Decorative and Structural Techniques of Mud-Brick in Sacral Architecture

7/22/2019 Decorative and Structural Techniques of Mud-Brick in Sacral Architecture

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STUDIES OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

6 - 7/2006 - 2007


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Tr n a v s k u n i v e r z i t a v Tr n a v e F i l o z o f i c k f a k u l t a

U n i v e r s i t a s Ty r n a v i e n s i s F a c u l t a s P h i l o s o p h i c a

A N O D O S

Studies of the Ancient World

6-7/2006-2007

T R N A V A 2008


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A N O D O SStudies of the Ancient World6-7/2006-2007

Redakn rada/Editorial board:Prf. PhDr. Mria Nvtn, DrSc., Prf. Dr. Werner Jbst, dc. PhDr. Marie Duv, CSc.,dc. PhDr. Kra Kumv, CSc.

Vkonn redaktori/Executive editors:dc. PhDr. Kra Kumv, CSc., Mgr. Ivana Kvetnov, PhD.

Potaov vyhotovenie/Computer elaboration:Zuzana Turzov

Trnavsk univerita v Trnave, Fick fakuta

Kontaktn adresa (prspevky, alie informcie)/Contact address (contributions, further information): Katedra klasickej archeolgie,Trnavsk univerzita v Trnave,Hrnptn 23, SK-918 43 Trnava +421-33-5939371; fax: +421-33-5939370 [email protected]

Pubikvan s nannu pdpru Ministerstva kstva SR (Prjekt: MVTS - Tur/SR/TVU/08; KEGA. 3/5105/07; VEGA . 1/3749/06) a Pr Archaegia Cassica.Pubished with nancia supprt f the Ministr f Educatin f the Svak Repubic (Prjects: MVTS - Tur/SR/TVU/08; KEGA N. 3/5105/07; VEGA N. 1/3749/06) and the Pr Archaegia Cassica.

Za znenie a obsah prspevkov zodpovedaj autori.The authors are responsible for their contributions.

Tla/Printed by:GUPRESS, s.r.., Bratisava

iadna as tejt pubikcie nesmie b reprdukvan aeb rirvan v iadnej frme - eektrni imeani, vrtane ftkpi, nahrvania aeb inm puitm infrmanh sstmu vrtane webv strnk,be predbenh psmnh shasu vastnka vdavatesk prv.

N part f this pubicatin ma be reprduced r transmied in an frm - eectrnic r meanica, incudingphtcp, recrding, r an infrmatin strage and retrieva sstem, incuding web pages, withut the prirwrien permissin frm the cpright wner.

ISBN 978-80-8082-228-6

Oblka/Cover:Motv Zzranho daa zo stpa Marka Aurlia v Rme. V okienku: Zobrazenie Demeter a Persephone, sktsky hrob, BolajaBliznica, Ukrajina

Motif of the Miracle rain from the column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome. In the Window: Depiction of Demeter and Persephone,Scythian grave, Bolaja Bliznica, UkraineGrafck spracovanie/Graphic elaboration:Mgr. Pavol ima-JurekPotaov spracovanie/Computer elaboration:PhDr. Ivan Kuzma


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Proceedings of the International Symposium

CULT AND SANCTUARY THROUGH THE AGES(From the Bronze Age to the Late Antiquity)

Dedicated to the 10th anniversary of the Department of Classical Archaeologyand to the 15th anniversary of Trnava University

ast-Papiernika, 16 - 19 November 2007


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CONTENTS

Preface 9

Speech f Duan apvi:Deput Prime Minister f the Gvernment f the Svak Repubic 11

KUzMoV, Kra - HRNIARIK, Erik:Department f Cassica Archaeg f Trnava Universit (1997-2007) 13

ASlAN, Erdan:Queenkut: Das Beispie vn lkania 25

BAlDIRAN, Asuman:A Stud Abut Cuts f lkania Regin 35

BAMMER, Antn:Tw New Tempes at Aigeira 47

BECKS, Raf:Ein Kutbau der Sptbrneeit in Tria 61

BERNT, Micha - JoBST, Werner - PIRAS, Rita:Die Weihatre aus dem Tempebeirk des Jupiter optimus Maximusauf dem Pfaenberg 73

BIlGI, Ckun - DoANAy, osman:The Cut f Mther Gddess in Gerga 81

BoCHER, Susanne:Recnstructing Vtive Cut Practices in Ear Greek Sanctuaries The Exampef the Gemetric Vtive Brnes Frm ompia 85

