniesacross the central Andes with large regionsbetween them that reflect little or no evidenceof state domination. As Charles Stanish (2001)suggests for the Tiwanaku state, Wari was a firstgeneration state and it may not have encoun-tered strong centers of resistance as it began itsexpansion. It appears that the Wari had thepolitical might to establish colonies nearlyanywhere they wanted, but they did not havethe resources to build facilities everywhere theywanted. So as new Wari settlements are found,we need to consider if they fell within Waricontrolled territory, or if they represent moreisolated colonizing enterprises focused on gain-ing access to important resources (most likelyfor use in the political economy of the heart-land).

THE WARI SETTLEMENT AT ESPÍRITU PAMPA

Major Wari settlements have been found ina number of valleys across the central Andeanhighlands. However, until recently, no Wariremains had been found along the Amazonianslope to the east of Ayacucho and the northwestof Cusco (Valdez 2011). Part of the reason whythe prehistory of the Andean eastern escarp-ment remains largely undocumented is that itsrugged mountains, dense vegetation, and pro-longed rainy seasons make research difficult. Yetit is also recognized that this densely forestedpiedmont held resources that were of greatinterest to highlanders, such as the Wari, in-cluding exotic bird feathers and coca leaves. Itis also well documented that the Inca, as well asthe Spanish, established a number of silver andgold mines in the Vilcabamba region (Regalado1992:110-118).

In 2010, the first lowland Wari settlementwas documented in the Espíritu Pampa area, alittle more than 110 aerial kilometers to thesoutheast of the Wari capital in Ayacucho and

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about 180 areal kilometers to the northwest ofPikillacta in the Cusco Valley (Fonseca 2011).The Espíritu Pampa Valley is within a broaderregion generally called Vilcabamba, which iswell known for the role that it held as the finalInca stronghold during the mid-sixteenth cen-tury (Hemming 1970:425-440), although littlearchaeological work has been conducted there.Half a century ago there was a hint that theregion might contain Wari materials when GeneSavoy (1970:81, 99) reported seeing what werecertainly Wari vessels in the village of Puquiuraand at Espíritu Pampa.1 However, becauseSavoy was viewed as an untrustworthy inter-preter of prehistoric materials, his observationswere ignored.

The Wari site at Espíritu Pampa was foundby members of the Ministry of Culture when testexcavations were conducted within a lootedarea approximately one kilometer from themonumental Inca remains in the valley.2 Al-though there were few artifacts on its surface,numerous stones had been disturbed by thelooters, suggesting that prehistoric remainsmight be found below. The test pits were ex-panded into broader area excavations when wallremains were identified at the site.

While it was long believed that the Warihad established trade networks between theirhighland capital and the Amazonian lowlands,the identification of a large Wari site in theVilcabamba region came as a complete surpriseto most, perhaps all, Wari specialists.3 By the

end of the 2010 field season it was clear that theWari occupation at Espíritu Pampa included adense array of structures, canals, walls, stairs,patios and stone-lined tombs. Two field seasonslater, at the end of excavations in 2012, onesmall and three large D-shaped structures, arelatively rare architectural form that is associ-ated with Wari ritual events (Bragayrac 1991;Cook 2001), had been unearthed along withnumerous other buildings and galleries (Figure2). Locally manufactured pots, as well as vesselsthat had been imported from the Wari heart-land (Figure 3), were also recovered along withseveral large obsidian projectile points, a classicfeature of Wari.4 Even more surprising is thenumber of Espíritu Pampa burials and thewealth of the grave goods they contained (Fon-seca 2011). In 2010, eleven tombs were exca-vated, several of which contained ceramic andmetal offerings. Given the general scarcity ofexcavated Wari tombs, any one of these burialswould normally have been noteworthy. How-ever, the largest burial contained an astonishingassortment of objects and has gained interna-tional attention. The walls of the largest tombwere made of fieldstones laid in tiers foundsealed with large capstones. Excavations re-vealed that the tomb held the remains of asingle individual who had been buried with animpressive U-shaped silver pectoral, strikinglysimilar to one held in Stuttgart at the Linden-Museum (Figure 4; Bergh 2012:227-229). Theburial also included a life-size silver mask, twostaffs sheathed with silver, two gold bracelets,over 236 silver bangles, and almost 700 beads ofdifferent types of green stones (Fonseca 2011).

1 Savoy reports being shown Tiahuanaco style vessels inthese areas, an understandable mistake for this time.

2 In Inca times the town was called Vilcabamba.

3 It is also worth noting that in 2011 several Wari vessels,now on display at the Museo Amazónico Andinode Quillabamba, were unearthed during constructionwork in the town of Quillabamba (Wilbert Gamarra,personal communication, 2012). With these remains, it is

becoming clear that the Wari established and maintaineda number of colonies in the eastern lowlands.

4 The results of two XRF tests conducted on one of theobsidian objects suggest that it came from the Alca-1source in the Cotahuasi Valley, Arequipa Region, on thewestern slopes of the Andes (Ryan Williams, personalcommunication, 2011; see Rademaker et al. 2013).

