Day 1- Lecture

8/8/2019 Day 1- Lecture

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Biochemistry , sometimes abbreviated as " BioChem ", is the study of chemical processesin living organisms . Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.

1 History2 Monomers and polymers

2.1 Carbohydrates 2.2 Lipids 2.3 Proteins 2.4 Nucleic acids

3 Carbohydrates

3.1 Monosaccharides 3.2 Disaccharides 3.3 Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides

3.4 Use of carbohydrates as an energy sourceo 3.4.1 Glycolysis (anaerobic)o 3.4.2 Aerobico 3.4.3 Gluconeogenesis

4 Proteins5 Lipids6 Nucleic acids

Chemistry ,sometimes abbreviated as " Chem ", is the science of matter and the changesit undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics , but while physics takesa more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, beingconcerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of matter , as well asthe changes it undergoes during chemical reactions . It is a physical science which studiesvarious substances , atoms , molecules , crystals and other aggregates of matter whether inisolation or combination, and which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy inrelation to the spontaneity of chemical processes .

In biology , an organism is any contiguous living system (such as animal , plant , fungus ,or micro-organism ). In at least some form, all organisms are capable of response to

stimuli , reproduction , growth and development , and maintenance of homoeostasis as astable whole. An organism may either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, asin humans, many trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues and organs . The termmulticellular (many-celled) describes any organism made up of more than one cell .

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components suchas proteins , carbohydrates , lipids , nucleic acids and other biomolecules althoughincreasingly processes rather than individual molecules are the main focus.
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i/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homoeostasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicellularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule


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Today the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological moleculesgive rise to the processes that occur within living cells which in turn relates greatly to thestudy and understanding of whole organisms.

protein

carbohydrate


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Nucleic acids can be single stranded, or doublestranded.

Among the vast number of different biomolecules, many are complex and largemolecules (called polymers ), which are composed of similar repeating subunits (calledmonomers ). Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types.For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of 20 or moreamino acids . Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biologicalmolecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme -catalyzed reactions .

The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensivelydescribed. Other areas of biochemistry include the genetic code (DNA , RNA ), proteinsynthesis , cell membrane transport , and signal transduction .

A biomolecule is a chemical compound that naturally

History

Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science theway non-life was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules).
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1828, Friedrich Whler published a paper on the synthesis of urea , proving that organiccompounds can be created artificially

Urea or carbamide is an organic compound with the chemical formula ( NH2)2CO. The

molecule has two amine (-NH 2) groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group .

Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds byanimals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals . It issolid, colourless, and odorless (although the ammonia which it gives off in the presenceof water, including water vapor in the air, has a strong odor). It is highly soluble in water and non-toxic. Dissolved in water it is neither acidic nor alkaline . The body uses it inmany processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as aconvenient source of nitrogen. Urea is also an important raw material for the chemicalindustry .

urea

Organic chemistry , sometimes abbreviated as " OChem ", is a subdiscipline withinchemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition,reactions , and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon -based compounds,hydrocarbons , and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen , nitrogen , oxygen , the halogens as well as phosphorus ,silicon and sulfur .

Organic compounds are structurally diverse. The range of application of organiccompounds is enormous. They form the basis of, or are important constituents of many

products ( plastics , drugs , petrochemicals , food , explosives , paints , etc.) and, with veryfew exceptions, they form the basis of all earthly life processes.
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organic compounds

Urea or carbamide is an organic compound with the chemical formula ( NH2)2CO. Themolecule has two amine (-NH 2) groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group .

Urea serves an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds byanimals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals . It issolid, colourless, and odorless (although the ammonia which it gives off in the presenceof water, including water vapor in the air, has a strong odor). It is highly soluble in water and non-toxic. Dissolved in water it is neither acidic nor alkaline . The body uses it inmany processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as aconvenient source of nitrogen. Urea is also an important raw material for the chemicalindustry .

An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous , liquid , or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon . For historical reasons discussed

below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides , carbonates , simpleoxides of carbon and cyanides ,

The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, diastase (today called amylase ), in 1833 by Anselme Payen . Eduard Buchner contributed the firstdemonstration of a complex biochemical process outside of a cell in 1896: alcoholicfermentation in cell extracts of yeast.

Although the term biochemistry seems to have been first used in 1882, it is generallyaccepted that the formal coinage of biochemistry occurred in 1903 by Carl Neuberg , aGerman chemist .

Previously, this area would have been referred to as physiological chemistry .

Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-20th century, with thedevelopment of new techniques such as chromatography , X-ray diffraction , dual
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polarisation interferometry , NMR spectroscopy , radioisotopic labeling , electronmicroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations.

These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules andmetabolic pathways of the cell , such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle).

