Deliverable nº: D2 - OPTIRAIL · FOR MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGIES Page 1 Document History Vers. Issue Date Content and changes Author 0 18/03/2013 First final version Økland

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO AND

FRAMEWORKS FOR MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION

METHODOLOGIES

Deliverable nº: D2.1

EC‐GA Number: 314031Project full title: Development of a Smart

Framework Based on Knowledge to Support Infrastructure Maintenance Decisions in Railway Corridors

Work Package: WP2

Type of document: Deliverable

Date: 19/03/2013

Transport; Grant Agreement No 314031

Partners: SINTEF (NO), LTU (SE), VIAS (ES) & ADIF (ES)

Responsible: SINTEF (NO)

Title:

D2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF

DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO AND

FRAMEWORKS FOR MAINTENANCE

OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGIES

Version: 1 Page: 0 / 61

Deliverable D2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO AND FRAMEWORKS FOR MAINTENANCE

OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGIES

DUE DELIVERY DATE: M4 ACTUAL DELIVERY DATE: M6

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO AND FRAMEWORKS FOR MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGIES Page 1

Document History Vers. Issue Date Content and changes Author

0 18/03/2013 First final version Økland et al.

Document Authors

Partners Contributors

SINTEF Technology & Society Andreas Økland, Andreas Seim, Jørn Vatn, Stian Bruaset,

Hanne Marie Gabriel, Siri Bø Halvorsen, Anandasivakumar

Ekambaram

SINTEF Energy Research Thomas Welte, Luis Aleixo, Maria Catrinu‐Renström, Iver

Bakken Sperstad, Arne Petter Brede, Jan Tore Benjaminsen

Luleå University of Technology

(LTU)

Diego Galar, Roberto Villarejo, Carl Anders Johansson, Behzad

Ghodrati

Dissemination level: PU (Public)

Document Approvers Partners Approvers

SINTEF Technology & Society Arnt Gunnar Lium (chapters 1‐5 and case studies 1, 2 and 3)

VIAS Manuel Menéndez

LTU Diego Galar

ADIF Miguel Rodríguez

CARTIF Gregorio Sainz

OSTFALIA Martin Krone

EVOLEO Pedro Ribeiro


Executive Summary

Maintenance optimization for railway infrastructure needs to account for regulatory issues as

well as a multitude of operational and economic aspects. In transport corridors crossing

national borders, requirements may differ which makes holistic maintenance management

even more challenging. The intention of this deliverable is to ensure that new methodologies

and tools to be developed in OPTIRAIL encompass best practices from other sectors and

industries tailored and adapted to the particular challenges in railway infrastructure.

Practices in maintenance management, ranging from the overall strategy to the actual execution and

documentation of maintenance activities, have been studied in four industries with high‐criticality,

distributed infrastructure. The four case studies are: Electricity Networks (1), Natural Gas Transport

Infrastructure (2), Infrastructure for Water Distribution (3) and Aerospace (4). This report presents

the findings from the studies.

The case studies have been executed in parallel and with a mix of methodologies. State‐of‐the‐art in

the four industries is based on a literature review and communication with maintenance experts

within the respective domains. This is supplemented by a study of actual practices in companies from

each respective industry. Data on actual practices have been obtained through interviews with

maintenance personnel from the companies.

There are many aspects of maintenance that can be the subject of optimization, including decisions

regarding maintenance intervals, balance of corrective and preventive maintenance, grouping of

maintenance activities, and the timing of maintenance and renewal. Academic literature presents a

range of methods for optimization and decision support for maintenance of critical infrastructure,

but so far, these have rarely been adopted by the studied industries.

An assessment matrix has been developed to summarize the findings from the four cases. It presents

a total of 25 common elements related to maintenance identified over the cause of the case studies.

Tools and methods from the studied industries are presented in the assessment matrix to provide

further inspiration for methods to be adopted and applied to railway infrastructure maintenance.

Each identified element has been allocated to one of five themes; Coordination and Information (1),


RCM – Maintenance Strategy (2), Data (3), Analysis and Methods (4) and Decision support (5). An

initial ranking of the importance of each element has been proposed. The matrix is intended to be

continuously updated throughout the project based on input from the infrastructure administrators

involved in Optirail.

The four industries in the case studies operate under different frameworks regarding rules and

regulations, ownership and responsibility. The purposes of the infrastructure being maintained share

certain common characteristics; a commodity is transported by the infrastructure (albeit with a slight

variation in the aerospace case study). Although the actors in each industry share certain additional

internal features, huge differences within the industries are present. The main factor introducing the

differences is the organization in the sector and the size of the actors. Generally, larger actors in each

industry tend to be closer to the leading edge in maintenance management. This involves the

development of degradation models based on condition monitoring‐data, and the ranking of

alternative maintenance and renewal projects.

The actors in each industry have adapted to the objectives regarded as most important in their case.

The assessment matrix illustrate that although the relative importance of various objectives related

to maintenance differ between the industries, certain objectives are common in all four studied

industries. Among these are costs incurred by investment, personnel and down‐time, and benefits in

the form of increased safety or risk levels (reduced probability of unwanted incident and/or reduced

effect of incidents) and effects on safety of supply. Effects on the environment may be positive or

negative, depending on the projected.

The case partners have adapted to the objectives regarded as most important in their case. For the

objectives with high importance for rail industry actors, methods from industries where the objective

is efficiently dealt with should be adapted to rail industry and incorporated in the Optirail tool(s). The

direct transferability of tools and methods is most relevant from the gas industry. The organization of

the sector share common features with the rail sector, as does the purpose and topology of the

infrastructure. In the sector, cross‐border and cross‐organizational coordination of maintenance

activities are successfully managed by the infrastructure operator. Maintenance must be planned

well in advance (the year prior to execution) in order to be categorized as "planned", and the various

actors in the gas value chain synchronize their maintenance plans in order to keep system down‐time


to the minimum. The sector also deals efficiently with opportunistic (shadow) maintenance, e.g.

event driven maintenance where preventive maintenance is carried out at opportunity.

Reliability‐Based Maintenance is adopted in various degrees in all four industries. With the exception

of gas (where RCM is integrated in the industry standards), it is mainly the larger companies that

have integrated RCM in their maintenance management. A general trend in all four case studies is

however an increase in the amount of data made available to contribute to efficient maintenance

management. The increase is the result of new technologies resulting in more detailed data on the

condition of the infrastructure, as well as better routines in registering and storing data. The

representatives interviewed in the case studies share the understanding of the potential for more

effective and efficient maintenance based on use of the available data. There still exists, however, a

high degree of manual input and subjective reasoning on the state of the infrastructure and the

prioritization of maintenance and renewal activities.


TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................... 6

1.1 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 DESCRIPTION OF TASK 2.1 AND TASK 2.2 ............................................................................................... 7 1.3 STRUCTURE OF REPORT ................................................................................................................................ 7

2. MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION THEORY ..................................................................................................... 8 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION .................................................................................... 8

2.1.1 THE BATH TUB CURVE AND THE FAILURE/HAZARD RATE ...................................................................................... 8 2.1.2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND RCM ............................................................................................................... 10 2.1.3 RENEWAL AND LIFE CYCLE COST .......................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.4 RELIABILITY MODELLING ...................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.5 BASIC MAINTENANCE MODELS ............................................................................................................................ 11

2.2 RELIABILITY CENTRED MAINTENANCE ........................................................................................................ 13 2.2.1 CRITICAL ITEM SELECTION ................................................................................................................................... 15 2.2.2 FAILURE MODE, EFFECT AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS (FMECA) ............................................................................ 15 2.2.3 SCREENING OF MSI FAILURE MODES ................................................................................................................... 17 2.2.4 MAINTENANCE TASK ASSIGNMENT ..................................................................................................................... 17 2.2.5 INTERVAL OPTIMIZATION .................................................................................................................................... 19 2.2.6 GROUPING OF MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES ........................................................................................................... 19

2.3 OPTIMISATION OF RENEWAL ..................................................................................................................... 19 2.3.1 LCC CALCULATION CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................................................................. 20

2.4 INTERVAL OPTIMIZATION ........................................................................................................................... 22 2.4.1 THE FOUR BASIC SITUATIONS RELATED TO PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ........................................................... 22 2.4.2 COST EQUATION FOR OPTIMIZATION .................................................................................................................. 24

2.5 GROUPING OF MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES ................................................................................................. 26 2.5.1 DIRECT STATIC GROUPING ................................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.2 INDIRECT STATIC GROUPING ............................................................................................................................... 27 2.5.3 DYNAMIC GROUPING ........................................................................................................................................... 28

2.6 SPARE PART OPTIMIZATION ....................................................................................................................... 30 2.7 RAMS DATA ................................................................................................................................................ 31 2.8 RULE BASED VS RISK BASED MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................. 31

3. METHODS ................................................................................................................................................ 33 4. RESULTS .................................................................................................................................................. 35

4.1 SUMMARY OF CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................................................... 35 4.1.1 CASE STUDY 1: ELECTRICITY NETWORKS .............................................................................................................. 35 4.1.2 CASE STUDY 2: GASS TRANSPORT ........................................................................................................................ 38 4.1.3 CASE STUDY 3: WATER INFRASTRUCTURE ........................................................................................................... 40 4.1.4 CASE STUDY 4: AIRPORT MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................................. 42

4.2 ASSESSMENT MATRIX ................................................................................................................................. 44 4.2.1 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO COORDINATION AND INFORMATIONS SHARING .............. 44 4.2.2 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO RCM AND MAINTENENANCE STRATEGY ........................... 47 4.2.3 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DATA ................................................................................. 49 4.2.4 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO ANALYSIS AND METHODS ................................................. 51 4.2.5 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DECICION SUPPORT ........................................................... 54

5. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 57 6. LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................ 59


1. INTRODUCTION

Maintenance optimization for railway infrastructure needs to account for regulatory issues as

well as a multitude of operational and economic aspects. In transport corridors crossing

national borders, requirements may differ which makes holistic maintenance management

even more challenging.

The intention of this deliverable is to ensure that new methodologies and tools to be

developed in OPTIRAIL encompass best practices from other sectors and industries tailored

and adapted to the particular challenges in railway infrastructure.

This deliverable, D2.1, addresses the characteristics of different approaches and frameworks

for maintenance optimization methodologies and provides an assessment matrix to

summarize their applicability to railway corridor infrastructure.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

The main objectives of WP 2 (Analysis of the transferability of tools) are:

Describe frameworks and methodologies for maintenance optimization used in other

sectors/industries with comparable infrastructures.

Assess applicability of these methods for maintenance optimization for old railway

infrastructure and, specifically, in railway freight corridors.

Synthesize and adapt methods for use in maintenance optimization for railway

infrastructure.

Reformulation and improvement of these approaches based on fuzzy logic for

subsequent computer based implementation.

