DECONSTRUCTING THE CELTIC IDIOM

[ is the celtic label valid in terms of its modern cultural application? ]

10200 words

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirements for a Bachelor of Design (Hons)

Colin J. Campbell

Fourth Year Graphic Design

Duncan of Jordanstone

College of Art and Design

The University of Dundee

December 2000

CONTENTS

i illustrations

1 introduction

2 chapter one: the meaning of celtic

12 chapter two: the conventional history

20 chapter three: the argument against celtic cultural unity

27 chapter four: overview of the modern celtic horizon

36 chapter five: deconstructing the modern celtic horizon

57 conclusion

59 references

60 primary research

61 bibliography

64 appendix 1

66 appendix 2

67 appendix 3.1

68 appendix 3.2

69 appendix 3.3

ILLUSTRATIONS

figure page

1. Bronze disc from Auvers, France. Early La Tne style. 6

2. Map of Celtic migrations in central Europe. 6

3. Table 1: Summary history of the Celts. 7

4. Celtic Language Genealogy. 10

5. Typical La Tne burials. 13

6. Map of Hallstatt expansion 14

7. Bronze helmet: example of early La Tne style 15

8. Bronze mirror from Desborough, Northamptonshire. 18

9. Escutcheon from Winchester hanging bowl. 18

10. Book of Kells Christi Autem page. 19

11. Table 2: Celtic miscellany on the High Street. 29

12. Example of Celtic knotwork: mugs. 30

13. Example of manuscript decoration: banners. 30

14. Example of unrelated materials: window sticker. 31

15. Typical Celtic imagery: Music CD. 32

16. La Tne imagery on books. 32

17. Assorted souvenir merchandise. 34

18. Celtic aromatherapy burner. 37

19. Celtic body decoration pack. 38

20. Celtic and Mockintosh design earthenware. 39

21. Kells decoration on crockery. 39

22. Skye Batiks: Celtic cross and cushions. 40

23. Tearcraft catalogue products. 40

24. The Tara Brooch. 41

25. Silver Quaichs. Penannular brooch. Silver hip flasks. 42

26. Celtic cross pendants. 43

27. Scotland and Cross pendants. 43

28. Traditional design hair clasps and pendants. 44

29. Enamel jewellery featuring La Tne style. 44

30. Pendant with Kells style bird design. 45

31. Shop advertising Celtic and Rennie Mackintosh . 45

32. Celtic wedding rings. 46

33. Celtic decorated watches. 46

34. Loosely derived Celtic designs. 46

35. Timberbush Tours leaflet. 48

36. Scottish Youth Hostels leaflet. 48

37. Leaflet for ONeills Irish bar. 49

38. Fraoch Heather Ale. 49

39. Bed and Breakfast sign. Tartan Amoebas CD. Craft Fair notice. 50

40. Celtic Spirit CD cover. 52

41. Salsa Celtica: contemporary music. 52

42. Celtic Love Songs CD. Celtic Journey CD. 53

43. Starkindler by Michael Card. 54

INTRODUCTION

The issue that interested me in approaching this topic was the apparently timeless

popularity of the Celtic style and the growing proliferation of products around us that

are labeled under this term 'Celtic'

I observed that it is different from other art styles or movements because it tends to

transcend boundaries that usually constrain an artistic style or tradition. It is art,

music, history and religion all at once and doesn't seem rooted in any one area.

Being aware of branding and marketing principles, from a design perspective, I began to

view more critically the expressions of the present revival in merchandise, music and

design especially. I suspected that much of the alleged 'Celtic' product was taking

advantage of the revival and passing off as Celtic without having very much to do with

historical Celtic elements.

Beyond that point I knew very little about the roots of Celtic culture, other than the art

style derived from some ancient people who once inhabited Ireland, Scotland, Wales

and France.

So, in order to make any informed comment on modern Celtic culture we must go back

to the initial emergence of the term Celtic in our popular culture. And from there,

further, to define what it was that spawned a movement that, beyond even the realm

of art and design, is truly international and multi-media in its manifestation and appeal,

the like of which the world has never seen.

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CHAPTER ONE: THE MEANING OF CELTIC

No attempt to investigate the dynamics of a cultural phenomenon like the Celtic idiom

would be successful without going back to the roots of the movement, whether they

be in a people, culture or philosophy, and attempting to understand the elements that

formed it.

The term Celtic in our 21st century is applied to many aspects of our culture but I

think its meaning to most people still lies primarily in representing a type of artistic

style or language (or group of languages). Both these are presumed to be linked to a

specific Celtic people who existed in times past and cultivated the language, ideals

and styles which are popularised today. This is the general conception of what the

term Celtic means today. So who were these Celts?

WHO ARE THE CELTS?

In the 8th century BC, according to the archaeological record, a people emerged with a

distinctive material culture which was termed the Hallstatt culture, after a major

archaeological discovery near the Austrian town of Hallstatt. These people were a

prosperous and influential force and heralded the beginning of the Iron Age in central

Europe.

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Greek writers in the sixth century BC refer to peoples known as Keltoi in central

Europe. In the first century BC Gaius Julius Caesar describes the Gauls at war with

Rome as calling themselves Celts (Raftery, 1994).

It is therefore presumed that the Keltoi (Celts) of Greek writings and the people of the

Hallstatt culture overlap as being the people occupying central Europe in the first

millennia BC (Raftery, 1994).

The material culture of this Hallstatt people is termed by archaeologists La Tne, and

consisted of various forms of fine metalwork and curvilinear art which is the most

distinctive aspect of this style and is the early form of what we recognise as Celtic Art;

Fig. 1.

The discovery of this La Tne culture all across central Europe and the historical

reference to peoples calling themselves Celts (above) led to a picture being adopted

of the various groups settling all over and sharing a similar culture, language and

religion (see Fig. 2). It is this overlap between the language and culture of these

peoples and La Tne material remains, according to Raftery (1994), that justifies the

use of the term Celtic as a convenient cultural label (See Fig. 3. Summary History of

the Celts).

This is the common conception of Celtic origins today and it is not by any means a

settled matter of sound historical fact, even in archaeological/historical circles, and

neither is it the writers personal conviction.

REASSESSING HISTORY

It is hardly a foregone conclusion that because of the existence of artifacts of a similar

style found across a region that this demonstrates a group unified in culture, language

and genealogy.

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There is a widespread abandonment of the canonical account of the peoples inhabiting

the British Isles and Europe in the Iron Age all being attributed to the migrations of the

Hallstatt people. And, apart from that, I would question the very choice of the name

Celtic as describing a common culture throughout this vast geographical area and

time period (whether they actually existed or not). The Celtic people according to

standard history dominated most of Europe, from the islands of Britain and Ireland to

Turkey (Galatians of the New Testament) and existed, in some form, from the 8th

century BC to the 9th century AD.

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1. Gold plated bronze disc, 100 cm in diameter, from Auvers, France. Ornament of paired lyre-scrolls, typical of early La Tne style

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2. How the Celtic world has been envisaged during the 20th century,with migrations in all directions from a 'homeland' in central Europe. (Based on Megaw

and Megaw 1989, Fig.2.

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3. Table 1: Summary History of the Celts (according to standard histories).

To use the term Celtic to describe all these peoples is to presume that, firstly, these

Keltoi that were referred to shared the same culture as the Hallstatt civilisation

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responsible for the La Tne culture. And secondly, that this group of people did

expand and migrate, presumably displacing any indigenous peoples before them;

eventually occupying all of central Europe, Britain and Ireland.

