DC. 126p. - Education Resources Information CenterMDS-483/December 1992/$13.00. Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools. Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools provides you

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Finch, Curtis R.; Frantz, Nevin R.; Mooney, Marianne; Aneke,Norbert 0.Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach.National Center for Research in Vocational Education,Berkeley, CA.Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED), Washington,DC.

1997-11-00126p.V051A30004-97A; V051A30003-97ANCRVE Materials Distribution Service, Western IllinoisUniversity, 46 Horrabin Hall, Macomb, IL 61455 (order no.MDS-956, $14.75).Guides Non-Classroom (055)MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.Annotated Bibliographies; Apprenticeships; Career Academies;Class Activities; *Curriculum Design; *CurriculumDevelopment; Curriculum Evaluation; Data Collection;*Delivery Systems; *Education Work Relationship; EducationalEnvironment; Educational Needs; Employment Qualifications;High School Seniors; High Schools; Information Utilization;*Integrated Curriculum; Interdisciplinary Approach; JobSkills; Magnet Schools; Mentors; Partnerships in Education;Portfolios (Background Materials); Student Evaluation; TechPrep; *Vocational Education; Work Experience Programs; Youth'EmploymentJob Shadowing; School Based Enterprises

This guide focus,ls on two interrelated areas of developingvocational education curricula: des.gning a thematic curriculum, and using the"all aspects of the industry" approach when creating thematic curricula. Thefollowing are among the topics discussed in the guide's eight sections:principles of the thematic curriculum and its potential to improve education;curriculum options (understanding the impact of change, identifying potentialbarriers to change, making change happen, identifying and examining options);contextual options (individual courses, clusters and majors, careeracademies, magnet schools, strengths and limitations of contextual options);organizational options (traditional arrangements, tech prep, integration,school-to-work transition); delivery options (school-based enterprises,linkages and partnerships, job shadowing, mentoring, youth apprenticeships,portfolios, senior projects); content options (documenting needs andidentifying, selecting, organizing, integrating, and updating content);strategies for linking curriculum with instruction (school- and work-basedteaching and learning strategies and strategies connecting school andworkplace); and steps in assessing and refining the curriculum (gathering,examining, and using assessment information for curriculum improvement). Atotal of 22 figures and 103 references are spread throughout the document.Appended are the following: sample themes; examples of content organizedaround themes; sample career clusters/pathways/majors; examples of theme-widefunctions, issues, concerns, and technological knowledge and skills; and anannotated bibliography of 29 related materials, reports, and resources. (MN)

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National Center for Research in Vocational EducationMaterials Distribution ServiceWestern Illinois University46 Horrabin HallMacomb, IL 61455(800) [email protected] 3

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National Center for Research inVocational Education

University of California, Berkeley

Designing theThematic Curriculum:

An All AspectsApproach

Curtis R. FinchNevin R. Frantz

Marianne MooneyNorbert 0. Aneke

MDS-956 November 1997

National Center for Research in Vocational EducationGraduate School of Education

University of California at Berkeley2030 Addison Street, Suite 500

Berkeley, CA 94720-1674

Supported byThe Office of Vocational and Adult Education,

U.S. Department of Education4

FUNDING INFORMATION

Project Title: National Center for Research in Vocational Education

Grant Number: V051A30003-97AN051A30004-97A

Act under which Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education ActFunds Administered: P. L. 98-524

Source of Grant: Office of Vocational and Adult EducationU.S. Department of EducationWashington, DC 20202

Grantee: The Regents of the University of Californiado National Center for Research in Vocational

Education2030 Addison Street, Suite 500Berkeley, CA 94720-1674

Director: David Stern

Percent of Total GrantFinanced by Federal Money: 100%

Dollar Amount ofFederal Funds for Grant: $4,500,000

Disclaimer:

Discrimination:

This publication was prepared pursuant to a grant withthe Office of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S.Department of Education. Grantees undertaking suchprojects under government sponsorship are encouragedto express freely their judgement in professional andtechnical matters. Points of view or opinions do not,therefore, necessarily represent official U.S. Departmentof Education position or policy.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No personin the United States shall, on the ground of race, color,or national origin, be excluded from participation in, bedenied the benefits of, or be subjected to discriminationunder any program or activity receiving federal financialassistance." Title IX of the Education Amendments of1972 states: "No person in the United States shall, onthe basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, bedenied the benefits of, or be subjected to discriminationunder any education program or activity receiving federalfinancial assistance." Therefore, the National Center forResearch in Vocational Education project, like everyprogram or activity receiving financial assistance fromthe U.S. Department of Education, must be operated incompliance with these laws.

5

Related Readings from NCRVEfor Designing the Thematic Curriculum:

An All Aspects Approach (MDS-956)

by Curtis R. Finch, Nevin R. Frantz, Marianne Mooney, Norbert 0. Aneke

Examples of Integrated Academic and Vocational Curriculumfrom High School Academies

in the Oakland Unified School District

In 1986, the Oakland Unified School District initiated an effort to establish adistrictwide Academies Magnet Program. An adaptation of the CaliforniaPartnership Academy model, the Oakland academies are school-within-schoolmagnet programs designed to provide academic instruction and career preparationin a range of industries such as health, business, communications, engineering,computer technology, law, visual arts, and transportation. The goals of theAcademies Magnet Program embrace the district mission to address the wide rangeof educational problems that most urban districts such as Oakland face. ByD. de Leeuw, C. Hertenstein, M. Jackson, B. J. Lum, S. O'Donoghue, M. L. Rahn,V. Rubin, D. Stern, A. Whitehurst-Gordon.

MDS-483/December 1992/$13.00

Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools

Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools provides you with all the tools youneed to create a curriculum that will make the most of economic and culturalopportunities in your area. This extensive set of materials includes both apractitioner's guide and a facilitator's guide. By M. L. Rahn, M. Alt, D. Emanuel,C. G. Ramer, E. G. Hoachlander, P. Holmes, M. Jackson, S. G. Klein, K. Rossi.

MDS-GTW/December 1995

Education for All Aspects of the Industry:Overcoming Barriers to Broad-Based Training

This study looks at one educational reform strategyAll Aspects of the Industry(AAI)called for by Perkins II and designed to broaden student experiences. AAIexplores planning, management, finances, technical and production skills,underlying principles of technology, labor and community issues, and environmentalissues. The purpose of this report is to help the educational community develop theAAI strategy. By T. Bailey, R. Koppel, R. Waldinger.

MDS-243/December 1994/$13.00

Turn over for more related readings.

6

All Aspects of the Industry:Bringing Industry into the Classroom

The objective of this teleconference, recorded October 12, 1994, was to discussthe merits of All Aspects of the Industry. The teleconference provided participantswith an orientation to AAI; suggestions about how academies, school-basedenterprises, youth apprenticeships, and other program structures can be designedto encompass AAI; strategies for implementing AAI into the classroom; and waysthat local and state policies and technical assistance can assist programs in includingAAI. Videotape.

MDS-839/December 1994/$15.00

As Teachers Tell It: Implementing All Aspects of the Industry

All Aspects of the Industry (AAI) is a powerful reform approach that combines thereal world richness of vocational education with the broad, transferable skillsassociated with academic education. AAI means providing students with a strongunderstanding of what AAI encompasses (i.e., planning; management; finance;technical and production skills; underlying principles of technology; communityissues; labor issues; and health, safety, and environmental issues). As Teachers TellIt includes extensive case studies (885A) on implementing AAI from four schools.Teams of teachers and business representatives, collaborating with nationalorganizations, spent a year developing their own case studies on the reformprocess.The case studies demonstrate the power of AAI in accelerating vocational andacademic integration and strengthening work-based learning. They show how AAIensures that students are not locked into the industry they focus on, and helpsprepare students for a rapidly changing work world. As Teachers Tell It includes acomprehensive introduction to AAI; a section relating AAI to other reform streams;and an appendix (885B) with further resources. This groundbreaking study will beuseful both to those interested in AAI, and to everyone engaged in the complexprocesses of school change. Edited by E. Nielsen-Andrew.

MDS-885/November 1996/$15.00

' Call 800/637-7652 to order.Check out NCRVE's complete Products Catalog at http: / /

ncrve.berkeley.edu

AcknowledgmentsOur task could not have been completed without assistance from others.

Appreciation is extended to the many administrators and teachers at schoolswe visited who helped us gather information about "all aspects" and thethematic curriculum. These schools included Central High School MagnetCareer Academy, Louisville, Kentucky; Chicago High School forAgricultural Sciences, Chicago, Illinois; Dauphin County Technical School,Harrisburg, Pennsylvania; Minuteman Regional Vocational High School,Lexington, Massachusetts; Health and Bioscience Academy, OaklandTechnical High School, Oakland, California; Rindge School of TechnicalArts, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and the Travel and Tourism Academy,William Fleming High School, Roanoke, Virginia.

The opportunity to provide assistance to several high schools who werein the formative stage of thematic curriculum implementation was as mucha learning as a helping experience. We are greatly appreciative toadministrators and teachers at Charlottesville High School, Charlottesville,Virginia; Colonial Heights High School, Colonial Heights, Virginia; andFranklin County High School, Rocky Mount, Virginia, for allowing us tobecome involved with their important implementation tasks.

Appreciation is also extended to Eileen Keeney at our NCRVE VirginiaTech Site, and Jen Goodreau, Plaid River Designs. Without their wordprocessing and desktop publishing expertise and contributions, we wouldstill be trying to figure out how to get all these words in their proper format.

This publication is dedicated to Nevin Frantz who passed away on May29, 1997. Nevin co-directed the project that served as a basis for this guideand made significant contributions to the guide content. He was a leader,scholar, and friend who will be missed by all.

8Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach i

Executive SummaryThis guide evolved from both a need and an opportunity. The need relates

directly to schools and schooling. For some time, student involvement inbroadly framed, contextualized life and living experiences has beenrecognized as being beneficial. Students can benefit from this involvementin several ways; most important, they can become more engaged as learners,better prepared for further studies, and better equipped to enter the workworld. Unfortunately, many school curricula have been modeled after thetraditional factory assembly lines that were first established in the earlypart of this century. Just as an automobile travels down a predeterminedpath with workers adding part after part to its frame, students in traditionaleducational settings move from course to course and end up some timelater gathering all the required "parts" to qualify for graduation. Asautomobiles reach the end of the traditional assembly line, they aresupposed to be driven away. An embarrassingly large number of ourstudents are not properly prepared and need to undergo remedial work inan effort to rectify the education process. Some of the students are helped,but others are not. Many of these underprepared students never achievetheir personal or work potential.

Beginning in the 1970s, some U.S. automobile manufacturers began torecognize their inability to compete with foreign automobile manufacturers.They rapidly discovered that their traditional production lines wereinefficient and outdated. Dramatic changes in automobile production weremade and new production approaches such as total quality management,self-directed work teams, and just-in-time parts delivery eventually had amajor positive impact. Automobile production and resultant product qualitygreatly improved and U.S. automobile manufacturers have since gainedback some of their lost market share.

Can the same be said about schools and schooling? Is a traditional"assembly line" schooling model the best way to go? And even moreimportant, are graduates prepared for life and living? Are they able tocompete in the world class workplace? According to the Goals 2000initiative, our Nation's schools must maintain a very busy schedule ifeducators ever hope to prepare graduates who can compete head-to-headwith graduates living in other industrialized nations. Herein lies the needfor this guide, which has as its purpose effecting meaningful curriculumchange that assists students in gaining a competitive edge, both in life andliving.

The opportunity to prepare this guide came through support providedby the National Center for Research in Vocational Education (NCRVE),which is funded by the U.S. Department of Education. Our NCRVE projectexamined how "all aspects of the industry," a concept described in recent

Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach iii

9

federal legislation, might be incorporated into school curricula. Buildingon an "all aspects" project funded by the Joyce Foundation, our effortfocused on three areas: (1) identifying curriculum practices and processesthat emphasize the long term; (2) preparing a guide that describes theselong-term curriculum practices and processes and the ways they may bedesigned; and (3) assisting educators at selected school sites with theircurriculum implementation. Information about curricula was gatheredthrough interviews with educators at selected schools around the UnitedStates where long-term curricula are operational.

Our examination of the ways "all aspects" was being used in the schoolsand discussions with educators led us to several conclusions. First, manypeople do not understand what "all aspects" is. This lack of understandingcauses people to view "all aspects" as anything from training for industryto industry-based education and education in industry. In particular, theterm "industry" tends to confuse and mislead many people. Our secondconclusion was that "all aspects" is most beneficial as a process rather thanan outcome. Conceptually, we have come to view "all aspects" as a veryimportant contributor to thematic curriculum development. From a moreapplied vantage point, we see "all aspects" as serving a useful function increating curricula that are based on encompassing and powerful themes.

We have thus prepared a guide that focuses on two interrelated areas:(1) designing the thematic curriculum and (2) utilizing "all aspects" in thecreation of this curriculum. The guide is organized into eight sections thatparallel stages in the curriculum design process. In Section 1, the thematiccurriculum and "all aspects" are introduced and described. Details aboutthe value of thematic curriculum design are also presented. Section 2, whichincludes an overview of the design process, begins with a description ofwhy it is important to view change as a process that can have positiveimpact on curriculum design. Next, the various options available tocurriculum designers are introduced. In Sections 3, 4, and 5, the curriculumoptions are described in more detail. Contextual, organizational, anddelivery options that may be imbedded in or linked directly with thethematic curriculum are detailed. Persons who are familiar with theseoptions may want to skip directly to Section 6 where the process ofidentifying, selecting, organizing, and integrating content is explained.Section 7 focuses on linking curriculum and instruction. Since this area isoften neglected during the curriculum design process, we chose to describevarious teaching / learning strategies that can be used to improve instructionin school-based and work-based settings as well as settings in which theschool and the workplace are connected. In Section 8, a description ofcurriculum assessment and refinement is provided. The need to maintainand improve curriculum quality demands that periodic assessment beconducted and that refinement based on assessment results be completed.Using "all aspects" in the design process helps ensure that curriculum

iv NCRVE MDS-956 10

themes are broad and inclusive rather that narrow and exclusive. Roundingout the guide are five appendices that include a wide range of examplesand suggestions to assist in the creation of quality thematic curricula.

The preparation of this guide has been a curriculum building processthat we have thoroughly enjoyed. We are confident this resource willprovide others with an equally pleasant journey as they seek to create theirown thematic curricula.

November 1997

Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach v

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Executive Summary iii

Section 1: The Thematic Curriculum: An Introduction 1

Overview 1

The Thematic Curriculum 1

All Aspects and the Thematic Curriculum 3

Themes from the Past 5

What Do We Know about the Thematic Curriculumand All Aspects? 6

The Thematic Curriculum's Potential To Improve Education 7Summary 8References 8

Section 2: Exploring Curriculum Options 11

Introduction 11

The Impact of Change 11

Potential Barriers to Change 11

Making Change Happen 13Available Options 15Examining the Options 16References 18

Section 3: Contextual Options 19

Introduction 19Individual Courses 19Clusters and Majors 20Career Academies 21Magnet Schools 23Contextual Options: Strengths and Limitations 24Summary 25References 26

Section 4: Organizational Options 29

Introduction 29Traditional Arrangements 29Tech Prep 30Integration 31School-to-Work Transition 33Summary 35ReferenCes 35

12

Section 5: Delivery Options 37Introduction 37School-Based Enterprises 37Linkages and Partnerships 40Job Shadowing and Mentoring 41Youth Apprenticeships 42Portfolios and Senior Projects 44Summary 46References 47

Section 6: Content Options 49Introduction 49Documenting Needs 49Identifying and Selecting Content 53Organizing and Integrating Content 58Updating Content: A Continuing Process 61Summary 61References 62

Section 7: Linking Curriculum with Instruction 63Introduction 63School-Based Teaching / Learning Strategies 63Work-Based Teaching/Learning Strategies 72Strategies Connecting the School and Workplace 76Summary 79References 80

Section 8: Assessing and Refining the Curriculum 83Introduction 83Assessment: An Overview 84Gathering and Examining Assessment Information 85Using Assessment Information for Curriculum Improvement 88Summary 89References 90

Appendices 91Appendix A: Examples of Themes 93Appendix B: Examples of Content Organized Around Themes 97Appendix C: Examples of Career Clusters/Pathways/Majors 101Appendix D: Examples of Theme-Wide Functions, Issues,

Concerns, and Technological Knowledge and Skills 109Appendix E: Related Materials, Reports, and Resources:

A Selective Bibliography 113

!3viii NCRVE MDS-956

SECTION 1

The Thematic Curriculum:An Introduction

OverviewWhat are the "thematic curriculum" and "all aspects?" Why are they

important? Although these phrases are relatively recent additions toeducators' vocabularies, they have existed in one form or another for manyyears. To assist in describing what the thematic curriculum and all aspectsof the industry are, this introductory section focuses on their definitionsand distinguishing characteristics. Also included are descriptions of whathas been learned about the thematic curriculum and the potential it has toimprove education.

The Thematic CurriculumConsider this. What do the Bronx High School of Science, the Fashion

Institute of Technology, the Chicago High School of Agricultural Sciences,the Oakland Academy of Health Sciences, and Valley Forge MilitaryAcademy have in common? Obviously, they all provide students with someform of education. However, each offers education that is linked to andimbedded in a broad content theme. For example, at the Chicago HighSchool of Agricultural Sciences all students have exposure to agriculture;and through this exposure, they are able learn trigonometry, biology,physics, and other subjects within an agricultural context. Students at ValleyForge Military Academy (a private school that offers a high school diplomaand a two-year associate degree) participate in a wide range of militaryexperiences as they study world history, geography, American government,and other courses. Students' active involvement in military experiencesserves as the "contextual glue" that holds the curriculum together.

So what then is a thematic curriculum? It is a set of organized learningexperiences such as programs, courses, and other school-sponsoredactivities that provide students with exposure to a broad, predominantcontent theme. This broad theme can serve an entire school as is the case ofthe Fashion Institute of Technology, a postsecondary institution in NewYork City which claims Calvin Kline as one of its graduates. Alternatively,a theme may be the focal point for a school within a school which is thecase of the Health and Bioscience Academy, an academy that operates as aschool within Oakland (California) Technical High School. Or a theme maybe used to provide students with a context where they can demonstrate

Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 1

self-motivated learning. This is perhaps exemplified by the InternationalBaccalaureate, a globally focused curriculum offered by hundreds of highschools around the world to self-directed students who thrive inacademically challenging learning environments.

Presented in Figure 1-1are examples of thematiccurricula that may be foundin schools across the UnitedStates. A theme may serveas an organizer for an entireschool or multiple themesmay be established forsubsets of the school. Thesemultiple themes are some-times referred to as clusters,majors, and academies. Theexamples given are merely

Figure 1-1. Examples of Thematic Curricula

AgricultureArts and MediaBusiness Management and MarketingConstruction and Environmental TechnologyCommunicationEngineering and MechanicalGlobal StudiesManufacturingMedical and Human ServicesMilitary Science and Leadership

representative of the manytitles educators have chosen for themes in their schools. Additionalexamples may be found in the appendices.

And of what value is a thematic curriculum? Value is largely dependenton what educators see as being important for their students. A few of thepossible benefits available to students through the thematic curriculuminclude

opportunities to learn through more contextualized learning experiences.exposure to linkages between school-based learning and learning thatoccurs in the workplace and the community.opportunities to explore a wide range of authentic experiences.in-depth exposure to a broad field of interest.opportunities to examine what a wide range of occupations has to offer.greater academic potential in preparation for both higher education andemployment.ability to determine exceptional/ unusual interests.

Benefits from thematic curriculum use may also accrue for educators.Depending on the curriculum configuration, several possible examplesinclude providing opportunities for

teachers to work together as members of self-directed professional teamswith powerful learning strategies.counselors' efforts to have greater positive impact on students.administrators to demonstrate leadership in improving the school climateand helping more students to have successful school experiences.

2 NCRVE MDS-956 15

With the thematic curriculum briefly described and some of its benefitsdetailed, how may this curriculum be designed? The design answer beginswith an introduction to "all aspects" and continues throughout this guide.

All Aspects and the Thematic CurriculumComments such as "we have been teaching all aspects of industry for

years" and "every student receives plenty of this all aspects instruction"may infer that "all aspects" exists in a school. However, in order to determinethe validity of these statements, a thorough understanding of all aspects ofindustry (AAI) is required. One source of understanding consists ofstatements about "all aspects" contained in recent legislation. "All aspects"was first mentioned in federal legislation as part of the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied Technology Act of 1990 (Perkins II). A provision inthis act called for students to have "strong experience in and anunderstanding of those aspects of industry the students are preparing toenter." In the Perkins II legislation, educational activities associated with"all aspects" were also described. These include "planning, management,finance, technical and production skills, underlying principles of technology,labor issues, community issues, and health, safety, and environment issues"(American Vocational Association, 1990, p. 66). More recently, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 amplified the need for focusing on "allaspects" in the schools. In the school-to-work legislation, "all aspects" isviewed as a valuable component of and contributor to school-to-worksystems.

What then is "all aspects"? Is it defined by legislation or is it defined bywhatever educators in each school and school district decide it should be?At the very least, it can be said that "all aspects" will evolve just as educationand workplace needs and practices evolve. As with other strategies, "allaspects" will not be driven solely by legislation nor will it ever be definedin precise terms. Likewise, "all aspects" may vary as a function of the contextor contexts in which it is used. And finally, it should be recognized that "allaspects" is a curriculum development strategy. It best serves as an organizerfor curriculum rather than an end in itself.

A review of curricula from the past, an examination of federal legislation,visits to schools with curricula that utilize "all aspects," and discussionswith persons in these schools have all contributed to the development ofwhat may be referred to as key "all aspects" factors (see Figure 1-2). Thefactors serve two purposes: first, they assist in defining the main featuresof "all aspects" and second, they help to determine whether "all aspects"has been used to assist in creating an educational curriculum. Using thesefactors to help define "all aspects" has its limitations. They include thepossibility of misinterpreting words and statements, restricting one's viewof what "all aspects" may be, and reliance on somewhat abstract factors to

16Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 3

decide what "all aspects" is. However, for the present, other options appearto have even greater limitations. For example, strict adherence to statementsabout "all aspects" drawn from legislation might exclude fromconsideration some of the fine curriculum work of the past. And excludingcertain phrases and words based on legislation might cause people to ignoreimportant statements found there.

Figure 1-2. Key "All Aspects" Factors*

Listed below are several factors that distinguish "all aspects." -The first fivefactors are considered essential to "all aspects," whereas, factors sixthrough eight are highly recommended since they have been shown toenhance the benefits "all aspects" offers to students.1. "All aspects" encompasses a broad "industry" or field within the

workplace. Illustrative fields include agriculture, business, construction,communication, community services, health, manufacturing, marketing,and transportation.

2. Curriculum content and focus includes instruction in a wide range ofindustry or field-wide functions, concerns, issues, and technologicalknowledge and skills. Illustrative of the areas are community issues,environment issues, economic issues, finance, health, labor issues,leadership, management, planning, safety, technological knowledge andskills, and underlying principles of technology.

3. Instruction includes strong emphasis on developing problem-solvingskills and basic and applied academic skills in technological settings.Academic studies focus on mathematics, oral communication, reading,writing, science, and social and behavioral sciences instruction.

4. Students are provided with extensive experience in and anunderstanding of those aspects of the broad industry of field they areexploring and/or preparing to enter.

5. Students completing the instruction are able to link their school studiesand related experiences directly to a broad industry or field, includingthe functions, concerns, issues, and technological knowledge and skillsassociated with that industry or field.

6. Teachers actively collaborate with each other in determining content andexperiences, planning instructional strategies, and teaching in a mannerthat integrates instruction and emphasizes contextualized, appliedlearning.

7. "All aspects" is available to all students (in the school district, school,magnet school, academy) regardless of their future education andemployment plans and aspirations.

8. "All aspects" is creatively and effectively combined with educationalreforms to produce a comprehensive school-to-work system.

* Included in the above statements is some information extracted from thePerkins II and School-to-Work Opportunities Acts.

Referring again to Figure 1-2, eight factors distinguish "all aspects." Thefirst five factors are deemed essential, whereas, factors six through eight

4 NCRVE MDS-956 17

are important contributors to its success. Although factors six through eightare not always essential to success, they enhance the potential for "allaspects" to be successful. These factors may be useful in providing flexibilityin the thematic curriculum development process.

Themes from the PastContemporary views of thematic curricula have been shaped by the need

to provide student learning through more comprehensive exposure toworking and living. For a number of years, educators and others havesought to create curricula that exposed students to broad industries andfields. Early work in this area tended to result in curricula and courses thatfocused on either preparation for life or preparation for earning a living.

During the late 1950s, employers began to recognize that skilled workersoften did not have facility in higher levels of knowledge and skills associatedwith emerging technology and technological fields. As more and moreemployers recognized the need for technicians in the workplace, educationalinstitutions responded by creating curricula that prepared graduates whohad both technical depth and breadth. Depth included studies inmathematics and science that were more rigorous than what skilled workersreceived and somewhat less rigorous than what was offered in engineeringprograms. Breadth included studies that exposed students to the field theywere preparing to enter (e.g., electronics technology, design) as well ascollateral areas such as accounting and management. Descriptions of thispreparation phenomenon contrasted what was, at the time, termed "field-oriented" and "job oriented" employment preparation. Field-orientedpreparation focuses on enabling graduates to enter a broad array ofoccupational areas within an industry or field, whereas, job-orientedpreparation emphasizes preparing graduates for specific jobs such aselectrician, machinist, welder, and drafter (Finch, 1968).

During this same period, some educators began to be concerned thatsecondary school students were not being given opportunities to learn aboutthe comprehensive nature of industries. Ready for change and eager toshed a manual training / manual arts image, Industrial Arts educators beganto reconstruct the Industrial Arts curriculum so it encompassed entireindustries. Industrial Arts curriculum models that emerged during the 1960s

included, for example, the American Industry model that focused onconcepts common to all industries of the day and the Industrial ArtsCurriculum Project that included instruction on both the world ofmanufacturing and the world of construction (Cochran, 1970). Each of thesemodels was designed to help students learn about industry in its broadestsense. These Industrial Arts curriculum models were not intended toprepare students for employment; their focus was on preparing studentsfor life. Even though Industrial Arts has evolved into Technology Education,

§Designing the mcThematic Cuu urn: An All Aspects Approach 5

the study of various industries continues to be emphasized in somesecondary level Technology Education programs in various parts of theUnited States. This is evidenced by current Technology Education text booktitles such a Manufacturing Technology, Production Systems Technology, andPower and Energy Technology (Jones, 1995, p. 66).

As the field of agriculture evolved, this evolution led to significant changein what Agricultural Education instructors felt should be taught to theirstudents. During the 1960s, educators explored ways that agriculturecurricula might be designed to offer students a more comprehensive viewof the field. Using a strategy called the function approach (Finch &Crunkilton, 1979), researchers were able to identify content in terms ofunifying characteristics or themes across a particular industry or business.Thus, by building curricula from a function base, students are givenopportunities to learn about a broad range of areas within a field. Thisearly effort in Agricultural Education curriculum contributed greatly tocurrent emphasis in the schools to learn about agriculture as a broad,multifaceted area of study (e.g., agribusiness, agriscience).