This deliverable D2.1 deals with the first and second objective of WP2, presenting the results

from Task 2.1 and Task 2.2 in the OPTIRAIL project.


1.2 DESCRIPTION OF TASK 2.1 AND TASK 2.2

Task 2.1 focuses on characterizing the main elements of multi‐objective maintenance

frameworks and methodologies four separate case studies:

Case 1: Electricity distribution case study.

Case 2: Natural Gas subsea transportation system case study.

Case 3: Water distribution infrastructure case study.

Case 4: Aerospace infrastructure case study.

Task 2.2 deals with the applicability of the elements of the methodologies characterized in

Task 2.1. Task 2.2 is summarized in a matrix. A number of maintenance issues are listed for

five different topics: Coordination and information, RCM – Maintenance Strategy, Data,

Analysis and methods, and Decision support. Relevant practices from each case study are

described for each issue. The matrix is designed so that e.g. railway administrators may score

the importance of 1) the different maintenance issues and 2) the particular practices from the

case studies. As such, the matrix can be used for prioritizing in the development work in

OPTIRAIL. Finally, the assessment matrix is intended to be updated and continuously evolving

throughout the project period.

1.3 STRUCTURE OF REPORT

The main section of this report consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: General maintenance optimization theory – this forms a theoretical background for

the case studies.

Chapter 3: Methods – detailing the methods of the case studies as well as that of developing the

assessment matrix

Chapter 4: Results – consisting of 1) a synthesis of the case studies and 2) the assessment matrix

Chapter 5: Conclusion – summarizing D2.1

Each cases study report is included as an attachment.


2. MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION THEORY

This chapter discusses first important aspects of maintenance optimization in general. This involves

interval optimization of component maintenance, optimum time for renewal of systems, spare part

optimization and other aspects of maintenance optimization.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION

With maintenance we understand “the combination of all technical and administrative actions,

including supervision actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore to, a state in which it can

perform a required function”. With maintenance optimization we understand “balancing the cost

and benefit of maintenance”. There are many aspects of maintenance optimization, and some of

these are:

Deciding the amount of preventive maintenance (i.e. choosing maintenance intervals).

Deciding whether to do first line maintenance (on the cite), or depot maintenance.

Choosing the right number of spare parts in stock.

Preparedness with respect to corrective maintenance.

Time of renewal.

Grouping of maintenance activities.

2.1.1 THE BATH TUB CURVE AND THE FAILURE/HAZARD RATE

Most methods and approaches to maintenance analysis involve the concept of hazard rate. Very

often the hazard rate shows a bath tub like behaviour as illustrated in Figure 1. The hazard rate

defines the probability that an item will fail in a small time interval from time t to t + Δt given that

the item has survived up to time t.


FIGURE 1: BATH TUB OR HAZARD RATE FUNCTION

In Figure 1 we have used the word “local time” to emphasize the fact that time is relative to the last

failure (or maintenance point), rather than to the global system time. The bath tub curve indicates

that the number of failures will be reduced if the component is replaced or maintained before we

run into the right part of the curve. There exists also another bath tub curve related to the global

system time as shown in FIGURE 2 where we also have illustrated the local bath tub curves.

Local time

Failu

re in

tensit

y/Pe

rform

ance

loss

Local time Local time

Global (system) time

1

23

4

FIGURE 2: GLOBAL SYSTEM TIME

As an example, consider a signalling system with lights, logic’s, relays etc. The local time (time

horizon 1 to 5 years) applies to the light bulbs, the relays etc., whereas the global time (time horizon

30‐60 years) applies when the entire signalling system is considered. Note further that on the y‐axis

the dimension is failure intensity, or performance loss. This reflects that the important issue now is

the number of failures per unit time, or generally loss of performance, independent of what has

happened up to time t.

In FIGURE 2 we have also identified the numbers , , , and , where the following maintenance

situations apply:


Component maintenance, related to the explicit failure modes of a component. FMEA1 and

RCM2 analysis is relevant. A typical question is “when should we on a preventive basis replace

light bulbs in the signalling system?”

Life extension maintenance. The idea here is to carry out maintenance that prolongs the life

length of the system. A typical example is “rail grinding to extend the life length of rails”.

Maintenance carried out in order to improve performance, but not renewal. A typical example

is “adding ballast to pumping sections to improve track quality and reduce the need for track

adjustment”.

Complete renewal of major components or systems.

2.1.2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND RCM

With preventive maintenance (PM) we understand “the maintenance carried out at predetermined

intervals or according to prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the probability of failure or the

degradation of the functioning of an item” (EN 13306). There exist several approaches to determine

a preventive maintenance program. A concept that is becoming more and more popular is the

concept of Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM). RCM is “a systematic consideration of system

functions, the way functions can fail, and a priority–based consideration of safety and economics

that identifies applicable and effective PM tasks”.

An RCM analysis is usually conducted as a pure qualitative analysis with focus on identifying

appropriate maintenance tasks. However, the RCM methodology does not usually give support for

quantitative assessment in terms of e.g. interval optimization. RCM is further discussed in Chapter 2,

and interval optimization is presented in Chapter 4.

The strength of RCM is its systematic approach to consider all system functions, and set up

appropriate maintenance task for these functions. On the other hand, RCM is not a methodology

that could be used to define a renewal strategy (see in Figure 2). To determine optimal renewal

strategies we will in this course work with Life Cycle Cost modelling (LCC).

1 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis 2 Reliability Centred Maintenance


2.1.3 RENEWAL AND LIFE CYCLE COST

When the system deteriorates to a certain level, traditional preventive maintenance activities could

not bring the system to a satisfactory state, and renewal of the entire system, or part of the system is

required. However, the cost of renewal is often very large, and we need formalised methods to

determine when to perform renewal. In this course we will present methods for optimum renewal

strategies based on LCC modelling. The following dimensions are included in the LCC model: i) safety

costs, ii) punctuality costs, iii) maintenance & operational costs, iv) cost due to increased residual life

length, and v) project costs. The LCC models apply to , , and in Figure 2. Optimization of

renewal strategies are discussed in Chapter 3.

2.1.4 RELIABILITY MODELLING

Formalized maintenance optimization models rely on system reliability models. These are models

that express the system (reliability) performance as a function of component performance. Further

the component performance is expressed in terms of component reliability models. Some basic

models are:

Reliability block diagram (RBD) and structure functions.

Fault tree analysis (FTA).

Event tree analysis (ETA).

Markov analysis.

Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA/FMECA).

2.1.5 BASIC MAINTENANCE MODELS

Within maintenance optimization literature it is common to present some basic models such as the

Age Replacement Policy (ARP) model, the Block Replacement Model (BRP) and the Minimal Repair

Policy (MRP). Such models were introduced by Barlow and Hunter (1960) and have later been

generalized in several ways, see e.g. Block et. al. 1988, Aven and Bergman (1986), and Dekker (1992).

There exists also several major (review) articles in this area, e.g. Pierskalla and Voelker (1979), Valdez

Flores and Feldman (1989), Cho and Parlar (1991) and Wang (2002).


In this presentation we will not discuss these standard models in detail. Our approach aims at

establishing what we denote the “effective failure rate”. This effective failure rate is the failure rate

we would experience if we (preventive) maintain a component at a given level, and mathematically

we let λ = λ(τ), where λ is the effective failure rate, and τ is the maintenance interval. Now there is

two challenges, first we want to establish the relation λ = λ(τ) depending on the (component) failure

model we are working with, then next, we need to specify a cost model to optimize. The cost model

will generally involve system models as fault tree analysis, Markov analysis etc. This enables us to

find the optimum maintenance intervals in a two‐step procedure. Note also that when we use λ =

λ(τ) in the system models we then assume a “constant failure rate” which of course is an

approximation for ageing components. However, if the component is maintained, such an

approximation could be reasonable.

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE

Consider a component for which the effective failure rate is given by λ = λE (τ) = τ /100, where τ is

the maintenance interval. Assume that the cost of a component failure is CCM = 10 (corrective

maintenance cost including loss of production during the repair period). Further let CPM = 1 is the cost

per preventive maintenance action carried out at intervals of length τ. The total cost per unit time is

then given by:

C(τ) = CPM / τ + λE (τ) × CCM = 1 / τ + τ /10 (1)

The interval that mimeses the cost could easily

be found by differentiation, but we could also

graphically plot the cost as a function of the

maintenance interval (τ). The result is shown in

Figure 3, and we see that the optimum

maintenance interval is τ = 3. Very often such a

graphical method is sufficient.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

PM-CostCM-Cost

Total

FIGURE 3: OPTIMISING MAINTENANCE INTERVAL

The model in equation (1) is reasonable when a simple figure could be established for the preventive

maintenance cost, and one simple figure for the corrective cost. In practice, the cost of a failure is


more than the corrective maintenance cost. We need to take production losses, punctuality costs,

safety costs etc. into account, and the format of the cost function will be something like:

C(τ) = CPM / τ + λE (τ) × [CCM + production loss + safety cost + material damage + …] (2)

where the situation becomes more challenging since these additional cost categories requires a

much broader understanding of the system configuration in terms of redundancy, buffers and so on.

2.2 RELIABILITY CENTRED MAINTENANCE

Reliability centred maintenance (RCM) is a method for maintenance planning developed within the

aircraft industry and later adapted to several other industries and military branches. A major

advantage of the RCM methodology is a structured, and traceable approach to determine type of

preventive maintenance. This is achieved through an explicit consideration of failure modes and

failure causes. A major challenge in an RCM analysis is to limit the scope of the analysis so that it is

possible to carry out the analysis within the limits of time and budget. Most implementations of RCM

put main focus on the identification of maintenance tasks, but do not carry out explicit optimization

of maintenance intervals. Although RCM cannot be claimed to be an approach for maintenance

optimization, it may form the basis for maintenance optimization. The core of an RCM analysis is the

qualitative structuring of systems, functions and components, and this structuring terminates by the

FMECA analysis and the maintenance task assignment. Typical steps of an RCM analysis is shown in

Figure 4.


Preparations and Data Collection

Functional Analysis

FMECA

System Definition and Breakdown

LowCriticality

MediumCriticality

HighCriticality

Grouping of maintenance tasks

MaintenanceTask

Assignment

No further analysis

Interval optimization

Implementation

FIGURE 4: STEPS OF AN RCM ANALYSIS

In the following we describe some of these steps.

FUNCTIONAL FAILURE ANALYSIS (FFA)

The objectives of the FFA are:

to identify and describe the systems’ required functions,

to describe input interfaces required for the system to operate, and

to identify the ways in which the system might fail to function.


2.2.1 CRITICAL ITEM SELECTION

The objective of this step is to identify the analysis items that are potentially critical with respect to

functional failures identified in the FFA. These analysis items are denoted functional significant items

(FSI). Note that some of the less critical functional failures have been disregarded at this stage of the

analysis. Further, the two failure modes “total loss of function” and “partial loss of function” will

often be affected by the same items (FSIs).