BoUzEK, Jan - oNDEJoV, Iva:Ger und Ginnen: Weche sind Unterschiede nach Geschecht in den opferungen,

besnders in Mieeurpa? 93

BEoV, Kra:The Hebrew Gddess Asherah 103

BUlBA, Mustafa:Demeterkut in Kauns 109

BloW vn, Gerda:Deutsch-serbische Kperatin in Rmuiana-Gamigrad. Erste Ergebnisseder gephsikaischen Prspektin 115


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EVIK, Nevat:The Gds and Tempes in: Frm the 2ndMienium t the 1stMienium B.C.A Cmparative Stud 123

DABACAK, Ckun:Hecate Cut in Anatia: Rituas and Dedicatins in lagina 143

DoyRAN, Mnife:Demeter Cut at Caunus: Kerni 149

DyCzEK, Pitr:lar ppui sancte Medaure(CIl III, 2581=IlS 4881) 155

ERAVAR, osman:An Essa f the Cut f St. Gerge in the Anatia During the Medieva Ages 165

ERol, Ae F.:The Mther Gddess: Anaing Her Feature as a Cit Prtectr 173

FURMNEK, Vcav - MIT, Vadimr:Argnauten, Iasn und Kentaphe aus der Urnenfedereit in der Swakei 187

CHAlUPA, Ae:Hw Did Rman Emperrs Becme Gds? Varius Cncepts f Imperia Apthesis 201

IIK ASlAN, EmetEgemen

The Bu and Hrn Cut 209

JIR, lub:Die Reexe der kutischen Sphre in den archgischen Queen der Brneeitin Bhmen 213

JoBST, Werner:Kut und Heiigtmer des rmischen Iuppiter optimus Maximus in Pannnien 219

KARAUUz, Gngr:on open Air Cut Areas in Devrek and Envirnment 227

KIzIl, Abuer:An open Air Stepped Rck Atar at Kaem K in Mias, Karia 233

KoEl ERDEM, zenep:The Cut and the Mthgica Scenes n Athenian Exprt Red Figure Vases Duringthe 4th Centur B.C. 241

KUSTR, Ria:The Prfane and/r the Sacred: the Interpretatin f Seven Pits Frm Harta-Weierhiv,Hungar 253

MINARK, Pav:Eementar Tpes f Heenistic Isis 265


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MINARoVIECH-RATIMoRSK, Jana:The Architecture f Rman Sanctuaries in Hungarian Pannnia 275

MllER-KARPE, Hermann:zum Beginn des Christentums 289

NAGEl, Aexander:Searching fr the Gds at Ancient Akarnania: New Evidence Frm a Ritua DepsitNear Strats 293

NoVKoV, lucia:Decrative and Structura Techniques f Mud-Brick in Sacra Architecturef Nrtheastern Sria (the End f the 3rd Mienium - the 2nd Mienium BC) 303

NoVoTN, Mria:

Ein Ttwierungssat aus einem Grab in Kapuan (ostswakei) 313

zBEK, idem:Cuts n Imbrs (Gkeada) in the Cassica Antiquit 325

zDIlEK, Banu:The Discveries Made Cncerning Cut Eements Frm Kebesss 331

PAKKANEN, Petra:Dening Cut Site. Theretica observatins n the Nature f Reigin at the Sanctuarf Kaaureia n Prs, Greece 343

PAMIR, Hatice:Isis and Sarapis Cut in Antich-n-the-orntes 355

PIRAS, Rita - RASSU, Massim:le cute de eau en Sardaigne partir de ge du Brne jusquau Christianisme Tempes p uits,surces sacres et sanctuaire 369

RoTHENHFER, Peter:Indigene Kute in stdtischen zentren lusitaniens 381

RoUSIoTI, Dimitra:Aspects f Reigin in late Brne Age Greece: Urban Shrines in the Pepnnese 389

AHIN, Dera:The Cut f Nereids n Msaics 397

AHIN, Ik - Gl, Hsnie:Terraca Figurines f Aphrdite Frm Turkish Thrace: The Cut f Aphrdite 403

SIMoN, Erika:Die rmischen lectisternien im 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. 413

ST, Bia:Naiski Frm the Sacred Precinct f lagina Hekate: Augustus and Sarapis 421


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EDo, ondrej:A Ditch with Human and Anima Skeetns in Muv-Neurissen: Traces f Viencer f a Ritua? 433

