DeforestationDeforestation

The aim of this presentation is The aim of this presentation is to sum up the data we managed to to sum up the data we managed to collect on the subject in discussion: collect on the subject in discussion:

deforestation. deforestation.

There are several chapters we There are several chapters we have insisted on. This way, the have insisted on. This way, the information is easier to be retained.information is easier to be retained.

The state of forests in the The state of forests in the Maramures CountyMaramures County

The Forest FundThe Forest FundMaramures County, located in the North-Maramures County, located in the North-

Western part of Romania, has a total surface of Western part of Romania, has a total surface of 6304.36km2. The Sylvan Direction of Baia Mare 6304.36km2. The Sylvan Direction of Baia Mare administers 187310 ha of the entire forest fund. administers 187310 ha of the entire forest fund. There are 11389 ha of forest situated at plain, There are 11389 ha of forest situated at plain, 87081 ha at hill and 88660 ha at mountain. 87081 ha at hill and 88660 ha at mountain.

From the total surface, 2080 ha are affected From the total surface, 2080 ha are affected by pollution and 1020 ha by drought.by pollution and 1020 ha by drought.

The afforestation percent/county exceeds the The afforestation percent/county exceeds the country average, so Maramures cannot be counted country average, so Maramures cannot be counted among the counties that have a deficit of among the counties that have a deficit of woodland.woodland.

In 2005, the total volume of wood gathered In 2005, the total volume of wood gathered was 419.200 m3.was 419.200 m3.

A brief history of the A brief history of the management of forests in the management of forests in the

local arealocal area Until 1859, the owners of woodland where the Until 1859, the owners of woodland where the

local landlords, who had no restrictions regarding local landlords, who had no restrictions regarding the use of wood.the use of wood.

1859-1921 Forests were administered by the 1859-1921 Forests were administered by the Hungarian Sylvan Code, which stipulated regulated Hungarian Sylvan Code, which stipulated regulated cuts.cuts.

1921-1948 The Romanian Sylvan Code came into 1921-1948 The Romanian Sylvan Code came into use, managing 89% of the Romanian forest areas use, managing 89% of the Romanian forest areas

During the First World War and the Second During the First World War and the Second World War, however, there were big irrational cuts World War, however, there were big irrational cuts over large areas of woodland, but they were lately over large areas of woodland, but they were lately supplemented by the authorities.supplemented by the authorities.

In 1948, all forests went to state property.In 1948, all forests went to state property.

1948-19611948-1961

The first forest planning for the Baia The first forest planning for the Baia Mare region was compelled. The main Mare region was compelled. The main stipulations were:stipulations were:

*Establishing a cutting cycle varying from 100-*Establishing a cutting cycle varying from 100-130 years, depending of the species;130 years, depending of the species;*A treatment of successive cuts applied to *A treatment of successive cuts applied to beech;beech;*Use of technical exploitability.*Use of technical exploitability.

However, there were no caring cuts applied However, there were no caring cuts applied to the forests. They were mentioned only in the to the forests. They were mentioned only in the second forest planning for the region of Baia second forest planning for the region of Baia Mare, which was compelled in 1962Mare, which was compelled in 1962

1962-19721962-1972

The second planning (1962) required the use The second planning (1962) required the use of regeneration and substitution cuts and of regeneration and substitution cuts and therefore the replacement of the trees after therefore the replacement of the trees after they had been cut at the age of 110 years, no they had been cut at the age of 110 years, no matter the species this time, became compulsory.matter the species this time, became compulsory.

The last forest planning was made in 1972 The last forest planning was made in 1972 and the main changes were:and the main changes were:

*A medium age of 61 years for all species;*A medium age of 61 years for all species;*A minimum of 237 m3 of wood volume/ha;*A minimum of 237 m3 of wood volume/ha;*A cutting cycle of 120 years for beech and 110 *A cutting cycle of 120 years for beech and 110 years for the rest of the species.years for the rest of the species.

At presentAt presentAfforestation works are now performed in all Afforestation works are now performed in all

areas that need such work, their rhythm following areas that need such work, their rhythm following with no delay the rhythm of cuts, moreover: adding with no delay the rhythm of cuts, moreover: adding to them where it is needed. to them where it is needed.

In 2005, 696 ha of forest were entirely In 2005, 696 ha of forest were entirely afforested and 894 ha were naturally regenerated.afforested and 894 ha were naturally regenerated.