For simple systems the FSIs may be identified without any formal analysis. In many cases it is obvious

which analysis items that have influence on the system functions.

For complex systems with an ample degree of redundancy or with buffers, we may need a formal

approach to identify the functional significant items.

The main reason for performing this task is to screen out items that are more or less irrelevant for

the main system functions, i.e. in order not to waste time and money analysing irrelevant items.

In addition to the FSIs, we should also identify items with high failure rate, high repair costs, low

maintainability, long lead time for spare parts, or items requiring external maintenance personnel.

These analysis items are denoted maintenance cost significant items (MCSI).

The sum of the functional significant items and the maintenance cost significant items are denoted

maintenance significant items (MSI).

In the FMECA, each of the MSIs will be analysed to identify their possible impact upon failure on the

four consequence classes: (S) safety of personnel, (E) environmental impact, (A) production

availability, and (C) economic losses.

2.2.2 FAILURE MODE, EFFECT AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS (FMECA)

The objective of this step is to identify the dominant failure modes of the MSI identified during the

FFA. In addition to rank the components with respect to their criticality, also basic information will be

revealed during the FMECA which later is used when maintenance intervals are to be optimized. In


the following we list, and discuss the main fields to be documented in the FMECA. In the discussion

we use the term “item”, whereas the more precise description is maintenance significant item (MSI).

During the FMECA exercise, reliability data is required.

A structuring of the FMECA in terms of predefined failure causes, failure types/characteristics etc.

will often speed up the process, and will also make the assignment of maintenance tasks more

intuitive. Table 1 shows typical failure characteristics to be assigned during the FMECA.

TABLE 1: FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS

Code Description Failure characteristic

OGF Observable, gradual failure progression. It

is possible to detect the failure prior to

failure.

TimeTcrit

Failure

Tmaint

Critical failure progression

Maintenance limit

OFF Observable fast failure progression. The

Point P is the first point in time where it is

possible to reveal an emerging failure.

When the failure progression exceeds a

limiting value, a failure (F) occurs. This

model is often referred to as the PF‐model.

Failu

re p

rogr

essi

on

Time

FailureCritical failure progression

F

PPF-

interval

ADT Aging, defined point of time for an

increasing hazard rate, z(t).

In the Weibull model, we assume an aging

parameter (α) in the order 3 to 4,

AUT Aging, undefined point of time for

increasing hazard rate.

In the Weibull model, we assume an aging

parameter (α) in the order 2.


Code Description Failure characteristic

RF The hazard rate is time independent

(random failures, aging parameter 1). This

is typical for components where a failure is

caused by external shocks, e.g., for some

electrical components.

2.2.3 SCREENING OF MSI FAILURE MODES

Based on the criticality assignment in the FMCA, each failure mode of each maintenance significant

item is grouped into three levels of criticality:

Low criticality

Medium criticality

High criticality

Failure modes of high and medium criticality are undertaken a formal assignment of maintenance

tasks described in Section 2.2.4. Tasks of low criticality are either deliberately assigned a run to

failure strategy, or assigned maintenance tasks as described by the manufacturer.

2.2.4 MAINTENANCE TASK ASSIGNMENT

This phase is the most novel compared to other maintenance planning techniques. A decision logic is

used to guide the analyst through a question–and–answer process. The input to the RCM decision

logic is the dominant failure modes from the FMECA. The main idea is for each dominant failure

mode to decide whether a preventive maintenance task is suitable, or it will be best to let the item

deliberately run to failure and afterwards carry out a corrective maintenance task. There are

generally three reasons for doing a preventive maintenance task:

to prevent a failure

to detect the onset of a failure

to discover a hidden failure

Only the dominant failure modes are subjected to preventive maintenance. To obtain appropriate

maintenance tasks, the failure causes or failure mechanisms should be considered. The idea of


performing a maintenance task is to prevent a failure mechanism to cause a failure. Hence, the

failure mechanisms behind each of the dominant failure modes should be entered into the RCM

decision logic to decide which of, or combination of, the following basic maintenance tasks that is

(are) applicable:

Continuous on–condition task (CCT)

Scheduled on–condition task (SCT)

Scheduled overhaul (SOH)

Scheduled replacement (SRP)

Scheduled function test (SFT)

Run to failure (RTF)

The RCM decision logic is used to structure the process of identifying relevant maintenance tasks.

The logic is shown in Figure 5, where tasks with a dashed line represent combined tasks.

Does a failure alertingmeasurable indicator

exist?

Is ageing parameter>1?

Is the functionhidden?

Is overhaulfeasible?

Scheduled overhaul(SOH)

Scheduled replacement(SRP)

Scheduled functiontest (SFT)

No

Yes

No

No PM activityfound (RTF)

Yes Is continiousmonitoring feasible?

Scheduled on‐conditiontask (SCT)

Continious on‐conditiontask (CCT)

Does a failure alertingmeasurable indicator exist?

No

Yes Is continiousmonitoringfeasible?

Yes

No

Continious on‐conditiontask (CCT)

Is ageing parameter>1?

Is overhaulfeasible?

Scheduled functiontest (SFT) & Scheduled overhaul

(SOH)

Scheduled functiontest (SFT) & Scheduled replacement

(SRP)

Yes

Yes

No

No

Scheduled functiontest (SFT) & Scheduled on‐

condition task (SCT)

Yes

Increasing rate of «potential» failures?

NoScheduled on‐condition task

(SCT) & Scheduled replacement task (SRP)

No

Yes

No

Yes

FIGURE 5: MAINTENANCE TASK ASSIGNMENT BY USE OF THE RCM DECISION LOGIC


2.2.5 INTERVAL OPTIMIZATION

For each task, or combination of tasks in in Figure 5 it is required to determine the interval(s) of the

task(s). This step comprises the following steps:

Establishing appropriate model(s) for the failure characteristics involved, e.g., related to

characteristics in Table 1.

Establishing the system models required to establish the objective function to optimize. This

typically involves reliability models like fault tree, reliability block diagram etc.

Minimizing the cost with respect to the maintenance interval. This involves use of numerical

methods.

Interval optimization will be covered in Chapter 2.4.

2.2.6 GROUPING OF MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

Grouping of maintenance activities is often based on an idea to execute related tasks with similar

intervals at the same time to save so‐called setup cost. The setup cost is the cost that may be

“shared” between several activities if conducted simultaneously. In many situations no formal

methods are used to form the groups. However, since the optimum interval in the cost equation

depends on the cost of the preventive maintenance, the interval will be influenced by how much set‐

up cost could be saved. The simplest approach for formal grouping is the so‐called direct static

grouping (see Wildeman, 1996). Grouping will be discussed in chapter 2.5.

2.3 OPTIMISATION OF RENEWAL

In this approach the objective is to establish a sound basis for the optimisation of renewal. Since time

between renewals of a system often is in the order of magnitude of decades, it is required to

perform some kind of discounting of future costs. Different “headings” are used for such analysis,

e.g. LCC analysis, Cost/Benefit analysis and NPV (Net Present Value) analysis. In all these situations

the idea is to choose renewal activities in time and space such that costs are minimised in the long

run. The basic situation is that the systems are deteriorating as a function of time and operational

load. This is why the right part of the bath tube curve in FIGURE 2: GLOBAL SYSTEM TIME

is increasing. This deterioration could be transformed into cost functions, and when the costs

become very large it might be beneficial to maintenance or renew the infrastructure. In the following


we introduce the notation c(t) for the costs as a function of time. In c(t) we include in principal costs

related to i) production/punctuality loss, ii) accident costs, and iii) extra maintenance and operation

cost due to degradation. By a renewal (or execution of a major maintenance project) we typically

reset the function c(t), either to zero, or at least a level significantly below the current value. Thus,

the operating costs will be reduced in the future if we are willing to invest in a maintenance or

renewal project.

Cost

Time

c(t)

Renewal cost

Savings

T

c*(t)

FIGURE 6: COST SAVINGS

Figure 6 shows the savings in operational costs, c(t) ‐ c*(t), if we perform maintenance or renewal at

time T. In addition to the savings in operational costs, we will also often achieve savings due to an

increased “residual life time”.

2.3.1 LCC CALCULATION CONSIDERATIONS

To calculate the various LCC contributions we need to consider three different aspects:

Change in variable costs, c(t).

The effect of extending the life length.

The project costs.

CHANGE IN VARIABLE COSTS

The variable cost contribution from the dimension safety; punctuality and maintenance & operation

could be treated similarly from a methodical point of view. We now let c(t) denote the variable cost if

the project is not executed, and similarly c*(t) if the project is run. See Figure 6 for an illustration. The

LCC contribution from change of e.g., safety, could then be found by:


[ ] tN

trtctc −

=+×−=Δ ∑ )1()(*)(LCC

0S (3)

where r is the discounting factor, and N is the calculating period which might be infinite, or equal to

the number of years until termination of the activity. Similarly we obtain the change in production

loss/punctuality costs, ΔLCCP and the change in maintenance and operational costs, ΔLCCM&O.

THE EFFECT OF EXTENDING THE LIFE LENGTH.

To motivate for the calculation we show a principal sketch of the need for renewal both if or if not

the proposed project is executed.

Project cost

t = 0 (now)

Renewal cost without the project {RC(t)}

Renewal cost with the project {RC*(t)}

time

Residual lif

e time without project

Residual life time with project

FIGURE 7: RENEWALS IF AND IF NOT THE PROJECT IS EXECUTED

We now let:

{RC(t)} = Portfolio cost of renewals without the project

{RC*(t)} = Portfolio costs of renewals with the project

{T} = Set of renewal times without the project

{T*} = Set of renewal times with the project

The cost contribution related to increased residual life time could now be found by:

RLT{ } { *}

LCC RC( ) (1 ) RC*( ) (1 )t t

t T t T

t r t r− −

∈ ∈

Δ = × + − × +∑ ∑ (4)

THE PROJECT COSTS

The LCC contribution from the project cost, LCCI:, is the net present value of the project cost in the

project period.


TOTAL LCC CONTRIBUTION

The total gain in terms of life cycle costs could then be found by:

ΔLCC = LCCI + ΔLCCS + ΔLCCP + ΔLCCM&O + ΔLCCRLT (5)

And the cost benefit ratio is:

I

RLTMPSLCC

LCCLCCLCCLCCC/B

O& Δ+Δ+Δ+Δ=ρ (6)

Equation (5) may be used to minimize the point of time when it is optimal to execute the project. In

many situations the optimal time has passed due to lack of resources or possibilities for executing

the project. In such cases it might be more appropriate to calculate the cost benefit ratio and use this

ratio as a prioritization criterion for which projects to implement under budget constraints.