At present there is much doubt as to the accuracy of the standard account in light of

recent developments in archaeology and the study of ethnic groups and how they are

formed (James, 1999). Clearly, with such tenuous scientific grounds, there must be

another explanation of why the term Celtic was adopted to define this culture.

ENTERING THE BEAR-PIT OF HISTORICAL AUTHENTICITY

Simon James (1999), an Iron Age and Roman archaeologist does not agree with the

standard historical account. He proposes a model enlightened by recent studies of

how ethnic identities are formed, as well as archaeological developments in the latter

half of the 20th century. He suggests that the occurrence of the La Tne style across

this area does not necessarily imply a unified culture. It could rather have been a

common method of class distinction and sharing of elite values adopted by early

neighbouring aristocracies for whom the La Tne style finery and ornamentation would

have had significance.

James argues that the standard model is not consistent with the development of

ethnic groups, as we understand them. Ethnic identities are only formed in response to

coming into contact with an other that threatens a groups security and brings

differences between us and them suddenly to the fore, and thence one group

becomes conscious of what makes it different from the other.

This is seen from history in the formation of both the Scottish and English nations

under the shadow of Viking ravages in the 10th Century and later on, the threat from

France. It is unlikely that the with no such large scale threat during the Iron Age, that

any kind of stable continent-wide identity of Celticness could have existed.

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The evidence suggests small-scale communities and great regional diversity especially

in Britain and Ireland and evidence for mass migration/invasions of Celts is seriously

lacking. James suggests the people inhabiting Britain and Ireland at this time were

indigenous to the islands, descended from the Neolithic inhabitants and not in comers

from the Hallstatt expansion (if it even occurred).

James has a persuasive argument for this theory as well as suggesting an alternative

genesis of the Celtic culture, to be found in the 18th century.

CELTIC IN THE RISE OF NATIONALISM

In 1707 the great Welsh scholar Edward Lhuyd published his Archaeologica Brittania

spurred by a publication of the work of a Breton contemporary - Paul-Yves Pezron -

who suggested that modern Welsh and Breton were survivals of the ancient language

of the Gauls (the Celts of France). Lhuyds own contribution was a landmark in the

history of the study of languages (today divided in to contemporary linguistics and

historical philology). He demonstrated the underlying similarity of what he saw as a

family of recent and current languages which he showed related to the extinct

language of the ancient Gauls, the name Celtic was attached to this family of tongues

(see Fig. 4. Celtic Language Genealogy).

Why did he choose the name Celtic to identify this language group? James suggests

this; the earliest tribe in the language genealogy formed by Lhuyd would have been the

Gauls, however, France being at the time the Great Enemy, he would hardly have

termed it Gallic, which is identified with France. Caesars reference to these tribes

calling themselves Celts may have been chosen as a term that was not politically

compromised (James, 1999).

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Once the idea of Celtic speakers was launched, the label was also quickly used to

describe cultural or national identities past and present and both ideas became

established as fact throughout Britain and Ireland with remarkable speed.

Why would there have been such immediate and enthusiastic adoption of this identity

in the 18th century? Well, as it happens 1707 was also the year of the Treaty of

Union between Scotland and England forming a new political identity called British.

The French threat caused a push toward the Union with Ireland in 1801 and also

spurred the expansion of the Empire later on. Non-English identities faced potential

cultural oblivion through their submergence into a common Britishness which was

overwhelmingly English in character.

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4. Celtic language genealogy (after Macaulay, 1992).

During the 18th and 19th centuries societies throughout the British Isles had a variety

of reasons to take up the new notion of Celticness with enthusiasm. In this context

subsequent archaeological finds were fitted into the preconceived theory of Celtic

invasion/migration already formed. Certainly before 1700 there was no group or

people who called themselves Celtic, which tends to reflect James theory.

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CELTIC PEOPLE OR CELTIC CONSTRUCT?

So here are revealed serious and complex questions on the theories surrounding the

people in Iron Age Europe whom have been termed Celtic. Whether the name could

be representative of such a large group and whether the mass migrations, which

supposedly brought the Celtic people to the British Isles, ever took place is being

drastically reassessed. That puts into doubt everything that developed in the British

Isles after this point being termed Celtic at all.

There are several issues that are apparent at this stage then that affect (perhaps

drastically) our understanding of the Celtic phenomenon.

The historical, or rather, the archaeological evidence for continent-wide Celtic

migrations in the Iron Age is now open to reinterpretation, as is the question regarding

the movement of such peoples into Britain and Ireland at the same time.

It seems that the archetype of Celtic social structure as often conceived,

does not fit the archaeology of Britain and Ireland for most of the Iron

Age. (James, 1999)

James is not the only archaeologist to question the invasion theory, as Raftery (1994)

admits in relation to Irelands Iron Age:

Material of demonstrably continental origin is far too limited in quantity to

demonstrate this [invasion theory], and the La Tne horizon in eastern England

is almost wholly distinct from that in IrelandThere is no denying that the Irish

La Tne tradition came from outsideBut if large-scale population movements

were not responsible for this, what wasIrish emigrantssmall elite [of

foreigners]It remains an open question whether such a hypothetical group

could be held to have made the islands Celtic.

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According to James there has been a widespread abandonment in academic circles of

the idea of Pre-Roman centuries being regarded as Celtic. And that the general

picture that archaeology is revealing in the Iron Age is of small-scale, short-range social

life and great regional diversity, which is irreconcilable with the idea of one unified

ethnic identity we call Celtic. We need to present the basis for both theories if we are

to attempt an informed assessment of contemporary culture.

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CHAPTER 2: THE CONVENTIONAL HISTORY

The Hallstatt Culture set the scene for an enduring artistic style, revealed especially in

the burials of the wealthy (see Fig. 5). However, in the mid-5th Century BC there

appears to have been a crises in the Hallstatt civilisation and sudden decline set in.

It is around this time that we see major population movements across Europe; see Fig.

6. This is known as the Hallstatt expansion.

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5. Typical burials from early La Tne inhumation cemeteries in Europe.(a) Warrior burial at Sobocisko, Poland; (b) female burial,

Andelfingen, Switzerland.

This next phase in the European Iron Age was characterised by a material culture

named La Tne (The Shallows) after a major find of over 2000 items on the shore of

Lake Neuchtel in Switzerland in 1946. The curvilinear art featured on the scabbards

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found here is one of the most distinctive and broadly dispersed aspects of this culture,

and the earliest form of what we recognise as Celtic Art (see Fig.7).

The peoples of this second phase are known by various names. Classical

commentators refer to them as Galli (Gauls) or Galatae (Galatians), but we also have

Caesars suggestion that they called themselves Celts. The record of history begins to

shed light on the subject now and Mediterranean authors give a vivid picture of the

Celts as a passionate and warlike people.

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6. The spread of La Tne influence following the Hallstatt expansion.

The Celts settled across a vast area of Europe and while the different groups never

shared a unified political identity, they did share many aspects of material culture,

language and religion.

The La Tne art style developed through the adaptation of Mediterranean plant motifs

by the late Hallstatt people. The characteristic burials of this period are a marked

witness to the spread of La Tne cultural influence across Europe and are widely

dispersed across the continent. The many fine articles of metalwork contained in these

cemeteries give us a detailed insight into the technical sophistication of these peoples

(Raftery 1994).