A regeneration plan was developed too, A regeneration plan was developed too, promoting the most valuable Romanian species: promoting the most valuable Romanian species: beech, sycamore maple, common oak, ash tree, sweet beech, sycamore maple, common oak, ash tree, sweet cherry tree, spruce fir, sweet chestnut tree. cherry tree, spruce fir, sweet chestnut tree.

In 2005, there were made regeneration cuts In 2005, there were made regeneration cuts over 1405 ha of woodland, accidental products cuts over 1405 ha of woodland, accidental products cuts over 18288 ha, caring cuts over 6116 ha.over 18288 ha, caring cuts over 6116 ha.

20052005

Regeneration cuts: >1405 ha,Regeneration cuts: >1405 ha,

Accidental products cuts: >18288 ha,Accidental products cuts: >18288 ha,

Caring cuts: >6116 ha.Caring cuts: >6116 ha.

Excursion JournalExcursion Journal

2525thth November 2006 November 2006We made a trip We made a trip

outside town to see what outside town to see what a deforested area looks a deforested area looks like. We were accompanied like. We were accompanied by a sylvan engineer and by a sylvan engineer and a woodman, who explained a woodman, who explained to us what a tree cut to us what a tree cut means and what they means and what they actually do to help the actually do to help the forest.forest.

We visited the We visited the “Valea Limpezii forest, “Valea Limpezii forest, 7th canton, Valea 7th canton, Valea Plopilor, Valea Limpedea, Plopilor, Valea Limpedea, from the 2nd district, from the 2nd district, Baia Mare”. What a long Baia Mare”. What a long and accurate name… and accurate name…

First of all, First of all, the woodman showed us the woodman showed us a 2 year old seed a 2 year old seed bed. This seed bed bed. This seed bed was in fact a was in fact a Christmas tree Christmas tree seedling, which is seedling, which is taken care of by the taken care of by the woodman himself, woodman himself, until it reaches the until it reaches the age of 3 and then it age of 3 and then it will be planted on a will be planted on a degraded ground. degraded ground.

The seedbed is The seedbed is in a certain spot of in a certain spot of the forest, where it the forest, where it has enough light. And has enough light. And it is considered to it is considered to be the “woodman’s be the “woodman’s mirror”.mirror”.

Then, we headed Then, we headed towards a deforested towards a deforested area. 3.5 ha of forest area. 3.5 ha of forest had been cut down, had been cut down, just a few stumps just a few stumps remaining. remaining.

But the cut had But the cut had been a controlled one, been a controlled one, as the trees were 120-as the trees were 120-140 years old, which 140 years old, which is considered to be is considered to be the “cutting age”. the “cutting age”. After this age, if After this age, if they are not cut, they they are not cut, they start to degrade, dry start to degrade, dry and finally die.and finally die.

The sylvan engineer The sylvan engineer told us that the cut wood told us that the cut wood is divided into 2 groups: is divided into 2 groups: the work wood, used in the work wood, used in constructions, and the constructions, and the fire wood, which is sold fire wood, which is sold to people who need it. to people who need it. Each person has the right Each person has the right to buy 5m3 of wood/year.to buy 5m3 of wood/year.

Despite this, people Despite this, people still cut down trees still cut down trees illegally, stealing wood illegally, stealing wood to earn money. This is to earn money. This is because a lot of jobs have because a lot of jobs have been abolished. For been abolished. For instance: a few years ago, instance: a few years ago, 2000 men worked in the 2000 men worked in the local mines. Today, only local mines. Today, only 200 still do. This is a 200 still do. This is a cause of deforestation.cause of deforestation.

Trees that need to be cut Trees that need to be cut legally are marked with a legally are marked with a special hammer, so the Sylvan special hammer, so the Sylvan District knows exactly how District knows exactly how many trees are cut illegally, many trees are cut illegally, by simply counting the by simply counting the unmarked stumps. The woodman unmarked stumps. The woodman has to pay for the stolen has to pay for the stolen wood, because it is considered wood, because it is considered that he hadn’t been attentive that he hadn’t been attentive enough and he hadn’t taken enough and he hadn’t taken care well enough of his care well enough of his woodland.woodland.

We may conclude with the We may conclude with the woodman’s words: “The forest woodman’s words: “The forest isn’t guarded by me or anybody isn’t guarded by me or anybody else, but by fear.” So it is else, but by fear.” So it is necessary to change people’s necessary to change people’s mentality, in order to mentality, in order to prevent, not to deal with the prevent, not to deal with the effects.effects.