TIRPAN, Ahmet A.:The Temens f lagna Hekate in Krana 445

TITZ,Pave:The Intrductin f Greek Cuts int the Ear and Repubican Rme:the Mthica Hrin 453

TRANTAlIDoU, Katerina - KAVoURA,IsminiAstragai in Caves: The Cntributin f the Archaeg in the Understandingf Sme Ancient Greek Cut Practices 459

VAlENTINI, Stefan:Cmmuna Paces f Wrship in Jeirah During the EJ II-IIIa Perid.The Sacred Area f Te Barri 475

yAIz, oa:les images de cute sur es mnnaies des Thraces 487

zDRAVKoVA-DIMITRoVA, yana:Frm late Brne t Ear Irn Age - Thracian Sanctuaries in the EasternRhdpi Muntain - Bugaria 493

zIMMERMANN, Thmas:Smbs f Savatin? Functin, Semantics and Scia Cntext f Ear BrneAge Ritua Equipment Frm Centra Anatia 509


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Preface

ANoDoS 6-7/2006-2007 cntains 53 artices in Engish, German and French presented atthe internatina smpsium Cut and Sanctuar thrugh the Ages. Frm the Brne Age t thelate Antiquitin ast Papiernika, Svakia, n 16-19 Nvember 2007. The smpsium wasrganied n the ccasin f the 10th anniversarofthe Department f Cassica Archaegand f the 15th anniversar f Trnava Universit, under the auspices f Duan apvi,Deput Prime Minister f the Gvernment f the Svak Repubic fr Knwedge-Based Sciet,Eurpean Aairs, Human Rights and Minrities.

At the same time it was the furth event f this kind, which takes pace ever secndear. The partner institutins frm Turke Seuk Universit in Kna and Uuda Universitin Bursa as we as the Svak Archaegica Sciet at the Svak Academ f Sciences,the Archaegica Museum f the Svak Natina Museum and the vuntar assciatinPr Archaegia Cassica traditina cperated in the rganiatin f the smpsium.The participants were schars frm thirteen cuntries (Turke, Greece, Bugaria, Ita, Austria,Hungar, Pand, the Cech Repubic, the Svak Repubic, German, Begium, Great Britainand the USA). Graduate and pst-graduate students frm Trnava as participated in bthrganiatin and prgramme (ectures, presentatins, discussins, pster sessins). At theend f the smpsium there was arranged an excursin t the Archaegica Museum f the

Svak Natina Museum in Bratisava. Participants had pprtunit t see permanent andcntemprar exhibitins f the museum.

The pubicatin f ANoDoS 6-7/2006-2007 has been nancia supprted b The Facutf Arts f Trnava Universit, the Ministr f Educatin f the Svak Repubic (Prjects: MVTS- Tur/SR/TVU/08; KEGA N. 3/5105/07; VEGA N. 1/3749/06) and the vuntar assciatin PrArchaegia Cassica.

EditrsTrnava, 5 December 2008


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11

Ansprache des Vizeministerprsidenten der Slowakischen Republik,zustndig fr eine gebildete Gesellscha, Europafragen,

Menschenrechte und Minderheiten,

Duan aplovi

Sehr geehrte Damen, sehr geehrte Herren, liebe Gste,

erlauben Sie mir, Ihnen zuerst einmal fr Ihre Einladung zu danken. Bie sehen Sie miin erster Linie als Historiker - als einen von Ihnen, und dann erst als Vertreter der politisen

Mat. Die wissensalie Diskussion erfordert Freiheit und Gleiheit der Beteiligten.Sonst ist sie sreli verstmmelt. Dies begrien son die Herrser des Mielalters, diezwar mit fester Hand ber ihre Untertanen herrsen konnten, allerdings erlaubten sie, dassauf Universittsboden Inseln der Freiheit entstanden. Sie wussten nmlich, dass eineMeinung, die nit frei ist, wertlos ist. Denn wele Bedeutung he es fr sie, wenn ihnendie erhabenen Doktoren und Professoren nur sagen wrden, was sie selbst hren wollen? Das,was der Herrser hren will, das wei er und das kennt er. Er braut nit, dass ihm das einanderer sagt. Fr den, der die Mat hat - fr den der sne deutse Begri Mathaberexistiert, ist es witig, ein freies kritises Wort zu hren. Aber kehren wir zum ursprnglienThema zur!