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7. 'Jockey cap' helmet in La Tne style of bronze and iron decorated with gold leaf and enamel. From Amfreville,

Eure, France; late 4th century BC.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LA TNE ART C. 500 BC

La Tne Art is an art of power and imagination, which was lavished above all on high

status objects of metal. It is an art of waves and tendrils, scrolls and spirals, which

twist and turn with restless sinuous grace across the surface to be adorned. It may be

in two dimensions or in the round. Designs are often conceived to convey deliberate

tension between symmetry and asymmetry and shapes constantly change as first one

element of the design, then another is allowed to take prominence in the eye of the

beholder. It is an art of the oak woods, with a constant interplay between light and

shadow, faces appearing to lurk in the abstract foliage, exuding sometimes fearsome

menace, sometimes looking like cartoon characters.

It is not always clear, however, if the image perceived was really intended by the artist

or if it is simply an illusion created by the accidental juxtaposition of abstract curves.

Or is it all a deliberate ploy to tantalise and mystify? La Tne art thus supplies us with

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insights into the Celtic personality which is laden with contradiction, innuendo and

double meaning (Raftery, 1994).

The Greek ethnographer Poseidonius wrote of the Celts in the 1st century BC; They

speak in riddles, hinting at things, leaving much to be understood. La Tne art

undoubtedly had a meaning but that meaning has been lost to us forever. Through

the art however, we can glimpse fleetingly into the Celtic soul (Raftery, 1994).

More than any other element, art unifies the Celtic world, with the same themes,

patterns and techniques occurring across that world. Celtic artists did not live in

cultural limbo but absorbed and adopted the traditions and practices of those around

them so that Celtic art was always an evolving and assimilating process that always

created something both entirely new and essentially Celtic.

Celtic artists, like their Islamic and Judaic counterparts, shunned representations of

their deities yet this was to radically change with the early Christian period which saw

figurative art as a valuable tool in spreading the word to largely illiterate peoples. The

monks who created these works of art not only drew on the Celtic past for inspiration

but continued their legacy of immense skill and love of form, design, colour and beauty.

There is strong evidence to suggest that by the 3rd or 4th centuries BC, Celtic

communities were served by not only resident craftsmen, who were very important

figures in society, but also travelling crafts people, spreading traditional manufacturing

methods and artistic motifs from and to the communities they visited. Later on, Celtic

artists appear to have utilised their skills in the service of the Romans as well

(Sandison, 1998).

Celtic art was a fluid, ephemeral discipline. Its practitioners were never averse to

adapting foreign artistic elements they found pleasing. Thus, later classical influences

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came to be an intrinsic part of Celtic designs, modified in subtle ways but recognisable

nevertheless.

CELTIC ART IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND

Britain and Ireland, on the periphery of the Hallstatt and La Tne worlds, were least

affected by the Roman advance which had obliterated Celtic culture in mainland Europe

by AD 100. Native culture flourished for a further century before the conquest of

England and Wales restricted communications to the far north and Ireland.

It seems that throughout the Roman period the areas one would expect to continue in

the Celtic traditions; Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall; are almost devoid of artistic

productions from the 1st to the 4th centuries AD. However the religious and farming

culture continued as the essential outlook of the Iron Age Celt and it is not surprising

that Celtic Art apparently reemerged at the end of the Roman period.

If we regard the art as the visible and tangible expression of things Celtic, and

as the natural outcome of an entire way of life, then it is quite possible to allow

that once the economic and physical restraints of Rome were removed, the

Celts were able to develop once more where they had left off. (Laing, 1992)

Throughout its development and increasingly after Roman invasion, we see British and

Irish Celtic art producing pieces and styles unique to the Isles and distinct from the

Continental context. Fine engraving and metalwork was a particular style of the Isles

early on, see Fig 8. It is around the fifth century that we see more intricate designs;

enamel inlaying in brooches and on hanging bowls, featuring the more familiar intricate

triskele motif see Fig. 9. These hanging bowls represent the last flourish of Celtic

metalwork in England, after that the main source was Ireland, although the Celtic style

of decoration would continue to influence manuscripts and sculpture.

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8. Bronze mirror, 35 cm high, from Desborough, Northamptonshire.The symmetrical design recalls early style lyre-scrolls.

The voids are in filled with basketry ornament.

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9. Escutcheon from a bronze hanging bowl from Winchester, featuring enameled triskeles. 5th or 6th century BC.

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THE FIRST CELTIC RENAISSANCE C.400 1200 AD

The conversion of the Celts to Christianity is conventionally regarded as the beginning

of a new phase of Celtic art and most of the masterpieces from this period onwards

were of Christian function or meaning (see Fig.10). It is a period that also coincides

with the withdrawal of Roman power from Britain and an influx of Germanic Angles and

Saxons to the east coast of Britain. The relationship between the artistic culture of

the Anglo-Saxons and the Celtic art of the indigenous population is highly complex and

bound up with the spread of Christianity to both peoples.

!10. The intricate Christi Autem page from The Book of Kells, c.800 AD.

By this time the cross-section of artistic culture in these lands had become distinctly

eclectic and affected by Roman, classical and Germanic influence. After the Romans

left, cross-cultural interaction mushroomed and the art of the Isles was affected. From

this point the art works are a result of the interactions of these diverse influences as

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well as the development of Christianity which transcended cultural boundaries and led

to traditions in art that flowed between and through different cultures and styles.

Thus, the art style of the rich Celtic culture founded in the ancient Iron Age and

Hallstatt/La Tne cultures, and further cultivated in the Isles up till Roman invasion,

was conjoined with the elements of other cultures. Roman, Greek, Germanic and later

Norse art styles into which the Celtic stream came into contact were all assimilated

and became complimentary to a tradition which shifted and shape-changed in the same

way as the abstract imagery within its designs.

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CHAPTER 3: THE ARGUMENT AGAINST CELTIC CULTURAL UNITY

Is the idea of ancient Celts in the British Isles . . . a modern academic, political

and cultural fiction thrust onto the past, distorting it until its true shape

is unrecognisable? If it is a fiction does this mean that modern Celtic identity

is a fraud as well?

This is the question posed by the opposing faction in the debate on Celticness. This

particularly interests me in its repercussions for our islands which is the focus of my

research.

Today there is no national or ethnic group that calls itself the Celts as its primary

name. However in the eyes of many Celticness is the shared, deeply ancient cultural

inheritance of several modern nations and peoples. Celticness then is a major (and

largely implied but not expressed) concept at the foundation of several societies.

Laing (1992) believes that the most recent research suggests that Celtic culture in

Britain should be attributed more to gradual development of the language and other

definitive features than to the invasions from the continent favoured by earlier

archaeologists. It now seems most reasonable to accept that development from the

Bronze Age onwards was gradual and continuous, responding to a lesser or greater

degree to the continental influences(Laing, 1992).

Ireland has so far yielded no archaeological evidence for large intrusive groups of Celtic

continental immigrants and there is reason to believe that the native Bronze Age

culture

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continued with little change in many areas, gradually absorbing and creating Celtic

culture. Remarkably few La Tne continental-style objects (as opposed to local styles)

have been found, and those few objects could be imports or the possessions of a few

rich immigrants (Laing, 1992. Raftery, 1994).

Just as there is considerable debate about how the Iron Age should be studied and

viewed, there are also differing opinions surrounding the problems of dating and

grouping the examples of Iron Age art in Britain.

Most important pieces have been found casually, without a context of other

archaeological material. It is clear that although insular Celtic Art shows many features

that reflect continental trends, the overall character of the art is distinctive, just as

insular Iron Age culture differs from that of the continent.

Consequently, although specialists allow that influences from this or that continental

style are apparent in particular insular artifacts, there is no general agreement whether

this can be interpreted as evidence or a similar date, or a long survival of continental

elements after their peak in mainland Europe (Laing 1992).