Glycolysis (from glycose , an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate , CH 3COCOO + H +. The freeenergy released in this process is used to form the high-energy compounds ATP(adenosine triphosphate ) and NADH ( reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ).

he citric acid cycle also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle ), theKrebs cycle , or the Szent-Gyrgyi-Krebs cycle , is a series of enzyme -catalysedchemical reactions , which is of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as

part of cellular respiration . In eukaryotic cells, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of

the mitochondrion . The components and reactions of the citric acid cycle wereestablished by seminal work from Albert Szent-Gyrgyi and Hans Krebs .

In aerobic organisms , the citric acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in thechemical conversion of carbohydrates , fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water togenerate a form of usable energy.

Monomers and polymers

The four main classes of molecules in biochemistry are carbohydrates , lipids , proteins ,and nucleic acids . Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology,monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create largemacromolecules , which are known as polymers . When monomers are linked together tosynthesize a biological polymer , they undergo a process called dehydration synthesis .

A biomolecule is any organic molecule that is produced by a living organism , includinglarge polymeric molecules such as proteins , polysaccharides , and nucleic acids as well as

small molecules such as primary metabolites , secondary metabolites , and natural products . A more general name for this class of molecules is a biogenic substance .

As organic molecules, biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen , nitrogen , and oxygen , and, to a smaller extent, phosphorus and sulfur . Other elements sometimesare incorporated but are much less common.
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A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin , showing coloured alpha helices . This protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew in 1958 , for which they received a Nobel Prize inChemistry .

monomers

polymers

In chemistry and the biological sciences, a dehydration reaction is usually defined as achemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule. Dehydrationreactions are a subset of elimination reactions .
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Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms. Cellulose , starch , chitin , proteins , peptides , DNA and RNA are all examples of biopolymers, in which themonomeric units, respectively, are sugars , amino acids , and nucleotides .

Cellulose is both the most common biopolymer and the most common organic compound

on Earth. About 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose. E.G. The cellulose content of cotton is ~ 90 percent and that of wood is ~ 50 percent.

Some biopolymers are biodegradable . That is, they are broken down into CO 2 and water by microorganisms . In addition, some of these biodegradable biopolymers arecompostable . That is, they can be put into an industrial composting process and will

break down by 90% within 6 months. Biopolymers that do this can be marked with a'compostable' symbol, under European Standard EN 13432 (2000). Packaging markedwith this symbol can be put into industrial composting processes and will break downwithin 6 months (or less). An example of a compostable polymer is PLA film under 20m thick: films which are thicker than that do not qualify as compostable, even though

they are biodegradable. A home composting logo may soon be established which willenable consumers to dispose of packaging directly onto their own compost heap.

.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made from monomers called monosaccharides . Some of thesemonosaccharides include glucose (C 6H12O6), fructose (C 6H12O6), and deoxyribose (C 5H10O4). When two monosaccharides undergo dehydration synthesis, water is

produced, as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom are lost from the twomonosaccharides' hydroxyl group .

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos : single, sacchar : sugar) are the most basic units of biologically important carbohydrates . They are the simplest form of sugar and are usuallycolorless , water -soluble , crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste . Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose ,xylose and ribose . Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such assucrose and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch ).

A carbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula C m(H 2O) n; that

is, consists only of carbon , hydrogen and oxygen , with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water ). Carbohydrates can be viewed as hydrates of carbon, hence their name.Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes andketones.The term is most common in biochemistry , where it is a synonym of saccharide . Thecarbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharides , disaccharides , oligosaccharides , and polysaccharides . In general, the monosaccharidesand disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight ) carbohydrates, are
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commonly referred to as sugars .[1] The word saccharide comes from the Greek word ( skkharon ), meaning " sugar ". While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides veryoften end in the suffix -ose . For example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose ,table sugar is the disaccharide sucrose , and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see

illustration).

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for thestorage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen ) and as structural components (e.g., cellulosein plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an importantcomponent of coenzymes (e.g., ATP , FAD , and NAD ) and the backbone of the geneticmolecule known as RNA . The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA . Saccharidesand their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the

immune system , fertilization , preventing pathogenesis , blood clotting , and development .

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means anyfood that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals , bread and pasta ) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy , jams and desserts ).

Nutrition

Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates

Foods high in simple carbohydrates include fruits, sweets and soft drinks. Foods high incomplex carbohydrates include breads , pastas , beans , potatoes , bran , rice , and cereals .
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The most common complex carbohydrate in these foods is starch . Carbohydrates are themost common source of energy in living organisms. Proteins and fat are necessary

building components for body tissue and cells , and are also a source of energy for mostorganisms.

Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients in humans: the body can obtain all its energyfrom protein and fats. The brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat for energy, but canuse glucose or ketones ; the body can also synthesize some glucose from a few of theamino acids in protein and also from the glycerol backbone in triglycerides . Carbohydratecontains 15.8 kilo joules (3.75 kilocalories ) and proteins 16.8 kilojoules (4 kilocalories)

per gram , while fats contain 37.8 kilojoules (9 kilocalories) per gram. In the case of protein, this is somewhat misleading as only some amino acids are usable for fuel.Likewise, in humans, only some carbohydrates are usable for fuel, as in manymonosaccharides and some disaccharides .

For dietary purposes, carbohydrates can be classified as simple ( monosaccharides and

disaccharides ) or complex ( oligosaccharides and polysaccharides ). The term complexcarbohydrate was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition andHuman Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted"fruit, vegetables and whole-grains".Dietary guidelines generally recommend thatcomplex carbohydrates, and such nutrient-rich simple carbohydrate sources such as fruit (glucose or fructose) and dairy products (lactose) make up the bulk of carbohydrateconsumption. This excludes such sources of simple sugars as candy and sugary drinks.

D-glucose or dextrose or grape sugar is the dextro-isomer of glucose (C6H12O6). Themolecule is the mirror-image of L-glucose . D-glucose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide )and an important carbohydrate in biology . Cells use it as a source of energy and a

metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and startscellular respiration . Starch and cellulose are polymers derived from the dehydration of glucose. The name "glucose" comes from the Greek word glukus (), meaning"sweet." The suffix " -ose " denotes a sugar.

Fructose , or fruit sugar , is a simple monosaccharide found in many foods. It is one of the three important dietary monosaccharides along with glucose and galactose . Theorganic fructose molecule was first discovered by Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847.Fructose is a white solid that dissolves in water it is the most water-soluble of all thesugars. Honey , tree fruits, berries , melons , and some root vegetables contain significantamounts of molecular fructose, usually in combination with glucose, stored in the form of sucrose . About 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose are produced annually

Deoxyribose , more precisely 2-deoxyribose , is a monosaccharide with idealized formulaH-(C=O)-(CH 2)-(CHOH) 3-H. Its name indicates that it is a deoxy sugar , meaning that it isderived from the sugar ribose by loss of an oxygen atom.Sugar is a term for a class of edible crystalline carbohydrates , mainly sucrose , lactose ,and fructose characterized by a sweet flavor . In food , sugar almost exclusively refers tosucrose, which primarily comes from sugar cane and sugar beet . Other sugars are used in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone_bodieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilo-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilocaloriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorotatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorotatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respirationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respirationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-osehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Pierre_Dubrunfauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Pierre_Dubrunfauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxy_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_canehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_nutrienthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketone_bodieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilo-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilocaloriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate_Select_Committee_on_Nutrition_and_Human_Needshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dextrorotatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respirationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-osehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Pierre_Dubrunfauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berrieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosaccharidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxy_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_canehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_beet


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industrial food preparation, but are usually known by more specific names glucose ,fructose or fruit sugar, high fructose corn syrup , etc.

Lipids

Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules.In triglycerides , the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and threefatty acids . Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (nodouble bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in thecarbon chain).

Chemical Structure of Triglycerides
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[Fatty Acids ] The terms saturated, mono-unsaturated ...

Phospholipids are a class of lipids and are a major component of all cell membranes asthey can form lipid bilayers . Most phospholipids contain a diglyceride , a phosphategroup , and a simple organic molecule such as choline ; one exception to this rule issphingomyelin , which is derived from sphingosine instead of glycerol . The first

phospholipid identified as such in biological tissues was lecithin , or phosphatidylcholine ,in the egg yolk,

Lipids, especially phospholipids , are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g. in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g. ina liposome or transfersome ).

Parenteral is a route of administration that involves piercing the skin or mucousmembrane . Parenteral nutrition refers to providing nutrition via the veins .

Liposomes are artificially prepared vesicles made of lipid bilayer . Liposomes can befilled with drugs, and used to deliver drugs for cancer and other diseases Liposomes can

be prepared by disrupting biological membranes, for example by sonication .

sonicator
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Sonication is the act of applying sound (usually ultrasound ) energy to agitate particles ina sample, for various purposes. In the laboratory, it is usually applied using an ultrasonicbath or an ultrasonic probe , colloquially known as a sonicator. In a paper machine , an

ultrasonic foil can distribute cellulose fibres more uniformly and strengthen the paper.

Sonication can be used to speed dissolution, by breaking intermolecular interactions. It isespecially useful when it is not possible to stir the sample, as with NMR tubes . It mayalso be used to provide the energy for certain chemical reactions to proceed. Sonicationcan be used to remove dissolved gases from liquids ( degassing ) by sonicating the liquidwhile it is under a vacuum. This is an alternative to the freeze-pump-thaw and sparging methods.

NMR tubes are thin glass tubes that are used tohold samples used for ..

Degassing Machine.. It is a molding preparatory
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Day 1- Lecture