Gegenstand Ihrer Konferenz ist die Spiritualitt der altertmlien Zivilisation des Nahen

Ostens und des Mielmeerraums. Das ist ein interessantes Thema, dass au in unserer Zeitnit vllig unaktuell ist. Im wesentlien gehen die zwei groen Zivilisationen - die euro-amerikanise und die islamise - von den Denktraditionen des altertmlien NahenOstens und des Mielmeerraums aus. Diese zwei Zivilisationen deen bei Vereinfaung dergeographisen Projektion heute etwa 80% des Kontinents ab. Und dies alles hae seineWurzeln in einem verhltnismig kleinen Gebiet des stlien Mielmeerraums. Wenn imir erlaube, dies no weiter zu vereinfaen, waren besonders zwei Gebiete Ausgangspunktdes gegenwrtigen modernen Denkens: Mittel- und Sdgriechenland und das historischePalstina. Au zusammengenommen haen sie kein greres Gebiet als 70 000 - 80 000Quadratkilometer, was wir zum Beispiel mit der heutigen Tschechischen Republikvergleien knnen. Dabei vertrugen si die antiken Grieen und die Israeliten imwesentlien nit. Die Synthese der beiden getrennten Gelehrtenwelten - der grieisenund der jdisen - zu einer gesamten europisen Kulturtradition ist eigentli eineberrasende Erseinung.

In meiner kurzen Ansprache werde ich Sie nicht mit Details meiner Kenntnisseder Gesite religiser Kulte belasten. Aber trotzdem mte i Sie auf die Besonderheitdes Gebiets hinweisen, auf dem wir uns heute befinden. Die Slowakei, als Land reichan Kupfererz, spielte im Prozess der Entwicklung der nahstlichen antiken Kultur eine

bedeutende Rolle. Das Kupfer aus groen Teilen der gisen und kleinasiatisen Bronzenstammt eben aus slowakisen Lagersten. Die Slowakei und das Donauebenengebiet warenwohl au Ausgangspunkt der Invasionen indoeuropiser Stmme in den Balkan und denstlien Mielmeerraum in der Hle des 2. Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeitrenung. Deshalbkann auf die Frage, wann die Slowakei eine bedeutende Rolle in der Gesite gespielt hat,

geantwortet werden: in der Bronzezeit und besonders zu deren Ende.Wir benden uns unweit der bedeutenden und geheimnisumwierten Burgste Molpir.

Dies ist ein besonderer Ort mit eigener Kultste, wo ritueller Kannibalismus praktisiert wurde.


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12

Und besonders mte i auf den Burgwall unter der Burg Devn aufmerksam maen. Es istein interessanter Ort. Dies erfordert allerdings eine etwas lngere Erklrung.

Traditionell wird behauptet, Europa stehe auf drei Hgeln: dem Capitol, der Akropolis undZion. Jeder reprsentiert eine der Traditionen, aus denen si das heutige Europa entwielthat. Das Capitol in Rom, der Glanz der Akropolis in Hellas und Zion, unser jdis-ristliesErbe. In dieser Dreiheit fehlt mir das vierte Element, und zwar der Einuss der sogen.Barbaren: Kelten, Germanen, Slawen und andere. Gerade sie waren es, die in den sogenanntendunklen Zeiten der ethnisen und politisen Landkarte Europas ihre Form gaben, die imwesentlien in groben Umrissen bis heute erhalten blieb. Wenn wir das Beispiel mit denHgeln zur Symbolisierung des rmisen, grieisen und jdis-ristlien Einussesauf das Wesen der gegenwrtigen euro-amerikanisen Zivilisation anwenden, knnen wireinen geeigneten Hgel suen, der ein Symbol dieses barbarisen Europas sein knnte. Wasknnte dies sein? Kamelot? Die Wartburg? Vyehrad? Mein Kandidat ist gerade Devn. Nitnur deshalb, weil es ein imposanter Zugang zur unteren Donau in der Slowakei und zumgesamten Karpatenkessel ist, sondern hauptsli deshalb,weil Devn die einzige Lokalitt

in Europa ist, mglierweise mit Ausnahme von Bratislava selbst, in der si dur einenfaszinierenden Zufall im Altertum und im frhen Mielalter Besiedlungen aller bedeutendengroen Spragruppen des barbarisen Europas abweselten, sogar mit den Rmern selbst.Auf dem Burgberg von Devn nden wir Spuren von Dakern, Kelten, Germanen, den bereitserwhnten Rmern, dann von Slawen, Awaren und ungarisen Nomaden. Deshalb wre esdas beste Symbol, das wir dem Capitol, der Akropolis und Zion als Symbol der gegenwrtigeneuro-amerikanisen Zivilisation zuordnen knnen.