The evidence quite clearly shows that no one in Britain or Ireland called themselves

Celtic before 1700 and James (1999) believes the idea of insular Celts is a modern

interpretation and an adopted ethnonym (i.e. an ethnic groups name for itself). If

there is such widespread abandonment of the idea of pre-Roman centuries being

termed Celtic at all then we must ask where the idea came from in the first place. If it

is a modern interpretation rather than unequivocal historical fact, how did this identity

evolve?

THE EVOLUTION OF CELTIC IDENTITY

The main lesson of modern research into the development of ethnic identities shows

them to be far more complex than has been assumed.

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There is evidence for close contact between Britain and Gaul during the Iron Age. Art

styles and religious practices were inspired by continental ways. There is no evidence

for full-scale immigrations. We can demonstrate a continental connection, but it is

increasingly likely that the local communities were descended from the preceding

Bronze Age inhabitants, as even suggested by Laing (1992) and Raftery (1994).

The unified Scottish and English kingdoms were both established in the context of

pressure from the Vikings and the consolidation of their national identities came in the

aftermath. Larger and more destructive conflicts between the nations of Britain and

Europe, arising primarily from the ambitions of royalty, caused the development of

more clearly defined ethnic/national identities during the 13th to 15th centuries.

We have already seen how the Celtic idea exploded with Lhuyds language studies and

the political climate of the 18th century. It is important to realise that most

archaeological research into Iron Age Europe occurred after this point. It is easy to

understand how subsequent finds would be fitted into a preconceived and popularised

model of a Celtic civilisation, and an invasion/immigration theory already formed.

The American and French revolutions in the 18th Century caused eruption of mass-

patriotism in other countries as well. In the 19th century the Waverley novels of Sir

Walter Scott and phenomenal enthusiasm for Macphersons Ossian, a supposed ancient

Highland bard, even spread to France and Germany. These images of tartan plaids and

bagpipes were to become inextricably linked to Scottish identity (James, 1999).

All these developments were reaffirming nostalgic past traditions and lifestyles.

Language and styles of social order were reaffirmed and this was all going on against a

backdrop of English oppression in the surrounding nations.

In Scotland there was increasing class distinction and suppression of the Highland Clan

tradition and language, followed by the mass emigrations of the Clearances. In Ireland

there was the emigrations caused by the potato famine and religious discrimination !22

which has left a legacy of sectarianism to this day. Wales suffered injustices against its

social order and language. All these factors contributed to a consolidating nationalism

and disquiet with English rule.

This movement of feeling of course led to the independent Irish state, the Welsh

Language Act and investment in Gaelic culture of the Highlands and Islands in more

recent times.

In the latter half of the 20th century, it was gradually realised that anthropologists and

other scholars had been imposing prior assumptions on the peoples that they were

studying and preconceptions were looked at again as new evidence arose. However

the scholars leave behind the rest of society in established concepts of historical

identity as they redevelop their theories.

The dynamics of the cultural and political interactions that took place among the

British Isles in the 18th to 20th centuries to produce this strong Celtic identity is very

complex.

Today the Celtic countries are undergoing a period of political and cultural renewal,

with hopes of constitutional stability in Northern Ireland, and an end to centuries of

conflict and devolved government in Scotland and Wales. In the lands of the dispersed

emigrants all around the globe as well, Celtic culture, not least music enjoys great

prestige and popularity (who hasnt heard of Riverdance?).

THE ESSENCE OF ETHNICITY

It is now widely accepted among the archaeological school that Celtic Art, which is a

defining element of the heritage of modern Celtic nations, is more about social

differentiation, power and religion than about ethnicity (James 1999). Notice even in

the early Hallstatt finds, in graves of wealthy aristocrats, p.12, the significance of

wealth and personal possessions in the inhumations. This seems reflected today in the !23

enduring multinational appeal of Celtic. Celtic Art cannot be taken as an indication of a

unified Celtic identity in Iron Age Britain and Ireland any more than it can today.

The symbolic meanings attached to aspects of culture which makes them the

expression of that cultures identity or ethnicity such as language or certain artifacts

are therefore not fixed, but open to redefinition.

Ethnicity is about what people believe their identity is, it is not a thing but a social

process (James, 1999)

The difficulties involved in an insular Celtic culture in Britain and Ireland from an

archaeological perspective, coupled with our improved understanding of ethnic

identities and the political and social factors of the 18th century, overwhelmingly

support the idea of the Celts as a modern romantic fantasy (James, 1999).

THE REJECTION OF CELTIC?

Men run with great audacity to give their evidence in favour of what flatters

their passions and their national prejudices. (David Hume, 1776)

Simon James concludes that the term Celtic should be rejected because it brings with

it an expectation of a singular cultural influence that does not fit the current evidence

(See Appendix 1).

Suggestions that, even if the term was not a true ethnonym in the past, that it is still

useful as a convenient cultural label to apply to early insular peoples who were in

essence the same, are also to be discarded. We are so used to the idea of cultures

and peoples and Celtic going together that using Celtic as a cultural label, it soon

reverts to an ethnic one.

Similarities in language (which philologists would argue is the only sure indicator of

Celticity), undoubtedly existed and are taken as the fundamental evidence for the

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Celtic peoples. In the light of the new scientific understanding outlined, the languages

themselves cannot be taken as determinants of a particular cultural similarity or of

genealogical heritage.

Modern studies show that it is not so clear cut in the dynamics of ethnic groups and

languages can transect cultures (James, 1999).

Certainly in the context of the Isles, and perhaps in the case of Europe as a

whole, the idea of Celts is so laden with historical baggage and political

distortion that, with regard to the past at least, we must drop the term entirely

if we are to get any closer to understanding the peoples of Iron Age

Europe. (James, 1999)

WHAT OF MODERN CELTICNESS?

The Celtic peoples hold a fundamental place in our national consciousness and in other

nations; so if the Celts are a recent invention, what does this mean for modern people

who regard themselves as Celts? Since the ancient Celts appear to have questionable

historical roots, does that mean that the modern Celts are also bogus?

Discrediting the ancient Celts, according to James (1999), does not actually make the

modern Celts a fraud. The understanding of ethnic identities that reveals the ancient

Celts as a modern construct also suggests that the modern Celts constitute a perfectly

real and legitimate group.

To explain this paradox, one must look at the chronology. The modern Celts are not

the present day representatives of an ancient race who have existed through the ages,

but represent a case of ethnogenesis the birth of an ethnic identity in early modern

Europe.

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James justifies this conclusion by reiterating four recurrent themes in the study of

ethnic identities which, when applied to the Ancient Celts, show the inconsistencies of

the concept while supporting the case for a modern Celtic ethnicity (see Appendix 2).

They arise from sense of difference/reaction to perceived threat.

Express identity by attaching symbolic value to cultural aspects deemed

characteristic.

Such groups choose an ethnonym for themselves.

Ethnic groups create an agreed selective and reframed common history.

But the clearest evidence for the reality of modern insular Celts is the simple fact that

millions of people around the world feel themselves part of this Celtic family and in the

succeeding chapters we will look at evidence from contemporary culture against the

background of this debate.

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CHAPTER 4 OVERVIEW OF THE MODERN CELTIC HORIZON

Regardless of whatever scholarly debates surround the authenticity of Celtic culture,

my research certainly shows that there is a definable group of people who consider

Celtic as part of their identity. There is a celebration of that identity through a

profusion of artistic, musical, and religious elements that have become deeply

embedded in this modern Celtic ideal.