2.4 INTERVAL OPTIMIZATION

Within maintenance optimisation literature it is common to present some basic models such as the

Age Replacement Policy (ARP) model, the Block Replacement Model (BRP) and the Minimal Repair

Policy (MRP). Such models were introduced by Barlow and Hunter (1960) and have later been

generalised in several ways, see e.g. Block et. al. 1988, Aven and Bergman (1986), and Dekker (1992).

There exists also several major (review) articles in this area, e.g. Pierskalla and Voelker (1979), Valdez

Flores and Feldman (1989), Cho and Parlar (1991) and Wang (2002). The purpose of the following is

not to present a comprehensive list of models, but rather to present some basic ideas for calculating

the effective failure rate, and set up the cost equation in relation to the failure characteristics

presented in Table 1.

2.4.1 THE FOUR BASIC SITUATIONS RELATED TO PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

In OptiRCM there are basically four situations that are treated in the optimization process. These

situations are described in the following.


OBSERVABLE GRADUAL FAILURE PROGRESSION (OGF)

In this situation we assume that it is possible to observe failure progression prior to the final failure

of a component. Consider a pump that is designed to pump 800 litre per minute, and that the pump

system is provided with a flow meter. Further assume that it we required a pump capacity of

minimum 600 litre per minute to ensure full production. A failure is then defined as the point of time

where the capacity of the pump goes below 600 litre per minute. Since we have readings from the

flow meter, it is possible to continuous monitor the failure progression. The situation is illustrated in

the OGF‐row in Table 1.

To prevent unnecessary failures we would replace or overhaul the component at a specific

degradation level. For example when the pump capacity goes below 650 litre per minute we would

overhaul the pump. There are two principal questions related to maintenance in this situation:

What is a reasonable maintenance limit?

How often should we monitor or inspect the system in case of a scheduled on condition task

(SCT)?

The more often we inspect and the lower the maintenance limit is, the lower will the probability of

experience a failure be. However, many inspections and a low maintenance limit will imply a very

high maintenance cost. We will later develop methods for optimising maintenance in this situation.

The failure progression model indicated in the OGF‐row in Table 1 is applicable both for on‐line

(continuous) monitoring and off‐line monitoring (CCT& SCT).

OBSERVABLE “SUDDEN” FAILURE PROGRESSION (PF‐MODEL)

The situation now is similar to the situation in the previous section, but we now assume that the

system could operate for a very long time without any sign of a potential failure, but then at some

point of time a potential failure would be evident as illustrated the OFF‐row in Table 1. Here we have

indicated a “P” for potential failure, i.e., the time where a coming failure is observable. The time

interval from the failure is first observable, and till a failure occurs is very often denoted the PF

interval. We will in the following denote this situation for the “PF” situation because the PF interval

will be central in the understanding of effective maintenance strategies.


NON‐OBSERVABLE FAILURE PROGRESSION (AGING)

Assume we have a situation like those discussed above for observable failure progression, but that

we for some reason could not observe the failure progression. For example in the situation with the

pump we do not have a flow meter available, or consider an item with fatigue, but where we are not

able to monitor a crack due to no available equipment for ultrasonic inspection. Another situation is

wear inside a closed bearing. The situation is illustrated in Figure 8, where we have shown a dashed

line for the failure progression due to the fact that it is not observable.

FIGURE 8: NON‐OBSERVABLE FAILURE PROGRESSION

Since there is ageing phenomenon behind this failure situation, the distribution of the time to failure

will have an increasing failure rate function. An appropriate maintenance action in this situation

would be to replace the component periodically. However, since we are not able to observe failure

progression, the time elapsed since the previous maintenance is the only indicator of a coming

failure. This model corresponds to the ADT and AUT situations in Table 1.

SHOCK

The situation now is similar to the PF interval situation above, but now the PF interval is extremely

short, and there is no possible inspection methods that are able to reveal a potential failure in due

time. In this situation, the time to failure will be approximately exponentially distributed.

2.4.2 COST EQUATION FOR OPTIMIZATION

Above we have presented basic failure characteristics where it is possible to model the relation

between the maintenance effort (maintenance interval and intervention level) and the effective

failure rate and the renewal rate. In order to optimise the maintenance effort, we have to combine

the component performance measures and a system cost model. The system cost model includes


both a reliability model, and a cost model which is not further discussed here. The maintenance cost

is typically specified by:

CPM Cost per PM activity. A PM activity here is either overhauling, or replacing a component. The

cost figure should include all costs associated with the PM activity.

CI Cost per inspection, i.e. in relation to condition monitoring. If the maintenance limit is

reached, the cost of renewing the component should not be included in CI but specified as

the CPM for this component.

CCM Cost per CM action.

The cost per unit time is now given by:

(7)

where Pe is the conditional probability of a critical event e given component failure, E(Ce) is the

expected cost given that a critical event e occurs, and CE is the set of relevant critical events for the

actual failure mode. λE(τ,l) and rr(τ,l) are the effective failure rate and renewal rate respectively. In

equation (1) we have used τR to denote the maintenance interval in case of periodic overhaul or

replacement, whereas we have used τI to denote the maintenance interval in case of periodic

inspection. We have further used τ without any index in the expression for the effective failure rate,

and the renewal rate. Note that for a condition monitoring activity, τR will usually be infinite (no

scheduled replacement), and for a replacement activity, τI will be infinite.

To find the optimum maintenance interval we could then in principle calculate C(τ) from equation (1)

for various values of the maintenance interval, τ, and then chose the τ‐value that minimises C(τ).

Numerical methods are required.

Note that in the FMEA as part of the RCM procedure, we provide the most essential information to

use for the formal interval optimization. However the following additional information is required for

the optimization:

The cost figures of preventive maintenance, as indicated above

Additional parameters to describe aging models, i.e., PF‐intervals, aging parameter in the

Weibull distribution, and parameters to describe the Markov models.

A more refined value of the barrier probabilities, Pe


In case of identical redundant items, the voting between the items in terms of a KooN

specification

A common cause factor for dependent failures

Also note that HSE (health, safety and environment) consequences need to be converted economical

values. The conversion principle is to assign the same economic value of a HSE consequence as for

the operational regularity consequence.

2.5 GROUPING OF MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

Grouping of maintenance activities is often based on an idea to execute related tasks with similar

intervals at the same time to save so‐called setup cost. The setup cost is the cost that may be

“shared” between several activities if conducted simultaneously. In many situations no formal

methods are used to form the groups. However, since the optimum interval in cost equation (1)

depends on the cost of the preventive maintenance, the interval will be influenced by how much set‐

up cost could be saved. One of the most comprehensive presentations of grouping is the PhD thesis

by Wildeman (1996).

Grouping is often categorized into static and dynamic grouping. In static grouping the activities going

into one group are fixed and will not change during the time horizon considered. This makes this

method easy to implement because it fits into most computerized maintenance management

systems (CMSSs). A major challenge with static grouping is that it is not easy to change the plan and

the groups if the situation changes, e.g., some of the estimates failure rates are updated based on

new statistical evidence, the load on some components change, and/or situations occurs where we

get extra opportunities to conduct maintenance. In the following, we summarize some key feature of

the classical models. In this presentation we stick to a very simple failure model, i.e., represented by

a classical time based replacement model (ADT or AUT in Table 1). In the presentation the following

terms are introduced:

There are altogether n maintenance activities to be carried out

cPi = individual preventive maintenance (PM) cost of activity i (exclusive set‐up cost)

cUi = individual cost upon failure, i.e. corrective maintenance (CM) plus expected system failure

related costs


S = setup cost, i.e., the part of the PM cost that may be shared if two or more PM activities are

executed simultaneously

λE,i(x) = effective failure rate

2.5.1 DIRECT STATIC GROUPING

In a direct static grouping the maintenance activities are partitioned into m groups. Each group, say

Gj, is a subset of {1,2,..,n}. Further Gj ∩ Gk = Ø, and ∪j Gj = {1,2,..,n}. The activities in each group are

maintained at the same interval, say Tj. Given a partitioning, the total cost per unit time is given by:

C(T) = Σj=1:m {S/Tj + Σi∈ Gj [cPi /Tj + cUi λE,i(Tj )] } (8)

where T = [T1,T2,…,Tm]. Given the partitioning, Gj, j = 1,..,m, it is straight forward to minimize equation

(8). A proposed heuristic to find the overall minimum is:

Find individual maintenance interval τi, i.e., minimize C(τi) = (S+ cPi )/τi + cUi λE,i(τi)

Sort the intervals in increasing order, i.e., τ(1) < τ(2) < …

Look for clusters in the intervals, and let these forms groups G1, G2,…

Given this partitioning, Gj, j = 1,..,m, minimize equation (8). wrt T

GoTo 3 and vary the groups slightly to check if a better solution may be obtained

2.5.2 INDIRECT STATIC GROUPING

In indirect static grouping we assume that there is an occasion for preventive maintenance every T

time units. T is to be determined later on. Each activity is carried out every liT time unit, i.e., every li

maintenance occasion is utilized for activity i. The challenge now is to obtain T and li, i = 1,..,n that

minimizes total cost given by:

C(T,l) = S/T + Σi=1:n [cPi /(liT)+ cUi λE,i(liT )] (9)

The problem to minimize equation (9) is a mixed continuous‐integer programming problem which is

a very difficult problem to solve even with fast computers. A proposed heuristics is:

Choose an initial value of T that corresponds to the smallest individual maintenance interval τi,

i.e., minimizing C(τi) = (S+ cPi )/τi + cUi λE,i(τi)

Choose li ≈ τi /T


Keep li fixed and minimize equation (9) wrt to T

Vary li slightly and GoTo 3 to check if a better solution may be obtained

2.5.3 DYNAMIC GROUPING

In dynamic grouping the groups are not fixed. The idea is to establish the groups “on the fly” which

will enable us to update the strategy when new information becomes available, e.g., new failure rate

estimates. Further we may reschedule the plan if opportunities arise, e.g., upon a failure there will be

an opportunity for advancing the next planned preventive maintenance. Dynamic grouping also

enable us to take into account that the usage of a component is not fixed. The dynamic grouping is

more intractable from a modelling point of view, and also from an implementation point of view. But

if these problems may be overcome, the cost per unit time is usually lower than for static grouping.

The proposed heuristic goes as follows:

Step 0 ‐ Initialization

Step 1 ‐ Tentative plan

Step 2 ‐ Establish the candidate groups

Step 3 ‐ Optimize execution time for each candidate group, and choose the candidate group with

the lowest cost

Step 4 ‐ Proceed with the next group, and GoTo Step 1

STEP 0 ‐ INITIALIZATION

In the presentation we assume that there is a one to one match between components and activities.

We therefore use the term component maintenance where it would be more correct to use the term

‘activity’. Let Φi(x,k) = (S/k+ cPi )/x + cUi λE,i(x) be the expected cost per unit time associated with

component i when it is maintained together with k‐1 components, where x is the interval length. The

value of x that minimises Φi(x,k), say xi,k* is found for appropriate values of k. Use the most

“reasonable” value of k to obtain the overall average best interval for component i, and denote the

interval by xi*, and the corresponding average cost per unit time is denoted Φi*. Notational we use x

as local time since last maintenance.