What Do We Know about the Thematic Curriculum and AllAspects?

Although research focusing on the thematic curriculum has been limited,studies conducted over the past several years by NCRVE that focus on "allaspects" offer some meaningful insight. Information gleaned from thesestudies (Bailey, Koppel, & Waldinger, 1994; Finch & Mooney, 1996; NielsenAndrew, 1994) and other sources is summarized below:

The thematic curriculum can be implemented in a variety of ways (e.g.,course by course, academy, cluster, magnet, entire school).The thematic curriculum is easily combined with other reforms such asintegration of vocational and academic education, Tech Prep, and school-to-work transition.Thematic curricula may be best suited for secondary school, however,postsecondary, middle school, and elementary school examples do exist.Thematic curricula can serve as a bridge to unite school- and work-basedlearning experiences.Some employers and educators have difficulty understanding andaccepting the thematic curriculum.Workplace barriers such as labor supply concerns, short-term productiondemands, and tradition have limited the implementation of thematiccurricula built from an "all aspects" base.Early efforts at curriculum creation which focused on learning aboutbroad industries and fields offer much useful information to those whoare interested in using "all aspects" to formulate their thematic curricula.

l06 NCRVE MDS-956

Some schools may already have incorporated themes into their curricula,but do not realize this.

More detailed information about how thematic curricula can improveeducation and ways of applying what has been learned is presented inlater sections.

The Thematic Curriculum's Potential To Improve EducationUltimately, success of the thematic curriculum will depend on how well

it improves education. Although research about the impact thematiccurriculum can have on teaching and learning is very limited, some schoolshave had from five to ten years of experience working with themes builtupon "all aspects." Persons who are focusing on themes in these schoolsnote why they continue to teach this way. They indicate the thematiccurriculum is more effective at reaching a broad range of students. In morespecific terms, thematic curricula built on an "all aspects" framework havethe potential to provide all students with several important benefits (NielsenAndrew, 1994, p. 2):

Providing an enriched environment in which vocational and academiceducation integration can occurProviding students with the broad range of skills and experiences theyneed for a variety of workplace tasks and roles, including entrepreneur-ship and managementFacilitating students' school-to-work transitionEncouraging community development through collaborativeinvolvement in economic growth activitiesProviding a rich platform for analysis, problem solving, and utilizingskills in reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social scienceHelping students to explore an industry or field in depth while gainingtransferable skills that expand their opportunities to do other things

Of course, there are other potential benefits of thematic curricula such asassisting students in making more informed career choices and preparingthem to be better citizens and workers. Some of these potential benefits area function of how "all aspects" is used and how well it is used as a strategyfor curriculum design. Thus, for persons who are ready to accept thechallenge of creating thematic curricula, there is great potential to obtain arich return on the investment.

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Summary

Even though the thematic curriculum has been around for quite sometime, its adoption by schools has been limited. This situation is in part afunction of an ambiguous definition. To some extent, "all aspects" has beendefined by legislation. However, it appears that "all aspects" will never bedriven entirely by legislation nor will it be defined in precise terms. Thefactors associated with "all aspects" serve to define and guide a thematiccurriculum with essential and highly recommended elements. The factorsalso provide flexibility in ways that "all aspects" can be incorporated intothe thematic curriculum development process.

Lessons from the past reveal that, even though the thematic curriculumis a new phrase, its antecedents have been present since the 1950s. Likewise,recent research shows that much has been learned about thematic curriculausing "all aspects" as a framework for developing and implementingcurricula in the schools. Educators who have been working with thematiccurricula for a number of years have noted the many benefits it has forstudents, ranging from facilitating students' school-to-work transition toproviding an enriched environment for learning. Additionally, "all aspects"has been shown to serve as a meaningful strategy when creating thethematic curriculum, particularly for themes that emphasize broadindustries and fields.

References

American Vocational Association. (1990). The AVA guide to the Carl D. PerkinsVocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990. Alexandria, VA:Author.

Bailey, T., Koppel, R., & Waldinger, R. (1994, December). Education for allaspects of the industry: Overcoming barriers to broad-based training (MDS-243). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

Cochran, L. G. (1970). Innovative programs in industrial education. Chicago:McKnight & McKnight.

Finch, C. R. (1968). Manpower research: Implications for the education oftechnicians. In D. C. Bjorkquist (Ed.), The education and employment oftechnicians (pp. 60-70). Washington, DC: Office of Education, U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Finch, C. R., & Crunkilton, J. R. (1979). Curriculum development in vocationaland technical education: Planning, content, and implementation. Boston: Allyn& Bacon.

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Finch, C. R., & Mooney, M. (1996, July). Building all aspects of industries andfields into the high school curriculum. Presentation made at the NationalHigh Schools That Work Conference, Louisville, KY.

Jones, K. H. (1995). Analysis of readability and interest in vocationaleducation textbooks: Implications for special needs learners. Journal ofVocational Education Research, 20(1), 55-77.

Nielsen Andrew, E. (1994, August). Education, work, and all aspects of theindustry: What does it all mean? CenterWork, 5(2), 2-3.

Designing the Thematic Cuggurn: An All Aspects Approach 9

SECTION 2

Exploring Curriculum Options

IntroductionThe thematic curriculum may be configured in a variety of ways. Since

how various themes are arranged can affect what is taught and how it istaught, different implementation options should be explored early in thedevelopment process. This is begun by discovering how change may impacton students, teachers, administrators, support staff, and others. After thepotential impact of change has been addressed, available curriculum optionscan be examined. Contextual, organizational, delivery, and content optionsare introduced in this section and discussed more extensively in Sections 3,4, 5, and 6. The exploration of different options logically leads to decisionmaking. This includes weighing the various options individually andcollectively; giving consideration to the impact they may have on students,educators, and others; and ultimately deciding what form the curriculumshould take.

The Impact of Change

The great interest in educational reform and emphasis on implementingchange in the public schools has left many education professionals with afeeling that the only thing constant in education is change. This feeling isclearly bothersome to educators who desire curriculum reform.Administrators, teachers, and others in the schools are being bombardedwith so many different changes, often to the point that it is difficult to tellwhere one change ends and another begins. Educators who have beenthrough several cycles of what some view as "change for the sake of change"are found to be more negative or at least less positive toward change(Glatthorn, 1992).

Potential Barriers to ChangeWithout proper consideration, thematic curricula can easily fall into the

category of "just another one of those changes." For this reason, personswho create curricula must consider potential barriers to educational change.Many of the more commonly encountered barriers to educational changehave been noted by Harvey (1990, pp. 35-45). Examples of these barriersinclude lack of ownership in change, lack of benefits from change, increasedburdens resulting from change, and a lack of support from administration.Educators involved in change may feel a sense of loneliness, insecurity,


and boredom. They may also believe they artion about the change and that they are no

e not receiving enough informa-t properly recognized for their

participation in the changeprocess. Educators may feelthe change will not besuccessful because theprocess lacks control or isbeing made too fast. Theymay also feel the school's orschool system's organiza-tional structure or uniqueproblems are such thatchange will be difficult toimplement. Several of thegeneral comments made byeducators that reflect theseconcerns are listed in Figure2-1. These statements aboutchange are not abstractconcepts. They can often beoverheard in schools wherechange is being implemen-ted. If statements like theseare heard, it is important toidentify the root cause ofeach and work to be surethat barriers to change areremoved.

Consideration shouldalso be given to barriers thatmay impact specifically on

Figure 2-1. Comments Made by Educators ThatMay Reflect Concern About Change

The change is being imposed by others.The change gives us no advantages overwhat exists now.We don't have time to be involved in thechange.We have no commitment from the top to thischange.I don't want to be the first to try somethingnew.This change threatens my job security.We don't do it that way here.This change is dull, burdensome, anduninteresting.We have little control over the way thischange is going.They told us to trust them and later on wewould like the change.We don't receive the same information aboutthe change that others received.We are never acknowledged for our work onthe change.This change is being made too fast.They said the change was tried before andfailed so we should try it again.This school (or school system) is too highlycentralized (or decentralized) to allow forsuccessful change.Our schools have very special problems.

thematic curriculum imple-mentation in the schools. Several barriers to "all aspects" identified byBailey, Koppel, and Waldinger (1994) are quite relevant since "all aspects"can serve as a meaningful strategy for creating thematic curricula. Theyinclude the educational preparation of entering students, the conflictbetween short-term needs and long-term benefits, and the threat to tradition.

The Educational Preparation of Entering StudentsEducators in the schools Bailey et al. (1994) visited where "all aspects"

had been used "complained about the skills of their entering students"(p. 110). It was noted that "educators who tried to broaden their curriculacomplain that many students simply do not come in with the basic skills to

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handle a broader, more sophisticated, and more conceptual curriculum"(p. 110).

The Conflict Between Short-Term Needs and Long-Term BenefitsPreparing students for employment often involves a curriculum trade-

off between what the workplace needs in the short term and what its needswill be in the long term (Bailey et al., 1994). Since "all aspects" reflectsbroadly based preparation and implies preparation for the highperformance workplace, educators may be faced with a difficult decision.This is because the content that is ultimately selected may affect whetheror not students are prepared for employment in the traditional or the highperformance workplace. It appears that in the future most firms will besmaller and without training clout. Larger firms may lead the way in highperformance training needs but hire few people. Given the rather smallpercentage of firms that have become high performance workplaces andthe slow rate at which firms are moving in this direction, educators may bereluctant to shift from traditional to nontraditional curricula.

The Threat to TraditionBoth educators and employers may see the broadly based thematic

curriculum as a threat to tradition. Employers may view it as somethingthat does not align with their ways of doing business; whereas, educatorsmay see it as content breadth at the expense of depth or the merger oftraditional courses and sequences into an unidentifiable lump. In effect,during implementation, tradition can easily get in the way of change.Employers and educators who are set in their ways may themselves be oneof the most serious barriers to broadly based curriculum implementationand success (Bailey et al., 1994).

Making Change HappenHow can these barriers be dealt with effectively? Several approaches to

fostering educational change used in conjunction with other educationalreforms have much relevance to implementation of the thematic curriculum(Finch, Schmidt,gz Faulkner, 1992). These approaches apply in various ways,depending on the nature and focus of the change. Ways educational changecan be enhanced are included in Figure 2-2. These suggestions apply tomany of the educational reforms that are currently being initiated in schoolsacross the country. Although some local adaptation may be necessary, thelist has much relevance to thematic curriculum design and implementation.

Dealing more specifically with "all aspects," Bailey et al. (1994, pp. 111-115) have identified several ways that barriers to "all aspects" developmentand implementation may be overcome. These barriers, which are listed inmore general terms in Figure 2-3, have much relevance for thematic

Designing the Thematic Curricu2r5An All Aspects Approach 13

Figure 2-2. Enhancing Educational Change

Empower all educators. Provide opportunities for teachers and supportstaff to make significant curriculum and instruction-related decisions.Schedule times when educators can meet and work together. Change toa curriculum cannot take place unless educators have quality time tomeet and plan joint teaching activities.Facilitate rather than push. Teachers and support staff must ultimatelyhave the need and desire to implement change.Build and maintain strong communication links with and amongeducators. Keep everyone well apprised of progress. Provide time foreducators to share their successes and discuss their problems withcolleagues.When organizing for change, work closely with all educators. Noeducator or educator group wants to feel left out of the process.Use a variety of activities to build educator curriculum teams. Examplesinclude forming functional ad hoc committees, organizing teamworksessions, and providing teams with opportunities to attend relevantprofessional conferences and workshops and bring back usefulinformation to share with others.Utilize the "educators teaching educators" concept. Give educators whohave developed expertise in using thematic curriculum opportunities toshare their expertise with others.Use educator teams to conduct professional development sessions andworkshops. This exemplifies the team concept.Offer educators specific responsibilities in the change process andopportunities to employ their professional skills in creative ways.Examples include organizing field trips to local businesses andindustries, team-based curriculum development, and team teaching.Be sure there is support for change from the highest level of theorganization (e.g., superintendent of schools). Without this support, theshift to thematic curricula may be undermined and the change maynever be implemented.

curricula. This list of suggestions to assist in removing barriers is certainlynot exhaustive. Experienced educators and employers who becomeinvolved with curriculum development and implementation will mostlikely be able to generalize from some of their past experiences to helpmove the process along.

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Figure 2-3. Removing Barriers to Development and Implementation

Build the curriculum on a solid foundation of basic skills.Emphasize the positive benefits of the curriculum as a teaching strategy,which, in turn, may make it acceptable to more educators.Link the curriculum with teaching approaches such as the integration ofvocational and academic education that link the learning of specific skillswith broader knowledge.Incorporate creative teaching strategies into instruction (such as usingcontextualized material to reinforce the learning of academic skills) thatreduce conflicts and trade-offs associated with curriculum.Recognize that educators may be trying to accomplish more with thecurriculum than with traditional instruction and, thus, allow more time toimplement this reform.Emphasize the general nature of education and use more generalcategories of industries and fields at the middle school level.Be sure employers fully understand benefits of the curriculum so theywill place realistic value on graduates.Show relevance for skills taught and how students can be motivated tolearn in-depth concepts (academic and technical).

Available OptionsWhen considering how thematic curricula should look in a particular

school, what comes to mind? The following are four basic questions thatshould be answered:

1. What is the context in which the thematic curriculum is taught?2. How may the curriculum be organized within the school and among

personnel?3. In what different ways can the curriculum be offered to students?4. What is included in the curriculum content?

These four questions each introduce a different set of options that areavailable to persons who are creating thematic curricula. They includecontextual options, organizational options, delivery options, and contentoptions. Provided in Figure 2-4 are listings of the more common contextual,organizational, and delivery options associated with thematic curricula.Content options, which are often decided based on or in concert with otheroption decisions, are detailed in Section 6.


Figure 2-4. Contextual, Organizational, andDelivery Options for DesigningThematic Curriculum Using an All AspectsApproach*

Contextual OptionsIndividual coursesClusters and majorsCareer academiesMagnet schools

Organizational OptionsTraditional arrangementsTech PrepIntegrationSchool-to-work transition

Delivery OptionsSchool-based enterprisesLinkages and partnershipsJob shadowing and mentoringYouth apprenticeshipsPortfoliosSenior projects

This is a list of representative options; it is notmeant to be exhaustive.

Examining theOptions

Figure 2-5 serves as anorganizer for designing andimplementing thematiccurricula. Recognizing thatcurriculum development isseldom done in a step-by-step manner, the processtypically begins by givingsome thought to what thethematic curriculum is(Section 1), why the them-atic curricula is consideredto be a major educationalchange, and what should bedone to ensure that it issuccessfully designed andimplemented (Section 2).Next, contextual options(Section 3), organizationaloptions (Section 4), anddelivery options (Section 5)are considered. These op-tions may be examined both

individually and collectively since they are often a function of whatcurrently exists in local school, workplace, and community settings. Per-sons who are already familiar with these options may choose to skip overSections 3, 4, and 5. Contextual, organizational, and delivery considerationsand preliminary decisions provide a useful foundation for determining whatthe thematic curriculum content will actually be (Section 6) and how itshould be provided to students (Section 7). Additionally, the assessment ofcurriculum impact is designed and conducted (Section 8). Although shownat the bottom of Figure 2-5, assessment must begin as the curriculum isbeing designed and continue through the curriculum lifespan. The dashedlines in Figure 2-5 that flow from assessing impact to the other componentsreflect the need to feed assessment information back to each of the designand implementation components. In this way, the curriculum will continueto evolve in response to changing needs. When the various componentsare organized in a meaningful fashion, they have the potential to build athematic curriculum that can affect positive and lasting change in theschools.

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Figure 2-5. Designing the Thematic Curriculum from an "All Aspects"

Perspective

Understanding theThematic Curriculum

Section 1

1

ExploringCurriculum Options

Section 2

ConsideringContextual Options

Section 3

ConsideringOrganizational Options

Section 4

ConsideringDelivery Options

Section 5

ConsideringContent Options

Section 6

Linking Curriculumwith Instruction

Section 7

Assessing and Refiningthe Curriculum

Section 8

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References

Bailey, T., Koppel, R., & Waldinger, R. (1994). Education for all aspects of theindustry: Overcoming barriers to broad-based training (MDS-243). Berkeley:National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University ofCalifornia at Berkeley.

Finch, C. R., Schmidt, B. J., & Faulkner, S. L. (1992). Using professionaldevelopment to facilitate vocational and academic education integration: Apractitioner's guide (MDS-277). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.

Glatthorn, A. A. (1992). Teachers as agents of change: A new look at schoolimprovement. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Harvey, T. R. (1990). Checklist for change: A pragmatic approach to creating andcontrolling change. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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SECTION 3

Contextual Options

IntroductionContextual considerations and decisions are an important aspect of

thematic curriculum development. Context is the frame of reference thatprovides meaning to instruction (Costa, Bellanca, & Fogarty, 1992).Contextualized learning involves the development of instruction thatsituates learning in a specific context and provides opportunities forauthentic practice (Stasz, Ramsey, Eden, DaVanzo, Farris, & Lewis, 1993).Studies have revealed that most people learn abstract or theoretical conceptsmore easily under contextualized or applied conditions (Ascher & Flaxman,1993). When content, experiences, and information are provided to studentswithin a variety of relevant contexts, students have greater potential forsuccess. In this section, several representative contexts are described thatcan serve as meaningful "homes" for the thematic curriculum within theschool. These descriptions are provided to assist educators and others inselecting a place or places where thematic curricula may be best situated.Four different contextual options are described: (1) individual courses, (2)clusters and majors, (3) career academies, and (4) magnet schools.

Individual CoursesIn most schools, teachers are assigned to teach individual subject courses.

Within these courses, themes can be incorporated into the content beingtaught by both academic and vocational education teachers. Academiccourses can be made more relevant to students by modifying them to includevarious aspects of industries and fields. Teachers can incorporate broadprinciples and concepts related to an industry or field into their courses.For example, food service teachers can discuss the need for personal andpublic hygiene that prevents a disease spreading through bacterial causes.A civics course can be made relevant to students by relating local laws andregulations to zoning requirements and building codes.

Focus on a broad theme can be used as a way to motivate students andenrich the subjects being taught in a school that is organized around distinctsubject matter lines. A more meaningful approach involves two or moreteachers working together to make connections between their subjects.Although the courses may remain separate, teachers can collaborate byusing a team teaching interdisciplinary approach to instruction. Forexample, in New Richmond, Wisconsin, biology and agricultural teachersexchange students for one week. The agriculture students observe and work

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with the biology teacher on a tissue culturing experiment, and discussethical issues and economic considerations of the biotechnology industry.Biology students study water quality in the agricultural educationlaboratory and learn how to take and analyze samples and discuss theimplications of environmental controls on local farms and businesses (Beck,Copa, & Pease, 1991).

The Phoenix, Arizona Union High School District has implemented whatis termed the Fusion Project. Focus of the project is on enabling academicand vocational teachers to work together so students will have a broaderexposure to their areas of study. The school district provides academicteachers with release time to work with vocational teachers oncontextualizing academic and vocational course content. Mathematics andEnglish teachers provide after-school workshops for vocational teachersand classroom aides that focus on ways to incorporate math and writinginto their vocational courses (Weinbaum & Rogers, 1995).

Course-by-Coursewith the Ford Academy

The Ford Academy of ManufacturingSciences (FAMS), a two-year coursesequence focusing on manufactur-ing industries, has been designed toprepare high school students forcareers in manufacturing. Thisacademically rigorous programteaches students to understand,work with, and manage the broadaspects of modern manufacturingindustries. Semester-long coursesare prepared such as World ofManufacturing and StatisticalMethods for Manufacturing Tech-nology. In addition, a "coordinatedmanufacturing experience" isavailable for students during thesummer on an internship or unpaidjob shadowing basis. The FordMotor Company supports programdevelopment and supplies curric-ulum materials and information toassist in establishing and conductingthe program. The program waslaunched in 1991 at Novi HighSchool in Michigan, and FAMS hasgrown to include programs in elevendifferent states. (Gager, 19951

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Clusters and MajorsClusters and majors constitute

another context for the thematiccurriculum. A number of schools haveorganized their curricula around clustersand majors that focus on relatedoccupations, interdisciplinary themes, aparticular industry or field, or aroundcareers requiring postsecondary edu-cation. In Oregon, for example, a cer-tificate of advanced mastery learning,organized around six broad clusters orfocus areas that include arts andcommunication, business and manage-ment, health services, human resources,industrial and engineering systems, andnatural resource systems, is beingadvocated for schools (Oregon StateBoard of Education, 1992).

Other schools have developedprograms based on clusters and majorssuch as health care, building construc-tion, materials fabrication, and graphiccommunications. In some schools,programs focus on preparing studentsto enter the workforce upon graduation,while others provide a technical/

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professional series of career clusters that meet the needs of work-bound aswell as college-bound students. The cluster concept is one way schools canprovide opportunities for students from various backgrounds, skill levels,and interests to enroll in common courses and provide teachers fromdifferent subject areas with opportunities to collaborate in providinginstruction.

Clusters provide excellent opportunities for students to explore careersand see their relationships, and to become knowledgeable about broadtheme areas such as industries or fields. There are many examples of clusterprograms in high schools throughout the nation. One such example isDauphin County Technical School located in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,which serves six school districts. Education is organized around four careerclusters. These include technical, communication and transportation,construction, and service clusters. Students enter an occupationalexploratory program in the ninth grade and select a specific career clusterfor the next year. Teams of academic and vocational education instructorsin the cluster are assigned to work with students for the next three years.Instructional team members work together to integrate their courses aroundthe career cluster theme. Students are involved in a variety of projects bothwithin the school and across the local community. In the service cluster, forexample, law enforcement and social studies teachers work with studentsto design and estimate the cost of a home security system. In social studiescourses, students apply economic principles to applied areas such as legalregulations, labor costs, and profit margins.

Career Academies

The career academy is typically organized around a broad career theme(e.g., an industry or field) and is operated as a school-within-a-school.Academy instruction is incorporated around the functions associated withthe particular theme. Examples of broad themes include finance, health,environmental science, and manufacturing. Students who enroll in a careeracademy are grouped with a team of teachers for a three- to four-yearprogram. These students may be actively involved in team learning projectswhere they gain and apply knowledge and skills to solve theme-basedproblems or activities. An important aspect of the career academy isproviding students with work-based learning opportunities through thedevelopment of business, industry, and community partnerships. Examplesof student opportunities include summer internships, apprenticeships, andmentoring fellowships with local employers. Many career academies aredesigned to provide their graduates with marketable technical expertise aswell as the academic expertise needed to enroll in postsecondary education(Stern, Raby, & Dayton, 1992).

Designing the Thematic Curricrbiu5: An All Aspects Approach 21

Clusters in a Rural Setting

A comprehensive, rural high schoollocated in a declining timber industryarea of Oregon has developed aschool-within-a-school programbased upon four career clusters.These include business, socialservices, humanities, and ecology.A four-hour block schedule, withmixed grade levels and teamteaching, emphasizes integratedlearning activities related to thecareer cluster. In the ecology cluster,students have an integratedcurriculum in mathematics, science,and social studies with the overallaim to promote the human role inpreserving the local environment.Introduced across the ecologytheme are topics such as streamenhancement, pollution, forestecology, and wildlife habitats. Anopportunity to apply this knowledgein work settings is provided by localgovernment agencies and a fishhatchery. Students help operate thehatchery and assist the agencies inorganizing data and disseminatinginformation to public and privateconsumers (Pauly, Kopp, & Haimson,1995).

One of the first academies in thecountry was established in 1969 inPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania. It became amodel for adoption for other schools inthe city as well as across the country.Career academies may now be found innumerous locations throughout theUnited States. The National AcademyFoundation (NAF) (1991), an organ-ization supporting school academyalliances, reported that in 1994 almost8,000 students in 23 states participatedin their affiliated programs.

The Academy of Finance at LakeClifton-Eastern High School inBaltimore, Maryland, serves as anexample of the way academies can beorganized. Located in an urban,comprehensive high school, theacademy enrolls 200 9th- through 12th-grade students in academic and finance-related courses. These students areprovided with hands-on instruction foremployment as well as further educationin the area of banking and finance (Paulyet al., 1995). The finance courses addressfinancial career exploration, computerscience, economics and finance, andbanking and credit. During the schoolyear, students are assigned to business

mentors and participate in job shadowing experiences. During theirmentoring experiences, students learn about the business organization aswell as worker-specific skills and knowledge. Field trips to local businessesand the Federal Reserve Bank expose students to a wide range of financialcareer opportunities and work environments. During the summer betweenthe 11th and 12th grades, academy students participate in nine-week paidinternships to develop generic work-readiness and finance-related skills.

Another example is the Health and Bioscience Academy at OaklandTechnical High School in Oakland, California. This academy aims to reducedropouts among at-risk and disadvantaged students. Students takeintensive courses in biology, physiology, chemistry, and mathematics alongwith English, social studies, health occupations, and computer applications.Community involvement is extensive, with sponsored mentors supervisinghundreds of student community-service hours in local health care facilities.

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The summer before their senior year, students are placed in health-relatedinternships. Students also complete senior projects that focuson researchingmajor health-related problems. Each completed project is reviewed by ahealth industry mentor. Articulation agreements with local communitycolleges allow students to receive advanced credit in allied health andbiotechnology as part of their high school studies. Related courses enablestudents to pursue university studies and / or immediately enter theworkplace (Clark, de Leeuw, Flynn, & Yates, 1994).

Magnet Schools

Like career academies, magnet school curricula are organized aroundbroad themes. However, magnet schools tend to be organized on aschoolwide basis rather than as a school-within-a-school. Many large urbanschool districts have developed magnet schools as strategies for integratingthe racial composition of large metropolitan areas. In the United States, thenumber of magnet schools and students attending these schools has doubledin the last decade. In school districts with magnet schools, 15% of thestudents, or approximately 1.2 million students, attend these schools(National Science Teachers Association [NSTA], 1994).

Magnet schools provide an excellent opportunity to incorporate broadthemes into the curriculum. These themes can provide a variety ofopportunities for students to learn about functional areas such as planning,organizing, processing, marketing, and distribution. The interaction ofsubjects and interdisciplinary instruction strategies allows teachers andstudents to work in collaborative teams to apply knowledge and skills,find solutions to real-life problems, and participate in simulated worksettings. The outcomes of these experiences may include learning how tocommunicate in written and oral form, and working as a team member.

The Chicago High School for Agricultural Sciences is an example of amagnet school organized around an agricultural science theme. Chicago iswell-known for its food-processing and distribution industries, andmembers of the business community are active members of the school'scurriculum advisory committees. Each student enrolled in the school isexpected to complete a rigorous set of studies, which includes an emphasison life sciences and laboratory applications. Application of skills andknowledge is accomplished through summer internships provided in thelaboratories, offices, and processing plants of the agricultural-basedindustries located in the area. Students also learn about agricultural sciencethrough project participation. Project opportunities range from researchinga new process or product to marketing and distribution of food productsthroughout the country.