I intend, in this section, to present a reasonably broad cross-section of the current

Celtic cultural horizon from a design perspective, focused on Scotland but applicable

generally also. The findings may be mirrored against the backdrop of the academic

debate already outlined for the reader to draw their own conclusions from in terms of

the higher argument. However, I believe certain observations and conclusions can be

achieved from the evidence as it stands, without becoming tied up in the deeper

debate.

CELTIC ON THE HIGH STREET

Research was gathered from 11 different urban settlements throughout Scotland. This

was achieved by taking a visual record of relevant items found in the course of a

general walkabout in the centre of commercial activity in each town - the high street

to gain an impression of what aspects the average member of the public would

generally be exposed to. As well as this general overview, more detailed information

was obtained from museums, galleries, companies and conversations with people

possessing varying levels of knowledge on the topic.

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The research shows that there is enormous demand for anything under the Celtic label

and that it has mushroomed over very recent years. One shopkeeper in Ullapool

revealed how consumer demand for tartan products a few years ago had changed to

interest in anything Celtic in recent years. Tartan and bagpipes are no longer the

singular expression of Scottish identity. A growing climate of Celtic kinmanship has

caused this and forged closer cultural ties with fellow Celtic nations and we now see

traditional Irish music selling alongside Scottish music in souvenir shops on both sides

of the Irish Sea.

RESEARCH ANALYSIS

The results have been broken down into sources (see table below) from which imagery

or inspiration appears to have been drawn. This is related to any product featuring the

word Celtic or obviously associated subject matter.

Unsurprisingly, Celtic style knot work is the most prominent element in the commercial

scene - accounting for over one third of the total material. I would suggest this is

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11. Table 2. Celtic Miscellany on the High Street

1.30%1.60%

4.70%

4.70%

8.20%

12%

14%

18.50%

35%

Celtic knotworkEarly Christian manuscriptsUnrelated to Celtic sourcesChristian manuscript typefacesSculpted stone crossesHistorical artefactsSceneryArchitecturePictish

attributable to the attractive abstract nature of the designs, which has ensured the

endurance of this type of art style through the centuries.

This aspect appeared in an incredible range of settings that probably no other art style

manages to. It encompasses a multitude of products from jewellery, mugs and CD

covers to memorial stones and body tattoos (see Fig. 12).

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12. Celtic knot work

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13. Decoration inspired by manuscript illustrations.

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Designs based on the illuminated manuscripts of the Early Christian era, such as the

most famous Book of Kells, came second accounting for under a quarter of the total

material surveyed. This source can be traced to its development in post-Roman Britain

and Ireland, long after any Celtic culture existed on the continent, although stylistic

elements from the continental art subsisted in this form (see Fig. 13).

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14. Style of content unrelated to label.

A telling third largest portion of the material was apparently unrelated to any obvious

Celtic source (in the popular sense of the word or otherwise). This sector showed no

general basis in the historical sources of Celtic style, which supports my suspicions of a

considerable extent of market exploitation; cashing in on the phenomenon (see Fig.14).

The remaining 32.5% consists of material derived from manuscript typefaces, Pictish

art, actual Celtic historical artifacts, crosses and scenery (see Fig. 15)!30

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15. Typical Celtic imagery.

One thing that is immediately obvious from this survey is the high profile of material

attributed to the Early Christian era; illuminated manuscripts, typefaces, crosses. The

only trace of any reference to pre-Christian sources is the few examples of pure La

Tne style evident in images of historical artifacts and that, most often found on the

more academic materials; book covers etc. (see Fig.16). I believe this illustrates too

the low rank of pure La Tne style art in the general conception of Celtic art. For a

distinctive style upon which this Celtic style is supposed to be based, it is remarkably

nondescript to the general public. It seems most of our modern Celtic culture draws its

symbolism from post-Roman Scottish and Irish culture.

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16. La Tne imagery.

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DEFINED BY TOURISM

There is also reason to believe that the commercial element of modern Celtic culture is

not a simple reflection of the Scottish consumer. The majority of products (especially

the unrelated items) could be aimed at the tourism market. Tourist information

centres and souvenir shops boasted the highest concentrations of Celtic themed

products some of them selling little else. This shows a large part of the demand is

from foreign consumers, who have an appetite for Celtic items and identify them with

Scotland (see Fig. 17). Of course it may be a case of what comes first the chicken or

the egg?. It may be the demand from visitors that causes the shops to stock Celtic

items, or the visitors may be coerced into identifying Celtic with Scotland because

certain shops stock so many items of a Celtic vein. It is an interesting point to

consider.

There are of course less exclusively tourist-oriented products such as books, music and

jewellery that would not be so prevalent without a demand from the general

population. That being said, I would suspect that the Scottish public is, to an extent,

responsive to the tourist generated commercial trend rather than instigating it.

Most people are participants in this Celtic phenomenon to the extent that there is a

general awareness and appreciation of its aesthetic. People find the visual symbolism

and ambiguities attractive, almost subconsciously, so that when confronted with an

articulated personal concept of Celtic identity or values, people tend to be more

bemused and unsure. This recalls the observations of Ian Bradley (1999) that the

initial enthusiasm for Celtic culture seems invariably to come from nationalities outside

the Celtic nations (consider: biographies of Celtic saints written in European

monasteries, enthusiasm for Scottish lore in France and Germany, popularity of tartan

with the Japanese etc.).

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17. Celtic souvenir merchandise.

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GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS

Another indicator of the commercial emphasis on tourism is the geographical

distribution of material across the country. The east coast (Perth, Dundee, St.

Andrews, Edinburgh) has a strong presence of Celtic culture, concentrated in St.

Andrews, which, I suspect, is a lot to do with its history as a religious centre.

Edinburgh also has a high presence due to its major tourist draw. Aberdeen down

through Fife is the Pictish heartland, which is another contributing factor no doubt.

Contrasting with this; the south west (including Glasgow, Greenock and Ayr) was very

low in Celtic material, especially in Glasgow which is surprising considering its

importance as a cultural centre. The Charles Rennie Macintosh element may have

something to do with this, and the absence of any notable Celtic history in the region

probably gives the issue less relevance locally and is consequently less prominent.

The highest concentration was in the north-west which of course includes Iona and the

Hebrides, Skye and the Highlands. These areas have a very strong and tangible history

of Celtic culture and an equally large tourist base. The Gaelic language is also very

prominent here, which gives a three-pronged basis for a thriving Celtic culture in these

areas.

This connection between Celtic culture and tourism is by no means absolute. It could

be that these areas (the east and north-west) have stronger local Celtic heritage and

people are more aware of the Celtic dynamic as a result. I know that in the Highlands

that was very evident.

Again the endurance of Gaelic language and tradition, and their comparable isolation

from the national main stream, makes the people far more aware of their history and I

think that is a major factor causing the high levels of Celtic elements in these areas.

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I believe this research shows that a large part of the commercial expression of Celtic

culture can be traced to external romantic interest in the uniqueness of the Highlands

and Islands and Southern Ireland. The Scots seem to have begun to acknowledge their

heritage and develop their identity in response to the imposition of this Celtic persona

by outsiders on their appealing cultural idiosyncrasies.

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CHAPTER 5: DECONSTRUCTING THE MODERN CELTIC HORIZON

[The term Celtic is] a magic bag into which anything may be

put and out of which anything may come. (Tolkein 1967)

Modern Celtic culture impacts a vast cross-section of everyday culture and society in

Britain today. Because of its chameleon nature it has found a niche in almost every

form of cultural expression, the arts, literature, academia etc. I would like to outline

two of the various streams of this expression, casting a critical eye on the make up of

each, and discover how true the above statement of J.R.R. Tolkein's really is.