STEP 1 ‐ TENTATIVE PLAN

We now use t to denote global time, e.g., calendar time. To make a tentative plan for the coming

maintenance we let ti denote the (global) point of time when component i was last maintained. We

may then find tentative due dates for all components, say ti*, according to the formula ti*= xi* + ti.

STEP 2 ‐ESTABLISH THE CANDIDATE GROUPS

When tentative due dates are found by ti*= xi* + ti, we may sort the ti*’s, say t(i)*. Let now Kk =

{(1),(2),…,(k)} be the set of the first k due activities. The procedure is now to find k that gives the

optimal first group of activities to be executed. As we add more activities to the 1st candidate group

we save set‐up cost. However, there are penalties of shifting each individual point of execution. At

some point these penalties exceeds the savings in set‐up cost. At this point we stop adding more

activities to the 1st candidate group. Note that we also have to stop searching for further candidate

groups if one activity tentatively is repeated twice within the range of the interval for the candidate

group.

STEP 3 ‐OPTIMIZE EXECUTION TIME

For a given candidate group, Kk we find the next execution time, t*, by minimizing the following cost

elements:

Set‐up cost

Component specific preventive maintenance cost

Deterioration cost from now to t

Average maintenance and deterioration cost from t to T = planning horizon

Now, let Mi(x) = cUi λE,i(x) x be the deterioration cost in the period [0,x]. Then we may derive the total

average cost associated with all activities if we execute activities in Kk at time t, and subsequent

activities at their “average optimum” time by:

(10)


which is minimized by numerical methods with respect to t. The optimal solution is denoted t* and

correspondingly we let ck* be the minimum value. The first candidate group is now found by the k‐

value having the lowest ck*‐value.

STEP 4 ‐ PROCEED WITH THE NEXT GROUP

We now update the clock by we now set the clock: t* → t0, and proceed with to Step 2 until the time

horizon T is reached. Note that we at a given point of time when actually following such a grouping

regime can determine how many subsequent groups to form. We always need to plan the next

group. However the reasons to plan more than one group a head is to see the need for resources.

Since new information might become available, future groups are always subjected to possible

changes.

2.6 SPARE PART OPTIMIZATION

Spare part optimization is challenging from a modelling point of view because we need to base our

models on queue theory, which usually becomes so complex that Monte Carlo simulation methods

are required. In some situations we may derive simple analytical results. First recognize that the cost

equation (1) does not explicitly address spare part issues. The starting point for analysing the impact

of spare parts is to link spare part strategies to the downtimes, i.e., MTTR. A very simple model now

comprises the following steps:

Assess the value of MTTR for two situations, MTTRS equal the MTTR if a spare is available upon a

failure, and MTTRS* if no spare part is available

Identify the relation between the MTTR and E(Ce) in equation (1) for relevant critical events

(typically production related events)

For each level of spare parts considered, SL, calculate the probability that a spare part is

available upon a component failure. If we don’t plan for spare parts, this probability equal 0, but

will increase with the number of spare parts in the stock.

Find the yearly capital cost associated for each level, SL, and then calculate the cost per unit

time, CSL

In the cost equation (1), optimize the maintenance interval for each value of SL, and compare

the minimum value of equation (1) plus CSL in order to find the spare part level that minimizes

the overall cost.


The approach is rather simple compared to those given in the literature where queue theory is

applied to model so‐called backorders explicit. Also note that a complicating factor will be to treat

that there might be different stocks, for example one central stock, one stock at maintenance depot

A, and another stock at maintenance depot B.

2.7 RAMS DATA

Collection and analysis of reliability data is an important element of maintenance management and

continuous improvement. There are several aspects of utilizing experience data and we will in the

following focus on:

Learning from experience. That is, when a problem occurs, the failure and maintenance

databases can be searched for events which are similar to the current problem. If the database is

properly updated, we might then find information about solutions that proved to be efficient,

and also solutions that did not proved to be efficient in the past.

Identification of common problems. By producing “Top ten”‐lists (visualised by Pareto diagrams)

the database can be used to identify common problems. For example which component

contribute most to the total downtime (cost drivers), what are the dominate failure causes etc.

“Top‐ten” lists are used as a basis for deciding where to spend resources for improvements.

A basis for estimation of reliability parameters. Important parameters to use in RAMS analyses

are the Mean Time To Failure (MTTF), ageing parameters, P‐F intervals and repair times.

With respect to maintenance optimization the main use of data will be the basis for parameter

estimation. The standard approach to parameter estimation is the application of the maximum

likelihood principle (MLE). In many situation there is a limit amount of data available, and the use of

Bayesian methods is recommended where both systematic use of expert statements in combination

with use of statistical data is used to assess the reliability parameters of interest.

2.8 RULE BASED VS RISK BASED MAINTENANCE

The main idea behind maintenance optimization is to balance cost of executing maintenance with

the benefit achieved by the maintenance. Due to the random nature of the problem at hand, we


denote maintenance optimization methods as risk based methods. Historically the maintenance

effort has not been decided by formal optimization methods, but based on experience or judgement

by engineers. Often such non formal approaches to determine the maintenance have been

implemented as a rule based regime, where interval of tasks, and maintenance intervention limits

have been stated as either company internal rules, or even rules stated in national laws and

regulations.

If a rule based regime for maintenance is followed, the rules tend to be “ideal rules” assuming that

sufficient resources for maintenance are available. This is generally a big challenge, since in reality

there are limitations in resources for maintenance, and then the rules are not suitable for prioritizing

available resources.

The strength of risk based methods is their capabilities to also consider extra risk by exceeding

maintenance limits or maintenance intervals, thus giving stronger decision support in case where it is

impossible to follow the “optimal” strategy because it is possible to prioritize among maintenance

tasks.


3. METHODS

The case studies have been executed in parallel and with a mix of methodologies. State‐of‐

the‐art in the four industries is based on a literature review (including scientific journal

articles, industry journals, textbooks, regulations and current applicable standards) and

communication with maintenance experts within the respective domains.

This is supplemented by a study of actual practices in companies from each respective

industry. Data collection in these case companies was conducted by semi‐structured

interviews in cases 2, 3 and 4 (gas, water and aerospace). The interviews have been

conducted with the same interview guide as a basis (se appendix A5). A total of six interviews

have been conducted, two for each case study. The Interviewees received the interview guide

prior to the interviews taking place, to be given the opportunity to search for additional input

to questions not directly linked to their role in the organization. The interviewees were asked

if they would like to receive the case‐study reports for review and validation prior to

submission of the deliverable. The case‐study reports state in which cases the interviewees

reviewed the case‐study report.

No oral interviews were conducted in case 1: Electricity distribution, where the interviews

instead were carried out by e‐mail. Two actors (a distribution network and a transmission

network owner and operator) in the industry were involved in case 1. The questions and the

industry actors' answers are included in the case‐study report.

The assessment matrix was developed based on results from each of the four case studies.

First, we identified areas of particular interest from one or more case studies. These areas

were Coordination and information, RCM – Maintenance Strategy, Data, Analysis and

methods, and Decision support. We then identified a list of more specific issues within each

area where the case studies illustrated interesting practices. For each issue within each area,

we then described relevant practices documented in each of the case studies. The matrix was

designed so that e.g. railway administrators may score the importance of 1) the different

maintenance issues and 2) the particular practices from each case study. The resulting

assessment matrix has been revised by maintenance experts from the domains of the case


studies as well as maintenance experts with knowledge of railway infrastructure

maintenance. The matrix can be used as a tool in future work in OPTIRAIL, and is intended to

be updated throughout the project period.


4. RESULTS

4.1 SUMMARY OF CASE STUDIES

4.1.1 CASE STUDY 1: ELECTRICITY NETWORKS

Case study 1 describes frameworks and methodologies used in maintenance of electricity networks.

To provide an introduction to readers that are not familiar with the electricity network system, the

system – including its purposes, characteristics and properties – is described in the first two chapters

of the report (Appendix A1).

The purpose of an electricity network is to transport electric energy from the production units to the

end users. The energy should be transported with minimal losses. The end users should be supplied

with continuous power at all time with the required quantity and quality.

The electricity network can basically be divided into transmission and distribution networks: A

transmission network transports electricity over large distances and a distribution network

distributes the electricity further to the end users. This report covers both transmission and

distribution networks. Interconnection networks connecting the electricity networks of different

countries or regions can be viewed as part of the transmission network.

The electricity network system can be characterized by different aspects like voltage level, frequency,

component hierarchy and topology. Interconnection of electricity networks across borders makes the

system vulnerable to blackouts on international scales. This is one reason why cross‐border

coordination and cooperation on operation and maintenance is important. In Europe, network codes

are developed by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO‐E)

to facilitate such coordination.

The main objectives of maintenance of electricity networks are to ensure reliable, safe and secure

power supply in a cost‐effective manner. Since operation of electricity networks usually is strictly

regulated, rules and regulations play an important role in determining the overall thinking of the

system operation. The RCM (Reliability Centered Maintenance) framework is adapted to some


degree by larger companies, such as transmission system operators, but not by smaller companies,

such as most of the distribution system operators.

Technical‐economic analyses are often used to identify the most cost‐effective maintenance projects,

but detailed cost‐benefit analyses are made only by the larger system operators. In such analyses,

safety, health, environment and reputation are given high priority in addition to cost‐effectiveness. A

Cost of Energy Not Supplied (CENS) is introduced to quantify the end users’ costs of interruptions of

the electricity supply. A national collection of interruption data is usual in many countries. However,

the use of the data for maintenance purposes is usually limited, because the data is usually not

collected for that purpose, but rather to get an overview over the number of outages and the

disturbances in the system. The academic literature presents many failure and degradation models

and other models (e.g. from the field of artificial intelligence) for failure prediction, lifetime

estimation and maintenance modelling. Such methods are, however, to a very limited extent applied

by the system operators. Multi‐criteria decision analysis (MCDA) has also been investigated for

supporting decision on maintenance and renewal in the electricity network.

For most components found in electricity networks, a large number of different condition monitoring

techniques exists. Condition‐based maintenance is mostly done on the basis of scheduled inspections

with inspection intervals chosen according to the results from an RCM analysis or according to

regulations. Assessments of technical condition often involve a significant element of subjective

evaluation. This report includes a state‐of‐the‐art description of maintenance strategies based on

interviews of the Norwegian transmission system operator (Statnett) and a Norwegian distribution

system operator (TrønderEnergi Nett).

There are analogies between cross‐border electricity transmission networks and the main railway

corridors in Europe, but electricity can much more quickly and easily be rerouted in the case of

maintenance. The cooperation between European transmission system operators may nevertheless

be relevant for European railway corridors. Regulatory aspects and technical‐economic concepts

such as the cost of energy not supplied may also be of relevance.