Data from the Internet regarding Data from the Internet regarding the causes and the effects ofthe causes and the effects of

global deforestationglobal deforestation

DeforestationDeforestation is the is the conversionconversion of of forestedforested areas areas to non-forest land use such to non-forest land use such as as arable landarable land, , urban urban use, use, logged area or wasteland. logged area or wasteland. Historically, this meant Historically, this meant conversion to grassland or conversion to grassland or to its artificial to its artificial counterpart, grainfields; counterpart, grainfields; however, the however, the Industrial Industrial Revolution Revolution added added urbanizationurbanization. . Generally this removal or Generally this removal or destruction of significant destruction of significant areas of forest cover has areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded resulted in a degraded environment with reduced environment with reduced biodiversitybiodiversity. In developing . In developing countries, massive countries, massive deforestation is ongoing and deforestation is ongoing and is shaping is shaping climateclimateand and geography.geography.

Deforestation results from removal of trees Deforestation results from removal of trees without sufficient without sufficient reforestationreforestation; however, even ; however, even with reforestation, significant biodiversity loss with reforestation, significant biodiversity loss may occur. may occur.

There are many causes, ranging from slow There are many causes, ranging from slow forest forest degradation degradation to sudden and catastrophic to sudden and catastrophic wildfires.wildfires.

Deforestation can be the result of the Deforestation can be the result of the deliberate removal of forest cover for deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or agriculture or urbanurban development, or it can be an development, or it can be an unintentional consequence of uncontrolled unintentional consequence of uncontrolled grazinggrazing (which can prevent the natural regeneration of (which can prevent the natural regeneration of young young treestrees). ).

The combined effect of The combined effect of grazinggrazing and fires can and fires can be a major cause of deforestation in dry areas. be a major cause of deforestation in dry areas. In addition to the direct effects brought about In addition to the direct effects brought about by forest removal, indirect effects caused by by forest removal, indirect effects caused by edge effectsedge effects and and habitat fragmentationhabitat fragmentation can can greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.

Characterization of Characterization of DeforestationDeforestation

Deforestation is the loss or continual Deforestation is the loss or continual degradation of forest habitat primarily due to degradation of forest habitat primarily due to human related causes. Agriculture, urban human related causes. Agriculture, urban sprawl, unsustainable forestry practices, sprawl, unsustainable forestry practices, mining, and petroleum exploration all mining, and petroleum exploration all contribute to human caused deforestation. contribute to human caused deforestation.

Natural deforestation can be linked to Natural deforestation can be linked to tsunamistsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, , forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation and glaciation and desertificationdesertification, although the , although the desertification process is driven primarily by desertification process is driven primarily by human causes. The effects of human related human causes. The effects of human related deforestation can be mitigated through deforestation can be mitigated through environmentally sustainable practices that environmentally sustainable practices that reduce permanent destruction of forests or reduce permanent destruction of forests or even act to preserve and rehabilitate even act to preserve and rehabilitate disrupted forestland (see disrupted forestland (see ReforestationReforestation and and TreeplantingTreeplanting).).

Deforestation defined broadly can Deforestation defined broadly can include not only conversion to non-forest, include not only conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that reduces forest but also degradation that reduces forest quality - the density and structure of the quality - the density and structure of the trees, the trees, the ecological servicesecological services supplied, the supplied, the biomass biomass of plants and animals, the of plants and animals, the species species diversitydiversity and the and the genetic diversitygenetic diversity. .

Narrow definition of deforestation is: Narrow definition of deforestation is: the removal of forest cover to an extent the removal of forest cover to an extent that allows for alternative land use. that allows for alternative land use.

The The United Nations’United Nations’ Research Institute Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) uses a broad for Social Development (UNRISD) uses a broad definition of deforestation, while the definition of deforestation, while the Food Food and Agriculture Organization of the UNand Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO) (FAO) uses a narrow definition.uses a narrow definition.

Definitions can also be grouped as those Definitions can also be grouped as those which refer to changes in which refer to changes in land coverland cover and those and those which refer to changes in which refer to changes in land useland use. .

Land coverLand cover measurements often use a percent measurements often use a percent of cover to determine deforestation. This type of cover to determine deforestation. This type of definition has the advantage in that large of definition has the advantage in that large areas can be easily measured, for example from areas can be easily measured, for example from satellitesatellite photos. photos.

A forest cover removal of 90% may still be A forest cover removal of 90% may still be considered forest in some cases. Under this considered forest in some cases. Under this definition areas that may have few values of a definition areas that may have few values of a natural forest such as natural forest such as plantationsplantations and even and even urban or suburban areas may be considered urban or suburban areas may be considered forest.forest.