There are four main streams of Celtic culture in our society. Art and design, music,

literature and spirituality are the most prominent categories. Art and design can be

divided into sub-categories; general merchandise, jewellery/metal craft and design for

print. I will also address the music sector.

GENERAL MERCHANDISE

This sector is probably the one most influenced by commercialism and is largely

devoted to the tourist/gift market.

The Celtic Aromatherapy Burner (Fig. 18) is an example of the abuse of the Celtic

label. It shows a product, which has in itself nothing intrinsically Celtic about it, indeed

this type of product is part of a modern popularism of therapeutic products. It is a

clear example of commercial distortion of a popular ideal. The Celtic label and style has

literally been applied to the packaging in order to widen the products appeal; taking

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advantage of a lucrative market. If you took the actual product alone, there would be

nothing to identify it with the Celtic style.

The Celtic Body Decoration Pack (Fig. 19) is a good example of the continuing

evolution of the Celtic art style. The designs may not be strictly or historically Celtic

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18. Celtic Aromatherapy Burner.

but rather use the Celtic style as an inspiration and framework for new design. One

can see the same principles at work in creating a unique expression of the style;

recalling the words of George Bain (1951), By understanding the methods, new

designs and even new methods in this peculiar art may be produced. I believe there is

continuity in the product as it shows interaction with the style and there is a nice

parallel with the stories of painted/tattooed Celtic warriors on the battlefield. It is a

genuine expression of the modern Celtic culture and is true to its ideal.

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19. Celtic Body Decoration Pack.

Fig. 20 shows the two iconic styles of Scottish culture so often side by side on the

shop counter; Celtic art and Mockintosh (designs based upon the style of Charles

Rennie Mackintosh). Fig. 21 illustrates how well suited the material from the Christian

manuscripts such as The Book of Kells lends itself to the gift market; the designs adapt

to suit any framework or purpose.

Finally, a small insight into global Celtic culture is given us in Fig. 22. This shows part

of a full window display in a batik shop in Skye, with traditional Asian craft products

and materials, but utilising Celtic knot work and motifs. This perfectly illustrates the

assimilation of an entirely separate other culture into the Celtic style, or, one might

argue, the assimilation of Celtic into that culture. What is most peculiar is how well it

fits into the foreign environment, and we can see how adaptable and truly global the

culture has become. Fig. 23 shows a page from a charity fair trade catalogue with

Celtic themed products that were crafted in . . . India!

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20. Celtic and 'Mockintosh' design earthenware.

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21. Kells decoration on crockery.

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22. Skye Batiks; cross carving and cushions with Celtic motifs.

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23. Tearcraft catalogue products.

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24. The Tara Brooch, early 8th century.

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JEWELLERY AND METAL WORK

The jeweller George Waterhouse exhibited the Tara Brooch (Fig. 24) in the Great

Exhibition of 1851. Queen Victoria was enchanted with the piece and bought a copy

of the brooch from Mr. Waterhouse. Here we see the beginning of the commercial

exploitation of the growing enthusiasm for Celtic lore. The Celtic style has been a

major aspect of this sector for longer than any other and it is obviously well suited to

this particular medium due to its ornate, adaptive and decorative properties.

Due to the strong tradition of metalwork and jewellery in the history of Celtic culture, it

is not surprising that this medium is saturated with the influence of the Celtic style.

Consequently, being so readily applied in metal work, there is a lot of very imaginative

design and accurate representational work in jewellery, but there is also the mark of

cheap exploitation of a popular style with work that is very bland and false.

Fig. 25 shows some products regarded as traditional Celtic or Scottish pieces. The

Quaich (from Gaelic cuach meaning cup) is definitely derived from mediaeval

tradition rather than any Celtic period but being an icon of Scottish tradition seems to

invariably lead to a Celtic treatment. Indeed, I have rarely seen this particular item

without Celtic knot work decorating its surface.

The Penannular brooch has its root firmly in common Celtic heritage, as can be seen

from its similarity to the Tara Brooch above. This historical root legitimises the already

attractive and popular design of many items of jewellery and is an effective marketing

tactic.

Celtic art is one of the few styles, especially in terms of metal craft that is equally

appropriate for the male demographic in the market place, and this is illustrated by the

wide range of gift products designed for men, for example, the hip flask.

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25. Silver quaichs. The penannular brooch. Silver hip flasks.

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The Celtic cross is, as ever, a source of inspiration for the metalworker and jeweller.

The pieces in Fig. 26 show how the Celtic cross is always a popular theme and can

offer endless possibilities of variation while still being iconic in its symbolism. Indeed,

Fig. 27 is a poignant statement of how that symbolism has become part of the national

identity, alongside more political icons of nationality.

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26. Celtic cross pendants.

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27. 'Scotland' and 'Cross' pendants.

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28. Hair clasps and pendants made in Ireland.

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29. Enamel jewellery, featuring more 'La Tne' style designs.

There is evidence of experimentation and pushing the boundaries in developing the

Celtic style in jewellery. Figs. 28 and 29 shows products recalling more ancient

materials such as bone and enamel and an emphasis on hand crafted simplicity and

quality. Fig. 30 is an excellent example of the potential for something new, fresh and

beautiful using the same methods that have been used for centuries in the Celtic

design tradition.

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30. Pendant with 'Kells style' bird design.

These are the rare examples of progression and vision. The power of the Celtic label is

evident (see Fig. 31) and has quite superficial applications. I believe it nigh on

impossible to find a jeweller's shop in Scotland that does not sell Celtic styled wedding

rings, for example (Fig.32). Products where it is employed at a purely cosmetic level,

the watches in Fig. 33 for example.

There is also unashamed use of the name 'Celtic' in brands and product ranges that

are, at best, loosely derived from Celtic styles (see Fig. 34).

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31. Notice in shop window; interesting emphasis on 'Celtic' over 'Rennie Mackintosh'.

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32. Celtic wedding rings 33. Celtic decorated watches.

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34. Loosely derived Celtic designs.

DESIGN FOR PRINT

The use of Celtic style in graphic design varies from the purely cosmetic, decorative

usefulness of knot work etc. to the design of identities for shops and companies or as

part of the intrinsic personality of a product. There is no copyright on Celtic art and so

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it is a free for all as far as utilising the Celtic image goes. The downside of this is of

course over-use breeds disinterest and loses its attractability. The benefits are;

employing a visual language that already has built-in connotations and symbolism and

of course, is also very popular.

Most instances of Celtic influences in design for print were simply for decorative

purposes, perhaps to reinforce a service/product/name that in itself carried little

impact.

The most common situation was regarding a product or service that wanted to enforce

its Scottishness. For example, Fig. 35, Leaflet for Timberbush Tours. Although the

logo is very much a unique design (although it does recall the Celtic style floret) they

also use a very Celtic typeface which also has a strong Gaelic connotation nowadays

and conveys a Highland theme. The knot work running through the leaflet acts as

attractive decoration, but supports the identity of the service far more than any

ordinary decorative technique would. It carries all the qualities so beloved of Celtic

culture - ancient, remote, mystical, heartland qualities. Thus imposing these attractive

aspects on to the service provided by this company - tours into the ancient, scenic,

heartland of Scotland.

A similar use of imagery is seen in Fig. 36, Leaflet for Scottish Youth Hostels. The knot

work on the front is the only use anywhere in the leaflet and just seems like easy space

filler to back up the Scottish idea.

There are examples of good use of Celtic imagery as part of the design rather than

attractive decoration.