In New York City, magnet schools have been in operation for a numberof years. The New York School for the Performing Arts is a well-known


example of a magnet school preparing students for a wide range of careersin film, television, and theatre arts. The High School of Fashion Industries,located in the garment district of New York, prepares students for careersin many aspects of fashion design and merchandising. A business sponsor,the Liz Claiborne Foundation, has adopted the school and provides fundingfor student scholarships and special courses. Additional industry supportis provided through a career day for students and a weekly mentoringprogram. Cooperative learning projects are used to integrate fashion designand merchandising skills with other subject area content. These integratedprojects not only stimulate student interest, motivation, and learning acrosssubjects, but they also provide a team focus to problem-solving experiencesreflective of high performance workplaces. The application of skills andknowledge to solving problems in collaborative team settings is animportant skill for students to learn (Pauly et al., 1995).

The Addison Aerospace and Science Magnet School, a middle school inRoanoke, Virginia, has been organized around a space science andtechnology theme. Students have the opportunity to learn and applyknowledge around careers and activities in the broad field of aeronauticsneeded for travel, research, and communications between earth and outerspace. A full-scale laboratory simulating a NASA control room is used bystudents to plan for, conduct, and monitor a space vehicle launch. Studentslearn various aspects of the space field by planning and coordinatingfunctions associated with launching a space vehicle.

Contextual Options: Strengths and LimitationsThe practical aspects of contextual learning may lead educators to ignore

the fact that careful implementation is needed. Some of these options implymajor changes in school organization, while others do not. Contextualoptions can serve a wide range of students and provide many opportunitiesfor broad understanding of a field. Each contextual option utilizes a broadtheme to meet the students' needs.

The individual course approach is a convenient way to incorporate broadthemes into school curricula. The individual teacher is responsible fordetermining and delivering instruction and can readily incorporate thesethemes into his or her subject. Teachers can take a thematic approach todeveloping activities, projects, and so on, that address specific concepts,skills, and / or capacities. A major drawback is the isolation of instructionwhich discourages teacher interaction and minimizes curriculumintegration. Fortunately, the incorporation of themes into individual coursesmay provide students with opportunities to apply principles and conceptslearned in other courses.

The cluster concept requires teams of teachers to collaborate extensivelyin developing and implementing content around broad themes. Teachers

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may arrange their courses so that similar topics coincide with each other.Similar concepts from two or more disciplines may be combined intocomprehensive projects, units, or courses. Clustering arrangements enableschools to provide students with a wider selection of study areas andopportunities for curriculum integration. However, when academic coursesare offered apart from the cluster, or non-core subject teachers are excludedfrom the cluster, the integration of curriculum becomes difficult.Community, business, and industry relationships developed to support eachcluster can assist the school in providing students with realistic, up-to-dateknowledge and skills. On the other hand, resources for establishing andmonitoring linkages between employers and community representativesand quality work programs often do not exist.

A major advantage of the career academy is the opportunity to preparestudents for employment and advanced study in a broad career field.Academies address the continuing issues of the noncontextualization andfragmentation of learning. Career academies require intensive collaborationamong teachers to plan, coordinate, and incorporate the curriculum arounda career theme. To be successfully implemented, academies require effectiveadministrative leadership and community support. Community andworkplace efforts to provide real-world activities and experiences throughjob shadowing and internships are critical. Additional concerns may bethe teachers' acceptance of integrated or thematic curriculum and theirabilities to sufficiently address both the breadth and the depth of the content.Teachers may not have had adequate exposure to or instruction ininterdisciplinary processes. Administrators must also recognize and supportinnovative ways of staffing, scheduling, and allocating resources.

Magnet schools require the restructuring of an entire school around atheme. Thus, magnet school development occurs in increments over anextended time period. Theme content and concepts can become an integralpart of this schoolwide effort if intensive planning and instructionalinnovation occur. Since magnet schools attract and serve a wide variety ofstudents in an environment based on active learning, it is only natural thatthematic curricula be used. Again, teachers may need assistance to learn tosuccessfully mesh core subject knowledge with technical knowledge.Teachers must also develop and maintain direct knowledge of the modernworkplace and continuously incorporate this knowledge across thecurriculum.

SummaryThe contexts for thematic curricula vary from simple to complex. Themes

can be found within the context of courses taught by individual academicor vocational teachers, or can occur in restructured school environmentssuch as clusters and majors, career academies, and magnet schools. Each


contextual option has strengths and limitations. It is, therefore, importantto consider these factors when establishing the thematic curriculum.Teachers and administrators need to carefully discuss the various contextualoptions, determine which of them are most beneficial, and determine ifresources are available to implement them as early as possible in thecurriculum design process.

References

Ascher, C., & Flaxman, E. (1993). A time for questions: The future of integrationand tech prep. New York: Institute on Education and the Economy,Teachers College, Columbia University.

Beck, R. H., Copa, H., & Pease, J. (1991). Vocational and academic teacherswork together. Educational Leadership, 29(2), 29-31.

Clark, P., de Leeuw, D., Flynn, E., & Yates, J. (1994). Grappling with all aspectsof industry: Lessons from the Oakland Health and Bioscience Academy.Oakland, CA: Oakland Health and Bioscience Academy.

Costa, A., Bellanca, J., & Fogarty, R. (1992). If mind matters: A foreword to thefuture (Vol. 1). Palatine, IL: Skylight.

Gager, D. (1995). Creating tomorrow's workforce. Ties Magazine, pp. 46-47.

National Academy Foundation (NAF). (1991). Information brochure. NewYork: Author.

National Science Teachers Association. (1994). Magnet schools showexplosive growth in last decade. NSTA Reports!, p. 10.

Oregon State Board of Education. (1992). Oregon Tech-Prep/Associate degreeprograms: Developing a high performance workforce. Salem: Oregon StateBoard of Education, Oregon Development of Education and Office ofCommunity College Services.

Pauly, E., Kopp, H., & Haimson, J. (1995). Home grown lessons: Innovativeprograms linking school and work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Stasz, C., Ramsey, K., Eden, R. DaVanzo, J., Farris, H., & Lewis, M. (1993).Classrooms that work: Teaching generic skills in academic and vocationalsettings. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

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Stern, D., Raby, M., & Dayton, C. (1992). Career academies: Partnerships forreconstructing American high schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Weinbaum, A., & Rogers, A. M. (1995). Contextual learning: A critical aspectof school-to-work transition programs. Washington, DC: National Institutefor Work and Learning, Academy for Educational Development.

3 9Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 27

SECTION 4

Organizational Options

IntroductionAs the thematic curriculum is being designed, it is important to consider

ways that organizational arrangements can be used to improve curriculumand instructional effectiveness. Evidence exists that organizational optionscan contribute to the effective delivery of instruction, however, some optionsmay be more effective in one educational setting and less effective in another.Educators thus have the responsibility to decide which option orcombination of options will best serve their specific locale and educationalsystem. As these organizational options are being examined, educatorsshould consider how the thematic curriculum might be employed to makegood options even better. Conversely, persons who are creating thematiccurricula should determine which organizational arrangements havepotential to improve curriculum and instructional quality. In this section,four of the more common options are described. They include traditionalarrangements, Tech Prep, the integration of vocational and academiceducation, and school-to-work transition. Since so much has already beenwritten about these educational reforms, persons who need additionalinformation about these options should consult the references listed at theend of this section.

Traditional ArrangementsTraditional arrangements refer to the ways school curricula, programs,

and courses have been organized since the early 1900s. In thesearrangements, teachers may make little or no reference to other subjectsand have little contact with teachers in other subject areas. Typically, teacherswho teach similar subjects are members of the same department. Thiscontributes to the isolation of teachers from each other. Teachers who teachvocational subjects are likely to be organized and housed separately fromteachers of other subjects. In spite of these restrictions, the thematiccurriculum can be incorporated into traditional educational settings.

According to Hoachlander (1994), vocational and academic teachersimplementing an industry- [or field-] based curriculum must modify theirroles in three important ways. First, teachers must view their roles asimparting understanding of and experience in an industry [or field] inaddition to their specialized area. Second, teachers must develop both anacademic specialization and an industry [or field] specialization. And third,


teachers must learn to develop their curricula and teaching methods toaddress real issues in their industry [or field] specialization.

Teaching within subject-oriented boundaries, teachers should have littledifficulty bringing their students into workplaces and the community sothey can link school-based learning with what occurs in the real world.Also, since academic and vocational subjects can be taught using referencesto broad themes such as industries and businesses, teachers who haveapplied knowledge about these areas can include relevant content in theirinstruction. Additionally, since academic and vocational teachers can makereferences to each others' subjects while teaching their students, manyopportunities exist to extend instruction beyond traditional subjectboundaries.

Tech Prep

Tech Prep has been defined as "programs that link the last two years ofhigh school with the first two years of college or technical education inspecific occupational areas. Tech Prep programs typically have a strongapplied academics focus and limited work experience components" (Ryan& Imel, 1996, p. 5). The Tech Prep program has an articulation componentthat facilitates placement in employment or further education, which mayinclude a two-year or four-year degree (Thu li, 1996). The articulation processthat links high school and college may include a competency-based,technical curriculum in which competencies are taught without duplication.Technical theory and real-world practice are provided in applied academicand vocational specialty classes and work settings.

Incorporated into most Tech Prep programs are direct involvement andcollaboration from business and industry representatives in thedevelopment of outcome-based curricula with applied performancestandards (Neilsen, Dunlap, & Matthews, 1993). The focus of Tech Prepprograms available to students may range from high tech to low tech. Hightech programs tend to require more rigorous levels of mathematics andscience; whereas, low tech programs tend to require less rigorous levels.

Thematic curricula and Tech Prep can be linked together to form powerfuland effective combinations. For example, it may be more beneficial to designTech Prep programs that prepare students for employment in broadindustries and fields than for narrowly focused jobs and occupations. Withinthe thematic framework, instruction may be organized so students learnabout the history and economics of an industry or field they are preparingto enter. The functions and economic contributions of the industry or fieldto local, state, regional, national, and global economies can also be studied.Students can learn about the evolution of the industry or field and forcesthat influenced its development, as well as forces that are likely to shapefuture development. Students may then verify their exposure to these

30 NCRVE MDS-956 41

. I- - - - Organizing for Tech Prep-

6: At a suburban high school level- .technical center, teachers have met

1 for some time both formally andinformally to organize Tech Prep

. -6:- :6 program content Since effective'.: ; . - communication can assist with

- successful implementation, each

' teacher involved in the Tech Prep: 0'0 I program must know what other

teachers will be teaching Teachers- frequently meet to confirm what

" ' - content is taught and the relationship content has to the Prod Ioverarching curriculum thememanufacturing Technical-subjectsteachers plan and organize contentwith reference to production modes,distribution methods, and types ofproducts in their content areas Theyalso document the socioeconomicand sociopolitical contributions ofrelated manufacturing to society,and how manufacturing hasaffected life in the community atlarge Academic-subjects teachersreference the manufacturing fieldwhen teaching their respectivecourses For example, economicsand history classes discuss the socialand economic aspects of manufac-turing Teachers highlight thebusiness aspects of manufacturingby teaching concepts such as

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within each model. Model choice and implementation efforts depend onmany factors, including existing academic and vocational offerings, teacherand student interests and capabilities, availability of resources, and theextent to which administrative support exists.

According to Grubb et al. (1991), integration can be established by havingacademic and vocational teachers work together to incorporate academiccontent into vocational programs and vocational content into academicprograms. Teachers may participate in curriculum alignment (whichapproximates the first four models discussed by Grubb et al.), where bothacademic and vocational courses are modified over time and coordinatedacross subjects. Academic subjects are taught using related vocational

materials, and academic9 teachers modify their

"Curriculum alignment involves subjects to align with theexchanging information, sharing types of workplaces stu-

issues and skills, and dents are preparing to enter.

coordinating topics within Academic studies organ-ized using this model areand between academic termed "applied academic

and vocational courses. ... subjects." In addition, voca-Ultimately, curriculum tional teachers develop

alignment can serve to organize programs and courses withcourses so students more relevant academic

content and rigor. Curric-experience a connected, alum alignment involvesmutually reinforcing exchanging information,curriculum." sharing issues and skills,

and coordinating topicswithin and between aca-

demic and vocational courses. Teachers can thus include complementarycontent within their regular teaching time frames. Ultimately, curriculumalignment can serve to organize courses so students experience a connected,mutually reinforcing curriculum (Grubb et al., 1991).

The project model can help in further facilitating integration of vocationaland academic subjects. In this model, the curriculum is organized aroundstudent projects that draw from skills and information learned in differentclasses and through various personal experiences. In some cases, studentsmay replace their electives with the completion of a comprehensive project(for further information about senior projects, see Section 5). Projectscommonly require the production of written presentations, oralpresentations, and physical representations. The project model emphasizesindividualization, independent work skills, presentation skills, problem-solving skills, research skills, and creativity.

32 NCRVE MDS-956 43

Projects are sometimes organized based on teachers' on-the-jobexperiences. For example, while working as a technician for a plumbing,heating, and air company, a vocational teacher who was employed at anarea vocational school was required to work with customers over the phone.The teacher felt this was a valuable skill for students to learn. With the helpof a vocational-technical coordinator, the teacher assigned students differentworkplace scenarios, having them role-play a company representative andcustomer. Students were instructed on communication skills such asbusiness etiquette, tone of voice, and language of the field. In addition,they were required to orally explain the operation of an air conditioning orheating system (Gladdis & Kline, 1995).

Several additional integration models may be linked with the thematiccurriculum. They are discussed in Section 3. Models include the academy orschool-within-a-school, the career cluster or career path, and the magnet school.Each has the potential to function in concert with the thematic curriculumand improve teaching and learning in the schools and the workplace.However, regardless of the model or models chosen, integration designmust take into consideration factors such as the type of school, the students'characteristics, and the different subjects to be integrated (Schmidt, Finch,& Faulkner, 1992). In some school settings, teachers have been verysuccessful at implementing integration and continue to grow from theexperience. In other settings, teachers have struggled with integration andhave yet to move very far with it. This situation tends to exist becauseintegration requires the development of "a trusting, respectful, supportive,truly collaborative relationship among those involved in theimplementation (Winitzky, Sheridan, Crow, Welch, & Kennedy, 1995, p.111). Integration implementation calls for a coherent form of establishedcooperation and collaboration (Holt, 1993). In other words, as with thematiccurriculum implementation, educators must be able to work as membersof professional teams and be given time when they can truly cooperateand collaborate with each other. If this does not occur, both integration andthematic curricula may never achieve their potential.

School-to-Work TransitionAlthough school-to-work transition has existed for some time, it has only

been within the last few years that national emphasis has been placed onthis area. Recent legislation, termed the School-to-Work Opportunities Actof 1994 (Brustein & Mahler, 1994), has aided in making school-to-worktransition more understandable and acceptable to the general public. Inorder to receive funding, programs are required to include threecomponents: (1) school-based learning, (2) work-based learning, and (3)connecting activities that link the school- and work-based activities inmeaningful ways (Finch, 1997). School-to-work transition can include


virtually all of the options described in this guide; however, these optionsare envisioned as being organized to form a complete system in whichschool- and work-based learning are integrated, vocational and academiceducation are combined, and secondary and postsecondary education arelinked (Ryan & Imel, 1996).

School-based learning may be provided through courses, clusters, majors,career academies, magnets, Tech Prep, integration, portfolios, projects, enter-prises, themes, and other arrangements. Work-based learning may includearrangements such as job shadowing, mentoring, youth apprenticeships,cooperative education, on-the-job training, and community service learning(Hoerner & Wehrley, 1995)). Linking activities require that educatorscollaborate with people from business, industry, and the community toensure that students are provided with learning experiences that connectschool- and work-based learning in meaningful ways. Examples of waysthis linking may occur include formal partnerships; advisory committees;collaboration with business, industry, and community organizations; andlocal groups such as the Chamber of Commerce. Strategies that may beused to improve school-based learning, work-based learning, and schooland workplace linkages for learning are described in Section 7.

Goldberger and Kasiz (1996) highlight several important benefits ofwork-based learning:

provides an authentic laboratory for developing and exercising complexproblem-solving skillsprovides a reality check about different types of work settings and workrolesdevelops an appreciation for the importance of learning as an aspect ofwhat work is aboutassists in the development of student contacts with employers, mentors,and career pathways, which provide support and possible jobconnections.

However, it must be noted that for work-based learning to succeed withstudents it should be coordinated with what is taught in the schools. Thisis where the thematic curriculum can have positive and lasting impact sinceit provides learning benefits to students that work-based learning alonecannot provide. In effect, curriculum themes can contribute to the linkingprocess by engaging students in the school-related study of broad industriesor fields as part of their regular studies, and then assisting students inverifying theme-related studies when they participate in work-basedlearning.

34 NCRVE MDS-956

SummaryImplementing the thematic curriculum involves organizing content and

teaching strategies in meaningful ways to address and meet students'learning needs. One way of responding to this need is by combiningthematic curricula with different organizational options. Themes can beorganized and taught within traditional school arrangements, withindividual teachers making connections between their subjects and theworld of work. Teachers can also organize thematic curricula in concertwith educational reform initiatives such as integration, Tech Prep, andschool-to-work transition. School- and work-based learning experiencesplay a significant role in students' intellectual and social development andtheir preparation for life and living. Whether organized in conjunction withone or more of the organizational options discussed in this section, thethematic curriculum cannot help but become strengthened in the process.

References

Bodilly, S., Ramsey, K., Stasz, C., & Eden, R. (1992). Integrating academic andvocational education: Lessons from eight early innovators (MDS-287).Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

Bruestein, M., & Mahler, M. (1994). Doling the dollars: School-to-work grantrequirements are lengthy and demanding. Vocational Education Journal,69(7), 19-21, 67.

Finch, C. R. (1997). School-to-work transition in the United States.International Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 5(1), 69-84.

Gladdis, J., & Kline, P. (1995). The specialists. Vocational Education Journal,70(8), 25-27.

Goldberger, S., & Kasiz, R. (1996). Revitalizing high schools: What theschool-to-career movement can contribute. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(8), 547-554.

Grubb, W. N., Davis, G., Lum, J., Plihal, J., & Morgaine, C. (1991). "Thecunning hand, the cultured mind": Models for integrating vocational andacademic education (MDS-141). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.


Hoachlander, E. G. (1994). Industry-based education: A new approach forschool-to-work transition. In School-to-Work: What does research say aboutit? (pp. 77-93). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Officeof Educational Research and Improvement.

Hoerner, J. L., & Wehrley, J. B. (1995). Work-based learning: The key to school-to-work transition. New York: Glencoe / McGraw-Hill.

Holt, M. (1993, December). Deming on education: A view from the seminar.Phi Delta Kappan, 75(4), 329-330.

Neilsen, B. S., Dunlap, N. C., & Matthews, A. L. (1993). Tech Prep: A planningand resource guide. Columbia: South Carolina Department of Education.

Ryan, R., & Imel, S. (1996). School-to-work transition: Genuine reform orthe latest fad? The ERIC Review, 4(2), 2-11.

Schmidt, B. J., Finch, C. R., & Faulkner, S. L. (1992). Helping teachers tounderstand their roles in integrating vocational and academic education: Apractitioner's guide (MDS-276). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.

Thuli, K. (1996). Access to success: Strategies for serving special populations intech prep programs. Richmond: Virginia Vocational Curriculum Center.

Winitzky, N., Sheridan, S., Crow, N., Welch, M., & Kennedy, C. (1995).Interdisciplinary collaboration: Variations on a theme. Journal of TeacherEducation, 46(2), 109-119.

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SECTION 5

Delivery Options

IntroductionEducators must not overlook opportunities that exist to build useful

delivery approaches such as school-based enterprises, mentoring, andportfolios into the thematic curriculum. These delivery approaches shouldnot be used one time in a single instructional setting, but may be used asoften as they can have positive impact on student learning. Personsresponsible for creating the thematic curriculum must consider, therefore,which approaches can strengthen the curriculum and next determine howmuch each different approach will cost to implement and maintain inrelation to its potential benefits. From this consideration should emerge alist of the options and where they will fit into the curriculum.

The thematic curriculum can be logically linked to delivery optionsbecause it has much in common with a number of delivery approaches,some that focus on school-based learning and others that focus on work-based learning. Other approaches can be used in conjunction with thecurriculum to help link the school and the workplace. Delivery approachesdescribed in this section include school-based enterprises, linkages,partnerships, job shadowing, mentoring, youth apprenticeships, portfolios,and senior projects. Each has the potential to offer students more relevantlearning experiences as they study about and explore broad curriculumthemes.

School-Based EnterprisesSchool-based enterprises provide students with opportunities for realistic

workplace learning in the school environment. School-based enterprisesmay be defined as any activities through which students produce goodsand services that have utility, and that can be sold to other people (Stern,Stone, Hopkins, Mc Million, & Crain, 1994b). Typical school-basedenterprises may include a day care center, an automotive service laboratory,or a cosmetology center. Other examples that are less frequently found inschools include home-building, restaurant management, retail storemanagement, automobile sales, crop-raising and livestock production, bookand periodical publication, environmental quality and energy conservation,reconstruction of local historical landmarks, and small-scale manufacturing(Stern et al., 1994b).

When school-based enterprises are established, students should be activeparticipants in the process. Decisions must be made about the organization

4 5iDesigning the Thematic Cu nlum: An All Aspects Approach 37

and vision of the enterprise, theincorporation of policies, and what

: . products and / or services to provide.Early on, students must be involved in

9- ,.. marketing research which considers. .- - customers, goods, services, and sources

- . - - of raw materials. Students should alsohave extensive involvement withfinancial and management aspects of the

. enterprise such as budgeting, conduc--

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ting inventories, setting appropriate.- . - prices for goods and services, and

_ 9. - locating suitable facilities within or nearGO the school. Care should be taken not to

. . . - establish an enterprise that will compete- - ..- - with taxpayers' businesses in the same- - - locality, since taxpayers' money may be

- . - invested in the school-based enterprises- - - .. - (Stern et al., 1994b). Although school staff- - members are ultimately responsible for

' -

.. establishing the enterprise, studentparticipation in this process enables

. . . - - them to experience how a business or.- - industry is established. Participation also

- encourages students to develop a holistic. . - - - .- view of the enterprise, rather than-

- viewing it as a specific job or set of tasks.- - - . . And finally, the enterprise can serve as a

useful vehicle for educating students- . - about a broad theme such as an industry

or field.- ...- - -. - One illustration of student involve-- .. - - ..., ment in an enterprise may be seen at

Robert E. Lee High School in Staunton,Virginia, where students under faculty

supervision developed an interdepartmental business enterprise called theBalloon Shop. Orders for helium balloons and bouquet arrangements aretaken and filled daily. Students apply the strategic planning skills requiredto open a new business such as marketing research, pricing, merchandising,promotion, customer services, human resource development, supervisoryskills, and product management. Emphasis is also placed on developingwork-related skills such as human relations with customers and colleagues,communication skills, problem-solving, teamwork, producing a qualityproduct, selling, and product knowledge. In addition, basic employability

38 NCRVE MDS-956 4 9 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

skills acquired include being on time, maintaining an orderly work area,following written and oral directions, accepting instructions frommanagement, exhibiting initiative, and controlling one's behavior. TheBalloon Shop school-based enterprise provides unlimited opportunities forstudents to become better prepared for both life and entering the workforce(Asselin & Mooney, 1996).

Providing students with exposure to broad themes such as industriesand fields using school-based enterprises may require teachers to have morethan just a bit of knowledge about the workplace. Actual long-termworkplace experience and exposure to related industries or fields can helpteachers serve effectively as adult-worker role-models. This type ofinteractive, hands-on professional development provides educators withimportant knowledge and skills that can make the difference betweensuccess and failure of a school-based enterprise (Jordan, 1996).

One example of how educators can learn more about the workplace maybe found in the Cincinnati, Ohio area. The Great Oaks Institute ofTechnology and Career Development and the University of Cincinnatisponsor a program that places K-12 teachers and administrators in localbusinesses for one week. The purpose of the program is for educators tobetter understand the local economy and employers' requirements.Educators participate in sessions on economics, decisionmaking, careertrends, and school-to-work issues. Three-and-a-half day job shadowingexperiences are provided for each participant. Educators may focus theirexperience in one workplace or divide their time between severalemployers. Businesses involved in the program range from small, family-owned companies to large manufacturers. As a culminating activity,educators create activities to help their students understand workplacerealities (Jordan, 1996).

Often when educators are exposed to the workplace, the experience canserve as a starting point for curriculum change. In Philadelphia, teams ofeducators who work in the city's career academies have participated inteacher internships. Educator teams have explored businesses andindustries through job shadowing experiences, interviews with humanresource personnel, and team-building exercises. After completing theseexperiences, educators discuss what they have learned in the workplaceand decide what aspects of their experiences might be incorporated intotheir academy curricula (Rahn, 1996). These two professional developmentexamples exemplify the ways that teachers can learn more about anenterprise and thereby be better prepared to guide students through itsestablishment and operation.


Linkages and PartnershipsAnother important contributor to the thematic curriculum's success

consists of linkages and partnerships between the school and localindustries, businesses, and the community. Linkages and partnerships arequite similar in that they both involve the school or school representativesin establishing meaningful connections with workplace and communityrepresentatives. Their differences are typically of an informal versus formalnature. Linkages tend to be more informal, whereas, partnerships are moreoften formalized through some sort of official agreement. Take for example,a drafting / CAD teacher who is employed each summer by a manufacturingcompany. Through informal connections with this company, the teacher isable to access company employees that can be guest speakers in her classesand serve on the drafting/ CAD program advisory committee. Throughperiodic contacts with the company's personnel manager, she also hasinformal access to student internship and graduate employmentopportunities. A partnership, on the other hand, might be establishedbetween a school and an employer to share equipment or between a high

school and a communityFigure 5-1. Examples of Benefits to the SchoolThrough Linkages and Partnerships

Job shadowing and internship opportunitiesfor studentsEmployment opportunities for graduatesSummer employment opportunities forteachersDonations of equipment, materials, andemployee timeAccess to guest speakers, judges, andevaluatorsAccess to employer equipment and servicesAccess to business and industry technicalworkshops and conferencesImproved communication with employersA better understanding of employers'expectations

gain from their connections with each other.establish a linkage or partnership without giving consideration to how abusiness or industry might benefit, they have not really considered whatlinkers and partners do. Realistically, linkers and partners must participate,collaborate, share, and gain from the experience. Otherwise, an unbalancedconnection will be created. Listed in Figure 5-2 are several benefits thatmay accrue for employers who link and partner with schools. These are

college to formalize collab-oration for a Tech Prepprogram.

In fact, the opportunitiesfor linkages and partner-ships are almost limitless.Provided in Figure 5-1 areexamples of the manybenefits that can accrue forschools through the estab-lishment of linkages andpartnerships.

It must be recognizedthat linkages and partner-ships are much like a two-way street. Both the schooland the workplace expect toIf school officials decide to

5140 NCRVE MDS-956

just a sampling of the manybenefits employers maygain through their asso-ciations with schools.

Job Shadowing andMentoring

Job shadowing andmentoring are among themost powerful work-basedlearning experiences avail-able to students. Job shad-owing places less respon-sibility on the adult workerand more on the student.