Land useLand use definitions measure deforestation definitions measure deforestation by a change in land use. This definition may by a change in land use. This definition may consider areas to be forest that are not consider areas to be forest that are not commonly considered as such. An area can be commonly considered as such. An area can be lacking trees but still considered a forest. It lacking trees but still considered a forest. It may be a land designated for afforestation or an may be a land designated for afforestation or an area designated administratively as forest.area designated administratively as forest.

Causes for Causes for DeforestationDeforestation

Present causesPresent causesWhile short-sighted, market-driven While short-sighted, market-driven forestryforestry

practices are often one of the leading cause of forest practices are often one of the leading cause of forest degradation, the principal human-related causes of degradation, the principal human-related causes of deforestation are agriculture and livestock grazing, deforestation are agriculture and livestock grazing, urban sprawl, and mining and petroleum extraction. urban sprawl, and mining and petroleum extraction.

Causes include demand for farm land and fuel Causes include demand for farm land and fuel wood. Underlying causes include poverty, lack of wood. Underlying causes include poverty, lack of reform. The causes of deforestation are complex and reform. The causes of deforestation are complex and often differ in each forest and country. Government often differ in each forest and country. Government policies, such as ones in Brazil, make it a priority policies, such as ones in Brazil, make it a priority to resettle some of the country's numerous landless to resettle some of the country's numerous landless people. people.

The largest cause as of 2006 is The largest cause as of 2006 is slash-and-burnslash-and-burn activity in activity in tropical foreststropical forests. Slash-and-burn is a . Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by method sometimes used by shifting cultivatorsshifting cultivators to to create short term yields from marginal soils. When create short term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow practiced repeatedly, or without intervening fallow periods, the periods, the nutrientnutrient poor soils may be exhausted or poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. eroded to an unproductive state.

Slash-and-burnSlash-and-burn techniques are used by native techniques are used by native populations of over 200 million people worldwide.populations of over 200 million people worldwide.

Theories of deforestationTheories of deforestationThree schools of thought exist with regards Three schools of thought exist with regards

to the causes of deforestation - the to the causes of deforestation - the ImpoverishmentImpoverishment school, which believes that the school, which believes that the major cause of deforestation is "major cause of deforestation is "the growing the growing number of poornumber of poor", the ", the NeoclassicalNeoclassical school which school which believes that the major cause is “believes that the major cause is “open-access open-access property rightsproperty rights" and the " and the Political-ecologyPolitical-ecology school school which believes that the major cause of which believes that the major cause of deforestation is that the "deforestation is that the "capitalist investors capitalist investors crowd out peasantscrowd out peasants". ".

The The ImpoverishmentImpoverishment school sees smallholders school sees smallholders as the principal agents of deforestation, the as the principal agents of deforestation, the NeoclassicalNeoclassical school sees various agents, and the school sees various agents, and the Political-ecologyPolitical-ecology school sees capitalist school sees capitalist entrepreneurs as the major agents of entrepreneurs as the major agents of deforestation. deforestation.

Actual data support the first two theories as Actual data support the first two theories as widespread numerical impacts.widespread numerical impacts.

Historical causesHistorical causes

PrehistoryPrehistory

Deforestation has been practiced by humans Deforestation has been practiced by humans since the beginnings of civilization. since the beginnings of civilization.

FireFire was the first tool that allowed humans was the first tool that allowed humans to modify the landscape. The first evidence of to modify the landscape. The first evidence of deforestation shows up in the deforestation shows up in the MesolithicMesolithic

. Fire was probably used to drive game into . Fire was probably used to drive game into more accessible areas. With the advent of more accessible areas. With the advent of agricultureagriculture fire became the prime tool to clear fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops. land for crops.

In In EuropeEurope there is little solid evidence there is little solid evidence before 7000 BC. Mesolithic before 7000 BC. Mesolithic foragersforagers used fire to used fire to create openings for create openings for red deerred deer and and wild boarwild boar. .

On On Great BritainGreat Britain shade tolerant species like shade tolerant species like oakoak and and ashash are replaced in the are replaced in the pollenpollen record by record by hazelshazels, brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of , brambles, grasses and nettles. Removal of the forests led to decreased the forests led to decreased transpirationtranspiration resulting in the formation of upland resulting in the formation of upland peat bogspeat bogs. .