Geehrte Gste,

ich denke, dass Ihre Teilnahme an der Konferenz und der gegenseitige Austausch von

Erkenntnissen uns alle bereichert. Ich hoe ebenfalls, dass die Ergebnisse der Konferenz nichtnur auf eine kleine Gruppe Fachleute beschrnkt bleiben, sondern dass sie auch in die breiteentlichkeit gelangen.

ast-Papiernika, 16. 11. 2007


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Anodos. Studies of the Ancient World 6-7/2006-2007, 303-311.

303

1 Forbes and Brill 1955, 69-73; Moorey 1994, 307.2 Akkermans and Schwartz 2005, 5-7.3 Pollock 2006, 14.

Decorative and Structural Techniques of Mud-Brick in SacralArchitecture of Northeastern Syria

(the End of the 3rd Millenium - the 2nd Millenium BC)

Lucia Novkov

Keywords:Jezireh, Mud-Bricks, Mosaic Tilling, Plastic Decorations, Spiral Semicolumns

Abstract: Mud-bricks are the most common architectural media in Syrian Jezireh and throughoutMesopotamia since Neolithic time. Their use persist in the countryside untill the present day almostin unchanged way (Fig. 1). In upper Mesopotamian plain are atested since Prepoery Neolithic A/B(10 000-8700 BC). According to the environmental features we can presume their origin and employment

evolved independently of the oldest selements in middle Anatolia and southern Mesopotamia. Culturalcentres with monumental sacral and palatial architecture provided via such information channels asrivers Euphrates and Khabur - innovation techniqes since the 2nd millenium BC.

Environment and architecture

The natural environment of northeastern Syria is characterized to a certain extent byoverall favorable climate conditions. In upper Mesopotamia in the middle of rivers Euphratesand Khabur, which both had played important role at dawn of the oldest civilizations, is locatedan undulating plateau (Fig. 2), known asJezireh (arab. island or peninsula). Use of mud-bricksin architecture is considered to be determined, as one of the reasons, by environmental and

natural conditions of certain locality. Neither whole area of southern Mesopotamia, norJezirehplain have access to the natural rich sources of stone as the deposits of ore, basalt, granite,chlorite, limestone or gypsum are rarely to be found in the ood plains. Hence, building instone was employed only in situations, when simple unred sun dried bricks could not beused as construction material - e.g. sills, doorsteps, or other forms of thresholds.1Even in thecase of higher availability of building stone, traditional use of mud-bricks was dominating inarchitecture through the ages.

In the valleys formed by rivers Euphratesand Khaburlay fertile alluvial mudats, a sourceof ne mud, which was and still is one of the essential substances needed for mud-brickmanufacturing (Fig. 3). We presume, despite the actual desiccation of local environment, duringthe period of time since the 5th - the 3rd millenium BC was this area abundant in water.2

Natural landscape though never remains unchanged or permanent. Therefore happenedthat periodical movements of river channels demanded a regulated irrigation (Fig. 4; 5). This ledto increment of salt concentration and to higher amount of mineral substances (as salt, potassium,natrium, magnesium, carbonates, sulphates etc.) in surface layers of soil, what had negativeeect on xation of wall fundaments. The eort to reduce negative impact of soil salinizationbecame already apparent in the wrien documents from the 3rd millenium BC.3Traditional useof deep foundations in building process (this has also resulted out of need to protect the xationof walls from ood danger) caused in some ways a stagnation in development of secular andsacral architecture in whole Mesopotamia. More progressive approach was available and visiblein application of innovative ornamental or mural elements.


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Lucia Novkov

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Decoration of surface

Mud-bricks (arab. libn) came to use in upper Mesopotamian plain and likewise in wholeMiddle East area within the period of Prepoery Neolithic A/B (10 000-8700 BC). Taking the fact

into account that because of natural and environmental conditions is this region abundant inalluvial soils and same way lacking sucient resources of stone, we can suppose the productionof handmade moulded and shaped mud-bricks was forming independently of the oldest culturalcentres in middle Anatolia and southern Mesopotamia. Development of mud-bricks in Jezireharea (Fig. 6; 7) is a maer of broad time domain extending from the Neolithic period to the 4thcentury BC (Tab. 1).

Tab. 1. Preliminary typological and chronological classication of mud-brick in northeastern Syria, based on design andproportions of tiles.