Many parts of the electricity distribution network are not critical with respect to vulnerability, since

these parts only supply few customers. Nevertheless, these parts must be maintained because the

network operators must provide all end users an adequate supply of electricity. For such network


parts, it is difficult to carry out cost‐beneficial maintenance. Another important aspect influencing

the maintenance of electricity networks is that the system operators may vary considerably in size:

Only the larger system operators may have the competence needed to apply more advanced

methods for maintenance planning.

RELEVANCE OF CASE FOR RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE

The electrical transmission networks can be compared with the main railway corridors in Europe,

whereas the electrical distribution network can be compared with the commuter and local services.

The power frequency of the electrified railway systems can be different in different countries (e.g. 50

Hz and 60 Hz), whereas the frequency in the electricity network is always 50 Hz (even though the

frequency is not synchronized in all countries).

An advantage of electricity networks is (compared with railway) that equipment must not physically

cross borders, but only the electricity itself (i.e. electrons). Since electricity transport is fast, long

distances are not a problem. That means that "rerouting" of electricity over many hundreds of

kilometres is possible without any time delay (e.g. in case of maintenance), as long as enough

network capacity is available and the transport losses are acceptable and can be compensated by

increased production.

Since both the electricity network and the electrified railway network consist of much of the same

type of high‐voltage equipment, experience in maintaining and operating this equipment could be

exchanged, e.g. use of condition monitoring methods. Another area which might be interesting for

the operation of European railway corridors is the cooperation between European transmission

system operators through ENTSO‐E.

Since network operation is subject to much regulation, regulatory aspects and methods (such as Cost

of Energy Not Supplied ‐ CENS) might be of interest for railway as well. In addition, vulnerability is a

very relevant topic in electricity networks. Thus, methods applied in this field might be of interest for

railway.


4.1.2 CASE STUDY 2: GASS TRANSPORT

Gassco's was established in 2001 to manage the Gassled infrastructure transporting gas from the

Norwegian Continental Shelf to European customers. The gas infrastructure is an integrated network,

connected to the producers of natural gas and to the European distribution network. The

infrastructure operated by the company consists of 7 975 kilometres of transmission pipes, 6

processing plants in Norway, 6 receiving terminals and 3 platforms. The case study focuses on

maintenance management and maintenance coordination in the gas value chain.

There are a range of stakeholders in the gas value chain, and regulations from the Norwegian

Government, European Governments and the EU affect the company. The company adapts to the

regulations by adapting to industry practices proposed in the Industry standards, such as NORSOK

and recommended practices.

The maintenance strategy applied is Reliability Centered and risk‐based. Every item (or "tag") in the

system must be allocated a consequence class based on a consequence classification. Development

of maintenance programs for new equipment at the terminals are based on generic methods when

the equipment is considered to be well‐known or similar to equipment already in use. For new

equipment where the GMCs not are applicable, maintenance concepts are developed based on an

FMEA, FMECA or RBI‐analysis, or a combination of them. The maintenance management is supported

by using SAP software, which provides maintenance plans and schedules.

Successful maintenance management and cross‐organizational, cross border coordination of

maintenance activities contribute to the company achieving regularity measure of 99.17 % and

quality measure of 99.99 %. Communication with up‐ and downstream actors, by meetings and

integration of systems is essential to achieve efficient use of the network.

Several elements in the organization of maintenance may inspire or be adapted by the railway

industry. Amongst these are the coordination of maintenance activities and attitude to opportunistic

maintenance and information sharing considered to be most relevant.


RELEVANCE OF CASE STUDY VS RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE

There are quite a few obvious parallels between the Gassled gas transport network and the rail

network. Both the gas industry and railways are tightly regulated, both use a distributed

infrastructure and the systems have a common purpose; transport. The two industries also share a

common attitude regarding safety; safety concerns will trump production and delivery of transport

services in case of conflict between the two.

The intention in establishing Gassco was to introduce a neutral party in the management and

development of the transportation network and to manage the allocation of capacity in the system,

much like the idea behind the organization in the railway sector in Europe. Investments in the

infrastructure are not financed by the infrastructure operator, but the operator play a central part in

planning and leading further development of the infrastructure, as well as being responsible for its

condition.

Some basic differences stand out as well though, a case in point being that as long as the agreed

volumes of gas with correct quality is delivered at an exit point from Gassco's receiving terminals the

shippers are satisfied. The same flexibility does not apply to rail infrastructure. In Gassco's case, the

maintenance intensive parts of the infrastructure is concentrated at the various facilities rather then

spread evenly across the network.

The most important finding in the case study (in the case study authors' view) does not deal with the

overall maintenance strategy or tools and models used in the industry. Instead it deals with

coordination of maintenance and transparency in the planning process. There seem to be a well‐

functioning manner of dealing with opportunistic (or shadow) maintenance, e.g. in case of temporary

and un‐planned shutdowns, both upstream and downstream actors are informed early, and are able

to carry out maintenance when the opportunities occur, and hence possibly saving the system from

future shut‐downs. It is not, however, based on formalized guidelines or regulations. This kind of

short term maintenance is possible due to continuously focus on optimization in the network by

closely monitoring and dialog between Gassco and the operators of the production fields and

terminals.


4.1.3 CASE STUDY 3: WATER INFRASTRUCTURE

The purpose of the water infrastructure is to provide safe drinking water at a satisfactory pressure to

the end‐customers. The system is composed of a drinking water source, intake, treatment and

transmission/distribution system. The infrastructure considered in the case study either governed

and owned by private companies, or by local municipalities (and then managed by public utilities),

depending on the country. Focus is on the infrastructure of European countries, and interviews have

been conducted with Swedish and Norwegian water public utilities. This case study focuses on water

transmission and distribution systems from the treatment facilities to the customer.

There is no industry‐wide maintenance strategy that is prevalent in the water industry. There are,

however, some characteristics that are typical for maintenance management of water infrastructure:

Amongst these are focus on safety, security of supply and long term planning of investment and

renewal of the infrastructure.

Traditionally, maintenance management of water infrastructure has been reactive (or corrective).

The water infrastructure is for the most part invisible during operation under normal operating

conditions. New technologies have, however, made it possible to investigate the condition of the

water infrastructure without digging, by the use of inserting 'intelligent' probes in the infrastructure,

or by increased use of censoring. The extent of use of such methods is still limited though, and

failures like leaks or ruptures can still go undiscovered unless the costumers report a problem like

discoloured water or lack of pressure.

It is a general trend in the industry that the companies or public utilities dealing with water supply

gather and store more data concerning the infrastructure, providing better foundation for decision

making in maintenance management. The data includes operational data of incidents (leaks,

ruptures), map data, and pipe properties. Some municipalities are experimenting with model‐ and

data driven maintenance management, although mostly when dealing with prioritizing renewal of

pipe sections with high risk of failure.

RELEVANCE VS RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE

Both rail infrastructure and water infrastructure provide transport of a high criticality commodity by

means of a distributed network. The planning horizon for development of the transport systems are


long, as is the useful life of properly constructed and maintained infrastructure. The investment costs

are considerable in case of renewal of existing, and in constructing new infrastructure. In exchange,

the effective life of the infrastructure may be over 100 years in both cases.

Rail and water infrastructure represent significant value invested over time, and the replacement

value of either is significant. Still, both have suffered from a lag of investment in maintenance for

long periods. This may be caused by the infrastructures being regarded as 'basic' by the public and as

it has been around for such a long time. As the networks develop and grow, so does the need for

maintenance. Yearly expenditure on maintenance may hence gradually increase as a result of (at

least) two factors; aging of the infrastructure and the addition of new sections of the networks. On

the other hand, new techniques being developed contribute to maintenance being more efficient in

both sectors.

Some differences between the two types of infrastructures stand out as well, though. Whereas rail

infrastructures have been nationalized in most European countries, water has in most cases been a

municipal or private issue. The state of the water infrastructure, and the challenges faced in

maintenance management, therefore differ significantly within countries. It further implies that the

cross‐border aspects of OptiRail to a small degree apply to water infrastructure. Another significant

difference is the fact that infrastructure delivering water, under normal circumstances, is to a large

extent invisible to the end‐customers. The transmission and distribution pipes are buried

underground and are hard to access for inspection purposes. The infrastructure may appear to

function well, even in case of significant leaks from the system, given that no contamination enters

the system and no water is visible on the surface.

The development in maintenance management of both rail and water infrastructure is towards more

'intelligent' infrastructure, and data supported maintenance management. The primary findings in

the case study as to where the rail infrastructure domain may learn from water are in the authors'

point of view: The long perspective taken on investment (100 years), deciding the rate of renewal of

the existing infrastructure, and the cross‐European approach to developing tools to support the long

term planning of renewal.


4.1.4 CASE STUDY 4: AIRPORT MAINTENANCE

Airport and aircraft maintenance can be considered a Multi‐Criteria Decision Making process.

Integration is possible thank to some enablers in the industry like the concept of eMaintenance

which perform data integration, cleaning, fusion and mining. In fact the mixed application of

different methodologies like Prognostics & Health Management (PHM) and MSG‐3 has been a great

success to achieve maximum operability.

Increased airport capacity and security requires a more proactive maintenance concept where

advanced maintenance planning and preparation based on prognostics will be one of the key

enablers.

On top of that, increased aircraft operability requires also a more proactive maintenance concept

where most of the maintenance planning and preparation is carried out during uptime and where

prognostics will be one of the key enablers. The introduction of Condition Based Maintenance and

condition monitoring in the aviation sector but in a harmonized manner and not as an individual and

isolated practice can be considered a high success to lift up the whole sector and its key performance

indicators like operability, capacity or punctuality.

For that purpose, better diagnostic capability and smarter maintenance have been identified as

performance drivers to run proper both unscheduled and scheduled maintenance. However the

deployment of these technologies cannot be arbitrary and definition of the requirements for PHM

must be performed through a rigorous application of existing agreed standards, i.e MSG‐3 to acquire

the capability of Condition‐Based Maintenance, which could contribute to maintainability allocation

in an effective way from a life cycle perspective. This would lead to an improved maintainability

performance of the system through the inclusion of new and innovative technologies for PHM.

Hence, to fulfill KPI objectives, new methodologies like PHM have been introduced but within the

framework of existing agreed methodologies like MSG‐3.

At the end of the day, operators and airport managers are aiming for right maintenance decisions but

they should be provided in agreed format and time to be understandable by all international

stakeholders due to the close interaction between facilities. To this end, it is crucial to collect and


analyse the large amount of operational data related to reliability, maintainability, and maintenance

support. The information gained from these analyses provides a basis for making decisions.

Collecting and analysing operational data are time consuming, error‐prone and costly processes. In

this regard, incorporation of e‐Maintenance solutions is providing real‐time data collection, analysis,

and provision of decision alternatives. This lack of data harmonization is the main obstacle for

railway industry where the disagreement is obvious even in the signalling systems.