Pre-industrial Pre-industrial HHistoryistoryThe historic The historic siltingsilting of ports along the of ports along the

southern coasts of southern coasts of Asia MinorAsia Minor ( (e.g.e.g. ClarusClarus, and , and the examples of the examples of EphesusEphesus, , PrienePriene and and MiletusMiletus, , where harbors had to be abandoned because of the where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal SyriaSyria during the last centuries BC, and the during the last centuries BC, and the famous silting up of the harbor for famous silting up of the harbor for BrugesBruges, , which moved port commerce to which moved port commerce to AntwerpAntwerp, all follow , all follow periods of increased settlement growth (and periods of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the river basins apparently of deforestation) in the river basins of their of their hinterlandshinterlands. .

In early medieval In early medieval RiezRiez in upper Provence, in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage.Riez were being opened to pasturage.

From 1100 to 1500 AD significant From 1100 to 1500 AD significant deforestation took place in deforestation took place in Western EuropeWestern Europe as a as a result of the result of the expanding human populationexpanding human population. .

The large-scale building of wooden sailing The large-scale building of wooden sailing shipsships by European (coastal) naval owers since by European (coastal) naval owers since the 15th century for exploration, colonization, the 15th century for exploration, colonization, slave – and other trade on the high seas and slave – and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed (often related) naval warfare (the failed invasion of England by the invasion of England by the Spanish ArmadaSpanish Armada in in 1559 and the 1559 and the battle of Lepantobattle of Lepanto 1577 are early 1577 are early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in Spain, were this contributed to the paradoxical Spain, were this contributed to the paradoxical weakening of the domestic economy since weakening of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade ...) predominant.plantations, trade ...) predominant.

Norman F. Cantor’sNorman F. Cantor’s summary of the effects of summary of the effects of late medieval deforestation applies equally well to late medieval deforestation applies equally well to Early Modern Europe:Early Modern Europe:

"Europeans had lived in the midst of vast "Europeans had lived in the midst of vast forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. forests throughout the earlier medieval centuries. After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation After 1250 they became so skilled at deforestation that by 1500 AD they were running short of wood for that by 1500 AD they were running short of wood for heating and cooking. They were faced with a heating and cooking. They were faced with a nutritional decline because of the elimination of the nutritional decline because of the elimination of the generous supply of wild game that had inhabited the generous supply of wild game that had inhabited the now-disappearing forests, which throughout medieval now-disappearing forests, which throughout medieval times had provided the staple of their carnivorous times had provided the staple of their carnivorous high-protein diet. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of high-protein diet. By 1500 Europe was on the edge of a fuel and nutritional disaster, [from] which it was a fuel and nutritional disaster, [from] which it was saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of saved in the sixteenth century only by the burning of soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize." soft coal and the cultivation of potatoes and maize."

Specific parallels are seen in twentieth century Specific parallels are seen in twentieth century deforestation occurring in many developing nations.deforestation occurring in many developing nations.

Deforestation Deforestation TTodayoday

Growing worldwide demand for Growing worldwide demand for wood wood to be to be used for fire wood or in construction, paper used for fire wood or in construction, paper and furniture - as well as clearing land for and furniture - as well as clearing land for commercial and industrial development commercial and industrial development (including (including road constructionroad construction) have combined ) have combined with growing local populations and their with growing local populations and their demands for agricultural expansion and wood demands for agricultural expansion and wood fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas.fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas.

Agricultural development schemes in Agricultural development schemes in MexicoMexico, , BrazilBrazil and and Indonezia Indonezia moved large moved large populations into the populations into the rainforestrainforest zone, further zone, further increasing deforestation rates. One fifth of increasing deforestation rates. One fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990. between 1960 and 1990.

Estimates of deforestation of tropical Estimates of deforestation of tropical forest for the 1990s range from ca. 55,630 forest for the 1990s range from ca. 55,630 kmkm²² to ca. 120,000 km² each year. At this rate, to ca. 120,000 km² each year. At this rate, all tropical forests may be gone by the year all tropical forests may be gone by the year 2090.2090.

BrazilBrazilIn Brazil the rate of deforestation is In Brazil the rate of deforestation is

apparently driven by commodity prices. Recent apparently driven by commodity prices. Recent development of a new variety of soybean has lead development of a new variety of soybean has lead to displacement of beef ranches and slash and to displacement of beef ranches and slash and burn farmers which in turn move further into the burn farmers which in turn move further into the forest. forest.

IndonesiaIndonesiaThere are significantly large areas of There are significantly large areas of

forest in Indonesia that are being lost as forest in Indonesia that are being lost as native forest is cleared by large multi-national native forest is cleared by large multi-national pulp companies and being replaced by pulp companies and being replaced by plantations. plantations.