Figure 5-2. Examples of Benefits to EmployersThrough Linkages and Partnerships

Access to program students and graduatesTechnical assistance from school facultymembersImproved communication with educatorsA better understanding of educators'expectationsAccess to school classroom and laboratoryuse for employee trainingOpportunities for employees to volunteertheir services to the schoolsAn increase in the company's visibility in thecommunitySolutions to business problems/creation ofnew or improved products

When a student has a jobshadowing experience, he or she closely observes one or more workersperforming regular duties and tasks in the actual work environment.Opportunities are provided for students to ask related questions as long asthey do not disrupt adult workers' normal work processes. Students areusually required to note different aspects of the workers' activities andperformance so they can discuss these areas during debriefing meetingswith other students and teachers. With proper direction from teachers,students should be able to easily relate classroom learning to their jobshadowing experiences.

One example of job shadowing may be found at the Rindge School forTechnical Arts in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where each studentparticipates in two, three-hour job shadowing experiences per quarter. A"Job Shadow Fair" takes place each quarter, with participating employerspresenting information about job shadowing opportunities. After studentschoose their job shadowing experiences, they are required to arrange anemployer interview and obtain approved transportation to the site. Theymust take notes at the job site and prepare oral and written reports whichare presented in class (Nielsen Andrew, 1996).

Mentoring may be defined as an organized, work-related relationshipbetween an experienced worker and a learner, in which the worker assignsand monitors the learner's work activities and offers support and guidance.Support and guidance is particularly important when a young person isbeing mentored because the young learner may need assistance when heor she "goes through a difficult period, enters a new area of experience,takes on important tasks, or attempts to correct earlier mistakes" (Stern,Finkelstein, Stone, Latting, & Dornsife, 1994a, p. 56). Mentoring extendsbeyond preparation for life and earning a living. Successful mentoring

Curriculum:Designing the Thematic An All Aspects Approach 41

depends on having experienced adults with an interest in the developmentof 'whole students.' This means the mentor should not take responsibilitieslightly. Mentoring tasks can be time consuming and just plain hard work,especially when young people are the ones being mentored.

Teacher visits with workplace mentors can help them to help studentsrelate their work experiences to a broad industry or business theme and toclassroom learning. Mentors should, therefore, take time to show studentsvarious departments in the workplace and explain how each departmentlinks, functions, and contributes to the overall operation of the industry or

business. Students can also observementors at work, noting activities and

- comments as journal entries.Job shadowing and mentoring

experiences can expose students to a... range of theme-related functions,- - . concerns, issues, and technological-

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6. . - I United States for hundreds of years. Infact, formal apprenticeship programs

- - - predated passage of the Declaration of6- -6 . .6- . Independence. Apprenticeship has-. - - -

.11 - survived over the years and continues. -. . . - to be a useful way of preparing people

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is preparing to enter the workplace,preparing for further education, or both,job shadowing and mentoring experi-ences provide exposure and learningthat is difficult if not impossible toduplicate in regular school settings.


that apprenticeship was the central focus of workforce preparation in anumber of European countries. Soon, several pilot apprenticeship programswere initiated in the U.S.; however, these programs were termed youthapprenticeship since they enrolled persons who were still students in school.

Youth apprenticeship builds on the legacy of traditional apprenticeship;however, it has some rather unique characteristics:

coordination among schools, employers, labor, and governmentintegration of school-based and work-based learningcertification of graduates for academic and occupational skills masterypreparation of students for high skill, high wage careers that requireless than a bachelor's degree (Hoerner & Wehrley, 1995)

In youth apprenticeship, the workplace is viewed as a learning place,not simply an environment where students gain practical experience andspecific job skills (Bailey & Merritt, 1993). Skilled craftspersons provideon-the-job training, monitor students' progress, act as resources to studentsduring their work experience, and provide them with performancefeedback. Apprentices typically rotate through a systematic schedule ofvaried assignments at the work site, and have a gradual increase in jobresponsibilities. Many youth apprentices are paid for their work. Forexample, in Pennsylvania, youth apprentices spend two days each weekon the job beginning in 11th grade and three days per week in 12th grade.Participants receive wages that gradually increase during participation. InMaine, apprentices work at the job site for 30 weeks per year in the 11thand 12th grade, and 34 weeks in grade 13. A year-round stipend with annualincreases is provided (Reisner, McNeil, Adelman, Ku lick, Hal lock, &Leighton, 1993).

Youth apprenticeship and the thematic curriculum are actually quitecompatible. For example, youth apprenticeship links school-based andwork-based learning, a combination that thematic curriculum proponentsview as a powerful instructional approach. Additionally, youth apprenticesare exposed to a broad range of workplace experiences which alignreasonably well with the thematic curriculum view that students shouldhave a theme-wide (e.g., industry or field) focus to their studies. Will youthapprenticeship thrive and continue to grow? Only time will tell, but fornow it is clearly a useful option that links closely with the thematiccurriculum's philosophy and operation.

54Designing the Thematic;Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 43

Portfolios and Senior ProjectsPortfolios and senior projects may be implemented in almost any school

or program. However, portfolios and senior projects that are connectedwith thematic curricula have the potential to link students' school- andwork-based learning in very positive and meaningful ways.

Portfolios are certainly not new to either education or the workplace.Both art and architecture students are often required to prepare portfoliosthat include the work they have completed in different courses. When thesesame students are seeking employment, their prospective employers mayask to see portfolios containing samples of their work. Likewise, personswho are applying for positions in broadcasting are often required to submitportfolios containing tapes highlighting their broadcasting experience.Student portfolios typically include samples or a complete set of workcompleted during an extended period of time such as a school year, asemester, or a grading period. Although the traditional portfolio is flat,students should not be restricted to this formatespecially if they arestudying in areas where bulky items are created.

And what are some of the benefits associated with student portfolios?The following are a few examples:

Students are provided with experience in organizing and displayingwork they have completed.Students learn how to prepare their completed work so it can be sharedwith prospective employers.Students learn how to obtain employment by "marketing" their workexperiences.Students can provide clear evidence that they have mastered specifiedprogram objectives.

Benefits that portfolios have for students thus extend beyond determiningif they have completed certain classroom objectives. Students who havegained expertise with portfolio preparation are in a much better positionto "sell" themselves to employers. Obviously, a traditional résumé doesnot communicate what a student has accomplished in school. But a résuméplus a properly prepared portfolio can accurately communicate theseaccomplishments.

Many teachers include some sort of project requirement in their courses.In concept, the senior project is not much different from the courserequirement. However, it differs markedly in scope and emphasis. First,the student completes his or her senior project during the greater part ofthe senior year in high school. Second, the student is guided and evaluatedby a panel that is typically composed of representatives from differentacademic and vocational teaching areas as well as business, industry,

44 NCRVE MDS-956 55

and / or community representatives. Thispanel approves the project proposal andevaluates project completion via anextensive written report prepared by thestudent and an illustrated oral reportgiven by the student. Third, the projecttypically involves some sort of linkbetween the school and businesses,industries, and / or the community. Andfourth, satisfactory completion of theproject is usually required forgraduation.

With all the work that goes into aproject of this sort, what sorts of benefitsare derived? Typical benefits include thefollowing:

Useful business, industry, and / orcommunity products are produced orservices are rendered.Students are able to combine andapply the knowledge and skills theyhave already learned in school andgain additional expertise and higherorder learning skills through projectplanning and implementation.Through project completion, studentslearn about the meaningful links thatexist between school studies and thereal world.

There are certainly other benefits thatmay accrue through the completion ofsenior projects. Examples of benefitsinclude the development of studentexpertise in team building, leading, coordinating, planning, and evaluating.Because the senior project can develop students in more comprehensiveways than is usually accomplished in individual classrooms, it is indeedan option that should be considered for inclusion in any thematiccurriculum.

Student Projects with anIntegrated InstructionFocus

Students who attend Bethlehem(Pennsylvania) Area TechnicalSchool (BAVTS) participate eachyear in what is called the IntegratedCulminating Experience (ICE3). TheICE3 includes three different levelsof integrated, yearlong projects. Thepurpose of the projects is to ensurestudents have acquired academicand vocational-technical si ills thatare important or their futuresuccess. First -year students eachconduct an rn-oepth exploration ofa specific career. Second-and third-year students are engaged each yearin both research and a hands-ontrade or technical project. For eachproject completed, the student mustprepare a formal research paper andmake a formal presentation. A teamof BAVTS and participating districteducators worked together over athree-year period to develop thestandards, materials, and processesthat are included in the ICE3 project.Educators involved in the processincluded vocational-technical, math,and English teachers; guidancecounselors; and special educationstaff. Revisions to the projectcontinue as feedback is receivedthrough its use with students ("TheIntegrated Culminating Experience,"1996).

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SummaryAs the thematic curriculum is being planned, it is important to decide

which delivery options should be included and which should not. Sinceinclusion of delivery options in the curriculum is largely a function of thelocality, the extent of local support, and other related factors, options thatare chosen may need to be tailored to local education and workplaceconstraints. Linkages, partnerships, job shadowing, mentoring, youthapprenticeship, portfolios, and senior projects all have the potential to linklearning in the school with learning in the workplace. However, their linkingcan occur in different ways. For example, students' job shadowing andmentoring experiences can cause them to appreciate their school studiesmore and give them greater motivation to study and learn. Althoughportfolios and senior projects tend to be supervised by educators,involvement of workplace representatives in the assessment of theseportfolios and projects can serve as a valuable link between education andthe workplace. Educators who recognize the potential that delivery optionshave when they are combined with the thematic curriculum, and followup on this by deciding which options should be included in their schools,will not be disappointed. Each delivery option has the potential to serve asa powerful intervention when it is used with students.

References

Asselin, S. B., & Mooney, M. (1996). Diverse learners: Strategies for success.Richmond: Virginia Department of Education, Office of Vocational andAdult Education Services.

Bailey, T., & Merritt, D. (1993). Youth apprenticeship: Lessons from the U.S.experience. IEE Brief, 5. New York: Institute on Education and theEconomy, Teachers College, Columbia University.

The heartland's German model. (1997, February 15). The Economist, pp. 29-30.

Hoerner, J. L., & Wehrley, J. B. (1995). Work-based learning: The key to school-to-work transition. Columbus, OH: Glencoe /McGraw -Hill.

The integrated culminating experience. (1996, Winter). NAWI Notes, p. 7.

Jordan, A. (1996). Refresher course. Vocational Education Journal, 7(5), 44-45.

Nielsen Andrew, E. (Ed.). (1996). As teachers tell it: All aspects of the industry(MDS-885a and 885b). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.

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Rahn, M. R. (1996). Lively connections. Vocational Education Journal, 7(5),33-35, 60.

Reisner, E. R., McNeil, P. W., Adelman, N. E, Ku lick, C. D., Hal lock, R. V, &Leighton, M. S. (1993). Using youth apprenticeship to improve the transitionto work. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

Stern, D., Finkelstein, N., Stone III, J. R., Latting, J., & Dornsife, C. (1994a).Research on school-to-work transition programs in the United States (MDS-771). Berkeley: National Center for Research in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

Stern, D., Stone III, J. R., Hopkins, C., Mc Million, M., & Crain, R. (1994b).School-based enterprise: Productive learning in American high schools. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

Trotter, A. (1997, February 19). Web lets schools put new spin on studentbusinesses. Education Week, p. 8.

58Designing the Thematic CUrriculum: An All Aspects Approach 47

SECTION 6

Content Options

IntroductionTraditionally, content has been considered as curriculum development's

primary focus. Contemporary views of curriculum have not diminishedcontent's importance in the curriculum building process; however, contentis currently seen as having a shared role in determining what the curriculumshould be. As with many other curricula, the thematic curriculum isdeveloped giving full consideration to how potential content aligns withcontextual, organizational, and delivery decisions (see Sections 3, 4, and5). In this section, ways that thematic curriculum content may be identifiedand organized are described. The process begins by documenting school,workplace, and community needs and potential contributions. This isfollowed by identifying and selecting curriculum content. Selected contentis then organized and integrated in ways that best serve students' needs.

Documenting NeedsIf the thematic curriculum is to have relevance, curriculum content

should be closely aligned with the school, the workplace, and thecommunity. But why is this so important? Just as mathematics and Englishcourse content are often based on what students need to prepare them forfurther education and to function in the real world, thematic curriculumcontent should be relevant to students' current and future educational andcareer needs. Content should also link in meaningful ways with thecommunity and the workplace. For example, it is important to documentpotential opportunities to utilize the workplace and the community asschool partners. Since the thematic curriculum places emphasis on a broadcontent theme (e.g., industry, field, career) it is important to determine

why the school and its staff feel the need to create a thematic curriculum.which students the curriculum will serve and how it will serve them.what businesses, industries, and fields are represented by area employers.which employers and community organizations and agencies in the areamay be able to contribute to the curriculum.what additional theme-related educational and workplace opportunitiesexist in the local area.

Internal and external scanning, which are used in the strategic planningprocess, can be easily applied to curriculum needs assessment (Herman,


n

1989). Internal scanning consists of gathering relevant information frompeople and other sources within the organization (school and schooldistrict); whereas, external scanning refers to gathering information fromoutside the organization (businesses, industries, and the community).Gathering this information can be as simple or as complex as time andresources permit. However, the process should seek answers to keyquestions about the school, the workplace, and the community.

The SchoolDocumenting why the school and its staff intend to create a thematic

curriculum is basic to the development process since it allows intentions tobe discussed, debated, and ultimately documented. These actionsespecially documentationensure that school staff who are involved withthe curriculum understand what they will be getting into and why.Determining which students the curriculum will serve is important sincethis decision has direct impact on the curriculum content and expectations.For example, a thematic curriculum designed for students who plan toattend universities right after high school might be quite different fromone that will serve students who plan to attend universities after they havebeen employed for a few years. When determining which student groupsthe curriculum will serve, several questions may serve as focal points (seeFigure 6-1).

Answers to these questions should reveal what constitutes thecurriculum's target population; that is, which students the curriculum willbe designed to serve. However, the answers can also assist in deciding whatmarketing may be needed to reach these students so they are encouraged

to enroll.

Figure 6-1. Determining Who the CurriculumWill Serve

What defining characteristics do the potentialstudent enrollees have? (e.g., college anduniversity bound, interest in thetransportation field, current enrollment inmiddle school career cluster studies)At what grade level(s) might students beenrolled in the thematic curriculum? Thisinformation has implications for determiningstudents' maturity levels and educationallevels when they enroll in the curriculum.To what extent will students' parents andpeers support their enrollment in thematicstudies? This information has implications forstudent enrollment support from others andassists in determining whether students willactually enroll.

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The WorkplaceInformation gathered

from businesses andindustries can also be avaluable contributor tocurriculum decisions. How-ever, designing the thematiccurriculum differs mark-edly from curricula focusingon preparing students forspecific jobs and occupa-tions. Rather than justbasing content specificallyon detailed job task infor-mation gathered fromworkers employed in

specific jobs, a broad themeserves as the content or-ganizer. Information gath-ered from businesses andindustries located in thearea served by the school orschool district assists indefining this organizer.Once obtained, informationcan be used to aid in (1)deciding what the themewill be (e.g., manufacturing,marketing, travel andtourism, the built environ-ment), (2) determiningaspects of the theme thatwill serve as the curriculumorganizer, and (3) identify-ing potential ways bus-inesses and industries cancontribute to creating thecurriculum and providingsupport. It should be notedthat selection of a contentorganizer need not be basedon what is occurring orexists in the local area. Forexample, even though thenearest airport may be over50 miles from a high school, the school faculty might decide to implementa curriculum focusing on the aviation and aerospace field since this focuswill be interesting and challenging to students. Faculty at another highschool may decide to focus their curriculum on the aviation and aerospacefield because airports and aviation- and aerospace-related industries andbusinesses are close by and offer a number of employment opportunities.Questions asked of businesses and industries that can assist in makingcurriculum decisions are included in Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2. Curriculum-Related Questions ToAsk Businesses and Industries

To what extent do different workplaces focustheir efforts on common themes? Forexample, it may be useful to know if anumber of the businesses and industriesfocus directly and extensively onmanufacturing, health care, or some otherbroad theme area.What potential exists for businesses andindustries to become partners and/or assistin other ways with implementing andotherwise contributing to the thematiccurriculum? This might include providingstudents with workplace job shadowing andinternship opportunities and assisting increating and maintaining the curriculum (e.g.,providing teachers with opportunities tointern in the workplace, serving oncurriculum advisory committees, and offeringto serve as guest speakers in the school).What potential exists for the curriculum to beof value to businesses and industries?Collaboration is a two-way street. Thecurriculum must be seen as contributing inmeaningful ways to business and industry aswell as educational needs. It is thusimportant to clearly document how thecurriculum will benefit businesses andindustries.

Designing the Thematic Cartiddialum: An All Aspects Approach 51

Figure 6-3. Curriculum-Related Questions ToAsk Community Representatives

To what extent may community agencies andproviders be linked to a common theme orthemes (e.g., public administration, protectiveservices)?What opportunities exist for the communityor a subset of the community to become apartner in providing the curriculum? Althoughoften ignored as a potential resource, thecommunity services and agencies can makeexcellent partners.What contributions can the curriculum maketo the community? Again, it is important todocument ways the thematic curriculum cancontribute to the community.

The CommunityDetails about the com-

munity can, likewise, pro-vide valuable informationfor curriculum decisions. Byextending external scanningto the community, informa-tion may be gathered abouthow community activities,including those of publicservice providers (e.g., localgovernment, chambers ofcommerce, health serviceagencies) can contribute tothe thematic curriculum.The types of community-related questions asked,

which are similar to those asked of businesses and industries, may be foundin Figure 6-3.

Obtaining School, Workplace, and Community InformationUseful information may be gathered in several ways. The most widely

used approaches are face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, andsurveys. Procedures for conducting interviews and surveys are availablefrom a number of sources (e.g., Finch & Crunkilton, 1993; Frey, 1983;Spradley, 1979). It may also be useful to examine community records andinformation bases. For example, telephone directories can reveal how manyand what types of employers are involved in some way with thetransportation field (e.g., automotive sales and service, railway operations,aviation, moving companies). Curriculum advisory committees can alsoprovide meaningful information. If an advisory committee is establishedearly in the curriculum development process, committee members whorepresent that theme can assist by identifying useful information sourcesavailable in the area.

Regarding specifics to be asked about the school, the workplace, andcommunity, questions listed in this section can assist in gathering basicinformation for curriculum content decisions. Questions related to a specifictheme and to a certain locality may be added as necessary so more detailedlocal information is gathered.

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Identifying and Selecting ContentIdentifying and selecting thematic curriculum content is a key component

of the development process. Unlike curricula for many content areas thathave been developed and refined over the years and are readily availablefor review, examples of thematic curricula can be very difficult to locate.Additionally, since the thematic curriculum is sometimes tailored to aspecific locality or region, there may be little opportunity to take an existingcurriculum from one school and implement it in another school withoutfirst making major changes.

Content IdentificationIn Figure 6-4, an overview of the content identification and selection

process is provided. School, employer, and community information isfundamental to the process since it provides both a context and a startingpoint for content decisions. It is especially important to gather informationabout standards that can affect what is taught, how it is taught, and theextent to which student learning should occur in the school. These standardsmay be schoolwide, school districtwide, or take the form of state learningexpectations for students. For example, statewide student learningstandards such as "use technologies as extensions of the mind" and "writeand speak with power, economy, and elegance" (Eggebrecht et al., 1996)could be important determiners of what content will ultimately be includedin the curriculum. Other standards such as those that must be met in orderto be certified as an emergency medical technician or to receive a privatepilot's license may affect the content provided in a thematic curriculumwith a health and human services or an aviation and aerospace technologyemphasis. Other content sources should not be overlooked. Examples ofbroad industries and fields and related information can provide meaningfulinput for content selection. Included in Appendices A, B, and C are severalexamples of industries and fields; content organized around broad themes;and career clusters, pathways, and majors. These examples can be used tostimulate discussion and make decisions about what should be includedin the thematic curricula. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (U.S.Department of Labor, 1991) is another excellent information source since itpresents information about a wide range of occupational areas and clusters(see Appendix A).

Many existing curricula such as those in marketing, agriculture,technology, and business education are broadly and comprehensivelyorganized and may thus be potentially useful information sources. It isimportant to note that the thematic curriculum does not have to be createdfrom scratch. As with most curriculum work, ideas can be drawn from avariety of sources and shaped to fit the local situation.

Designing the Thematic Currigli: An All Aspects Approach 53

Figure 6-4. Theme Content Identification andSelection: Building from an All Aspects Base

IDENTIFICATION

EmployerInformation

SchoolInformation

ContentSources

CommunityInformation

ExistingCurricula

*Functions, issues, concerns, and technologicalknowledge and skills

Content SelectionAlso included in Figure

6-4 are core elements of thethematic curriculum: atheme (e.g., industry, field),broadly defined contentareas, and related focusareas. As noted earlier, thetheme serves as curriculumcontent organizer. It shouldbe broad enough to encom-pass a predominant area.And how large should atheme be? Perhaps the bestway to describe its size is toconsider what schools havedone. In some high schools,thematic curricula organ-ized as career majors andacademies may take upmost of students' schooltime for three or four schoolyears. However, other highschools involve studentsless than two or threeperiods each school day fortwo or three school years.Others may be organizedinto six or eight different butcomplementary themes(clusters, majors, or path-ways), with each studentbeing a member of onetheme "team." Many highschools also coordinate andmonitor students' paid or

unpaid summer internships in business and industry. In effect, a theme isnot "English" or "drafting"; it is something much more encompassing suchas "International Baccalaureate," "business and marketing," or"manufacturing." When the theme is being selected, several questions mayassist in providing direction. Does the potential theme .


closely align with the needs of students who will be enrolled?build on employers' areas of strength and the ways they can contributeto curriculum success?link closely with and build upon community resources?

Examples of various themes and content (Appendices A and B) and theirapplications in selected high schools (Appendix C) are useful starting pointsfor content decisionmaking. When these examples are combined withcurrent school, employer, and community information and ideas drawnfrom other content sources, the result should be selection of a tentativetheme.

Next, broad content areas are determined. To accomplish this, potentialcontent is reviewed in relation to the selected theme. For example, ifengineering and technology is the tentative theme of choice, informationgathered about students, employers, and the community focusing onengineering and technology should be examined. Available engineering-and technology-related curricula and content sources may also be studied(Appendices B and C). A few questions related to tentative content areasfollow:

Do the broad content areas define the theme in comprehensive terms?Does school, employer, and community information reveal anyadditional content that might be included?

Finally, consider related focus areas. For example, in manufacturing, thesemight encompass the fiscal, economic, marketing, distribution, andmanagement areas. Examples of theme-wide functions, issues, concerns,and technological knowledge and skills are included in Appendix D. Aswith the broad content areas, it must be decided which related focus areasexemplify and truly define the broad theme. Questions related to focusarea content include the following:

Which focus areas actually exist within the theme and assist in definingthe theme more comprehensively?To what extent might employers and the community be able to assistwith school- and work-based learning in related focus areas?To what degree can the focus areas be readily incorporated into thecurriculum?

Team BuildingThe content selection process must include times when all those who

will be involved in teaching the content have opportunities to voice theirfeelings and concerns. Teachers directly involved in core theme instructionare logically members of the curriculum team and should be able to offer

Designing the Thematic COrriggiu5: An All Aspects Approach 55

suggestions throughout the content identification and selection process.However, others who teach core-related subjects and / or coordinatestudents' work-based learning experiences should also be involved. Thesepersons are in excellent positions to offer suggestions from their personalvantage points. They can also provide insights that may not have beenotherwise considered. A useful way of bringing these educators togetherand getting their collective input is by using what Drake (1993) describesas the transdisciplinary/real-world approach. In this approach, which buildson strengths of the thematic approach, "Interconnections . . . are so vastthey seem limitless: the theme, strategies, and skills seem to merge whenthe theme is set in its real-life context. Disciplines are transcended, butimbedded naturally within the connections if one cares to look" (p. 40).Drake goes on to say that the approach emphasizes relevance and meaningvia a life-centered approach where "knowledge is explored as it is embeddedin a real-life or cultural context" (p. 41). A transdisciplinary web has beendevised by Drake to help educators shift their focus from disciplines tocore learnings that are essential life skills for the productive future citizen.The transdisciplinary approach and web enable educators to move beyondspecific disciplines, contexts, and situations. When Drake used atransdisciplinary web with curriculum writing teams, she found mostparticipants discovered that knowledge is interconnected and value-laden.Thus, brainstorming that begins with a real-world focus (e.g., an industryor field) may lead to the identification of both broad content areas andrelated focus areas that include many functions, issues, concerns, andtechnological knowledge and skills. The transformational web example inFigure 6-5 uses Healthcare as a focal point. Building from Healthcare as anorganizer, and using information gathered from the school, the workplace,and the community, as well as other content sources, a team can brainstorm,discuss, and then detail the broad content areas that should be embracedby this organizer. Concurrently, the team can consider what aspects ofHealthcare impact at local, state, national, and international levels. Next,related focus areas can be identified that link with both the theme and thebroad content areas. The result is a thematic curriculum that has beenorganized based on a wide variety of information.

Selecting Existing Curricula: A Special CaseDuring the content identification process, thematic curricula may be

identified that have already been organized and packaged and may evenbe ready to implement. In fact, several organizations have preparedcurricula that appear to have a strong theme focus. Potentially, thesecurricula can shorten the decision process described earlier by allowingthe curriculum to be implemented much more quickly.

Even though several excellent curricula have been produced, a fewcautionary notes are in order. First, ease of curriculum implementation

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Figure 6-5. Example of a Healthcare Transdisciplinary Web*

*This example builds on the web concept devised by Drake (1993).

should not be confused with quality and focus. A quality thematiccurriculum must be in harmony with the school, its teachers, and its studentsas well as employers and the community. It would be most unfortunate toimplement a curriculum and discover later that it was a poor choice. Second,the selection of an "off-the-shelf" curriculum may create ownershipproblems. As Harvey (1990) indicates, "the best predictor of ownership isparticipation" (p. 35). Teachers who are provided with opportunities tocreate curricula may feel they are curriculum owners rather than merelyrenters. Since pride in ownership can generate teacher satisfaction andmotivation to improve the curriculum, it is very important to activelyinvolve teachers in the curriculum selection process. And finally, it isimportant for teachers to have some negotiation power in terms of what istaught. If existing curricula include learning standards that do not makeprovision for teacher negotiation, teachers may believe the curriculum hadbeen dumped on them by an outsider and never accept it as being usableand credible.


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Organizing and Integrating ContentMost traditionally developed courses, programs, and curricula use

textbooks as starting points for organizing and sequencing content.However, since reliance on a specific textbook tends to isolate what is taughtand how it is taught, creating a thematic curriculum needs to occur in morecomprehensive ways. Organizing and integrating content provides bothteachers and their students with a broad framework for instruction andlearning. Some teachers view this framework as a way to help structurecontent; whereas, others see it as a way to destructure content. Regardlessof personal views, organized and integrated content should providestudents with opportunities to learn about a broad theme in meaningfuland effective ways. Information about linking curriculum with instructionis presented in Section 7. However, this does not mean content organizationand integration should exclude consideration for student learning. As thedevelopment progresses, thought must be given to ways that students'learning needs can be met.