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The richness of the principal Wari tomb atEspíritu Pampa is unusual. Large mausoleumsare known to have been built in the center ofWari itself, at Monjachayoq and Cheqo Wasi.However these tombs have provided few materi-als because they were looted prior to investiga-tion by archaeologists. A likely set of elite tombshas also been identified in the Huaro Basin nearPikillaca (Zapata 1997), but these have alsobeen looted. Other looted Wari fineries havebeen observed and recorded in Pomacanchi, inthe Cusco Region (Chávez 1985, 1987; SanRomán 1979). In short, while various gold andsilver Wari items housed in the world’s muse-ums and private collections attest to the pres-ence of a ruling elite among the Wari (see Bergh2012), centuries of looting have destroyed mostof their burial contexts. Although certainly notrepresenting the upper-most echelon of theheartland nobility, the Espíritu Pampa tombsrepresent the highest levels of Wari society sofar encountered by archaeologists in situ.

As additional excavations were conductedat the site in 2011 and 2012, radiocarbon sam-ples were collected, three of which were submit-ted for radiocarbon dating at the AcceleratorMass Spectrometry Laboratory at the Universityof Arizona (Table 1).5 Each of the samples wastaken from within a different D-shaped struc-ture (see Figure 2).6 Sample AA 100018 wascollected from Building 4 and yielded an AMScalibrated date of A.D. 649-773 (95.4 percentconfidence level). This building is especiallyinteresting because a smaller D-shaped structure

was later built in the same location.7 The radio-carbon sample was found adjacent to the inte-rior wall of the larger building and may date tothe first construction episode at the site. Sam-ple AA 100019 was collected from Building 2, aslightly larger D-shaped structure located acrossa small plaza from Building 4. This sampleprovided a somewhat later AMS calibrated dateof A.D. 690-941 (95.4 percent confidencelevel). The third sample, AA100020, was takenfrom the interior of Building 1, a D-shapedstructure nearly adjacent to Building 2. Ityielded a similar AMS calibrated date of A.D.670-965 (95.4 percent confidence level) sug-gesting that Buildings 1 and 2 were built aroundthe same time (Table 1).

All three of the radiocarbon dates so farcollected from Espíritu Pampa fall comfortablyamong dates which have been collected in Waricontexts in the Cusco region, as well as thosecollected from across the central Andes (seeBauer and Jones 2003:16 for Wari dates fromCusco; see Williams 2001 for Wari dates fromacross the central Andes). They are also consis-tent with, if not a little earlier than, the twoavailable dates from D-shaped structures atConchopata, a site within the Wari heartland(Ketteman 2002:33-34).

5 All dates in this report have been calibrated by Oxcal v.4.1.7 (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010; r:5 SHCal04 southernhemisphere atmospheric curve [McCormac et al. 2004]). We understand that there are limitations in the use ofonly three samples to date the Wari occupation at EspírituPampa and we hope that additional samples will beprocessed in the future.

6 The numbering of the D-shaped structures follows theirexcavation order, not their construction order.

7 The constitution of a new, but smaller, D-shapedstructure at this location suggests to us that the site mayhave been abandoned and then briefly reoccupied nearthe turn of the first millennium.

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Table 1: Radiocarbon results from the D-shape structures at Espíritu Pampa.

The three D-shaped structures and theexceptionally fine metalwork recovered in thetombs at Espíritu Pampa mark the site as animportant Wari occupation. It is known that theInca established a number of mines in the great-er Vilcabamba region (Bauer and Aráoz n.d.;Regalado 1992:110-118, so its mineral wealthmay also have been of interest to the earlierstate of Wari. Alternatively, as Espíritu Pampais at the upper limits of effective coca produc-tion, the Wari settlement may have served as animportant node in the collection and transporta-tion of this important lowland resource to theWari capital. Whatever resources were beingextracted by the Wari from the Vilcabambalowlands, it is clear that they required the estab-lishment of a state-supported installation whichmay have been occupied for more than twohundred years. The occupation also required,and apparently supported, a level of elites seenat few other Wari settlements. Several of thedecorated metal objects buried within the elitetomb at Espíritu Pampa, and some of the finerceramic vessels, reflect a religious ideology thatis strongly aligned with ritual practices of theWari heartland (Fonseca 2011). Nevertheless,the identification of a strategic installation in aregion at a distance from its heartland is consis-tent with the archipelago model of other Waricolonies found elsewhere in the Andes and isuniform with well established Andean modes ofproduction (Murra 1972, 1985).

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Figure 1: Map of some of the Wari sites mentioned in the text (after Jennings 2006:268).

119 - Fonseca and Bauer: Wari Remains at Espiritu Pampa

Figure 2: Simplified plan of excavations at the Wari site of Espíritu Pampa.

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Figure 3: Wari bottle found at Espíritu Pampa.

Figure 4: Silver pectoral ornament as found in situ in a Wari context at the Espíritu Pampa site.

121 - Fonseca and Bauer: Wari Remains at Espiritu Pampa

Figure 5: Radiocarbon results at the 2-sigma range (95.4 percent confidence level) from three D-shaped structures at Espíritu Pampa.