Maintenance in aviation has also the advantage of detailed description of needed resources and

capabilities. In order to realize a higher level of achieved availability performance, the maintenance

support organization in aviation sector has developed a detailed description of the resources that are

required to support the system. Such resources may include maintenance personnel quantities and

skill levels, spares and repair parts and associated inventory requirements, tools and test equipment,

transportation and handling requirements, facilities, technical data, computer software, and training

requirements. Following this approach, the operational and business requirements of the air carriers

and airport managers can be fulfilled due to the common language spoken by all of them in order to

achieve aircraft operability and fleet performance.

RELEVANCE VS RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE

The conclusion of this case study in summary is a paradox. Aircraft and airport industry are investing

huge amount of money in maintenance of planes and infrastructure due to the safety constrains for

passengers, workers and surrounding areas. However, there are no miracles in this process. Aviation

sector is strongly harmonized with International aviation organizations like ICAO which define

minimum sets of maintenance practices in order to get the permission to operate within the

international network.

Unfortunately this harmonization does not exist in the railway sector. The international associations

like UNIFE or UIC comprise of manufacturers mostly, being a good point for the technical

development of the industry and from a market point of view. In this scenario, there are no

international authorities who dictate maintenance practices for railway infrastructure and therefor it

mostly depend on local or national authorities who adapt existing standards already succeeded in

somewhere else.


Therefore, comparing methodologies and technologies, one can conclude that technologies like

thermography or systematic maintenance are not new practices at all but they guarantee the quality

of the service when deployed in a harmonized and agreed manner worldwide.

4.2 ASSESSMENT MATRIX

The assessment matrix has been developed as a tool to summarize the findings from the four case

studies that have been executed in the course of task 2.1. The matrix consists of a total of 25

columns each representing an element of maintenance. These include elements relating to the

planning, coordination, execution and documenting of maintenance activities. The 25 columns have

further been separated in five groups based on underlying themes, resulting in five assessment

matrix segments.

In the following chapters each segment of the assessment matrix is presented along with an initial

table that presents the maintenance elements (the column headings) belonging to the segment. A

brief explanation to the intended input under each heading is included in the tables.

4.2.1 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO COORDINATION AND INFORMATIONS SHARING

The elements of the assessment matrix dealing with coordination of maintenance activities (including

long‐ and short term planning) are presented in the following assessment matrix segment. The

elements deal with internal factors, as transparency in the planning of maintenance and renewal,

and cross‐border information flow. In this context, cross‐border may refer to national borders,

regional/municipal borders and organizational borders.

Informing the end‐customer of effects of maintenance activities is important in all the studied

industries. Informing the end‐customer may directly affect the company's image and reputation.

Transparency in planning of maintenance and renewal is achieved in the studied industries by sharing

of long‐ and short term maintenance and renewal plans.


TABLE 2: IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO COORDINATION AND INFORMATION

Coordination and information

Column Heading Explanation of intended input in cell Information flow to end‐customers of

effects of scheduled or on‐going

maintenance

Description of means to contact end‐customers, and specification of

information provided.

Organizational cross‐boundary or cross‐

border information flow concerning

temporary capacity reductions

Description of means and methods to achieve information flow/sharing with

other organizations or actors in the value chain, including actors and

stakeholders in other countries. Specification of the information/data

shared.

Methods to achieve transparency in

maintenance planning: maintenance

concepts/programs

Specification of methods used to achieve predictability, openness and

accountability in the development and execution of maintenance concepts

and maintenance programs and its consequences with regards to capacity or

production


maintenance planning: large renewal

projects


accountability in the planning of large renewal projects, including the

projects effects on capacity or production during and after project execution


maintenance planning: small renewal

projects


accountability in the planning of small renewal projects, including the

projects effects on capacity or production during and after project execution


ASSESSMENT MATRIX SEGMET 1: COORDINATION AND INFORMATION

Coordination and information

Information flow to end‐customers of effects of scheduled or on‐going

maintenance

Organizational cross‐boundary or cross‐border information flow concerning temporary capacity

reductions

Methods to achieve transparency in maintenance planning: maintenance

concepts/programs


maintenance planning: large renewal projects


maintenance planning: small renewal projects

Importance rating: high medium medium low medium

Case 1: Electricity

Private customers: Via companies' websites or

add in the local newspaper, some

companies started so send SMS to their customers

According to regulations (grid codes) by ENTSO‐E (case study,

section 2.3.2)

Pre‐defined maintenance periods scheduled in the CMMS and long term plans ‐ ‐

Case 2: Water

Information posted on the internet, text ad voice messages on mobile phones to affected

customers

Rarely relevant in case partners casePre‐defined maintenance periods. Decade long principal plans with main goals and strategies.

Sharing of yearly maintenance plan.

Decade long principal plans often with main projects identified.

Publication of development on the

internet.

Information sharing with affected parties late in the process, publication of development on the

internet

Case 3: Gas

Information posted on the internet

(www.flow.gassco.no), including duration and effects on capacity and

supply of gas

Information posted on the internet, direct contact with directly affected up‐ and down‐stream stakeholders (weekly meetings with producers concerning planned production)

Pre‐defined maintenance periods (…‐…), sharing of yearly maintenance plan with affected up‐ and down‐stream stakeholders, booking based on

capacity given planned maintenance

Information sharing with affected parties from early planning, publication of development on the

internet

Information sharing with affected parties from early planning, publication of development on the

internet

Case 4: Aerospace

Information flow to the customers by internet,

SMS in the mobile phone, websites and in the

facilities through voice.

Information is given by different ways, giving the information about the modifications in the capacity of

the airports.

Pre‐defined maintenance periods. Sharing principal plans with main goals and strategies for the maintenance. Put the information of yearly

maintenance plan.

Sharing main projects identified. Publication of development by internet,

newspaper...

Sharing main projects identified. Publication of development by internet,

newspaper...


4.2.2 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO RCM AND MAINTENENANCE STRATEGY

Reliability‐Centered Maintenance is adapted to a varying degree in all four studied sectors. As the

sizes of the actors vary, so does the extent of which RCM has been integrated. It is only in the Oil and

gas sector of the industries being studied, that RCM is integrated in the applicable industry

standards. In the Oil and gas industry, RCM is combined with RBM – risk based maintenance.

A full RCM‐analysis (explicit analysis) is resource intensive, and is mainly executed by the larger

actors in each industry. The generic approaches demands less resources and can be carried out

significantly faster. Adaptions of the results from the generic approaches may however be necessary

to provide reasonable results.

TABLE 3: IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO RCM AND MAINTENANCE STRATEGY

RCM – Maintenance strategy

Column Heading Explanation of intended input in cell

Use of RCM: Integration in

organization

Is RCM a part of company governing documents or company directives?

Is RCM‐methodologies integrated in company routines in relation to planning and

executing maintenance activities?

Alternative maintenance

strategies commonly used in

the industry

Are there other prevailing maintenance management strategies in the industry?

Use of RCM: Explicit analysis of

every component or generic

approach?

When developing maintenance concepts or maintenance programs for equipment and

systems, do(es) the company(‐ies) carry out analysis for each component or use the

same maintenance concepts for similar components?

Use of RCM: Adaption to local

conditions in case of generic

approach

When developing maintenance concepts/maintenance programs for equipment and

systems, do(es) the company(‐ies) adapt the resulting maintenance concepts to local

conditions (e.g. working conditions)


ASSESSMENT MATRIX SEGMET 2: RCM ‐ MAINTENANCE STRATEGY

RCM – Maintenance Strategy

Use of RCM: Integration in organization Alternative maintenance strategies commonly used in the industry

Use of RCM: Explicit analysis of every component or generic approach?

Use of RCM: Adaption to local conditions in case of generic

approach

Importance rating: low low high high

Case 1: Electricity

Depending on the size of the company: Integrated part of maintenance planning in large companies (e.g. transmission system operators), but not in small distribution

companies

‐ Generic approach for same type/design/class of component

Yes, if any need for adjustments are identified

Case 2: Water

Very dependent upon municipality/organization. Bigger organizations have more available resources and thus RCM

are more often integrated in the O&M planning. RCM not widely used in the case studies.

‐

Both component based RCM and generic approach are widely applied, depending on the size of the company and its resources. Generic approach is

most relevant for case studies.

In case of generic approach, adaptation to local conditions is applied by grouping the assets according to their attributes and

sometimes conditions. This is applied in both case studies.

Case 3: Gas

RCM integrated in the current standards for operations in the industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. RCM integrated in company

guidelines

RBM integrated in the current standards for operations in the industry on the

Norwegian Continental Shelf.

Combination based on consequence classification. Less important

components (low criticality for safety and production) based on generic

approach

Adaption based on expert opinion (internal&external)

Case 4: Aerospace

RCM integrated in the current maintenance operations in the airports. RCM is integrated in

every airport of Swedavia company RCM is widely applied for all of its

resources and airports The maintenance concept is adapted

to local conditions.


4.2.3 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DATA

The identified elements related to data deals with three aspects of information gathering. The first

column deals with the collection of failure rates and other important data concerning items and

equipment in the respective infrastructures. The data can be crucial in developing effective and

efficient maintenance programs. The second column deals with direct methods for condition

monitoring of infrastructure. The column is intended to include continuous monitoring and interval‐

based condition assessment, as well as both intrusive and non‐intrusive methods.

The last two columns deal with indirect condition monitoring. Indirect condition monitoring may

sound counter intuitive. It may however provide useful data on loads, stress and incidents that affect

the infrastructure.

TABLE 4: IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DATA

Data


Sources for failure rates/other data for

components

What sources exist and what sources are generally used to obtain failure rates

and other significant data used in developing maintenance concepts and

maintenance programs,

Method(s) for condition monitoring of

infrastructure (direct)

Are direct methods for condition monitoring the norm in the industry?

Specification of methods and type of equipment monitored. Are the methods

intrusive or non‐intrusive?

Indirect methods for condition

monitoring: monitoring of external

environment

Are indirect methods for condition monitoring of external factors the norm in

the industry?

Specification of methods of indirect monitoring and subject being monitored.

Indirect methods for condition

monitoring: infrastructure usage

Are data on use of infrastructure used as input to condition monitoring of state

of infrastructure?


ASSESSMENT MATRIX SEGMET 3: DATA

Data

Sources for failure rates/other data for

components Method(s) for condition monitoring of

infrastructure (direct)

Indirect methods for condition monitoring: monitoring of external

environment

Indirect methods for condition monitoring: infrastructure usage

Importance rating: high high high low

Case 1: Electricity

Mostly judgment based on experience. For large companies: own data/experience.