In In SumatraSumatra millions of acres of forest have millions of acres of forest have been cleared often under the command of the been cleared often under the command of the central government in central government in JakartaJakarta who comply with who comply with multi national companies to remove the forest multi national companies to remove the forest because of the need to pay off international because of the need to pay off international debt obligations and to develop economically. debt obligations and to develop economically.

United StatesUnited States

Upon arrival European-Americans began Upon arrival European-Americans began clearing large areas of forest for wood and clearing large areas of forest for wood and agriculture. Beginning in about 1850 farm agriculture. Beginning in about 1850 farm land began to be abandoned because of soil land began to be abandoned because of soil exhaustion and competition from the mid-west. exhaustion and competition from the mid-west.

Also, mechanization allowed land Also, mechanization allowed land formerly used as pastures for horses to formerly used as pastures for horses to revert to forest. From 1850 to about 1920 the revert to forest. From 1850 to about 1920 the amount of forest land in the United States amount of forest land in the United States actually increased. actually increased.

Today the trend in forest cover increase Today the trend in forest cover increase has reversed as has reversed as urban sprawlurban sprawl causes causes conversion of forest as the forest is conversion of forest as the forest is transformed to suburbs.(Forest on the Edge transformed to suburbs.(Forest on the Edge Housing Development on American's Private Housing Development on American's Private Forest (USFS))Forest (USFS))

Impact on the EnvironmentImpact on the Environment

Deforestation alters the Deforestation alters the hydrologic hydrologic cyclecycle, alterring the amount of water in the , alterring the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the atmosphere. atmosphere.

Forests support considerable Forests support considerable biodiversitybiodiversity, providing valuable habitat for , providing valuable habitat for wildlifewildlife; moreover, forests foster ; moreover, forests foster medicinal medicinal conservationconservation and the recharge of and the recharge of aquifersaquifers. .

With forest bioptopes being a major, With forest bioptopes being a major, irreplacable source of new drugs (like irreplacable source of new drugs (like taxoltaxol), deforestation can destroy ), deforestation can destroy geneticgenetic variations (such as crop resistance) variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.irretrievably.

Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain and transport capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into translate into flash floodingflash flooding and more localized and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. floods than would occur with the forest cover.

Deforestation also contributes to decreased Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspirationevapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric , which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans; in runoff and returns directly to the oceans; in deforested north and northwest China, the average deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s the 1950s and the 1980s

Long-term gains can be Long-term gains can be obtained by managing forest obtained by managing forest lands sustainably to lands sustainably to maintain both forest cover maintain both forest cover and provide a biodegrable and provide a biodegrable renewable resource. renewable resource.

Forests are also Forests are also important stores of organic important stores of organic carboncarbon, and forests can , and forests can extract carbon dioxide and extract carbon dioxide and pollutantspollutants from the air, from the air, thus contributing to thus contributing to biosphere stability and biosphere stability and probably relevant to the probably relevant to the greenhouse effect. greenhouse effect.

Forests are also Forests are also valued for their aesthetic valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural beauty and as a cultural resource and tourist resource and tourist attraction.attraction.

Atmospheric pollutionAtmospheric pollution

Deforestation is often cited as one of the Deforestation is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced major causes of the enhanced greenhouse greenhouse effecteffect. Trees and other plants remove . Trees and other plants remove carboncarbon (in the form of (in the form of carbon dioxidecarbon dioxide) from the ) from the atmosphere atmosphere during the process of during the process of photosynthesisphotosynthesis. .

Both the decay and burning of wood releases Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. A.J.Yeomans asserts in atmosphere. A.J.Yeomans asserts in Priority Priority OneOne that overnight a stable forest releases that overnight a stable forest releases exactly the same quantity of carbon dioxide exactly the same quantity of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Others state that back into the atmosphere. Others state that mature forests are net sinks of CO2mature forests are net sinks of CO2

WildlifeWildlifeSome forests are rich Some forests are rich

in in biological diversitybiological diversity.. Deforestation can cause Deforestation can cause the destruction of the the destruction of the habitats that support this habitats that support this biological diversity - biological diversity - thus causing population thus causing population shifts and shifts and extinctionsextinctions. .

Numerous countries Numerous countries have developed have developed Biodiversity Action PlansBiodiversity Action Plans to limit clearcutting and to limit clearcutting and slash and burn slash and burn agricultural practises as agricultural practises as deleterious to wildlife, deleterious to wildlife, particularly when particularly when endangered speciesendangered species are are present.present.