Type Attributes Dating Approximate measure Shape/Form

Terr pis/taufthrough the use of

wooden slabPrepottery Neolithic A/B various various

Mould by hand

cigarshapedirregular Prepottery Neolithic B 50x12x6 cm oval

Mould by hand

bunshapedirregular Prepottery Neolithic B various round

Mould by hand combined

with terr piscombined technique

since the 7thmillennium

BCvarious moulded block

Mould by form early type small irregularitiessince the 5thmillennium

BC

50-70x30x10 cm

80x45x10 cm

rectangular, more

quadrangular

Mould by form

planoconvexcurved on the top 3000/2700-2400 BC 20-30x12-20x3-6 cm

rectangular, squared

and quandrangular

Mould by form fat (A) top clay skimmed off since 2350/2150 BC

30-40x8-10 cm

40x25x8-10 cm

(modularand reducing of

measure)

rectangular, squared

and quandrangular

Mould by form fat (B) local variations

beginning of the 2nd

millennium the 4th

century BC

25-30x6-8 cm quadratic/squared

It is assumed that use and quality improvement of mud-bricks in architecture had beendeveloping in Jezireh area autonomously of the cultural centres of southern Mesopotamia.We think, nevertheless, that generally since the beginning of the 3rd millenium BC the advancedcultural metropoleis, where ourished monumental temple and palatial architecture, had beenmediating via basic communication channels, which were rivers Euphratesand Khabur, furtherinnovative features particulary concerning the decoration of buildings: i.e. plastic as well asmosaic decoration of walls (wallcones) and pilasters or decorative application of mud-, baked

and kiln-red bricks (Fig. 8).One of the most prevalent and locally self-emerging methods of wall decoration is

reprezented by mural painting. Important source of information for us regarding this issue arethe clay models or the paintings themselves, however rather scarcely preserved. From this pointof view is interesting the discovery in neolithic locality Djade al-Mugharain northeastern Syria.4Finding, that was recently (re)publicised by French research team, is preliminarily dated to theend of the 10th millenium BC and appears to be so far the oldest discovered mural painting onclay plaster.

Another quite popular method of architectural decoration was mosaic tilling on the wallsor half-pillars. Mosaic decoration was composed of small clay cones with the coloured baseexposed to viewer (Fig. 9). Cones were embeded into the clay plaster in geometric paerns.

An alternative technique was using bigger hollow cones of robust shape - similar to clay sherds,

4 Coqueugniot 2006, 395.


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Decorative and Structural Techniques of Mud-Brick in Sacral Architecture of Northeastern Syria(the End of the 3rd Millenium - the 2nd Millenium BC)

305

Fig. 1. Mud-brick production in Ras al Ain/ Tell Fecheriye(September 2006). Their use persist in the countryside to thepresent day almost in unchanged way (Photo: P. Valent).

Fig. 2. Upper Mesopotamian plain Jezireh (arab. Island) extending between Euphrates and Khabur River.

5 Emberling et al. 1999, 8-41; Akkermans and Swartz 2005, 253-62.

simply inxed into the wall. They are quitefrequently won by surface gathering andthus help to identify presence of the sacralarchitecture. This clay cones oen serveas dating tool and in the context of upperMesopotamian uppland region as evidenceof so-called Uruk colonial expansion, too. Theoldest preserved mosaics from archaic templebuildings date back to later Ubaid period -Uruk III (3000-2100 BC).

Many of mentioned ndings in Jezireharea come from urban metropolises like TellBia, Tell Leilan or Tell Brak.5 Unlike in thesouthern Mesopotamian region they are


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Lucia Novkov

306

not manufactured of kiln-red clay but ofmud-brick. It is assumed, that their primaryfunction was to protect the surface from watererosion and wind. Older authors derived theirorigin from imitation of weaved quilts or stonemosaic decoration, known in connection withaltars in southern Mesopotamia.6 Sheathingof the facade with vertical embedding mayresemble construction made of cane or reeds.

Plastic decorations

Builders in Mesopotamia were takingadvantage of the dramatic change of light andshadow as an outcome of building methodssince the 5th millenium BC at latest. It wasaccomplished by uted decoration of pilastersand half-pillars on the front sides of buildings.Last third of the 3rd millenium BC broughtmore developed and complex architecturalplanning, featured by the decorative elementsmade of mud-bricks. This precise decorativebricklaying is in contrast with method howplanoconvex bricks were laid in this period.7

Simple plastic decorations made ofmud-bricks were relatively wide-spreadthroughout Mesopotamia since the end of the

3rd millenium BC, but fragmentary characterof this material diminished its chance ofpreservation until present-day. For mouldingor incising anthropomorphical or morecommonly geometrical paerns (especiallyhalf circles and zig-zags, which mightrepresent running water) were used glazedbricks - unlike the application of kiln-redbricks in southern Mesopotamia.