Organizing ContentArmstrong (1989, pp. 78-80) presents four of the more popular

approaches to curriculum content organization. Each of the four is importantto consider when determining how content may be organized:

1. the thematic approach2. the chronological approach3. the part-to-whole approach4. the whole-to-part approach

Each of these approaches can make contributions to the organizationprocess.

The thematic approach has already been described in some detail. However,another example of its application is in order. Consider a theme called thebuilt environment. Examples of broad content areas for this theme mightbe architecture, urban planning, environmental design, construction,engineering, and public services. Related focus area examples might includecommunity issues, environmental issues, architectural issues, finance,health, and safety, as well as technological knowledge and skills related tothe built environment.

The chronological approach is of greatest value when content is sequencedaccording to a calendar. This approach is most frequently used whenhistorical subject matter is being organized. Its value may be seen whenthe historical aspects of a theme are taught. For example, in a thematiccurriculum focusing on hospitality, tourism, and recreation, it might be

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meaningful to organize content on the rise of labor unions in a chronologicalorder that is based on historical events.

Part-to-whole and whole-to-part approaches depend on how the contentis to be utilized. Thus, content for a thematic curriculum focusing oncommunication might be organized so broad aspects of the communicationfield such as its contributions to quality of life, economic development,and so forth are taught first; followed by individual contributions to thecommunication process such as television, radio, the World Wide Web, andgraphic communication. An aviation careers curriculum might begin withparts: airport operations, aircraft safety, flight regulations, and other basictechnological components of the field; and merge these parts and otherstogether many months later into the student's first solo flight and, ultimately,award of a private pilot's license.

These four approaches to content organization are useful tools for anycurriculum development effort. However, the chronological, part-to-whole,and whole-to-part approaches are of value when organizing content subsetswithin the thematic curriculum. Thus, for example, the chronologicalapproach might be most appropriate for organizing history content subsetsof the thematic curriculum (e.g., historical aspects of an industry or field).

Integrating ContentContent integration flows logically from curriculum organization. As

noted in Section 4, curriculum integration is one of several innovativeorganizational options that are available to educators. But why is integrationso important to consider at this point in the curriculum developmentprocess? In an article describing lessons learned from a half-decade of workin activist school reform, Nathan (1996) presents seven ways thateducational change may be made more successful. Among the lessons,Nathan notes that "making schoolwork 'real' is central to engaging manystudents" (p. 43). In effect, linking schoolwork with the real world in creativeways can help students who have been turned off education to get turnedon again. Drake (1993) offers several other benefits of integrating thecurriculum: "Integration, by reducing duplication of both skills and content,begins to allow us to teach more. It also gives us a new perspective onwhat constitutes basic skills" (p. 2). She goes on to say that (1) integrationlinks subjects in ways that mirror the real world and (2) teaching inintegrated ways aligns with learning research that supports learningthrough connection-making. Logically, a thematic curriculum can offerteachers a number of opportunities to provide integrated instruction totheir students. So if a thematic curriculum is configured in ways that connect"basic" and "real world" content, it is more likely that teachers will acceptthe thematic content and teach it in integrated ways.

Fortunately, thematic content can be organized in an integrated fashion.Since a theme can include content drawn from numerous areas and these

6.9.Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 59

Figure 6-6. A Travel and Tourism Integration Planning Matrix*

Function* *

ScienceTeaching Area

Mathematics English SocialStudies

Marketing

Business 1*** 3 3 3 3

Economics 1 2 1 3 3

Finance 1 3 1 1 3

Planning 2 3 2 2 3

Law 2 2 3 3 2

Ethics 3 3 3 3 3

Knowledge 3 3 3 3 3

Skills 3 3 3 3 3

Other

* This matrix presents several examples of functions and teaching areasand the extent to which they may be linked for integrated instruction.

* Functions, issues, concerns, and technological knowledge and skills

***Teachers' ratings: 1 = little or no integration link, 2 = moderateintegration link, 3 = strong integration link

areas may be organized so subject-based is linked with the real world, thereis greater potential for integrating the thematic curriculum.

Integration linkages may be identified using an integration planningmatrix. The matrix typically includes traditional teaching areas on one axisand theme-wide functions, concerns, issues, and technological knowledgeand skills on the other. Included as Figure 6-6 is an integration planningmatrix for a travel and tourism theme. Teachers who represent both thetheme and the various teaching areas begin the planning process bybrainstorming to determine how teaching areas link travel and tourismwith the more detailed functions, concerns, issues, and technologicalknowledge and skills that have already been identified by using thetransdisciplinary web (Figure 6-5). The process places emphasis on buildinga base from a broad theme such as an industry or field rather than using atraditional teaching area or areas as a base. Realistically, as teachers decidewhat to include in this thematic base, they must also focus on the standardsthey feel should be set for their students. Depending on what standardshave already been established (e.g., state-level standards of quality havealready been determined for students), teachers may choose to includediscussion of these established standards while they are deciding how

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teaching areas and theme details align. Alternatively, they may wait untilafter the matrix discussion is complete to discuss where standards fit in.This alternative has the advantage of enabling teachers to think throughhow both the teaching areas and the theme content can be organized,combined, and integrated in meaningful ways to meet specific standards.However, regardless of the processes used to ensure that curriculum contentis relevant, consideration must be given to the ways that content alignswith standards students should need. Presented in Figure 6-6 is a teachergroup's view of the degree to which teaching area content aligns with theTravel and Tourism field. The result of teachers' deliberations serves as aframework for teacher collaboration across teaching areas. Ultimately, thisresult can enable students to become more actively engaged in their learning(Seely, 1995).

Updating Content: A Continuing ProcessIdentifying and organizing content cannot be a one time activity. Just as

the school, the workplace, and the community evolve, thematic curriculumcontent should evolve in response to these changes. Referring again toFigure 6-4, the dashed line from content selection to content identificationreflects content's cyclical nature. Just as content identification flows intothe content selection process, the content that has been selected should beexamined periodically to be sure it is based on current school, employer,and community information. Depending on which has the greatest appeal,content may be examined on a regularly scheduled basis (e.g., twice a year,each year, every other year) or continuously. In effect, thematic curriculumcontent is only as good as its content and organizational base. Obsoletecurriculum content is of little value; but when organized properly, cutting-edge content can benefit students by exposing them to the latest informationabout and experiences related to a broad theme.

SummaryGiven the variety of content options that are available, dealing with

thematic curriculum content can be a difficult and time consuming process.However, the rewards appear to be worth the extra effort. Documentingneeds and opportunities; examining information about the school, theworkplace, and the community; and identifying, selecting, organizing, andintegrating content are all important parts of the process. Derivingcurriculum content without giving consideration to these areas can resultin key content being overlooked. This can, in turn, result in a curriculumthat does little to help students learn about a broad theme in ways thattranscend disciplines.

71Designing the Thematic-Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 61

References

Armstrong, D. G. (1989). Developing and documenting the curriculum.Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Drake, S. M. (1993). Planning integrated curriculum: The call to adventure.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment.

Eggebrecht, J., Dosch, D., Merczak, N., Park, M. N., Sty ler, S. C., Workman,D., & Dagenais, R. (1996, May). Reconnecting the sciences. EducationalLeadership, 53(8), 4-8.

Finch, C. R., & Crunkilton, J. R. (1993). Curriculum development in vocationaland technical education: Planning, content, and implementation (4th ed.).Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Frey, J. H. (1983). Survey research by telephone. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Harvey, T. R. (1990). Checklist for change: A pragmatic approach to creating andcontrolling change. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Herman, J. J. (1989). External and internal scanning: Identifying variablesthat affect your school. NASSP Bulletin, 73, 48-52.

Nathan, J. (1996, February 21). Activist school reform. Education Week, pp.40, 43.

Seely, A. E. (1995). Integrated thematic units. Westminster, CA: TeacherCreated Materials, Inc.

Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rineheart,and Winston.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). Dictionary of occupational titles (Vol. 1)(4th ed.). Lanham, MD: Bernan.

7 262 NCRVE MDS-956

SECTION 7

Linking Curriculumwith Instruction

IntroductionEven the best curriculum is doomed to failure if it is not properly linked

with instruction. On the other hand, instruction that draws from and builds

upon a meaningful curriculum base has the potential to greatly improvethe teaching /learning process. As with other curricula, the thematiccurriculum is only useful to the extent that it contributes to qualityinstruction. Instruction grounded in a broad theme has the potential toassist students in seeing the relevance of learning by connecting it withreal-world situations and expectations. Engagingstudents in authentic, real-world experiences that relate to themes can help motivate them to becomeinvolved in additional learning and acquire knowledge and skills thattransfer to other situations and settings.

In this section, some of the more popular teaching / learning strategiesused to enhance the value of thematic curricula are presented. Many ofthese strategies are well known, whereas, others may berelatively unknown.The strategies have been organized into three areas: (1) school-basedteaching/ learning strategies, (2) work-based teaching /learning strategies,and (3) strategies connecting the school and workplace. Clearly, these threeareas have a great deal in common and tend to overlap each other. It may,thus, be noted that teaching does not begin and end in school settings.Contemporary teaching, and therefore learning, begins in a school classroom

or laboratory, a workplace, or somewhere in between; and ultimately canend up somewhere else.

School-Based Teaching/Learning StrategiesSchool-based teaching /learning strategies organized around broad

themes offer numerous opportunities for teachers and students to worktogether in the classroom and laboratory. Contextual, interactive instructionthat is integrated across subjects aligns well with the thematic curriculum.By using interactive and interdisciplinary approaches, teaching can engagestudents in activities that include a broad range of functions, issues,concerns, and technological knowledge and skills. The learningenvironment can foster connections between knowing and doing and activeparticipation and application of knowledge, skills, andvalues in real-worldproblem-solving settings. First, a description is given of several integrated

Designing the Thematic Curricul An All Aspects Approach 63

teaching models that are compatible with thematic curricula. Then,examples of school-based teaching strategies are described to includeinteractive teaching, small group activities, cooperative group projects, casestudies, and simulations.

Integrated Teaching ModelsIn integrated teaching /learning settings, group interactions become

central to the process. If organized in the proper fashion, using a broadtheme as a starting point for integrated instruction can ultimately providestudents with opportunities to accomplish group tasks and projects relatedto that theme (e.g., industry or field). The social context associated withintegrated teaching can provide students with a greater appreciation forothers and develop abilities needed to learn complex concepts such assolutions to theme-based problems.

Building on discussions of integration presented in Sections 4 and 6, itmay be most meaningful to consider ways instruction based on a broadcurriculum theme may be organized. Fortunately, several models thatschools are using to successfully integrate instruction have been identified.As noted in Figure 7-1, the more commonly encountered models focus onrelationships within, between, and across teacher and student groups(Fogarty, 1991; Grubb, Davis, Lum, Plihal, & Morgaine, 1991).

At one end of the integration continuum is a traditional school modelwhere courses are organized around separate subject areas. In this setting,an individual teacher works with students in a classroom or laboratorysetting focusing on teaching the course subject matter. At the other end ofthe integration continuum, an entire school is organized around broadthemes (e.g., clusters, majors). In this setting, teachers from different subjectareas work as teams to teach students through multidisciplinary experiencesthat cut across subject matter lines. Students learn individually and in small

Figure 7-1. More Commonly Used Integration Teaching Models

Relationships Within Between Across

TeacherRelationships

IndividualTeachers

Two or threeteachers

Teamsof teachers

SubjectRelationships

Within a singlesubject in aschool

Between several Across all subjectssubjects within a throughout theschool school

Relationshipsto Learners

Engaged inseparate courses

Connected across Organized incourses and multiple groups,around related networked acrossthemes and subjectstopics

7464 NCRVE MDS-956

groups, interacting with teachers whoprovide them with the instructionneeded to attain instructional objectives.At the middle of the continuum is anintegration process where small groupsof teachers from different subject areaswithin the school collaborate with eachother for varying time periods. Thestudents are enrolled in separate coursesbut are taught to apply knowledge andskills that cut across traditional subjectmatter lines.

School-Based StrategiesWhen implementing thematic

curricula, specific classroom andlaboratory teaching / learning strategiesneed to be identified and used.Traditional classrooms have typicallyrelied on the lecture-demonstrationapproach to teaching. However, changesin student composition and newknowledge about how people learn havecreated a need for teachers to movebeyond their roles as transmitters ofknowledge and become facilitators oflearning. Student diversity calls onteachers to create more active andcollaborative teaching and learningmodes. Teachers are encouraged to viewthe learning process as an effort toconstruct new knowledge through activecognitive involvement. This processrequires a collaborative, interactiveteaching environment using a variety ofvisual, auditory, and tactile instructional materials (Stover, Neubert, &Lawlor, 1993).

Interactive teaching / learning is composed of three essential components:(1) elements, (2) teaching strategies, and (3) instructional resources (Meyers& Jones, 1993). Teachers can combine these components in creative waysand design active learning environments that focus on broad themes. Figure7-2 provides examples of elements, strategies, and resources commonlyused in an interactive teaching environment. And how are these componentsused? Elements are active learning verbs that are applied to both general

Integrating the Curriculumat a Secondary TechnicalCenter

At Dauphin County Technical Centerin Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, teach-ers have organized themselvesaround several different themes orclusters le.g., transportation, humanservices, and construction). In eachof these clusters, academic andvocational teachers have usedprojects to develop integratedopportunities for students in anumber of theme-related activities.For example, in the electronics andcommunications ciuster, studentsread a Shakespearean play in Englishclass, designed a theatre set for theplay, planned the theatre spacelighting, learned principles ofelectrical circuitry in science andmathematics classes, and inves-tigated the labor and managementorganization needed to produce theplay in a social studies class. Theproject's capstone experience wasa trip to New York City to see aBroadway production; visit the setbackstage; and talk with the director,actors, and technicians. In thisexperience, the broad electronicsand communications theme wasblended into relevant learningactivities that provided opportunitiesfor students to apply what they werelearning in realistic settings.

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Figure 7-2. Components of Interactive Teaching Strategies

readingwritingquestioningtalkinglisteningotherconceptualizing

Elementsapplying ideassummarizing/scanninginteracting(collaborating)

small group activitiescooperative groupprojectscase studiessimulationslecturesclass discussionsdemonstrationsteamworkmental calculationsmovementreviewguided practicemedia integration

textbooksvideotapesaudiotapeslibrary services

solvingproblems(analyzing)testing theoriesadaptingquestioning

Teaching Strategiestechnical applicationsmentoringrole playingcooperative learningindividualizationmastery learning (self-paced)independent workdrawingsmusicfacilitationprojects/productsgoal setting

demonstratingvisualizingexploringself-evaluatingreflectingillustratingconcluding

modifying/accommodatingquestioningpeer and cross-agetutoringjob coachingstudent/teachercontractjournal writingexperimentsmetaphors/analogiescollaborative teachingcurriculum integration

Instructional Resourcesfield trips worksite visitstools equipmentmanipulatives computersdirectories other

materialsguest speakerssupplementalmaterials

content and the mastery of that content. For example, reading might beapplied to technical manuals, thus producing "reading technical manuals."In order for this element to be assessed, it is important to know such thingsas how well the manuals should be read, what should be remembered, andwhether information read in the manuals is to be applied in some way.Teaching strategies point to ways that elements may be taught in interactiveways; thus, teaching students how to test theories might require the use ofstrategies that are quite different from those used to teach students someaspect of writing. Instructional resources can also contribute to interactiveteaching and learning. The selection of resources varies as a function of theelements to be focused on and the teaching strategies selected to be used.In order to illustrate how teaching strategies may be used to teach ininteractive ways, four of these strategies are described in some detail. Thestrategies described include small group activities, cooperative group

66 NCRVE MDS-956 76

projects, case studies, and simulations. Additional examples of strategiesare presented later in the section.

Small Group ActivitiesSmall group activities engage students in short-term activities focusing

on specific assignments or objectives. These activities are useful in assessingstudents' prior knowledge or skill levels, preparing for guest speakers andfield trips, developing clarification questions that focus on specificassignments, summarizing discussions and concepts covered in classroominstruction, and watching video presentations. Small groups may vary insize from two to six students. Groups of two or three students are mostbeneficial for generating ideas or summarizing main points while groupsof four to six work best for problem-solving or brainstorming tasks. It isimportant to prepare specific guidelines for small group activities. Beforeinitiating small group work, the following questions should be considered:

What objective or purpose is there for using groups?How will learning be assessed?What role will the teacher play?How large will each group be?How will students be assigned to the groups?What guidelines will be given to each of the groups?How much time will be allotted to group work?What will be done to synthesize or summarize the outcome of the groupactivity?How is the process / outcome applicable to "real-life" situations?

Addressing these questions can contribute to positive small groupprocess outcomes (Meyers & Jones, 1993). Small group activities encouragestudents to assume responsibilities for active learning. Students engagedin small group activities are better able to learn to listen, reflect, clarifytheir thoughts, and appreciate others' viewpoints.

Cooperative Group ProjectsIn comparison to small group activities, the cooperative group project

engages a larger group of students for a longer period of time (several daysto several weeks). Members of the group collaborate to organize, plan, andconduct a specific project with individual student efforts contributing tototal group accomplishment. Cooperative group projects allow students tointegrate and apply skills and knowledge from various subjects. Studentsutilize constructive criticism, accept and challenge others' viewpoints, andparticipate in group consensus decisionmaking.

Six steps should be considered when organizing a cooperative groupproject (Sharon, 1994):

Designing the Thematic Curriculuy: lin All Aspects Approach 67

1. Determine the project.2. Plan and organize the steps or tasks needed to complete the project.3. Conduct the project.4. Plan the presentation of the project to others.5. Make the presentation.6. Evaluate the project outcomes.

Cooperative group project success depends on the interaction amongstudent members, and interaction between students and teachers. Theteacher helps students to apply their skills and knowledge to produce aproduct or solve a problem, motivates students to make a personalconnection with the proposed project, guides students to sources ofinformation related to particular topics, and assesses students' abilities toplan and work together. Students reflect on the personal significance of theexperience and demonstrate integrated and applied learning skills.

The cooperative group project stresses team member interdependencein finding solutions to problems. Projects also provide opportunities forstudents to integrate skills and knowledge around realistic projects thatcan include exposure to a wide range of functions, issues, concerns, andtechnological skills. Students may thus make better connections with real-world situations, build closer partnerships with peers and teachers, andfurther stimulate their own learning.

Case StudiesCase studies offer excellent opportunities to create active teaching

situations. A case study is a narrative description of a realistic event thatrequires a solution to a problem or answers to questions. They are commonlyused to provide practical illustrations of material discussed in lectures, tostudy particular incidents, and to illustrate "best practices." Case studyactivities require students to be actively involved in reading, discussing,listening, analyzing, interacting with each other, evaluating solutions,consensus building, and making decisions or recommendations. Since manycase studies are based on real-life problems and open-ended with morethan one possible solution, developing a logical rationale for decisions andgaining experience at making informed decisions are important outcomes.The case study approach allows students to explore the multidimensionalnature of complex issues in a comprehensive manner.

A clearly defined process for working with case studies is followed.Students receive case information in a written document, audiovisual tape,or interactive computer program. They discuss and analyze the situationand work on possible solutions in small groups. Each group proposes a setof recommendations to solve the dilemma or problem. The teacher observesand facilitates group discussion as needed, interprets or clarifies pointsthat are not well-understood, and helps students make importantconnections about the case under study.

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While case studies provide a versatileteaching medium, teachers must be well-prepared and organized to use them asa teaching strategy. There are severalimportant factors to consider when casestudies are used with students (Mostert& Sudzina, 1996). Teachers must

have a thorough understanding of thecase study content.select a case study that is relevant tothe subject(s) being studied and thatwill capitalize on student interestsand current knowledge.structure the classroom environmentfor multiple small group discussionsthat provide opportunities for activeparticipation in case discussion.review the questions to be discussedand the decisions or outcomes eachgroup is expected to share with othergroups.develop guiding questions to reviewand summarize the main concepts tobe learned as a result of the case studyactivity.model case discussion and inter-personal communication skills.direct students to respond in theiranalysis to five areas of inquiry: (1)issues, (2) perspectives, (3) actions, (4)consequences, and (5) knowledgeneeded.assist students in articulating (verb-ally and in written form) their groupand individual responses to thedilemmas posed in the case.relate the outcomes of the caseanalysis and discussion to the coursecontent.

Water as an ElementaryTheme

Fifth graders at BlanchardElementary School in Edmore,Michigan, learn about waterconservation in an interdisciplinaryfashion. In social studies class,students investigate and map worldsources of water, including oceans,fresh water, and ice caps. Inlanguage arts class, they researchinformation about water sources.After exploring the wate-holdingcapacity of gravel and sang n mathclass, students construct aquifersand discover the properties of clay.Science classes create cross-sectional drawings that illustrate theflow of ground water. A local welldriller presents an assembly on theprocess of well drilling as well asinformation about soils, depth,equipment, and contamination ofwater. Students also participate in afield trip to the city's water facilityand sewage lagoons where theylearn about sewage treatment in agrowing community. Studentscollect data of their family's wateruse over a four-day period andcompile the data in math to use laterin language arts to write argumentsfor water-saving measures. Theculmination of the interdisciplinaryproject is the creation of a water-saving campaign. This real-lifeworkplace situation guides studentsin applying their academic learningto solve problems and gain criticalskills for success in the world of work(Analyze and Apply, Inc., 19951.

Thus, case studies offer learning opportunities based on realisticsituations or problems. For example, students are offered the chance tovicariously learn about complex, problematic workplace situations withinthe safety of the classroom. Effective use of case studies enables students to

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Using Simulation in a Traveland Tourism Academy

The Academy of Travel and Tourism,located at Fleming-Ruffner MagnetSchool in Roanoke, Virginia, providesstudents with a comprehensiveoverview of the travel and tourismindustry through classroom activ-ities, field trips, and summer intern-ships. A feature of the academy is"Travel Connections," a simulatedtravel agency office. Studentsenrolled in the academy have accessto a worldwide trip planner com-puter system and an on-line sabertravel system. Each student learnsto use the computer systems whilemaking simulated travel arrange-ments and service needs for clientsor customers. Students also haveopportunities to serve as interns inthe travel and tourism industry.During work-based internships,students transfer their classroomknowledge and skills about the traveland tourism industry to the realworld.

develop decisionmaking and problem-solving skills that can be transferred toand used in real-life situations.

SimulationsSimulations are designed to capture

realistic aspects of real-life situations. Asimulation places students in anartificially constructed, yet realistic,context where they can practice andapply their skills and knowledge andreceive frank feedback. "Simulations arenot just concerned with imitating theknown. They are capable of placingstudents in novel circumstances andstretching their experiences andcapabilities in new and unexpectedways" (Fripp, 1993, p. xii). Simulationscan include role playing, exercises andgames, or computer-based models. Roleplaying involves a small number ofstudents who act out various characterroles in a prescribed scenario. Forexample, in a law enforcement class,students can learn the proper techniquefor making an arrest of an unrulyindividual. The simulated exercise or

game allows students to apply acquired knowledge and skills. For example,students might hold a mock stockholders' meeting and debate issues suchas a leveraged buyout or compensation package for the chief corporateofficer.

Computer-based models use computer software to deliver and managethe simulated situation. Quite often, computer-based simulations provideexperiences that may be too costly or dangerous to provide in a real-lifesituation. In recent years, many computer-based simulations have beendeveloped for instructional purposes. One example is a simulation whichpresents a manufacturing business organized as a corporation. Studentsengaged in the simulation are faced with many of the problems anddecisions that are faced by those who operate large businesses.

When simulations are used for learning activities it is important for theteacher to

select a simulation that helps students apply, practice, and synthesizepreviously learned concepts and skills.

70 NCRVE MDS-956B 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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Running Companies in the Classroom

Students in the United Kingdom are required to gain economic and industrialunderstanding through aspects of the course, Design and TechnologySimulations offer a viable and cost-effective way to meet this requirementCommonly, teams of three to seven students simulate companies designingand making products for the marketplace Teams are comprised of studentsof both genders, with a variety of ability levels and ethnicities The simulationtask is presented Design and market a prototype meal with packaging forinter-city bus travelers Teams are given five "work-sessions" to complete thetask Each team or "company" is responsible for designing and developing theproduct and launching it on the market at a trade exhibition Students establisha simplified business plan, a point-of-sale advertising plan, and sales displayset-up Periodic demonstrations and briefings are given but these can only beattended by one member of each team This team member is responsible forgathering information and communicating it to their team Briefings and de-briefings are held daily to review performance in any previous sessions andevaluate the experience up to that time On the final day, "trade displays" areset up and a simulated "marketplace" is held Team members take the roles ofbuyers with the purchasing power of $1,000 This has to be spent usingcriteria the buyers feel are important The financial position of each companyis established on the basis of orders placed Teachers provide written feedbackon the design work, with assessment focusing on the team product ratherthan on individual contributions (Denton, 19941

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Work-Based Teaching/Learning Strategies

Work-based teaching /learning strategies assist students in gettingfirsthand exposure to the workplace. These strategies can be very beneficialto students; however, they require employers to provide quality learningexperiences that give students a broad view of the workplace. The scope ofwork-based teaching / learning is first presented, followed by descriptionsof several of the more common teaching /learning strategies that are usedin the workplace.

The Scope of Work-Based Teaching/LearningTeaching and learning in the workplace occurs on a continuum

integrating three learning contexts: (1) formal, (2) informal, and (3)nonformal. Characteristics and examples of these teaching / learningcontexts are shown in Figure 7-3 (Tamir, 1990-1991, p. 35).

Formal learning involves widespread, traditional in-school and in-classactivities and experiences. Formal experiences are, for the most part,definable, predictable, and controllable. Formal learning that precedesnonformal experiences can facilitate student learning. For example, studentsenrolled in a horticulture class may study the durability of outdoor plantsin certain weather conditions. As a follow-up activity, the students mayvisit a local landscape design operation to discuss plant selection practicesand principles with the workers or manager. In this example, the formalin-class learning better equips students to ask pertinent and knowledgeablequestions and assimilate the new information into existing knowledge.Formal learning and teaching can also occur in workplace settings. Oneexample would be a department store manager providing all employeeswith a presentation and discussion focusing on shoplifting. Anotherexample is an automotive dealership service manager who sends serviceadvisors to a three-day workshop dealing with advanced service salestechniques. While formal learning at school and at the worksite isadvantageous, educators and workplace representatives must seek todevelop strategies and methods for improving workplace learning outsideof the formal setting.