Soil erosionSoil erosionDeforestation generally increases Deforestation generally increases rates of soil rates of soil erosionerosion, by increasing , by increasing the amount of the amount of runoffrunoff and reducing and reducing the protection of the soil from tree the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment.the use of mechanized equipment.China's China's Loess PlateauLoess Plateau was cleared of was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nick-name reaches (hence the river's nick-name 'China's sorrow').'China's sorrow').

Removal of trees Removal of trees does not always increase does not always increase erosion rates. In erosion rates. In certain regions of certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and southwest US, shrubs and trees have been trees have been encroaching on encroaching on grassland. The trees grassland. The trees themselves enhance the themselves enhance the loss of grass between loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become intercanopy areas become highly erodible. highly erodible.

The US Forest The US Forest Service, in Bandelier Service, in Bandelier National Monument for National Monument for example, is studying how example, is studying how to restore the former to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the erosion, by removing the trees.trees.

Controlling deforestationControlling deforestation

FarmingFarming

New methods are being developed to farm New methods are being developed to farm more food crops on less farm land, such as more food crops on less farm land, such as high-yield high-yield hybridhybrid crops, crops, greenhousegreenhouse, , autonomous buildingautonomous building gardens, and gardens, and hydroponicshydroponics. .

The reduced farm land is then dependent The reduced farm land is then dependent on massive chemical inputs to maintain on massive chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic necessary yields. In cyclic agricultureagriculture, , cattle are grazed on farm land that is cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. resting and rejuvenating.

Cyclic agriculture actually increases Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Selective over the fertility of the soil. Selective over farming can also increase the nutrients by farming can also increase the nutrients by releasing such nutrients from the previously releasing such nutrients from the previously inert subsoil. inert subsoil.

The constant release of nutrients from The constant release of nutrients from the constant exposure of subsoil by slow and the constant exposure of subsoil by slow and gentle erosion is a process that has been gentle erosion is a process that has been ongoing for billions of years.ongoing for billions of years.

Forest managementForest management

Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. collapse.

In In TongaTonga, paramount rulers developed policies , paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, whilst during term problems forest loss would cause, whilst during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Tokugawa, Tokugawa, JapanJapan the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. centuries.

In sixteenth century In sixteenth century GermanyGermany landowners landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments policies tend to be limited to environments with with good rainfallgood rainfall, , no dry seasonno dry season and and very very young young soilssoils (through (through volcanismvolcanism or or glaciationglaciation). ).

This is because on older and less fertile This is because on older and less fertile soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture soils trees grow too slowly for silviculture to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong to be economic, whilst in areas with a strong dry season there is always a risk of forest dry season there is always a risk of forest fires destroying a tree crop before it fires destroying a tree crop before it matures.matures.

AfforestationAfforestation

Today, in the Today, in the People’s Republic of ChinaPeople’s Republic of China, , where large scale destruction of forests has where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has required that occurred, the government has required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in other do the equivalent amount of work in other forest services. forest services.

The government claims that at least 1 The government claims that at least 1 billion trees have been planted in China every billion trees have been planted in China every year since 1982. In western countries, year since 1982. In western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner are causing forest sustainable manner are causing forest landowners and forest industries to become landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices.management and timber harvesting practices.

The The Arbor Day Arbor Day FoundationFoundation Rain Forest Rain Forest Rescue program is a Rescue program is a charity that helps to charity that helps to prevent deforestation. prevent deforestation.

The charity uses The charity uses donated money to buy up donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest and preserve rainforest land before the lumber land before the lumber companies can buy it. companies can buy it.

The Arbor Day The Arbor Day Foundation then Foundation then protects the land from protects the land from deforestation. This deforestation. This also locks in the way also locks in the way of life of the of life of the primitive tribes living primitive tribes living on the forest land.on the forest land.

RomaniaRomania

Romania is a largely deforested Romania is a largely deforested country in Europe. Just like Hungary, it once country in Europe. Just like Hungary, it once had forests covering three quarters of Romania, had forests covering three quarters of Romania, but currently it has been reduced down to 27%. but currently it has been reduced down to 27%. Out of that, 2% are plantations and 25% are Out of that, 2% are plantations and 25% are natural forests and managed woodland. natural forests and managed woodland.

Romania has lost basically 5 million Romania has lost basically 5 million hectares of its forests in the last three hectares of its forests in the last three centuries. Half were lost due to end of World centuries. Half were lost due to end of World War I. War I.