6 Andrae 1930; Heinrich, 1934; 1957.7

Crawford 2006, 66-7.8 Oates 1989, 193-211.9 Moorey 1994, 312.10Ristvet and Weiss 2005, 25-31.

Fig. 3. Partial compositions of mud-brick tile.

Fig. 4. Euphrates River nearby the town Deir er-Zor innortheastern Syria (Photo: L. Novkov).

Fig. 5. River channel by inundation: B - river-basin; Ba -drainage area; L - alluvia (aer Pollock 2006).

FABRIC

river-mud or alluvial soil rich in clay sediments

temper of sand or vegetal material such as chaff

or straw

bilumen/bilumenous mastic

Great importance among architectural decorations made of mud-bricks has the ceremonialcomplex from Akkadian period (cca 2250 BC) at Tell Brak. On the facade of main courtyard

were situated low mud-brick half-pillars decorated by plastic ornaments formed out of clayplaster into the geometric paerns.8Many of preserved plastic decorations made out of claycome from Old Babylonian period (1763-1350 BC). The use of mud-bricks for relief friezes wascharacteristic for sacral architecture among the Kassites, too.9

Relatively unique are ndings of spiral semicolumns made of mud-brick, which werediscovered in localities Tell Leilan (facade of the Great temple) and Tell Brak in northeasternSyria (Fig. 10). They are dated to the 1st quarter of the 2nd millenium BC and clearly remindus of architecture of southern Mesopotamian plain (in particular Urand Uruk), dated to thesame period.10We assume that - since the beginning of the 2nd millenium BC at least - began to


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Fig. 6. Development of mud-bricks in Jezireh area from the Neolithic period to the 4th century BC (Novkov 2008).


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Lucia Novkov

308

appear semicolumns in this area, formed to represent ascending spriral or palm-trunks and set

in rebated niches or in the multiple panels (Fig. 11).Their design t to the general trend in the early 2nd millenium BC. They are related to the

temple buildings invariably. Such mud-brick facades were common for sacral architecture of

Fig. 9. Cone-shaped objects (wallcones) with blunt endspressed into the plaster and created geometric paerns, cca3000-2100 BC (Stein and Edens 1999).

Fig. 7. Typological exemplication of mud-bricks. Mould byhand: cigar-shaped (a) and bun-shaped (b); mould by form:planoconvex (c) and at (d). (Novkov 2008).

Fig. 8.Appearance of variety tiles and mud-brick decorations in Upper and Lower Mesopotamian plain.


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Fig. 10. Spiral semicolumns made by mud-brick in localityTell Leilan (west facade of temple) in northeastern Syria,1st quarter of 2nd millennium BC.

Fig. 11. Semicolumn from Leilan acropolis temple.Onamental columns were usually set singly in rebated nichesor in multiple panels, and formed to represent palmtrunks orascending spirals.

the northern Mesopotamia, while in southernpart kiln-red or baked bricks were prefered.The basic shape of tiles, which were necessaryfor the semicolumn formation, was 60-degreesegment of the circle with approximate semi-diameter of 30 cm. Tiles could be made rightin the suitable form or cut out of standardsquared mud-brick. There are two types ofpalm-trunk decorations (Fig. 12) simple(orientation only in one course, bricks orientedinto three degrees) and diamond shape (fourvertical layers with four dierent types of tiles).For builders was dicult to bind semicolumnwith the wall, but they solved this problem byconnective horse-shoe bricks, which overlap

the half of mud-brick wall. Following the closeparalells is origin of these decorative elementsderived from Babylonia.

Since the beginning of the 1st milleniumBC is mud-brick decoration in Mesopotamianregion substituted by kiln-red and glazedbricks (under the inuence of Assyria andBabylonia). Glazed bricks, aested since theMiddle Assyrian period, represent relativelycommon ndings in the area of upperMesopotamian plain.11

Archaeological excavations at TellFecheriye uncovered the glazed bricks usedas a decorative part of architectural elements,incorporated into the architectural context.12In the aspect of their relationship to the sundried mud-bricks we can assume that even ifthe use of kiln-red and glazed bricks was inthis region obvious, mud-bricks continued tobe the most important building and decorativematerial in this area.