Fig. 37 shows a leaflet for ONeils, an Irish bar chain. A Celtic floret forms part of the

logo that also uses typical Celtic manuscript style type. The subtle use of what

appears to be a specifically designed Kells style motif in the background through out

the leaflet, coupled with the obvious Celtic feel of the logo and type used, give an

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35. Timberbush Tours leaflet. 36. Scottish Youth Hostels Leaflet.

irresistibly Irish Celtic feel. But the use of a clean contemporary graphic approach

apart from these elements gives a feeling of modernity as well; avoiding a lot of cliche.

The net result is a strong Celtic theme, from an Irish perspective (the name "ONeils")

but also modern and progressive, it succeeds in marrying Celtic, traditional and

cool. All of course are very popular trends at present.

Another good example is Fraoch Heather Ale, Fig. 38. The product simply claims to be

a beverage that has been brewed in Scotland for the last 2000 years. It has chosen a

very clever combination of imagery to enforce its persona of longevity and uniqueness.

The overall scheme on the bottle label is of a Pictish theme, with a very appropriate

and humorous reference to the drunken horseman from a Pictish stone in Invergowrie.

This gives an almost historically attested (by means of using an actual historical

artifact) testimony to the use of this drink by Scotland's ancient inhabitants.

The Pictish symbols reinforce the aura of twilight peoples, with runic style type

recalling the Vikings and the cross and manuscript typeface: - early Christianity,

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missionaries, monks etc. This is a very successful application of Celtic imagery and

symbolism as part of a brand identity.

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37. Leaflet for O'Neil's Irish Bar. 38. Fraoch Heather Ale.

Fig. 39 shows examples of various levels of application from the cutting edge graphics

of contemporary music to the domestic realm and amateur treatments. It is important

to note the accessibility of the style to any, regardless of specialism. At one end of

the spectrum we see the high-end designers trying to push the style into new

expressions of modern Celtic culture and at the other universal appeal simply as an

effective and appealing decorative tool.

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39. Bed & Breakfast sign in Portree; Tartan Amoebas CD with spiral motif;

newspaper advert for a craft fair.!51

MUSIC

Celtic music is one of the fastest growing, if not the fastest, sector of the music

industry today. It is enjoying a boom, which surfaced in the 1990s, and the explosion

of enthusiasm for Irish dance and traditional music.

I was intrigued by comments made by one shopkeeper on the matter of Celtic music

that made me realise that its popularity has mushroomed far more suddenly than other

sectors of modern Celtic culture. He noted how in the space of a few years, it has

become customary to have traditional Irish musicians and albums alongside Scottish

ones on the shop shelf. This was unheard of previously, in his experience the demand

was for Scottish product, but now the interest in Celtic brings in more non-Scottish

products as well. It is not inconceivable that the sensation of the Riverdance show and

its succeeding world tour (see Appendix 3.1) in the mid-nineties is largely responsible

for the sudden increase in the profile of Celtic music across the globe.

Much of Celtic music leans on the Celtic language heritage of the country from which it

is derived, rather than the innate Celticness of the content as pertaining to a historical

culture.

In this way Celtic music has become an umbrella for many forms of traditional music in

Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Brittany, Galicia (Spain) and even England. This also means

that the style of the music is not so important as the nationality of the artist and in

some cases this is enough to attach the Celtic label to the work.

The most typical treatment in terms of the graphic design of the music albums is

shown in Fig. 40. The main tool is the use of three elements: an image of some

historical landscape or scenery, and the suggestion of Celtic style decoration in the

graphic motif, all reinforced by the broad calligraphic script typeface.

The actual musical content is a collection of "jigs, reels and airs" from "Ireland's finest

musicians", which a few years a go would not have been regarded as particularly

'Celtic' at all (See also Appendix 3.2).

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40. Celtic Spirit CD cover design.

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41. Salsa Celtica; contemporary mix of musical traditions.

Fig. 41 is an example of the truly international personality of Celtic music. Salsa

Celtica, "the great Scottish Latin adventure", epitomises the close links that are felt

between the Celtic nations and their dispersion around the globe.

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There are many instances where cheap commercialism rears its head. Fig. 42 shows

two compilations. The only thing vaguely Celtic about Celtic Love Songs is the

typeface and floret on the front, perhaps the nationalities of the featured artists, but

certainly not the style of music. And the incongruity of the photograph on the cover is

underlined by the fact that the couple is in traditional English wedding dress. The

Celtic Journey album is more closely linked with the lore of the Scottish clan era;

castles and majestic stags could not be more cliched images to use. The Celticness of

the album is 'ensured' by using a sympathetic typeface and the use of some knot work

decoration. These are abuses of the Celtic ideal in my opinion.

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42. Celtic Love Songs, Celtic Journey: Here's To The Highlands.

The largest part of the music products come from the Celtic Spiritual stream, there is a

plethora of Christian Celtic product and Spiritual/Inspirational collections (see Appendix

3.3). These works draw on the wealth of material from the Early Christian and

monastic heritage in the British Isles. The spiritual music does tend to be more in

harmony with the original Celtic source in terms of use of traditional instruments and

hymns (although most of these were not written earlier than the 12th century) than

the more contemporary stream.

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Some artists such as Michael Card do attempt to apply the ideal in a personal and

modern context. His album Starkindler (See Fig.43) is devoid of Celtic imagery but the

strap line

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43. Starkindler: A Celtic conversation across time.

on the cover reads "a celtic conversation across time" - betraying his influence. He is

not naive in presenting his own style as Celtic, but rather finds inspiration and value in

the passion and multi-disciplinary means of expression employed by the Celts.

These ancient melodies are a reflection of that desire.... most of the lyrics

come to us from a much later time...And so these songs represent a worshipful

conversation over time; melodies from the ancient Celts, words from a later

period of revival, and now our versions."

I think that sums up the situation for Celtic music today very well.

It is a pity that the innovations in Celtic music are not reflected in the graphic design

that accompanies it. There is debatably a dilution of pure Celtic source in the

embracing of new cultures, musical approaches and instrumentation that comes along

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with it. But to restrict the Celtic music genre in terms of a historical culture's

particular style or use of instruments would be to consign it to the museums. It is

more evident in this sector than possibly any other how our modern society seems to

be generating its own Celtic identity.

MULTIPLE STREAMS

The above outlines only a small cross section of my research which could be expanded

into the realms of literature, current events, religion, but a discourse could be written

on each area, it is so vast. Indeed, I have only presented a necessarily limited overview

of our material culture in Britain in the 21st century.

I would very much like to analyse the dynamics revealed in the literary market; the

medium where fact and fiction are usually so distinctly identified is infused with the

prevalent mystique surrounding Celticness, whether it is a historical study or a fantasy

novel you are reading. And the regular reports of cultural events and exchange in the

news between Irish and Scottish parties; Celtic music festivals drawing artists and

spectators from all over the world; collaborative projects attended by Irish and Scottish

representatives at State level, the list goes on. The parallel with the (controversial)

Celtic revival affecting religion; expressed not only in music but literature and liturgy as

well, and the affinity with New Age spirituality.

It is an extremely intriguing and thought provoking subject and I hope my analysis of

examples from our own material culture helps to give physicality to the historical issues

outlined earlier and, in some measure, a reflection against which the various theories

may be superimposed.

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CONCLUSION

My original intention in examining this issue of Celtic culture was to discover what, if

any, firm historical basis there is upon which to test the current expressions of the

Celtic ideal. Investigations uncovered a subject whose origins and physical make-up

(historically speaking), even from a scholarly point of view, are as mysterious and

ephemeral as its modern cultural expression. Significant debate surrounds our

understanding of the historical Celtic people and this conception is ever changing as

new understanding and evidence is unearthed.