Informal learning, sometimes referred to as incidental learning, appliesto situations where learning is unintentional or spontaneous and usually abyproduct of accomplishing a specific task or job. Informal learning isreflected in what students read, listen to, and view in their "non-school" orsocial life. Nonformal learning occurs in planned but flexible ways ininstitutions, organizations, and situations outside the sphere of formal"schooling" (Tamir, 1990-1991). Nonformal learning can be intentional,planned, and have specific outcomes. Informal and nonformal teachingand learning takes place at the worksite through direct and indirectinteraction with equipment, materials, information, and people. In fact, in

72 NCRVE MDS-956

82

Figure 7-3. Characteristics and Examples of Formal,Informal, and Nonformal Learning Contexts

FormalLearning

Characteristics*

Place

LearningEnvironment

Subject Matter

Management ofLearning

Motivation

Assessment

Examples ofActivities

InformalLearning

Classroom, No specialschool, workplace institution

home/neighborhood

Pre-arranged Not arranged

Structured

Teacher/supervisor/students

More extrinsicthan intrinsic

Included/expected

Not structured

Students

Intrinsic

None

LecturepresentationsQuestioning(written andoral)ReadinginstructionalmaterialsWritten and oralpresentation ofideasDebatesResearchDiscussionReflection

ObservationTrial and errorActions on thejobInterpersonalrelationshipdevelopmentConversationsHobbiesWatching TVand/or listeningto the radioReflection

NonformalLearning

Nonschoolinstitution

Pre-arranged

Structured

Teacher/supervisor/students

More extrinsicthan intrinsic

Not expected

Self-directedlearningCoachingNetworkingField tripsEducationaltelevision andradio programsOpen-endedfieldexperimentsIndependentexperiencesReflection

*Included in the above figure are some characteristics extracted from Tamir,1990-1991.

a work-based environment, much of what a student learns will be informalor nonformal. For example, students at a worksite can develop appropriateworking relationships with their coworkers and supervisors. They can also

Designing the Thematic Curricul n All Aspects Approach 73

learn to closely observe their coworkers performing specific tasks and striveto imitate these performances independently. Involvement in informal andnonformal learning activities in the workplace has been found to be stronglyassociated with intentions for further study or career aspirations in relatedareas (Tamir, 1990-1991).

Both informal and nonformal learning offer an alternative to formallearning that may encourage educators and workplace personnel to rethinkpreviously held notions of workplace learning. Educators must reflect ontheir past traditional roles and challenge themselves to seek alternativemethods and contexts to promote workplace learning and enhance thelinkages between formal, informal, and nonformal teaching and learning.

Work-Based StrategiesSeveral work-based teaching /learning strategies have already been

discussed in Section 5. These include job shadowing, job mentoring, andyouth apprentice programs. Job shadowing is perhaps the most readilyavailable and commonly used strategy. With job shadowing, students spenda short time, usually measured in hours, following assigned workers aroundas they perform their job and observing what they do. Another strategy, jobmentoring enables students to spend a greater amount of time in theworkplace, working under the mentorship of one or more employees.Mentoring is often provided to students who are taking internships in theworkplace. Youth apprenticeship programs typically engage high schoolstudents in apprentice-like experiences. These programs emphasizeformally structured learning experiences on-the-job that closely correlatewith students' school studies.

Regardless of the work-based teaching learning / strategy, workexperience must be carefully coordinated among the employer, the student,and the teacher. This coordination is usually documented in a writtenagreement. The agreement typically addresses occupational and academicstudies competencies the student is expected to learn and ways thatstudents' learning experiences will include broad rather than narrowexposure to the workplace. These strategies can provide students with first-hand exposure to and learning in actual workplace settings.

Learning Process StrategiesIt is important for students to develop learning process strategies that

can be applied when they are working and learning on the job. Studentsneed to be taught strategies they can use when approaching tasks andsituations that utilize several cognitive learning processes. These strategieshave been recommended because of their value in enhancing informal andnonformal learning at the individual level (Marsick, 1987; Marsick &Watkins, 1990; Tamir, 1990-1991).

74 NCRVE MDS-956 84

Look at the broadest possible view of the situation and analyze it fromas many dimensions and angles as possible. For example, understandhow a business or industry is organized and managed in relation to theindividual employee's assignment.Establish a hypothesis or conception of what will be experienced in theworkplace that can be confirmed or modified through actual practice.For example, assist nursing students to develop attitudes and knowledgeabout patient care and liability before they have their first clinicalexperiences in hospitals. The knowledge and attitudes will be eitherconfirmed, modified, or revised based on the incidental and informalexperiences they have during their clinical practice.Seek advice and reactions from others to confirm or refute the applicationof the principles or concepts experienced in the workplace. For example,through classroom instruction a student learned about techniques thatcould be used to value the viewpoints of others. A few months afterreceiving the classroominstruction, the studenttook a summer intern-ship where she workedwith a committee toaddress a quality assur-ance problem. Sheremembered the tech-niques and sought toimplement them duringcommittee meetings. Atvarious times, she solicited comments from other workers about howwell she was interacting with committee members when viewing andvaluing their opinions during committee discussions.Engage in deliberate, reflective, transformative learning from criticalincidents that occur when performing routine workplace activities. Forexample, an intern was given responsibility for entering data using acomputer-based software program. After several hours, the interncompleted the assignment and presented it to her supervisor. Thesupervisor was not pleased with the format of the final product. Afterreceiving feedback from the supervisor, the intern went back to workand completed the work satisfactorily. At the end of the day, the internreviewed the incident and developed a strategy for handling similarsituations.

"Regardless of the work-basedteaching learning/strategy,work experience must be

carefully coordinated amongthe employer, the student,

and the teacher."

These strategies can be used by students while they work on routinetasks individually or as part of a group. The strategies assist students tolearn and thus benefit from critical incidents that occur as part of everydaylife in the workplace.


Coaches and / or mentors play a critical role in fostering student successin acquiring specific workplace values and skills. A mentor has personalexperience in and knowledge about the workplace and can support, guide,and counsel a student in accomplishing tasks and interacting with others.The mentor can strengthen student skills and provide feedback throughinformal teaching and learning situations. Instruction may be designed toaddress a wide range of organizational concerns such as dress codes, jobperformance, team building, leadership, and communication (Lynch, 1993).

Students can profit from work-based experiences that capitalize oninformal learning. When serving as an extension of the school, the workplacecan provide opportunities for students to apply skills and knowledge andtest values and principles in the real world. The workplace also serves as avehicle for a safe and positive transition from school to work. Linkingschool-based learning with workplace learning experiences is critical tostudents' long-term success:

Strategies Connecting the School and WorkplaceThere are several teaching/ learning strategies that can be used to connect

the school and the workplace. These include the traditional cooperativeeducation and related instructional classes that have been typically offeredin high schools. More recent additions to the list of connecting strategiesinclude clinical interviews, student logs and journals, project review panels,and small group seminars.

Clinical InterviewsThe simplest strategy for connecting school and workplace is the clinical

interview. The process begins with the school internship coordinator andthe student intern meeting to discuss student achievement of apredetermined set of objectives or competencies. When determining studentexpectations, consideration should be given to the particular workplacewhere the student is employed, and the extent to which student experiencesinclude broad exposure to the many aspects of the company. For example,one objective might be to describe the organization's mission statementand explain how this relates to the activities being performed by the student.A student may be expected to explain how the company responds to theneeds and expectations of its customers. These aspects of the company canbe learned formally or informally in the workplace. However, the clinicalinterview connects what the student has learned about the company in theschool setting and what the student has learned about the company in theworkplace setting.

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Student Logs and JournalsWritten logs or journals of student activities and thoughts constitute

another active strategy for helping students to make meaningful connectionsbetween school and the workplace. The log or journal is a useful tool inhelping students focus on their daily activities. Students are encouraged torecord daily activities, tasks, observations, and reflections about theirexperiences and how these experiences relate to them and various aspectsof their work. The log or journal is a useful tool in helping students focuson their daily experiences. The log or journal may also be used to identifyworkplace questions or issues that need to be answered or clarified.Reflection, a self-directed learning strategy, can help students to contemplatethe day's events and attach personal meaning to what they are learning.

Logs and journals can be used to improve the academic quality ofinternships (Alm, 1996). The process of journal writing forces students tointegrate new information with what is already known and allows teachersto assess how muchlearning has taken place inboth the school and work "Students can profit from work-settings. For example, based experiences thatstudents may be asked to capitalize on informal learning."write about how businessprinciples and theorieslearned about in the classroom relate to actual workplace practices. Studentsmay be asked to present detailed information during clinical interviewsand prepare a final report on this experience for presentation to a reviewpanel. Additionally, logs and journals may be used to highlight the relevanceof experiences related to a broad theme (e.g., industry or field). Afterdocumenting experiences while serving as an intern, a student may use hisor her journal to identify which entries are related to the broad industry orfield he or she has been associated with as contrasted with those entriesfocusing on the company within which the student has been working.

Procedures for teachers to follow when using the journal writingteaching / learning strategy are outlined by Alm (1996) below:

State the instructions clearly. Students are to use journals to reflect ontheir work experiences and to express themselves freely about what theythink or feel. They should not "write for the teacher." Reassure studentsthat what they think and feel has validity.Provide students, initially, with open-ended questions for reflection (e.g."Are there differences between what you observed in the field and whatyou learned in class?" and "What could account for these differences?").Design a journal format that is flexible and comfortable for students tofacilitate the free flow of thought. Consider the students' writing stylesand the teacher's convenience in collecting and reviewing the material.


Encourage students to write regularly during their work experience. Theentries should be timely but not so frequent as to become overwhelming.Devote sufficient time to reviewing and commenting on the journalsthroughout the student's work experience. Ask the students questionsthat help to integrate the work experience with previous classroom work.This helps the students remain focused, puts the work experiences incontext, and provides encouragement.Grade the journals and give them sufficient weight. This will encouragestudents to devote adequate time and effort to journal writing. Gradingcriteria should relate to the purpose of the journal assignment. The levelof completeness, originality, and effort by the students can also play apart in the final grade.Consider having the students share their journal observations andinsights with others.Have work experience supervisors maintain their own journals ofstudent's progress to be submitted periodically to the classroom teacher.Teachers can then use the supervisor's journal to monitor the student'sdevelopment and identify situations that require intervention.

Project Review PanelsThe project review panel brings representatives from the school, the

workplace, and the community together in one location to examine studentworkplace experiences. Panel membership typically includes four or fiveadults such as work experience teacher / coordinators; building principals;academic and vocational teachers; mentors; job coaches; and others whomay represent community groups, including the school board, Chamberof Commerce, and / or labor unions. Some of the panel members have alsoserved as student advisors and mentors throughout the year.

The panel is charged with reviewing and assessing a student'saccomplishments during his or her work experience. These accomplish-ments might include a broad range of thematic outcomes or outcomes thatfocus on a specific project in which the student needed to employ a varietyof skills and knowledge in the solution of a problem or situation encounteredin the workplace. Panel members focus on how well the student canintegrate conceptual knowledge, "hands-on" skills, and practical, acquiredexperiences related to the project topic. The panel provides "on-the-spot"evaluation and meaningful developmental feedback to the student. Ofcourse, panel members must employ fairness, equity, and consistency intheir evaluation and must make sure agreed upon standards are appliedequally to all students.

Thus, the review panel serves as a formal team that assists in clarifyingand assessing connections the student has made between school-basedlearning and the application of that learning in the workplace. Theparticipation of business, industry, and community representatives on

78 NCRVE MDS-956 88

project review panels strengthens the "buy-in" for alternative or authenticassessments within the broader community.

Small Group SeminarsSmall group seminars can be useful vehicles for students to meet as a

group on a regular basis to share and discuss their workplace experiences.The seminar may be led by the students themselves on a rotating basis. Asappropriate, a teacher, aworkplace mentor, or ateam composed of school "The small group seminar canand business or industry be a multipurpose strategyrepresentatives, might serve since it allows students toas seminar leaders. The develop speaking, listening,seminars can involve un-structured activities such as and sharing skills as theydiscussing the implications interact with others about theirof daily workplace experi- workplace experiences."ences and / or strengtheningstudents' interpersonal andwork-related skills. Seminars may also be structured to focus on one ormore broad aspects of the workplace. For example, discussion might takeplace focusing on how work is organized and how people behave and relateto each other in these work settings. Social issues and problems in theworkplace and their legal ramifications may also be discussed (Grubb &Badway, 1995). The small group seminar can be a multipurpose strategysince it allows students to develop speaking, listening, and sharing skillsas they interact with others about their workplace experiences. It alsostrengthens interpersonal interactions and relationships in small groupprocesses. The seminar is a useful teaching/learning strategy that helpsreinforce connections between the less formal workplace setting and themore formal school setting.

SummarySeveral organizational models and strategies can assist in aligning the

thematic curriculum with school-based learning, work-based learning, andconnections between the school and the workplace. School-based teaching /learning may be enhanced by including content and subject integration ininstruction. More commonly used integration teaching/learning modelsfocus on relationships within, between, and across teacher and studentgroups. Several interactive teaching /learning strategies that engagestudents in meaningful school-based activities include small groupactivities, cooperative group projects, case studies, and simulations. In termsof the workplace, incidental, informal, and formal learning that occurs in


students' performance of workplace activities can be processed and givengreater meaning by using cognitive strategies ranging from individualinteraction to group verification.

Teaching/ learning strategies that help students to make connectionsbetween the school and the workplace are also available. They includeclinical interviews, student logs and journals, project panel reviews, andsmall group seminars. The selection of these and other strategies isdependent on the school and workplace environment, the level of studentability and interest, and time and instructional resources available to theteacher. Creative application of teaching / learning strategies to school-basedand work-based instructional settings as well as settings where the schooland the workplace are connected have potential to make the thematiccurriculum come alive for students as they prepare for life and living.

References

Alm, C. T. (1996). Using student journals to improve the academic qualityof internships. Journal of Education for Business, 72(2), 113-115.

Analyze and Apply, Inc. (1995). Beyond the rhetoric: A guide to connect learningto performance. Author.

Denton, H. G. (1994, Fall). Simulating design in the world of industry andcommerce: Observations from a series of case studies in the UnitedKingdom [58 paragraphs]. Journal of Technology Education, [On-line serial],6(1). Available: http: //scholar.lib.vt.edu / ejournals / JTE / jte-v6n1

Fogarty R. (1991). The mindful school: How to integrate the curricula. Palatine,IL: IRI / Skylight.

Fripp, J. (1993). Learning through simulations: A guide to the design and use ofsimulations in business and education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Grubb, W. N., & Badway, N. (1995). Linking school-based and work-basedlearning: The implications of LaGuardia's co-op seminars for school to workprograms (MDS-1046). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.

Grubb, W. N., Davis, G., Lum, J., Plihal, J., & Morgaine, C. (1991). "Thecunning hand, the cultured mind": Models for integrating vocational andacademic education (MDS-141). Berkeley: National Center for Research inVocational Education, University of California at Berkeley.

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Lynch, H. (1993). Learning from the field: Mentoring projects in field-basedsettings. Newton, MA: Education Development Center.

Marsick, V. J. (1987). Learning in the workplace. New York: Crown Helm.

Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, N. E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in theworkplace. New York: Routledge.

Meyers, C., & Jones, T. B. (1993). Promoting active learning. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Mostert, M. P., & Sudzina, M. R. (1996, February). Undergraduate case methodteaching: Pedagogical assumptions vs. the real world. Practical issues in teachingcase studies. Interactive Symposium conducted at the annual meeting ofthe Association of Teacher Educators, St. Louis.

Sharon, S. (Ed.). (1994). Handbook of cooperative learning methods. Westport,CT: Greenwood Press.

Stover, L. T., Neubert, G. A., & Lawlor, J. C. (1993). Creating interactiveenvironments in the secondary school. Washington, DC: National EducationAssociation.

Tamir, P. (1990-1991). Factors associated with the relationship betweenformal, informal, and nonformal science learning. The journal ofEnvironmental Education, 22(2), 34-42.

91


SECTION 8

Assessing and Refining theCurriculum

IntroductionIs the thematic curriculum doing what it is intended to do? What positive

impact does an "all aspects" base have? How might career clusters berefined? These are only a few of the many questions that may be posedabout curricula. Unfortunately, educators and others may spend so muchtime creating and implementing a curriculum that little time is left to assessit. Realistically, many curricula are never adequately assessed. Some of themore common reasons given for not assessing a curriculum include "Wejust don't have time to do it," "The thematic curriculum is too complex toassess properly," and "We have no idea how to conduct a curriculumassessment." Although these are relevant concerns, they fail to considerwhy it is important to assess the curriculum.

There are several reasons for assessing the thematic curriculum. Theyinclude (1) considering possible areas of curriculum improvement; (2)considering whether the curriculum's benefits are worth the investment;and (3) deciding whether to keep the curriculum as it is, to modify it, or toeliminate it. The first two reasons relate most closely to curriculumimprovement concerns. Given the thematic curriculum's broad scope,curriculum developers; teachers; students; parents; business, industry,community representatives; and others may have differing views of whatthe curriculum is and what it should be. Thus, when considering curriculumimprovements and benefits, it is important to be sensitive to this wide rangeof views. The third reason for assessment involves administrators' and otherpolicymakers' participation in deciding whether the curriculum will remainas is, be revised, or be eliminated. Policy decisions may or may not giveconsideration to curriculum improvement. Since these three reasons reflecta progression from improvement to possible loss, it is easy to see howassessment fits into the picture. If curriculum assessment is begun early inthe development process and shortcomings are identified, changes can bemade more easily and the curriculum may not need major revision.However, if assessment is ignored, the curriculum may ultimately need toundergo major change or, worse yet, be eliminated.

In this section, a brief introduction to thematic curriculum assessment isprovided, followed by a description of the assessment process. Alsoincluded are ways that assessment information can be used for curriculumimprovement.


Assessment: An OverviewWhat is assessment and how does it relate to the thematic curriculum?

Basically, assessment may be viewed as determining the curriculum's valueor worth. Central to

Figure 8-1. Questions Related to FormativeAssessment

Have the most meaningful contextual optionsbeen selected?Have the most meaningful organizationaloptions been selected?Have the most meaningful delivery optionsbeen selected? .

Have the most meaningful content optionsbeen selected?Have the curriculum and its component partsbeen offered to students in meaningful andeffective ways?To what extent is the curriculum acceptedand used by teachers?To what extent do students accept thecurriculum and learn from it?

assessment is the process ofmaking informed decisions;that is, using assessmentinformation to determinewhether the curriculum isof acceptable quality and, ifnot, what must be done tomake it acceptable. One ofthe more popular ways toview curriculum assess-ment or evaluation is toconsider it as having twostages: formative andsummative (Ornstein &Hunkins, 1988).

Formative assessmentfocuses on the improve-

ment of a curriculum as it is being developed. Emphasis is placed ondetermining how the curriculum and its component parts may be improvedduring the development process. For example, results of career clustercurriculum pilot testing at a high school may reveal that objectives are notsequenced properly or that some teachers are having difficultyunderstanding their respective roles in the team-teaching process. Formativeassessment can help ensure these problems are identified and correctedearly in the curriculum's development rather than after the curriculum hasbeen fully implemented. Several examples of questions for which answers

may be obtained during theformative assessment stageare listed in Figure 8-1.

Summative assessmenthas the fully operationalcurriculum as its mainfocus. This assessment isdesigned to obtain a holisticview of the implementedthematic curriculum. Em-phasis is placed on deter-mining the curriculum'scumulative impact. So, forexample, after a career

Figure 8-2. Questions Related to SummativeAssessment

How well do curriculum components worktogether to create a high-quality curriculum?What impact does the curriculum have onteachers, students, graduates, parents, thecommunity, the workplace, and others?To what extent is the curriculum better thanwhat it has replaced?What are the curriculum's unintendedbenefits?How can the curriculum be improved tomake it even better than it is?

84 NCRVE MDS-956

93

cluster focusing on all aspects of manufacturing has been implemented ina high school, the cluster should be examined to determine how it fares asa whole. Representative summative assessment questions that might beasked are highlighted in Figure 8-2.

Formative and summative assessment are not meant to be one-shot tasks.They are ongoing activities initiated early in the curriculum developmentprocess and conducted on a continuing basis throughout the curriculum'slife. Assessment applied at regular intervals is one of the keys to creatingand maintaining high-quality curricula.

Gathering and ExaminingAssessment Information

The assessment process typicallyconsists of several sequential steps(Finch & Crunkilton, 1993; Levesque,Bradby, & Rossi, 1996; Ornstein &Hunkins, 1988):

1. Determining the Assessment Focus2. Obtaining Assessment Information3. Examining the Assessment Infor-

mation4. Using Assessment Information for

Curriculum Improvement

Each of these steps is described below:

Determining the Assessment FocusThe assessment process is typically

driven by important concerns peoplehave about the curriculum's "impact."Kirkpatrick (1994) describes impact ashaving four levels: (1) reaction, (2)learning, (3) behavior, and (4) results.

Assessment at Level 1 (reaction)focuses on how persons associated withthe curriculum (e.g., students, teachers,employers, community representatives)react to it. Kirkpatrick refers to this as ameasure of customer satisfaction. If"customers" are not happy with thecurriculum, it may have no futureregardless of its quality.

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Figure 8-3. Levels of Curriculum Impact: Abbreviated Examples

CurriculumFocus

Engineering& TechnologyCluster

AgriculturalSciencesCareer Major

Arts andCommunicationAcademy

AssessmentLevel 1:Reaction

Studentsreactfavorably tothe emphasison allaspects of afield

Teachers feelpositiveaboutworkingtogether toteach themajor

Parentsappreciatethe broadexposuretheir childrenare getting tothe field

AssessmentLevel 2:Learning

Studentscandistinguishamong thevariouscareers inthe cluster

Studentsrecognizethat there aremanyopportunitiesto work inthe field

Students candescribeaspects ofthe field'scompetitivenature

AssessmentLevel 3:Behavior

Studentsenroll andsucceed inhigher-levelmath courses

Enrollment inthe majorresults inincreasedscience testscores

Studentsdevelp amuch greaterinterest instudyingEnglish

AssessmentLevel 4:Results

Graduatesmoreeducationcareeravailable

Graduatesapply theyhave learnedto workplace

Graduatesable to morecareerchoices

Level 2 (learning) emphasizes "the extent to which participants changeattitudes, improve knowledge, and / or increase skill" (p. 22) by participatingin the curriculum. This level of assessment focuses primarily on studentsbut could easily include others as well.

Level 3 (behavior) addresses the extent to which change in behavior hasoccurred among participants. Assessment at this level is directed towardapplied behavior change. For some students, this may mean change isassessed in work-based learning settings. For other students, assessmentof change may take place in school-based learning settings. Again, thisassessment level may apply to others.

At Level 4 (results), a determination is made about the curriculum's overalloutcomes. This is at once the most beneficial and the most difficult area toassess. Examples of results that might be assessed include reduced studentdropout rates, increased higher education and / or employment options forstudents, graduates' increased satisfaction with their schooling, andimproved communication among teachers. Figure 8-3 includes levels ofimpact examples for three different thematic curricula.

86 NCRVE MDS-956 95

These examples provide a better feeling for the impact a curriculum mayhave. However, when determining the assessment focus, it is best to statecurriculum outcomes as specifically as possible. Otherwise, those whoconduct the assessment may have little idea if the curriculum has beensuccessful or unsuccessful. Three examples of the same outcome for studentsenrolled in a thematic curriculum are presented for review:

1. Students' mathematics and science achievement will improve.2. Students' mathematics and science achievement test scores will improve

by the end of the first year.3. By the completion of their first full year in the curriculum, students will,

on average, score 15% higher on districtwide mathematics and scienceachievement tests than they did at the beginning of the school year.

Even though these three outcome examples all focus on studentachievement, they range from example one which is quite vague to a morespecific example two and finally to an even more specific example three.Since the third example provides more specific information about what isexpected, it is both easier to assess and to defend. Therefore, it isrecommended that curriculum outcomes be prepared so they reflectexample three's characteristics.

Obtaining Assessment InformationThe assessment information gathered is a function of the level being

examined (i.e., reaction, learning, behavior, results) and the expectationspeople have for the curriculum (i.e., outcomes). To be most effective,methods used to gather information should be compatible with assessmentlevels and peoples' expectations. Curriculum assessment information may,therefore, be gathered in a variety of ways. Assessment information fallsinto two distinct yet interrelated categories: (1) quantitative and (2) qual-itative. Quantitative information consists of "hard" information such asnumbers, scores, means, and standard deviations; whereas, qualitativeinformation includes "soft" information such as interview text and respons-es to open-ended questions (Brainard, 1996, p. 11). Provided in Figure 8-4are several examples of ways assessment information may be gathered.

If reaction information is needed, it might be obtained via carefullydeveloped questionnaires, personal interviews, or a combination of the two.Information about learning, behavior, and results may be somewhat moredifficult to gather. This might require obtaining information about studentand / or faculty member change over time, a task that includes taking intoaccount factors that may cause the assessment results to be invalid. Or itmight demand that detailed observations are made to gather informationabout the settings in which learning is taking place.


Examining the Assessment InformationIf assessment information is linked to expectations of what the curriculum

should be, the information examination task can be relatively easy. Forexample, say that after three years of operation, a travel and tourism

academy in a high school is

Figure 8-4. Examples of Ways AssessmentInformation May Be Gathered

Quantitative Data SourcesSurveys (questionnaires, opinion polls)Rating scalesChecklistsDelphi technique

Qualitative Information SourcesStructured interviewsFocus groupsNominal group process (Brainard, 1996,p. 27)

3 expected to effect a 20%lower student dropout rate.If student dropout informa-tion has been gathered atcertain points in time andpotentially confoundingfactors have been accountedfor, it should be relativelyeasy to see if the curriculumhas had impact on thestudent dropout rate. If it isanticipated that businessand management academygraduates at that same high

school will be better prepared for both higher education and employment,information about these graduates, and perhaps a comparison group, mustbe gathered and arrayed in a ways that it can be seen whether theexpectation has, in fact, been realized. In sum, assessment informationshould be gathered and organized so it can be easily compared withexpectations.

Using Assessment Information for Curriculum ImprovementDiscrepancies that exist between what is and what should be (see Figure 8-

3) serve as starting points for curriculum improvement. If discrepanciesemerge during the formative assessment of a thematic curriculum, theymay point to changes that should be made before the curriculum is fullyimplemented. Shortcomings such as a lack of teacher and studentsatisfaction with the curriculum, teacher resistance to change, and lack ofcollaboration from employers may each need to be dealt with in a differentway. Deciding which changes to make and making them can result inmeaningful curriculum improvements. Assessing the curriculum duringits formative development and making necessary adjustments is mucheasier than completing them after the curriculum is fully operational.

Results of summative assessment can confirm that the curriculumdevelopment process has been successful or point out what changes shouldbe made before it can be called a success. Since summative assessmentfocuses on the entire curriculum, deficiencies identified at this point in timemay be difficult to translate into meaningful changes. For instance, if

88 NCRVE MDS-956 97

assessment reveals that some students are not learning certain content asrapidly as anticipated, this deficiency may not point directly to what shouldbe changed. Detective work may be needed such as determining whichstudents are not learning the content and why they are not learning it. This,in turn, can assist in discovering what portions of the curriculum shouldbe changed or, perhaps, determining if it is a teaching problem rather thanor in addition to a curriculum problem.

One of the more interesting aspects of summative assessment focuseson discovering unintended curriculum outcomes. Who knows what willbe uncovered in this area? Such a search may not identify anything or itmay reveal the curriculum has a variety of unintended benefits that reflecta major return on the curriculum development investment. For example,an examination of career cluster curricula in a high school might revealthat, even though not identified as an intended outcome, students' careerdecisionmaking skills have improved.