Structural techniques and documentationThe use of pressure-proof mud-bricks was

applied foremost in the constructions, whereparticipation of building components as walls,pillars or oors was required. Other components- as lintels or beams were dierent sinceroong with mud-bricks could be realized onlyby application of arches and vaulting, wheresingle brick parts (voussoirs) remained in archconstruction under the pressure of keystones.13

11Cholidis and Martin 2002, 18-21.12McEwan et al. 1958, 42-3.13Houston 2002, 212.


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Fig. 12. Diagrammatic reconstruction of a spiral semicolumn in Tell Leilan with successivecourse plans of tiles: a - top course; b - second course; c - third course; d -fourth course (aerOates 1990, g. 4).

We can presume that the use of mud-bricks in architecture directly inuenced the vaultingdevelopment in this region. More frequent appearance of vaults begins in the Early 3rd milleniumBC. Barrel vaults were familiar in Mesopotamia even before the year 3000 BC. Usually theysurvived in the underground places, where a ground oor beared the pressure of vault ratherthen the support the walls. Unusual aribute is a high steepness of arc slope of these vaults.Another common types of vaulting represent corbel vault, constructed by oseing successivecourses of bricks at the springline of the walls, so that they project towards the archways centerfrom each supporting side, until the courses meet at the apex of the archway, and pitched-brickvault made by hollow cylindrical tiles.

One of the primary problems for archaeologist working with mud-bricks is the fragmentarityand compactness of material in interaction with surrounding soil. Unearthing mud-bricks thusrequires some practice and experience, especially with older types of mud-bricks. Followingdocumentation and measuring bring also another issues: mud-brick wall usually does not tend tobe straightly outlined or a straight unit. Option, whether to apply measure distance with milimeteror centimeter accuracy in documentation of damadaged brick walls, is le to be determined byarcheologists themselves.14In process of salvaging the relics in situ are used in present time variousmethods and techniques. For example mechanic protection of exposed sections; covering the oldmud-bricks with the modern ones or with the plaster (mortar); chemical restoration; exposing todirect heat and high temperature. One of the latest trends is replacing the mud-bricks with newbricks kilned at temperature in the approximate range of 600-900 C.

14Eiteljorg 2002, 6-13.


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Urban societies (ca. 16,000-300 BC). Cambridge.Andrae, W. 1930. Das Goeshaus und die Urformen des Bauens im Alten Orient. Berlin.

Boehmer, R. M. 1997. Uruk-Warka In Oxford Encyklopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, edited by E. M. Meyers,Vol. 5. Oxford.Coqueugniot, E. 2006. Djade excavations. Science314 /2006: 395.Crawford, H. 2006. Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge.Delougaz, P. 1933. Plannoconvex bricks and their methods of employment. Chicago.Eiteljorg, H. 2002. How should we measure an ancient structure? Nexus network journal4/2002: 6-13.Emberling, G., J. Cheng, T. Larsen, H. Piman, T. Skuldboel, J. Weber, and H. Wright. 1999. Excavations at Tell Brak

1998: Preliminary report. Iraq61: 1-41.Forbes, R. J., and E. J. Brill. 1955. Studies in ancient technologyI. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers.Heinrich, E. 1934. Schilf und Lehm. Berlin.Heinrich, E. 1957. Bauwerke in der altsumerischen Bildkunst. Wiesbaden 1957.Houston, G. W. 2002. Ancient building technology.JRS 92/2002: 212.Cholidis, N., and L. Martin. 2002. Der Tell Halaf und sein Ausgrber Max Freiherr von Oppenheim. Berlin.Mallowan, M. E. L. 1947. Excavations at Brak and Chagar Bazar in Iraq . London.

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Moorey, P. R. S. 1994.Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence. Oxford.Novkov, L. 2008. Innovations and mode of mud-brick production on tell selements in southeastern Syria. In In

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21/3: 392-5.Oates, D., and J. Oates. 1989.Akkadian buildings at Tell Brak. Cambridge.Polloc, S. 2006.Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was. Cambridge.Ristvet, L., and H. Weiss. 2005. The Hbr Region in the Late Third and Early Second Millenium B.C. In The History

and Archaeology of Syria, edited by W. Orthmann, Vol. 1. Saarbrcken.

Mgr. Lucia Novkov Slovak archaeological and historical institute SAHI, o.z. Vajnorsk 8/A,

SK-831 04 Bratislava [email protected] [email protected]


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Decorative and Structural Techniques of Mud-Brick in Sacral Architecture