In terms of summarising the ramifications involved; it is clear that if there was no mass

infiltration of the Celtic peoples of the Continent into the British Isles that the

indigenous population there must have been influenced by close cultural contact with

La Tne culture on the continent. It would therefore be these peoples of Britain and

Ireland (as opposed to Celts) who were responsible for cultivating the artistic style

which gave birth to what we now call Celtic Art. Pictish symbol stones, fine metal

work, illustrated manuscripts and stone crosses, that are the very embodiment of our

perception of what Celtic culture is, are all concentrated in the British Isles.

The Celts of the Continent left very little in terms of tradition or culture to transcend

the centuries and influence today. They were, for the most part, wiped out by the

Romans. And so we are left with the name of a people that no longer exists (that is if a

unified Celticness ever existed on the Continent), transferred on to the produce of

their neighbours who were probably quite separate in terms of identity and traditions.

The reader will no doubt appreciate the gravity of this issue in relation to Celtic culture.

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The flip side of the argument for 'invented' Celtic people is that we have a paradoxical

situation. The same principles that disprove the Celts support a modern Celtic identity

and therefore release it from the pressure of scrutiny and comparison with the past,

which I for one had set out to apply.

The truth, as is often found, is probably somewhere in between the two extremes of

historical people and modern fantasy. Leaving us only with what we see around us that

can be observed and analysed, albeit from our various biases.

From my own primary research it is certainly evident that the Celtic idiom is of

tremendous power and influence, politically, culturally and commercially. The early

developments of nationalism in the various Celtic nations show how powerful this ideal

was. It is now we are seeing that focused in our materialistic 21st century society,

into the global commercial machine, with the dilution and exploitation that inevitably

occurs as a result of any popularisation of any ideal.

In the words of victor Hugo;

"There is one thing stronger than all the armies in the world.

And that is an idea whose time has come."

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REFERENCES

Bain, George (1951), Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction.

London: Constable & Company Ltd.

Bradley, Ian (1999), Celtic Christianity:

Making Myths and Chasing Dreams.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

James, Simon (1999), The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People

or Modern Invention?

London: British Museum Press.

Laing, Lloyd & Jennifer (1992), The Art of The Celts.

London: Thames and Hudson.

Raftery, Barry (1994), Pagan Celtic Ireland:

The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.

London: Thames and Hudson.

Sandison, David (1998), The Art of The Celts.

London: Hamlyn.

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PRIMARY RESEARCH

High Street surveys in 11 Scottish towns, June - August

2000:

Ayr, Biggar, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Greenock,

Perth, Portree, St. Andrews, Stornoway, Ullapool.

Informal interviews with:

Mrs. B. Graham, Capercaillie Gifts, Ayr.

Mr. K. W. McNaughton, Ceol Na Mara, Ullapool.

Mrs. C. Howells, widow of D. G. Howells, Professor of

Celtic Languages, Glasgow University.

Internet research:

www.celticheartbeat.com

www.cnn.com

www.celticmusic.com

www.mccelticdesign.com

www.celtarts.com

www.ceolas.org

Photographs:

11-22, 24-33, 37-41 by Colin Campbell.

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http://www.celticheartbeat.comhttp://www.cnn.comhttp://www.celticmusic.comhttp://www.mccelticdesign.comhttp://www.celtarts.comhttp://www.ceolas.org

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Allen, J. Romilly (1904), Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times.Methuen & Company: London.

Armit, Ian (1998), Scotland's Hidden History.Tempus Publishing Ltd: Stroud.

Bain, George (1951), Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction.Constable & Company. Ltd: London.

Batchworth Press Ltd. (1959), Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology.London.

Bradley, Ian (1993), The Celtic Way.Darton Longman & Todd Ltd: London.

(1999), Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams.Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh.

Chadwick, Nora (1970) The Celts.

Penguin Books: Middlesex.

Cummins, W. A. (1995), The Age of the Picts.Alan Sutton Publishing: Stroud.

Davis, Courtney (1997), Celtic Initials and Alphabets.Blandford: London.

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Duncan, Anthony (1992), The Elements of Celtic Christianity.Element Books Ltd: Shaftesbury.

Ellis, Peter B. (1993), Celt and Saxon: The struggle for Britain AD 410-937.

(1995), Celtic Women.Constable & Company Ltd: London.

Foster, Richard (1999), Streams of Living Water.Harper Collins: London.

Jacobs, Joseph (2000), Celtic Fairy Tales.Parragon: Bath.

James, Simon (1999), The Atlantic Celts: Ancient People or Modern Invention?British Museum Press: London

Laing, Lloyd & Jennifer (1992), The Art of The Celts.Thames and Hudson: London.

Low, Mary (1996), Celtic Christianity and Nature.Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh.

Macdonald, Fiona (2000), Step into the Celtic World.Hermes House: London.

Mackey, James P. (1995), An Introduction to Celtic Christianity.T & T Clark: Edinburgh.

Ministry of Public Building & Works (1964), The Early Christian and Pictish Monuments.H.M.S.O: London.

Pennick, Nigel (1997), The Celtic Saints.Thorsons: London

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Raftery, Barry (1994), Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.Thames and Hudson: London.

Rennie, J. A. (1951), In the Steps of the Clansmen.Rich & Cowan: London.

Sandison, David (1998), The Art of The Celts. Hamlyn: London.

Squire, Charles (2000), Celtic Myths and Legends.Parragon: Bath.

Woodham, J. M. (1998), Nostalgia, Heritage and Design,20th Century Design, Chapter 9: Pages 205-219.Oxford University Press: London.

ARTICLES

Beimborn, Dan (200), 'Innovation in Traditional Irish Music.'www.celticmusic.com, April 12.

Ross, Davis (2000), 'Islands Festival marks Gaelic Kinship.'The Scotsman, August 21.

Irish-American News (1999), Interview with Michael Carrol.March 1999.

Maclean, Catriona (2000), 'Ceilidh San Iar Thuath brings top Scots Acts to Ness.'Stornoway Gazette, July 13.

Stewart, Donald W. (2000), 'Where will we find the community of the millennium?' Stornoway Gazette, March 30.

Stornoway Gazette (2000), 'Iron Age Bracelet found on Barvas

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Machair'August 31.

'Launch of Hebridean Celtic Festival 2000'.June 3.

Titley, Alan (2000), 'Is the Gaelic Soul for Sale?'Stornoway Gazette, March 30th.

Wilkinson, Loren (2000), 'Saving Celtic Christianity', Christianity Today, April 24,pages 78-85.

TELEVISION

MacInnes, Dr. John (2000), Na Ceiltich.Opus Television, August 13, ITV.

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APPENDIX 1 - La Tne Evidence

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(a). Warrior burial from Mill Hill, Deal, Kent (c.200 BC). The warriors sword and shield are similar to continental Celtic weapons, but are distinctly British variants - especially

the shape of the shield, continental shields had rounded ends.

(b). Irish sword-scabbard plates in copper alloy decorated with La Tne ornament from Lisnacrogher, Co. Antrim. Closely related to contemporary British examples, these

pieces nevertheless represent a distinctly Irish style. 3rd century BC.

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APPENDIX 2 - Ethnic Identities: Recurrent Themes

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APPENDIX 3.1

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APPENDIX 3.2 - The Celtic Landscape in CD design.

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APPENDIX 3.3

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Celtic Decoration Imagery.

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More 'derived' concepts.

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Historical reference to Celts. Contemporary interpretation of Celtic Lore.

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Imagery used in spiritual music CD design.

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