SummaryAlthough assessment is a very important element of thematic curriculum

design and implementation, it is often ignored or delayed until very late inthe development process. Curriculum assessment can be conducted in twostagesformative and summativewith formative assessment focusingon improving the curriculum as it is being developed and summativeassessment focusing on the total curriculum after it has been developed.Both formative and summative assessments should be planned early inthe curriculum development process and continue on a regular basisthroughout the curriculum's life.

The assessment process typically includes determining the assessmentfocus, obtaining assessment information, examining the assessmentinformation, and using the information for curriculum improvement.Comprehensive assessment can focus on one or more impact levels: reaction,learning, behavior, and results. When assessment information is gatheredand examined in a comprehensive and systematic fashion, the improvementprocess is made much easier. Thus, for improvement to be maximallyeffective, changes should be made during both the formative andsummative assessment stages.


References

Brainard, E. A. (1996). A hands-on guide to school program evaluation.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Foundation.

Finch, C. R., & Crunkilton, J. R. (1993). Curriculum development in vocationaland technical education: Planning, content, and implementation (4th ed.).Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Kirkpatrick, D. L. (1994). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. SanFrancisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Levesque, K., Bradby, D., & Rossi, K. (1996, May). Using data for programimprovement: How do we encourage schools to do it? Centerfocus (issue#12).

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1988). Curriculum: Foundations, principles,and issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

9990 NCRVE MDS-956

Appendices

Appendix AExamples of Themes

Appendix BExamples of Content Organized Around Themes

Appendix CExamples of Career Clusters/Pathways/Majors

Appendix DExamples of Theme-Wide Functions, Issues, Concerns,and Technological Knowledge and Skills

Appendix ERelated Materials, Reports, and Resources:A Selective Bibliography

Note: These appendices contain representative examples to assist in designing a thematiccurriculum. They are not intended to be exhaustive source lists. Examples may havebeen revised, updated, or otherwise changed since this document was published.


APPENDIX A

Examples of Themes

A.1 - Connecticut

A.2 - Dictionary ofOccupational Titles

A.3 - Gnaedinger Taxonomy

A.4 - Indiana

A.5 - Sweden

A.6 - Wisconsin

A.1 ConnecticutTo address the career exploration and

school-based experience components inConnecticut's curriculum, skill committeesled by industry experts established careerclusters and industry skill standards specificfor each cluster. These standards direct localand state curriculum development andapplied work-based learning at thesecondary level.

Arts and MediaBusiness and FinanceConstruction Technologies and DesignEnvironmental, Natural Resources, andAgricultureGovernment, Education, and HumanServicesHealth and BiosciencesRetail, Tourism, Recreation, andEntrepreneurialTechnologies: Manufacturing,Communications, and Repair

SourceCBIA Education Foundation. (1997). Career

cluster booklets. Hartford, CT: Author.

A.2 Dictionary ofOccupational Titles (DOT)

The DOT is a useful source of informationabout industries and fields. In the DOT,occupations are grouped according to ninebroad categories:

1. Professional, Technical, andManagerial OccupationsIncluded in this category are occupationsconcerned with theoretical or appliedaspects of such fields as arts; sciences;engineering; education; medicine; law;business relations; and administrative,managerial, and technical work. Most ofthese occupations require substantialeducational preparation (usually at thecollege or technical institute level).Examples include architecturaloccupations and electrical engineeringoccupations.

2. Clerical and Sales OccupationsClerical occupations are concerned withcompiling, recording, communicating,computing, and otherwise systematizingdata. Clerical occupations associated withthe manufacturing process are excluded.Examples include legal secretary, clerktypist, and caption writer. Salesoccupations include occupationsconcerned with influencing customers'favor of a commodity or service. Theseoccupations are closely identified withsales transactions even though they donot involve actual participation.


3. Service OccupationsThis category includes occupationsconcerned with performing tasks in andaround private households; servingindividuals in institutions and commer-cial and other establishments; and protec-ting the public against crime, fire, acci-dents, and acts of war. Examples includecaretaker, waiter / waitress, and fire-fighter.

4. Agricultural, Fishery, Forestry, andRelated OccupationsThese occupations focus on propagating,growing, caring for, and gathering plantand animal life products. Also includedare occupations focusing on relatedsupport services; logging timber tracts;catching, hunting, and trapping animallife; and caring for parks, gardens, andgrounds. Excluded are occupationsrequiring a primary knowledge orinvolvement with technologies such asprocessing, packaging, and stock check-ing. Examples include farmworker, vinepruner, and park ranger.

5. Processing OccupationsThis category of occupations is concernedwith refining, mixing, compounding,chemically treating, and heat treatingwork materials and products. Knowledgeof a process and adherence to a formulaor to other specifications are required tosome degree. Vats, stills, ovens, furnaces,mixing machines, crushers, grinders, andrelated equipment or machines areusually involved. Examples includeplating inspector, cylinder grinder, andelectro-plating laborer.

6. Machine Trade OccupationsOccupations in this category focus on theoperation of machines that cut, bore, mill,abrade, print, and similarly work suchmaterials as metal, paper, wood, plastics,and stone. Complicated jobs require anunderstanding of machine functions,blueprint reading, mathematical compu-tations, and exercising judgment toconform to specifications. Eye-handcoordination may be the most significantfactor in less complicated jobs. Install-

94 NCRVE MDS-956 102

ation, assembly, repair, and maintenanceof machines and mechanical equipment,and weaving, knitting, spinning, andsimilarly working textiles are included.Examples include machinist andmechanic.

7. Benchwork OccupationsThese occupations are concerned with theuse of body members, hand tools, andbench machines to fit, grind, carve, mold,paint, sew, assemble, inspect, repair, andsimilarly work relatively small objectsand materials. The work is usuallyperformed at a set position in a mill, plant,or shop, at a bench, worktable, orconveyor. At the more complex levels,workers frequently read blueprints,follow patterns, use a variety of hand-tools, and assume responsibility formeeting standards. Workers at lesscomplex levels are required to followstandardized procedures. Examplesinclude silversmith, jeweler, and solderer.

8. Structural Work OccupationsStructural work occupations areconcerned with fabricating, erecting,installing, paving, painting, repairing,and similarly working structures orstructural parts such as bridges, build-ings, roads, transportation equipment,cables, girders, plates, and frames. Thework generally occurs outside a factoryor shop environment, except for factoryproduction line occupations concernedwith fabricating, installing, erecting, orrepairing structures. Handtools orportable power tools, and such materialsas wood, metal, concrete, glass, and clayare used. Stationary machines arefrequently used in structural workoccupations, but they are secondary inimportance to handtools and portablepower tools. Workers are frequentlyrequired to have knowledge of thematerials with which they work regard-ing stresses, strains, durability, andresistance to weather. Examples includeriveter, chimney constructor, and machineassembler.

9. Miscellaneous OccupationsThis category includes occupationsconcerned with transportation services,packaging and warehousing, utilities,recreation, and motion picture services,mining, graphic arts, and variousmiscellaneous activities listed aboveinvolving extensive recordkeeping.Examples include movie producer, trucksupervisor, and graphic artist.

SourceU.S. Department of Labor Employment and

Training Administration. (1991).Dictionary of occupational titles (4th ed.).Lanham, MD: Bernan.

A.3 Gnaedinger TaxonomyThe Gnaedinger Taxonomy divides the

United States economy into 16 industries forpurposes of providing career education tohigh school students. The taxonomy strivesto capture all aspects of the legal, paideconomy around which the curriculum of anentire school or school-within-a-school couldbe organized. This industry-based approachto curriculum provides a wide learningcontext and avoids narrow specialization.The industries are as follows:

AgricultureHealthcareArts, Culture, and ReligionHospitalityBuilt Environment*InsuranceCommunicationManufacturingEducationNatural ResourcesEnergyPersonal and Business ServicesFinanceRetailing and WholesalingGovernmentTransportation

This program is intended for anystudent interested in some aspect of thebuilding industryincluding thebuilding trades, architecture, interior

design, planning, housing policy, andconstruction technology.

SourceHoachlander, E. G. (1994). Industry-based

education: A new approach for school-to-work transition. In Office of EducationalResearch and Improvement, U.S.Department of Education, School-to-Work:What does the research say about it? (pp. 57-74). Washington, DC: Office ofEducational Research and Improvement.

A.4 IndianaIndiana has identified the following

fourteen career clusters as a basis fororganizing career and occupational infor-mation, data collection, and curriculum andinstruction:

Agriculture and Natural ResourcesArt, Media, Communications, and Fineand Performance ArtsEngineering, Science, and TechnologiesManufacturing and ProcessingMechanical Repair and Precision CraftsBusiness Management and FinanceBuilding and ConstructionEducational ServicesHealth ServicesPersonal and Commercial ServicesLegal, Social, and Recreation ServicesProtective ServicesMarketing, Sales, and PromotionTransportation

Sourcehttp: // www.dwd.state.in.us/html/ teched/

clusgrid.html or http: // icpac.indiana.edu/munger/clusters.html

A.5 Sweden

Recent efforts by The Swedish NationalAgency for Education to reorganize theupper secondary curriculum around indus-tries and fields resulted in the identificationof 16 national programs. Programs identifiedinclude the following:


Child RecreationHotel, Restaurant and CateringFoodConstructionBusiness and AdministrationEnergySocial SciencesHealth CareArtsVehicle EngineeringNatural ResourcesHandicraftsNatural SciencesIndustrialMediaElectrical Engineering

SourceNational Agency for Education. (1992). The

new upper secondary school. Stockholm,Sweden: Author.

A.6 Wisconsin

In conjunction with area high schools andthe University of Wisconsin system, School-to-Work specialists have identified thefollowing career clusters in future jobmarkets. Career Cluster Maps, obtained fromhigh school counselors, guide students inplanning a year-by-year academic programrelated to a chosen job cluster. Maps indicatehigh school credit requirements of thestate and MATC degree and diplomarequirements.

Agriculture/ Natural ResourcesArts /CommunicationsBusiness/ManagementHealth ServicesHuman ResourcesIndustrial/Engineering/ Technology

Sourcehttp: // www.nde.state.ne.us /NMSI/ tQ2 /

careerquest.html

10496 NCRVE MDS-956

APPENDIX B

Examples of ContentOrganized Around Themes

B.1 Manufacturing/ProductionContent

B.2 - Marketing Content

B.3 - Technology Content

B.4 - Agriculture Content

B.5 - Health Care Content

B.6 - Business Content

B.7 - Natural Resources Content

B.8 - Construction Content

B.9 - Communication Content

B.10 - Transportation Content

B.1 Manufacturing/ProductionContent

Manufacturing concepts and processesDesigning and engineering products /materials / structuresDeveloping manufacturing systemsComputer-Aided Design (CAD)Computer-Aided Manufacturing(CAM)Processes such as casting, molding,welding, forming, separating,conditioning, assembling, building,installing, and finishingManagement and financial activities/responsibilities (obtaining a loan,raising funds, and so on)

Establishing a manufacturingorganizationMarketing strategiesProduction management

SourcesEconomos, C. (1994). What's up in factories?

Exploring the new world of manufacturing.New York: Thirteen WNET.

Wright, R. T., & Henak, R. M. (1993).Exploring production. Tinley Park, IL:Goodheart-Willcox.

B.2 Marketing ContentImplementing the marketing conceptElements and effectiveness of marketingstrategiesIdentifying and coordinating marketingand business functionsMarketing impact on businesses,individuals, and societyEncouraging the social responsibility /ethical behavior of businesses andemployeesExamining the private enterpriseeconomyEvaluating the role of competitionStudying international trade/products/marketEvaluating market potential andcalculating market shareMeasuring consumer behavior andsatisfactionMarketing research/methods of datacollection/ information systemsDeveloping a marketing planDeveloping a new product

,105Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 97

Evaluating service / product qualityPurchasing procedures/recordsPlanning effective distribution andpromotion of products and servicesPricing proceduresExamining the communication processelementsIntroducing the selling processIdentifying and managing market riskPlanning and managementMeasuring technological impact

SourceBurrow, J., & Egg land, S. (1995). Marketing

foundations and functions. Cincinnati:South-Western.

B.3 Technology Content

Technology system types andcomponentsTechnological processesProduction and measurement tools intechnologyDesign processProduct and structure productionTechnological systems managementAutomation/RoboticsSocial response to technological changeLight, laser, and fiberopticsGraphic communicationsPhotographyTelecommunicationsResearch and developmentDesktop publishingManufacturing enterprisesControl systemsAlternate energy systemsProduction systemsBio-related technical systems

SourcesBarbato, S. A. (1990). Technology ed curriculum

standard K-12 (Rev. ed.). Dover: DelawareDepartment of Public Instruction,Vocational Education Division. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED336 272)

Fales, J. F., Kuetemeyer, V. F., & Brusic, S. A.(1993). Technology today and tomorrow (2nded.). Peoria, IL: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.

98 NCRVE MDS-956

Gradwell, J., Welch, M., & Martin, E. (1996).Technology: Shaping our world. Tinley Park,IL: Goodheart-Willcox.

B.4 Agriculture ContentDelivery methodsProduct and market trendsFamily-owned businessesCapitalization methodsAccounting/budget allocation/recordkeeping methodsBusiness liability and protection costsCompany bidsMaterials purchasingNegotiation/communication skillsTime management techniquesHuman relationscustomers/suppliers /employeesEcology/conservationAgricultural business managementtechniquesAgricultural mechanicsAgricultural lawOff-farm agricultural businessesMerchandising / marketing / salestechniquesAgricultural machinery and equipmentmaintenance and repairDealership organizationUse of selected hand tools, precisionmeasuring tools, and testing equipmentSafety regulations and proceduresOperating procedures in a partsdepartmentMechanical power transfer systemsMetal fusion and fabrication welding

SourcesCommonwealth of Virginia. (1994). Guide to

vocational program planning in Virginia.Richmond: Department of Education,Division of Instruction, Office ofVocational, Adult, and EmploymentTraining Services, Author.

Missouri Department of Elementary andSecondary Education. (1993). Methodologyused in the project "All Aspects of theIndustry" for vocational education programs.Columbia: University of Missouri,Instructional Materials Lab. (ERIC

106

Document Reproduction Series No. ED367 818)

B.5 Health Care ContentHealth care terminologyPrinciples of body functions andmechanicsNutritional needs of patientsFundamentals of wellnessTreatment of diseases processClient status evaluationDocumentation, report writingPatient safety proceduresAseptic proceduresBody mechanics for positioning,transferring, and transporting clientsInfection control (universal precautions)Internal and external communicationInformation systems useLaboratory skillsLegal responsibilities, limitations, andimplications of actionsEthical practicesResource management

SourcesBadasch, S. A., Sr Chesebro, D. S. (1993).

Introduction to health occupations (3rd ed.).Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents / Prentice-Hall.

Health Resources and ServicesAdministration. (1995). Core curricula inallied health. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices.

B.6 Business ContentResearching hardware and softwareneedsPlanning/expanding Local AreaNetwork (LAN)Acquiring hardware and softwareProviding and improving customerservicesInstalling, testing, and maintainingcomputer networkPerforming communication functionsDisseminating informationOperating as a team member

Complying with company andgovernment regulationsConducting human resource servicesPerforming work station functionsPerforming documentation functionsManaging security and integrityPerforming legal and ethical functionsProviding user training and supportPerforming management functionsManaging client/customer serviceManaging business operationsManaging financial matters

SourceVirginia Community College System. (1996).

Occupational analyses: Business cluster.Richmond: Virginia VocationalCurriculum and Resource Center, Author.

B.7 Natural Resources ContentPerforming investigative/analyticalfunctionsPerforming collection functionsPerforming monitoring equipmentfunctionsManaging wastePreserving natural resourcesPerforming resource managementfunctionsResolving environmental problemsPerforming communication functionsProducing, maintaining, harvesting,processing, and distributing naturalresourcesConserving air, soil, and waterProtecting and managing forests andwildlifePlanning outdoor recreationPlanning and operating campgrounds,hiking and riding trails, riding stables,marinas, vacation farms, and farmpondsManaging soil and water systemsDeveloping human relations skillsDeveloping leadership skillsOrganizing, operating, and evaluatinglandscape operations and landscapetechnology programs


SourcesHeim lich, J. E. (1993). Environmental studies

and environmental careers. Columbus, OH:ERIC Clearinghouse for Science,Mathematics, and EnvironmentalEducation.

Florida State University. (1989). Landscapeoperations and landscape technology.Tallahassee, FL: Center for InstructionalDevelopment and Services.

Virginia Community College System. (1996).Occupational analyses: Agriculture/naturalresources. Richmond: Virginia VocationalCurriculum and Resource Center, Author.

B.8 Construction ContentPreparing for the construction projectDesigning and planning the projectManaging construction activitiesMaterials and specificationsPrint readingSiteworkStructural steel constructionReinforced concrete constructionMechanical and electrical systemsFinishing the projectClosing the contract

SourcesGalera, M. (1996). From school to a career in

construction. Tech Directions, 55(7), 16-18.

Henak, R. M. (1993). Exploring construction.Tinley Park, IL: Goodheart-Willcox.

Toenjes, L. P. (1996). Building tradesprintreading Part 3: Heavy commercialconstruction. Homewood, IL: AmericanTechnical Publishers.

B.9 Communication ContentCommunication processesIndustries and careersTechnical graphicsGraphic design and productionDesign and problem solvingComputer-Aided Design (CAD)Data processing

"is100 NCRVE MDS-956

Desktop/electronic publishingContinuous tone photographyElectronic communication basicsTelecommunication and broadcastingSpecialty printing and reprographyTechnological impactsCommunication field careersFuture communication

SourcesJohnson, C. D. (1992). Communication systems.

Tinley Park, IL: Goodheart-Willcox.

Seymour, R. D., Ritz, J. M., & Cloghessy, F. A.(1996). Exploring communication. TinleyPark, IL: Goodheart-Willcox.

B.10 Transportation ContentEnergy and power systemsLand transportation systemsWater transportation systemsAir transportation systemsSpace transportation systemsPropulsion of a vehicleGuidance and control of a vehicleTransportation and the future

SourcesBohn, R. C. (1992). Energy technology: Power

and transportation. Peoria, IL: Glencoe /McGraw-Hill.

Johnson, S. R., & Farrar-Hunter, P. A. (1993).Exploring transportation. Tinley Park, IL:Goodheart-Willcox.

APPENDIX C

Examples of CareerClusters /Pathways /Maj ors

C.1 - Central High School MagnetCareer Academy (Louisville,Kentucky) Career AreaVeterinary ScienceCurriculum

C.1 Central High SchoolMagnet Career Academy

Louisvile, Kentucky

Computer TechnologyLegal / Governmental ServicesKFC/JCPS Partnership/YoungExecutive Management ProgramFinance AccountingBusiness Management/EntrepreneurshipMedicine/Allied HealthNursingDentalMedical Office AdministrationTherapeutic/ PharmacyDiagnostics / Clinical Lab ScienceVeterinary Science

C.2 - Dauphin County TechnicalSchool (Harrisburg,Pennsylvania)

C.3 - David Douglas High School(Portland, Oregon)

C.4 - Fairfax County PublicSchools (Fairfax, Virginia)Career Cluster EngineeringCurriculum

C.5 - Philadelphia High SchoolAcademies (Philadelphia,Pennsylvania)

C.6 - Walhalla High School(Walhalla, South Carolina)

C.7 - William Turner TechnicalHigh School (Miami, Florida)

C.8 - Additional Schools

Ninth graders must complete anapplication to the Magnet programs, providetwo letters of recommendation, and submitan essay on career choice. Every ninth graderrotates through each of the magnet areas(three weeks duration) and declare a majorat the end of the year. All ninth graders entera pre-college curriculum and develop acareer plan.

In tenth grade, students declare theircareer major and begin an in-depth study ofthe magnet area. Hands-on training in thismagnet area is received in a "high tech"learning lab. Sophomores shadow a workerin their chosen field for five hours persemester, for a total of ten hours per schoolyear. Each student participates in enrichmentfield trips, personal development training,and career development and educational


training. Students keep logs of theirexperiences.

Juniors study one hour per day in theirchosen magnet area. Approximately once amonth, students work one-on-one with amentor from a particular field. Site visits,hands-on training, professional contacts, andpersonal development training continuethroughout the school year. Juniors take theACT / SAT and begin to research and contactcolleges. Students continue to keep logs oftheir experiences.

Seniors study two hours per day in theirchosen magnet field. Students have the

opportunity to participate in a workexperience co-op for 15-20 hours per week(one class period) outside school. This co-opis both for pay and academic credit. Studentscontinue to work on a monthly basis withtheir mentor, and prepare their careermagnet portfolio to use on work and collegeinterviews. They apply to colleges and forscholarships. A special certificate is awardedat the completion of their Career MagnetProgram. All curriculum sequences areavailable at regular, honors, and advancedprogram levels.

Magnet Career Area Curriculum Veterinary Science(Advanced Program Level) Central High School

Grade 9EnglishAP MathBiology IPhysical Education/KeyboardingForeign LanguageMagnet Rotation

Demonstrate an interest inVeterinary ScienceMaintain a 2.5 GPADemonstrate an interest inVeterinary CommunityinvolvementSelect Veterinary Science asmajor area of study

Grade 10EnglishAP MathBiology IIWorld CivilizationForeign LanguageVeterinary Science

Sign Contract of IntentClinical Procedures IParasitologyBreeds IdentificationZoonotic DiseasesInvolvement in grooming andphysical exams during ClinicalDays

Grade 11EnglishAP MathChemistry IU.S. HistoryForeign LanguageVeterinary Science

Clinical Procedures IILaboratory TechniquesSmall Animal DiseasesMedical TerminologyPerforming physical exams andlaboratory work during ClinicalDaysReceive certificate as a SmallAnimal Nutritional Advisor

Grade 12EnglishHumanitiesCalculusAnatomy and PhysiologyVeterinary Science (2 hours)

Clinical Procedures IIISurgical NursingLarge Animal DiseasesAnimal Science (3 collegecredit hours)Work Site Preparation

Source: Central High School Magnet Career Academy. (1995). Informationbrochure. Louisville, KY: Author.

102 NCRVE MDS-956 1.10

SourceCentral High School Magnet Career

Academy. (1995). Information brochure.Louisville, KY: Author.

C.2 Dauphin County TechnicalSchool

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

TechnicalServiceCommunications and TransportationConstruction

Technical ClusterElectronic Technology Health AssistantScientific Data Processing TechnologyDrafting and Design TechnologyLaw Enforcement

Service ClusterChildcare AttendantCosmetologyFood Production, Management andServicesMarketing and Distributive EducationOrnamental Horticulture

Communications and TransportationCluster

Precision MetalworkingAutomotive Body and FenderAutomotive Technology IGraphic ArtsCommercial Arts

Construction ClusterAir Conditioning and RefrigerationBuilding Construction and MaintenanceCarpentryElectronic Construction andMaintenance

SourceDauphin County Technical School. (1995).

Information brochure. Harrisburg, PA:Author.

C.3 David Douglas HighSchool

Portland, Oregon

Social and Human ServicesHealth SciencesBusiness and ManagementIndustrial and Engineering SystemsNatural ResourcesArts and CommunicationsHospitality Tourism, and Recreation

A partnership between David DouglasHigh School and the Oregon BusinessCouncil resulted in the development ofProject STARS (Students Taking AuthenticRoutes to Success), designed to respond tothe educational reform demands of theOregon Education Act for the 21st Century.Interdisciplinary teams have beenestablished to develop curriculum, set policyand determine how to best serve the studentsenrolled in their career "constellation."Teams consist of representatives from eacheducational department or discipline andthree to five business persons working in arelated career.

Eighth-grade students complete aninterest and career aptitude survey, andreview brochures on each of theconstellations. Ninth- and tenth-gradestudents complete a careers course whichexplores options within variousconstellations, and develop individualeducation plans and portfolios. Ninth andtenth graders focus on general studies andreceive a Certificate of Initial Mastery.Eleventh- and twelfth-grade students focuson a major area of study and receive ademonstration-based Certificate of Masteryin one of the six broad areas. Students alsoparticipate in supervised workplaceexperiences with cooperating businesspartners.

SourceMcGraw-Hill. (1996). New American high

schools: Preparing students for college andcareers. New York: Author.

Designing the Theli ClICLiculum: An All Aspects Approach 103

C.4 Fairfax County PublicSchools

Fairfax, Virginia

Communications and the ArtsEngineering, Industrial and ScientificTechnologyHealth, Human and Public ServicesBusiness and Marketing

Under this cluster plan, most coreacademic classes are taken in ninth and tenthgrade. By twelfth grade, five of seven classesshould be specialized courses from thecluster curriculum a student has chosen.There are many potential coursecombinations within the four career clusterslisted below:

Communications and the ArtsPhotographyPublic Relations

RadioJournalismVisual ArtsVirtual RealityInteractive MultimediaTelevisionFilmLive Performance

Engineering, Industrial and ScientificTechnology

ArchitectureElectronicsEngineeringAutomotiveManufacturingBuilding TradesHorticultureTransportationConstructionPhysical Science

Career Cluster Curriculum Engineering FocusFairfax County Public Schools

Ninth GradeLanguage ArtsP.E. and HealthWorld Studies IMath (Algebra I or II)Science (Earth Science orBiology)Introduction to Engineering*Engineering Drawing*

Tenth GradeLanguage ArtsP.E. and HealthSocial Studies or ForeignLanguageFine or Practical ArtsMath (Algebra II or Geometry)Science (Biology or Chemistry)Principles of Technology*

*denotes cluster curriculum course

Eleventh GradeLanguage ArtsU.S. HistoryMath or ScienceDesign and Technology*Desktop/MultimediaPresentations*Information Systems*Electronics*

Twelfth GradeLanguage ArtsU.S. GovernmentMedia Focus 2-D*Computer Graphics*Discrete Mathematics*Speech Communications*Business Management*

Source: Lozada, M. (1995). A model reform. Vocational Education Journal,70(8), 28-33.

104 NCRVE MDS-9561 2

Health, Human and Public ServicesEducationCounselingHealth CareChild CareDentalHotelGovernmentLawConsumer AffairsForeign Service

Business and MarketingSalesPublic RelationsFinanceAdvertisingTelecommunicationsHotel and RestaurantNetwork SystemsTravel and TourismInsurance Research

SourceLozada, M. (1995). A model reform.

Vocational Education Journal, 70(8), 28-33.

C.5 Philadelphia High SchoolAcademies

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Applied Electrical ScienceBusinessApplied Automotive and MechanicalSciencesHealthHorticultureEnvironmental TechnologyFitness, Health Promotion, and SportsEducationHotel, Restaurant, and Tourism

The Philadelphia High School Academieswere established in 1969 with theintroduction of the Applied Electrical ScienceAcademy. Since that time, seven additionalacademies have been developed andimplemented. Each academy integratesstate-mandated academic courses and fullyapproved occupational skills trainingprograms. Job-ready students are provided

paid work experience (part-time duringschool, full-time in the summer and aftergraduation) through the program's businesspartners. Over 150 corporations andfoundations support the Philadelphia HighSchool Academies.