Currently the country is trying its Currently the country is trying its best to save the forests, but half of them are best to save the forests, but half of them are owned by private owners. Even today these owned by private owners. Even today these forests are facing many problems, and the forests are facing many problems, and the causes are same as they were which are extended causes are same as they were which are extended droughts, industrial pollution, and over droughts, industrial pollution, and over grazing and damage brought by mechanization. grazing and damage brought by mechanization.

Pine tree Pine tree species have been species have been being being replaced byreplaced by beech and beech and oak for over 60 years oak for over 60 years and today they and today they constitute 30% tree constitute 30% tree cover. The government cover. The government has has recently planned to recently planned to have have under under 27% forests 27% forests ofof conifers. conifers.

Most people tryMost people try to to simplify forests for simplify forests for production, but they production, but they don’t don’t realiserealise that that their actiontheir action is is endangeringendangering the the forestsforests, that could be, that could be damaged by cockroaches, damaged by cockroaches, rats, wind, and snow. rats, wind, and snow.

Forest Cover Statistics for 2000

Total Forest Area (‘000 ha) 6,448

Forest Cover (% of land) 28.0

Plantations (‘000 ha) 91

Tropical Forest Cover (% of land)

0%

Tropical Forest Cover ('000 ha) -

Subtropical Forest Cover (% of land)

0%

Subtropical Forest Cover ('000 ha)

-

Temperate Forest Cover (% of land)

100%

Temperate Forest Cover ('000 ha) 6,448

Boreal/polar (% of land) 0%

Boreal/polar ('000 ha) -

SolutionsSolutions

A step forward would be the raise of A step forward would be the raise of punishments towards this illegal act, of punishments towards this illegal act, of stealing from the retrocedated woods(after stealing from the retrocedated woods(after the fall of communism many forest areas were the fall of communism many forest areas were given back to people, but they do not have given back to people, but they do not have the right to cut wood from it until, of the right to cut wood from it until, of course, it reaches the cutting age). course, it reaches the cutting age).

The fine for stealing a cubic meter of The fine for stealing a cubic meter of wood is less than the amount obtained by wood is less than the amount obtained by selling the stolen cubic meter!!!. Because selling the stolen cubic meter!!!. Because of this, 6672 m3 of wood were subtracted out of this, 6672 m3 of wood were subtracted out of the forests illegally in Maramures in of the forests illegally in Maramures in 2005.2005.

Another solution is the change of Another solution is the change of mentality. mentality.

There have been some actions organized There have been some actions organized during “The Forest Month”. Their goal was to during “The Forest Month”. Their goal was to make people more sensitive towards the care make people more sensitive towards the care for forests and so keeping the integrity of for forests and so keeping the integrity of the forest fund. the forest fund.

The Media should inform people about the The Media should inform people about the beneficial effects that forests have on the beneficial effects that forests have on the environment. environment.

Or brochures could be typed and Or brochures could be typed and distributed in schools, on the theme “It’s distributed in schools, on the theme “It’s your right to live in a healthy environment”.your right to live in a healthy environment”.

In In schools, there should be some training schools, there should be some training involving teachers who want to find out more involving teachers who want to find out more and help the forests by sustaining several and help the forests by sustaining several extra classes so that children can learn about extra classes so that children can learn about the disastrous effects that deforestation has.the disastrous effects that deforestation has.

We have initiated in our school an We have initiated in our school an association of volunteers that cooperate with association of volunteers that cooperate with the local authorities and help with the the local authorities and help with the afforestation of the most affected areas. The afforestation of the most affected areas. The new volunteers will have to attend a course in new volunteers will have to attend a course in which they will learn the causes and effects which they will learn the causes and effects of deforestation.of deforestation.

Furthermore, the legislation is often Furthermore, the legislation is often violated in our area. A solution could be the violated in our area. A solution could be the institution of a special department in the institution of a special department in the police, that could track down the illegal police, that could track down the illegal groups that deal with stolen wood and raise groups that deal with stolen wood and raise the security in the areas where wood is stolen the security in the areas where wood is stolen from.from.

We rest our case. We hope We rest our case. We hope the information provided by us the information provided by us will be of use to the project.will be of use to the project.

Maria JankyMaria Janky

Alexandra AgapiAlexandra Agapi

Oana MariscaOana Marisca

Laura MartonLaura Marton

Mihai TruicaMihai Truica

Flavia PetrusFlavia Petrus

Antoniu BarabasAntoniu Barabas

Robert KasaRobert Kasa