SourceRigden, D. W. (1992). Business and the schools:

A guide to effective programs. New York:Council for Aid to Education.

C.6 Walhalla High School

Walhalla, South Carolina

Arts/Sciences/Human ServicesBusinessEngineeringHealth ServicesTrades and TechnologyFinance AcademyFord Academy of ManufacturingSciences (FAMS)

Entering freshmen choose one major fromthe five career clusters and two academiesavailable. Career clusters have beenorganized along a College Prep and TechPrep continuum. College Prep providesstudents with extensive preparation forcollege-level work leading to a chosen career.Tech Prep prepares students for furthertechnical college training or immediate entryinto a chosen career. Students develop careerportfolios, participate in informationworkshops conducted by a career specialist,and gain work experience throughmentoring, job shadowing, and internshipprograms.




C.7 William Turner TechnicalHigh School

Miami, Florida

AgriscienceApplied Business TechnologyNational Academy Foundation/FannieMae Academy of FinanceHealthIndustrial Technology Public ServiceTelevision Production

William H. Turner Technical High Schooloffers a "two-for-one diploma" that meetsthe requirements for entry into a two-yearor four-year college and awards statecertification in career training. Teachers ineach of the academies develop IntegratedCurricular Units (ICUs) that integrateacademic content and technicalcompetencies with the career content.SCANS competencies and Tech Prepinitiatives are integrated into the curricula.Students select a career academy uponentering ninth grade and complete asequence of core and elective courses leadingto certification and graduation. Students alsoparticipate in a number of school-basedenterprises and supervised work-basedexperiences. Job Prep courses are viewed asa valuable addition to academic education.



C.8 Additional Schools

Bryan Senior High School

Omaha, Nebraska

Arts and HumanitiesBusiness /Information SystemsHealth ServicesEngineering TechnologyPublic/Human Services

106 NCRVE MDS-956

SourceU.S. Department of Education with the

National Center for Research inVocational Education. (1996). NewAmerican High Schools conference honorablemention sites. Berkeley, CA: Author.

Central Valley School District

Greenacres, Washington

Business, Marketing and ManagementBusiness Communications andOperationsTechnology in SocietyEngineering, Science and MedicalServicesCreative and Applied ArtsSocial, Health and Personal Services

SourceDunn-Gallagher, J., & Valmores, N.G. (1995).

Increasing rigor and relevance: Linkingschool-to-career: Best district practices. WestSacramento: California School BoardsAssociation.

Dade County Public Schools

Miami, Florida

EducationalCivilEnvironmental Pollution ControlNuclear TechnologiesLawProtective ServicesFire Protection

SourceDade County Public Schools. (1995).

Information brochure. Miami, FL: Office ofApplied Technology, Adult, Career, andCommunity Education.

Encina High School

Sacramento, California

The Health Career AcademyThe Graphic Arts and PrintingAcademyThe Business Career AcademyThe Career Exploration Academy

SourceEncina High School. (1995). Information

brochures. Sacramento, CA: Author.

Gloucester High School

Gloucester, Virginia

Health and Human ServicesGlobal StudiesEnvironmental Scientific StudiesTheoretical and Technical StudiesCommunication Arts



Hamilton High School

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Carpentry/DraftingHotel/Restaurant ManagementFashion MerchandisingBusiness EducationCommunication Arts



Rezin Orr CommunityAcademy

Chicago, Illinois

Carpentry/DraftingHotel/Restaurant ManagementFashion MerchandisingBusiness EducationCommunication Arts


National Center for Research inVoCational Education. (1996). NewAmerican High Schools conference honorablemention sites. Berkeley, CA: Author.

Roosevelt High School

Portland, Oregon

Business and ManagementHealth ServicesManufacturingEngineering TechnologiesNatural Resource SystemsHuman Services




St. Mary's County TechnicalCenter

Leonardtown, Maryland

Four-Year College / UniversityEngineering Mechanical TechnologiesBusiness Management TechnologiesHealth/Human Services Technologies

SourceDunn-Gallagher, J., & Valmores, N. G. (1995).

Increasing rigor and relevance: Linkingschool-to-career: Best district practices. WestSacramento: California School BoardsAssociation.

6108 NCRVE MDS-956

APPENDIX D

Examples of Theme-WideFunctions, Issues, Concerns,and Technological Knowledgeand Skills

D.1 - Industry-Wide Functions andIssues

D.2 - Common Functions, Issues,Concerns, andTechnological Knowledgeand Skills

D.3 - Criminal Justice/ProtectiveServices: Trends andConcerns

D.4 - Health and Human Services:Trends and Concerns

D.5 - Business: Trends andConcerns

D.6 - Marketing: Trends andConcerns

D.1 Industry-Wide Functionsand Issues

An education for all aspects of theindustry does not focus on one aspect of anindustry; rather, it focuses on broad-basedlearning with an emphasis in each of thefollowing areas:

1. Structure and Organization: This arearelates to the functions and contributionsof the industry in the economy, and howan industry is organized for the produc-tion of its primary products and services.

2. History: This area deals with theevolution of an industry, the forces thatimpacted the development, and those thatare likely to shape future development ofthe industry.

3. Technology: The content of this areaconcerns the principles of technology thatdrive the production process in anindustry, how such technology haschanged over the years, and how it islikely to change in the future.

4. Economics: This aspect addresses thefunctional mode of an industry (locally,regionally, nationally, and internationally)and how industries relate with each other.

5. Human Resources: This aspect identifiesthe human resources that work within anindustry, what they do, and what theyneed to know in order to work success-fully in an industry. It includes learningabout how workers learn and the ins andouts of the workplace social system.

6. Government: The content area includesbusiness transactions with, and theinteraction between, an industry andlocal, state, federal, and foreign govern-ments.

7. Health and Safety: This area relates to thehealth and safety concerns associatedwith an industry, its work environment,and its products.

it?Designing the Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 109

8. Environment: Questions that relate to theinteraction between an industry andnatural, built, and social environments areanswered within this area.

SourceAmerican Vocational Association. (1990). The

AVA guide to the Carl D. Perkins Vocationaland Applied Technology Education Act of1990. Alexandria, VA: Author.

D.2 Common Functions, Issues,Concerns, and TechnologicalKnowledge and Skills

A study to identify functions, issues,concerns, and technological knowledgecommon to various industries and fields wasconducted by the Instructional MaterialsLaboratory at the University of MissouriColumbia. These industries and fieldsincluded the following:

Agricultural ProductionMarketingHealth ServicesTransportation MaintenanceConstructionPersonal ServicesFood ServicesChild CareElectrical / ElectronicsPrinting / Graphic Arts /DraftingAgricultural BusinessMetalsOffice OccupationsComputer / Data Processing

The following are the common functions,issues, concerns, and technologicalknowledges identified for these industriesand career fields:

Industry planning and productsTransportation delivery systemSocietal impact of the productMarket trend, including the globalmarket trendExpansion plan, and plan toaccommodate change

1 1 8

110 NCRVE MDS-956

Corporate chain of command, corporateculture, decisionmaking process, andmanagement stylesCustomer satisfactionLeadership opportunitiesFinancing and budgetingBusiness liability and protection costs(insurance)Relations with suppliersMaterials purchasingMark-up and profitNegotiation skillsTime management techniquesComputer useProblem-solving skillsTeam player skillsTechnical and general informationTechnology change and upgradingskillsWorker's rights and responsibilitiesCustomer rights and responsibilitiesQuality improvement programsWorker-employer relationshipBenefitsCareer advancementTraining opportunitiesLabor treatmentProfessional organizationsCultural sensitivityHealth careCompany's contribution to communityCommunity's contribution to companyPublic perception and industry imageEnvironmental impacts and long-termhealth hazardsWaste disposalRegulatory complianceSafety trainingStress managementErgonomicsCrisis interventionDrug testing proceduresAttitude, ethical conduct, personaldiscipline, good grooming, andappearanceHarassment and right to privacy

SourceInstructional Materials Laboratory. (1993).

Methodology used in the project "All Aspectsof the Industry" for vocational educationprograms. Columbia: University ofMissouriColumbia. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Series No. ED 367 818)

D.3 Criminal justice/Protective Services: Trends andConcerns

Increase in older populationIncrease in immigrant populationIncrease in cultural diversity in theworkplaceIncrease in violent offendersNo-parole policiesHarsher treatment of offendersIncrease in numbers and complexity ofindividual property protection systemsIncrease in community-basedcorrectionsInmate payment for custodial upkeepComputer technologyIncrease in educational requirements forcorrections employmentIncrease in workloads/caseloadsCivilian workers in jailsAuxiliary programsIncrease in attendance by privatecitizens at criminal justice academiesCommunity college credit forcompletion of academy curriculum


Occupational analyses: Health and humanservices. Richmond: Virginia VocationalCurriculum and Resource Center, Author.

D.4 Health and HumanServices: Trends and Concerns

Technological advancesLasers replacing handpiecesNew vaccinesCosmetic proceduresDisposable equipmentSeparation of wasteStaff health/safety consciousnessHIV post-exposure testing for staffNeedle stick protocol/Infection controlPaperwork increase (yearly OSHAupdate)Malpractice suit increasesPatient confidentiality issuesRegulatory climate changesStress management skills courses/seminarsTime management skills courses/seminarsCrisis/emergency proceduresIncrease in the use of ultrasoundproceduresIncrease in need for versatile employeeswho integrate skills from differentdepartments through cross-trainingCultural diversity awareness/Inclusion(Americans with Disabilities Act)Downsizing/Rightsizing (job securityloss)Hospitals becoming more businessoriented rather than service orientedIncrease in temporary/part-timeemploymentIncrease in female domination of fieldHigh burnout rateIncrease in government interventionIncrease in establishment of specializedcenters (separate from hospitals)Equipment becoming smaller, moreportableEmerging use of CD-ROM technologyEmerging use of teleimaging technologyHome healthcareDecentralizationIncreased patient focusStricter occupational certificationrequirementsWorkplace education incentivesOffice automation (electronic mail/faxes/voice mail)Team environment emphasis

ticthe Thematic Curriculum: An All Aspects Approach 111

Employee empowerment emphasisLow-paying entry jobsIncreased hiring of older personsPolitical correctness /sensitivity tocultural diversityAwareness of sexual harassment issuesImpact of safety, health, andenvironmental regulationsImpact of Fair Labor Standards ActGreater dependence on volunteersShrinking budgetsPublic/private partnershipsDemands for field to become morecustomer-driven/more revenue-producingEmphasis on high qualityPrivatizationSocial issues (substance abuse, schooldropouts, family lifestyles, etc.)Tendency for public to think ofrecreation as the solution to social illsPressure to achieve measurable results


Occupational analyses: Health and humanservices. Richmond: Virginia VocationalCurriculum and Resource Center, Author.

D.5 Business: Trends andConcerns

Personal liabilityNegotiation skills courses/seminarsDecisionmaking skills courses / seminarsRe-engineering/downsizingChanging technologyLifelong learning emphasisCultural diversity awarenessProject management/ teamworkSeasonal workSedentary working conditionsOn-line services skillsComputer literacy requirementsHome computer useMovement toward wirelesscommunication devicesMovement toward directory servicesAccountability issuesMultimedia /digitized mediaWork station designSecurity emphasis

1 2 9

112 NCRVE MDS-956

Outsourcing corporation servicesTelecommuting / satellitecommunicationInteractive networkingPEN-based computingCross-training


Occupational analyses: Business clusters.Richmond: Virginia VocationalCurriculum and Resource Center, Author.

D.6 Marketing: Trends andConcerns

Growth of consumerismIncrease in government regulationEffective use of natural resourcesDeveloping new and better productsIncreased use of scientific marketingresearchGlobal marketplace/international tradeincreaseChanging demographicsConsumer satisfaction / decisionmakingprocessesMarket segmentationChanging competitionBroader marketing applicationsRecognized need for professionaldevelopment / employee educationprogramsMarketing applications of technologyEmployee and employer ethicsSocial responsibilities of companies

SourceBurrow, J., & Eggland, S. (1995). Marketing

foundations and functions. Cincinnati:South-Western Publishing.

APPENDIX E

Related Materials, Reports,and Resources:A Selective Bibliography

A Selective BibliographyBailey, T., Koppel, R., & Waldinger, R. (1994).

Education for all aspects of the industry:Overcoming barriers to broad-based training(MDS-243). Berkeley: National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

This report evaluates the shift in printingand apparel industries toward innovativework organization. It assesses the extentto which educational reform might bepromoted by new types of workorganization, or be slowed down by theperception on the part of educators thatfirms do not want these new types ofskills. The report presents educational andtraining strategies that serve theseindustries with an evaluation of the extentto which employers are implementing anall aspects strategy. Barriers to thedevelopment and diffusion of the allaspects approach are identified, and asummary of findings and policysuggestions for overcoming these barriersare presented.

Bragg, D. D. (1994). Emerging Tech Prepmodels: Promising approaches toeducational reform, Centerfocus (Issue #5).

The fundamental components of TechPrep are described and five emergingTech Prep models are introduced.Specifically, the integrated Tech Prepmodel focuses on delivering academic

and vocational education organizedaround broad career clusters.

Boston Vocational Education RevitalizationProject. (1993). New directions at MadisonPark Technical-Vocational High School.Boston: Author.

This resource can be used to developthematic programs and curriculum. PartI gives educators an overview of the allaspects concept and describes six aspectsof industry, including health and safetyon the job, labor issues, principles oftechnology, management, finance, andcommunity economic development. PartII provides strategies for implementingthese into the curriculum. This section isorganized around a ninth-grade academyand four clusters including Arts andCommunications, Craft and Technical,Commerce, and Health and HumanServices.

Bottoms, G. (1993). Redesigning and refocusinghigh school vocational studies. Atlanta:Southern Regional Education Board.

121

Blending academic and vocationaleducation, connecting the school site tothe worksite, and linking secondary andpostsecondary education are addressed inthis book. Information provided assistshigh school personnel in examining theircurrent vocational programs anddeveloping new programs that givestudents the quality of academic and


technical preparation that businesses andindustries expect. High Schools that Workvocational programs involving youthapprenticeships, academies, magnetprograms, business partnerships, andindustry certification programs areexamined.

Bottoms, G., & Sharpe, D. (1996). Teaching forunderstanding through integration ofacademic and technical education. Atlanta:Southern Regional Education Board.

This guide acquaints readers withpractical, integrated instructionalapproaches and strategies that engagestudents in learning challenging academicand vocational content, and illustrate real-life uses of academic subjects. The guideis designed to help high school educatorsanswer four basic questions concerningacademic and vocational integration: (1)What is integrated learning?, (2) Whyintegrate?, (3) What conditions must existto support integrated learning?, and (4)Where do you begin? Interdisciplinaryintegration approaches addressed in theguide include team teaching, short- orlong-term projects, thematic projects,thematic units, and academies.

Career Connections Service. (1996). Careerpathways. Virginia Department ofEducation, Office of Vocational, Adult,and Employment Training Services:Author.

Career Pathways is a booklet designed tohelp teachers and counselors plan andimplement instruction that meets theneeds of students investigating potentialcareers. Careers are organized intoclusters of career fields. Phase 1 preparesstudents to investigate careers. Studentsidentify their roles as workers in society,analyze their personal assets, complete abasic exploration of career clusters, andselect career fields or occupations forfurther study. Students also secure jobshadowing positions with localemployers. Phase 2 involves an in-depthstudy of one to four career clusters,including student analysis of working

114 NCRVE MDS-956

conditions, need for workers, workerqualifications, organizational structures,and common problems and solutions. InPhase 3, students match their interestsand aptitudes with occupationalinformation, investigate a variety ofpathways to career success, and reinforceknowledge and skills needed for paidemployment. A Career Cluster StudyGuide is provided as an example.

Center for Law and Education. (1996).Resources for teaching all aspects of anindustry. Washington, DC: Author.

This resource identifies books, videos,organizations, and curricula materialsthat educators can use when teaching allaspects of an industry. Resources coveringthe "all aspects" approach, specificaspects of industry, small businessdevelopment, entrepreneurship, andindustry trends are provided in anannotated bibliography. Topics such asplanning; management; finance;principles of technology; communityissues; labor issues; and health, safety, andenvironmental issues are addressed.

Community and Schools of Charlottesville-Albemarle for Partnerships inEducation (CSCAPE). (1996). CSCAPE.Charlottesville, VA: Author.

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This booklet, developed by CSCAPEparticipants, addresses how localbusinesses and organizations can workwith schools to develop and maintainpartnerships that support work-basedlearning opportunities for all students.The benefits of school /communitypartnerships, partnership activities, andwork-based learning definitions arelisted. Student application forms, studentperformance evaluation forms, andstudent response forms are provided forthe following work-based learningopportunities: job shadowing, mentor-ship, internship, cooperative education,and student apprenticeship.

de Leeuw, D., Hertenstein, C., Jackson, M.,Lum, B. J., O'Donoghue, S., Rahn, M.,Rubin, V., Stern, D., & Whi tehurst-Gordon, A. (1992). Examples of integratedacademic and vocational curriculum fromhigh school academies in the Oakland unifiedschool district (MDS-483). Berkeley:National Center for Research inVocational Education, University ofCalifornia at Berkeley.

This report describes the Oakland UnifiedSchool District's district-wide AcademiesMagnet Program. These school-wi thin-a-school magnet programs are designed toprovide both academic instruction andcareer preparation. Fields represented arehealth, business, communications,engineering, computer technology, law,visual arts, and transportation.

Douzenis, C. (1994). Evaluation of magnetschools: Methodological issues andconcerns. The Clearing House, 68(1).

This article discusses magnet schoolevaluation from several standpoints, witha strong emphasis on methodologicalissues and concerns. It is designed to helpmagnet school personnel and admin-istrators recognize the need to familiarizethemselves with methodological andevaluation issues associated with theirparticular magnet programs.

Education Development Center, Inc. (1996).The national school-to-career consortiumdirectory. Newton, MA: Author.

The National School-to-CareerConsortium (NSCC) is a collaboration of24 organizations under the leadership ofEducation Development Center, Inc.Members of the consortium providetechnical assistance to states awardedSchool-to-Work Opportunities Actimplementation grants. This directoryprovides a name, address, and briefoverview of each participatingorganization.

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Grubb, W. N. (Ed.). (1995). Education throughoccupations in American high schools. Vol.1: Approaches to integrating academic andvocational education. New York: TeachersCollege Press.

This publication examines curriculumintegration from a variety of perspectivesand presents it as a possible solution tomany of the current complaints aboutsecondary schooling in the United States.Two particularly relevant chapters are TheCareer Academies by Marilyn Raby (pp. 82-96), and Coherence for All Students: HighSchools with Career Clusters and Majors byW. Norton Grubb (pp. 97-113).

Grubb, W. N. (1996, April). The newvocationalism. What it is, what it couldbe. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(8), 538-546.

The organization of integrated instructionaround broadly defined occupations,combinations of occupations, and socialissues is described in this article. Therestructuring of high schools to enhanceintegration by using occupations tocontextualize instruction is presented inthree forms: (1) career academies, (2)clusters, and (3) occupational high schoolsand magnet schools.

Hamilton, S. F., & Hamilton, M. A. (1994).Opening career paths for youth: What can bedone? Who can do it? Position paperpresented at the American Youth PolicyForum in Washington, DC.

The authors suggest that although youthjobs can serve as a valuable introductionto employment, few jobs for young adultsmake use of their real skills, interests, andabilities. The challenge is to bring theexisting components of the careeropportunity system together as a coherentwhole to better serve the needs of allyoung people. The components of a careeropportunity system should include thefollowing: work-based learning, youthapprenticeship, career information andadvising, high academic standards for all,career majors and career academies, and


Tech Prep. The School-to-Work Oppor-tunities Act provides a basis for startinga career opportunity system fornoncollege-bound youths. Partnershipswith schools, employers, government, thecommunity, students, and parents mustbe organized to support and coordinatethe career opportunity systems.

Imel, S. (1996). Selected school-to-worktransition readings. The ERIC Review, 4(2),25-29.

A number of readings on current school-to-work issues are highlighted in thisannotated bibliography. Readings coverissues such as, but not limited to,contextual learning, cooperativeeducation, parent and employer roles inschool-to-work, innovative transitionprogramming, worksite learning, andyouth apprenticeship programs. Orderinginformation is included for each entry andERIC document numbers are noted whenapplicable.

Instructional Materials Laboratory. (1994).All aspects of the industry supplementaryinstructional modules. Columbia:University of MissouriColumbia,Author.

This reference directs teachers in thecreation and refinement of all aspectsprograms for students preparing to enterthe workplace. For those educators whohave already established all aspects, theguide may serve "as a check-off sheet ofareas which are worthwhile in thepreparation of students for the world ofwork." Nine all aspects competencies arediscussed. They are (1) how industryplans; (2) how industry is managed; (3)how industry handles capital andfinances; (4) important technical andproduction skills; (5) important industryprinciples of technology; (6) importantindustry labor issues; (7) importantcommunity issues; (8) health, safety, andenvironmental issues; and (9) importantaspects of personal conduct in industry.Examples and suggested activities for

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each of the competencies are provided.Questions and activities to access masteryof the subject matter are included.

Instructional Materials Laboratory. (1993).Methodology used in the project "All Aspectsof the Industry" for vocational educationprograms. Columbia: University ofMissouriColumbia, Author.

During 1992, the Missouri Department ofElementary and Secondary Educationconducted a statewide assessment todetermine the extent to which "allaspects" was included in the vocationaleducation curricula. Based on theassessment results, a program wasdeveloped to identify appropriate specificcompetencies that would provide strongexperience in and understanding of "allaspects" in 15 industry areas.

Johansson, C. B. (1996). (6th ed.). Interestdetermination, exploration and assessmentsystem (IDEAS). Minneapolis: NationalComputer Systems.

The IDEAS materials include a workbookand a standardized career interestinventory for individuals from grade 7through adult. The inventory results in anindividual IDEAS profile indicating low,average, or high interest in 16 possiblecareer interest areas, including nature/outdoors, creative arts, medical,mechanical / fixing, writing, food service,office practices, public speaking, business,sales, educating, child care, communityservice, science, mathematics, andprotective services. Suggestions andresources for learning more about highinterest areas are provided.

Lozada, M. (1995). A model reform.Vocational Education Journal, 70(8), 28-33.

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Career clusters that aim to integrateacademic and vocational education byguiding students through particularavenues of study are highlighted in thisarticle. Career cluster examples drawnfrom several schools throughout theUnited States are included.

National Center for Research in VocationalEducation. (1994). All aspects of theindustry: Bringing industry to the classroom(MDS-839). Berkeley: National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

This teleconference video provides anorientation to all aspects of the industryconcepts, and presents strategies forimplementing all aspects in the classroom.Ideas for using local and state policies toassist and enhance curriculumdevelopment and implementation arepresented.

National Center for Research in VocationalEducation. (1992). Key issues in vocationaleducation: Tip sheet for education writers(MDS-035). Berkeley: National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

This tip sheet provides information aboutkey educational reform issues and adviseseducation writers covering vocationaleducation. Three reform issues areaddressed: (1) integrating vocational andacademic education, (2) Tech Prep, and (3)performance standards and measures.Several integration models are describedincluding the academy model;occupational high schools and magnetschools; and occupational clusters, careerpaths, and occupational majors.

Newmann, F. M., & Wehlage, G. G. (1995).Successful school restructuring: A report tothe public and educators. Madison:University of WisconsinMadison: Centeron Organization and Restructuring ofSchools.

Specific educational innovations can beviewed as structural "tools" to be usedfor specific purposes in particularsituations. The effectiveness of each "tool"depends on how well it organizes ordevelops the values, beliefs, and technicalskills of educators to improve studentlearning. This report describes a researchstudy conducted from 1990 to 1995by the Center on Organization and

Restructuring of Schools (CORS). Thestudy examines how the "tools" ofrestructuring can be used to improve aschool's human and social resources and,therefore, elevate learning for all students.Student learning, authentic pedagogy,school organizational capacity, andexternal support provide focus for thestudy.

Nielsen Andrew, E. (Ed.). (1996). As teacherstell it: Implementing all aspects of the industry(MDS-885a and 885b). Berkeley: NationalCenter for Research in VocationalEducation, University of California atBerkeley.

This report describes a collaborative effortbetween four national organizations andfour school programs. A case study ofeach program describes the efforts toimplement "all aspects" reforms. Eachcase study also addresses how the "allaspects" curriculum responds tochanging economic, educational, andemployment needs.

Pauly, E., Kopp, H., & Haimson, J. (1995).Home grown lessons: Innovative programslinking work and high school. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.

Sixteen innovative school-to-workmodels are introduced in this report.Descriptions of school-to-work systemimplementation challenges, programcontent, student populations, employerinvolvement, and resource requirementsare provided.

Pearce, E. (1996). Selected school-to-worktransition resource organizations. TheERIC Review, 4(2), 20-24.

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A directory of organizations thatdisseminate information, providetechnical assistance, support collaborativeefforts, and conduct demonstrationprograms and innovative projects in theschool-to-work transition area isprovided.


Rahn, M. L., Alt, M., Emanuel, D., Ramer, C.G., Hoachlander, E. G., Holmes, P.,Jackson, M., Klein, S. G., & Rossi, K.(1995). Getting to work: A guide for betterschools. Berkeley: National Center forResearch in Vocational Education,University of California at Berkeley.

Getting to Work is designed to helpeducators reorganize education aroundthe world of work. It directs educators inthe preparation of students foremployment, further education, andcareer advancement. This guide provideseducators with the necessary tools neededto establish work-based and academic-oriented education programs. Fivemodules and an 89-minute video clip areincluded. Portions of Module Two aredescribed below.

Module Two, Unit 2: Thematic Curriculumintroduces educators to developingthematic curriculum units. Initially,educators learn to recognize commonthemes across subjects. Educators thenselect one subject area theme and oneindustry aspect around which to begindeveloping a thematic curriculum unit. Inaddition, educators examine examples ofthematic curriculum units and evaluatetheir own work.

Module Two, Unit 3: Integrated Projectsdirects educators to select an industryaround which to organize an integratedproject. Educators then divide theindustry into grade level themes andnarrow the industry focus. Theme-relatedinstructional activities, expected learneroutcomes, teacher responsibilities, andevaluation criteria are determined.

Stern, D., Raby, M., & Dayton, C. (1992).Career academies: Partnerships forreconstructing American high schools. SanFrancisco: Jossey-Bass.

This book presents the career academymodel in detail and explains how it canbe designed to address currenteducational issues. Practical advice andcase histories provide step-by-step

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guidelines for starting a career academy,integrating vocational and academiccurricula, and broadening student careeroptions.

Wilcox, J. (1991). Preparing students for thereal world. Vocational Education Journal,66(6), 38-40.

The Career Opportunity Paths inEducation (COPE) program at WoodlandHigh School in California focuses on theintegration of academics and careerexploration and guidance. Six careerclusters of courses providing essentialskills for immediate employment or post-high school employment are presented.

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DC. 126p. - Education Resources Information CenterMDS-483/December 1992/$13.00. Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools. Getting to Work: A Guide for Better Schools provides you