Eventually literature or databases like FASIT (see section 4.2.2).

many; see chapter 5 in the case study

Some parameters monitored/observed, e.g. air temperature, weather forecast (storms etc.) or lightning activity, mainly

for operational purpose to avoid disturbances and for emergency

preparedness

Monitoring of many parameters many places in the electrical grid (voltage, frequency, current, …) mainly for

operational purpose, not for maintenance purpose. No. of operations for switchgear

is registered.

Case 2: Water

Each company/municipality has an individual database. No common database for all national companies exists. Data is collected through inspections, strategic work and through customer complaints.

Visual inspection, electromagnetic inspection, acoustic inspection,

ultrasonic testing, radiographic/thermographic testing and

various sensor technologies

‐ Measurement of volume of water passing key sections in network

Case 3: Gas

OREDA database/handbook and data from suppliers/producers of components

Monitoring of chemical compositions (medium being transported), various process parameters, inspection,

corrosion probes, ultrasonic equipment, intelligent pigs,‐ for more details see

chapter 4 in case study

Currents and vibrations, ship traffic, land movement

Monitoring of chemical compositions (medium being transported), various

process parameters

Case 4: Aerospace

Each airport has an individual database due to that everyone has different conditions. Data is collected through inspections, strategic work and through customer complaints. Data is compared between

airports.

The direct condition monitoring performed on the infrastructure is measurement of the friction on the

Runway. Other direct measurements are temperature, wind and snow depth.

Scheduled arrivals and departures control when and what measurements to be

made.


4.2.4 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO ANALYSIS AND METHODS

Columns dealing with analyses and methods are by no means limited to the assessment matrix

segment analysis and methods. The case is rather that columns dealing with methods and analyses

that are more closely related to the themes being treated by other matrix segments have been

allocated to the other segments.

Among the columns in the current segment of the matrix three deals with economic analysis, albeit

one being somewhat turned; focus is on how the studied industries handle the non‐monetized

factors. The three other columns deal with methods for classification.

TABLE 5: IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO ANALYSIS AND METHODS

Analysis and methods


Method(s) for criticality or consequence

classification (decision criteria)

Do(es) the company(‐ies) carry out criticality classifications as input in

maintenance management?

Specifications on (or reference to) the methods used for criticality

classification

Methods for risk assessment Specification on methods used in the industry and the company(ies) to

perform risk assessment(s)

Grouping of elements/components Specification on decision criteria when grouping components in the

development of maintenance concepts/maintenance programs

Economic analyses of maintenance

programs

Specification of the economic analyses executed to provide decision

support in the development of maintenance concepts/programs

Examples of factors commonly included (or considered) in cost/benefit

analyses in the industry.

Economic analyses of renewal projects

Specification of the economic analyses executed to provide decision

support in the planning phase of renewal projects.

Examples of factors commonly included (or considered) in cost/benefit

analyses in the industry.

Non‐monetized factors included in the

analysis of maintenance programs and

renewal projects

Examples of non‐economical or non‐monetized factors included in the

planning or analyses executed in order to develop maintenance programs

and planning renewal projects.


ASSESSMENT MATRIX SEGMET 4: ANALYSIS AND METHODS

Analysis and methods

Method(s) for criticality or

consequence classification (decision criteria)

Methods for risk assessment

Grouping of elements/components

Economic analyses of maintenance programs


Non‐monetized factors included in the analysis of maintenance programs and

renewal projects Importance

rating: low medium high high high ‐

Case 1: Electricity

Classification of probability/frequency and

consequences (criteria: Safety, environment, reputation,

costs/economy)

Risk and vulnerability analysis by check lists, analysis schemes and

risk matrices as described in NVE‐guideline 2‐2010

According to design (same type of material, technical

solution, etc.)

Economic analysis on cost/benefit of different

maintenance concepts/programs not usual

Cost‐benefit‐analysis done in larger companies (transmission system operators) to some

degree (often rather cost analysis than cost‐benefit

analysis)

‐

Case 2: Water

Described in Techneau report D.4.1.3, Generic Framework and Methods for Integrated Risk

Management in Water Safety Plans. Applied occasionally in either case study. Security of personnel is

ensured through local guidelines and instructions.

Described in Techneau report D.4.1.3, Generic

Framework and Methods for Integrated Risk Management in Water Safety Plans.

Applied occasionally in either case study.

Grouping based on material, diameter, failure rates, age (production and construction period) ,

geography

Maintenance intervals and programs are based upon risk, operational data and available

budget. No economic analysis on cost/benefit of different

maintenance concepts in the case studies, although this can

be performed.

Maintenance programs investment based on

expert analysis model for long term planning. This is

applied in both case studies. LCC models can also be applied in order to

find the right time to renew an asset.

‐


Analysis and methods (...continues from previous page)

Method(s) for criticality or consequence classification

(decision criteria)

Methods for risk assessment

Grouping of elements/components

Economic analyses of maintenance programs


Non‐monetized factors included in the analysis of maintenance programs and

renewal projects Importance

rating: low medium high high high ‐

Case 3: Gas

RCM/RBI‐ analyses (including FMEA/FMECA

analyses)

RBI‐ analyses, development of a risk matrix consisting of

probability of event(s) and consequence of

events

Safety‐critical components have got given testing intervals/ maintenance

intervals. Production‐critical

components/systems have predefined maintenance

concepts based on experience with similar

components/systems (some 100‐140 various)

No economic analysis on cost/benefit of

different maintenance concepts

Conducts cost‐benefit analyses for renewal

projects to present to the infrastructure owners

‐

Case 4: Aerospace

According to the relation between failure and consequences (Safety,

environment, reputation, costs/economy)

‐ See maintenance chapter 3 See maintenance chapter 3

See maintenance chapter 3


4.2.5 IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DECICION SUPPORT

The final segment of the assessment matrix deals with some of the essential aspects of multi‐

objective maintenance optimization. Formal optimization is not commonly applied in any of the

studied industries. The column "optimization criteria" does however point out the central objectives

being balanced in maintenance planning and management in the respective industries. The second,

fourth and fifth columns deal with single aspect of maintenance optimization. As it deals with

optimization of a limited area of optimization, one may expect the relative balance between included

factors to be different from the overall optimization criteria.

TABLE 6: IDENTIFIED MAINTENANCE ELEMENTS RELATED TO DECICION SUPPORT

Decision support


Optimization criteria in maintenance

optimization (included factors)

Is some form of formal maintenance optimization the norm in the industry?

Specification of factors considered in the optimization, or the factors considered

in maintenance management/maintenance planning

Decision criteria optimization of

inspection/preventive maintenance

intervals

Is optimization of maintenance inspections intervals or preventive maintenance

intervals the norm in the industry?

Specification of factors included when carrying out optimization of maintenance

inspection intervals and/or preventive maintenance intervals.

LCC‐‐based decision support for

technical solution

Are Life cycle costs (LCC) used as decision support when choosing technical

solutions (such as type of materials or methods) for maintenance projects or the

development of maintenance concepts?

Methods for handling "opportunistic

maintenance"

Specification of methods to coordinate "on‐the‐fly" maintenance when

opportunities occur (such as unscheduled shut‐downs).

(Also known as "shadow maintenance")

Methods for spare‐parts optimization Specification of methods for spare‐parts optimization, such as re‐order level and

batch sizes.

Methods for prioritizing use of capacity

in cases of reduced capacity

Specification of methods for capacity management and prioritizing capacity

distribution in case of temporary reduced capacity


ASSESSMENT MATRIX SEGMET 5: DECICION SUPPORT

Decision support

Optimization criteria in

maintenance optimization (included factors)


inspection/preventive maintenance intervals

LCC‐‐based decision support for technical

solution

Methods for handling "opportunistic maintenance"

Methods for spare‐parts optimization

Methods for prioritizing use of capacity in cases of reduced capacity

Importance rating: medium high medium low low medium

Case 1: Electricity

Formal optimization not common. Factors included in

cost‐benefit analysis are: Cost of project (incl. material,

personnel, cost of energy not supplied, etc.) and gains

(reduced failure probability, increased efficiency, reduced maintenance costs, etc.), SHE‐aspects and reputation usually

assessed separately

Maintenance interval optimization not

common

Hardly applied, but LCC or simplified similar approaches for major investments or before

investing in new technology

No formal methods, responsibility of maintenance planner and maintenance

personnel (person‐to‐person information sharing),

scheduled tasks in the CMMS will probably be checked and immediately be carried out

Not common to optimize spare parts.

Cost of energy not supplied (CENS, see section 4.2.3 in case study) is an important

measure to prioritize customers

Case 2: Water

Safety of supply, secure and safe water, life cycle cost, reduce water losses and production costs, reduce the risk of the

system

Failure rates, expert experience, data

available about pipes, consequence

classification, risk classification.

Optimization of pipe materials for use in the drinking water network can be based upon LCC and environmental

impact analysis where strength of the material, transport length etc. can

be included.

When pipes are shut down for renewal, work can sometimes be coordinated with sewer

pipe renewal. When roads are being renewed, one often takes the opportunity to

renew water pipes under the road at the same time.

Components are mostly chosen based on past experiences. No standard or specific

procedure.

Water pipes have capacity or no capacity at all, no reduced

capacity in periods of maintenance. Use prioritized for use in such instances are

based on consequence analyses.


Decision support (...continues from previous page)

Optimization criteria in

maintenance optimization (included factors)


inspection/preventive maintenance intervals

LCC‐‐based decision support for technical

solution

Methods for handling "opportunistic maintenance"

Methods for spare‐parts optimization

Methods for prioritizing use of capacity in cases of reduced capacity

Importance rating: medium high medium low low medium

Case 3: Gas

Safety (human &environment), cost of lost capacity, cost of carrying out project, potential

future capacity gains

Consequence classification, failure

rates ‐

The actors in the gas value chain aspire to be transparent when incidents occur (un‐planned shut downs) to perform opportunistic

maintenance. Largely based on person‐to‐person information sharing.

Traditional inventory management to assess re‐order level and order sizes, case by

case evaluation based on risk assessment for capital spare parts.

‐

Case 4: Aerospace ‐ Maintenance interval

optimization not usual ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐


5. CONCLUSION

The four industries in the case studies operate under different frameworks regarding rules and

regulations, ownership and responsibility. The purposes of the infrastructure being maintained share

certain common characteristics; a fundamental commodity is transported by means of the

infrastructure (albeit with a slight variation in the aerospace case study). Although the actors in each

industry share certain additional features, huge differences within the industries are present. The

main factor introducing the differences is the organization in the sector and the size of the actors.

Generally, larger actors in each industry tend to be closer to the leading edge in maintenance

management. This involves the development of degradation models based on condition monitoring‐

data, and the ranking of alternative maintenance and renewal projects. Academic literature presents

a range of methods and tools for maintenance management of critical infrastructure. The adaptions

by industry of these methods and tools are howeverver very limited.

Regulations and industry standards contribute to making maintenance management more uniform in

each industry. The level of detail at which policymakers and independent actors control the

maintenance management varies between the industries. In the case of electricity and water,

regulations and standards provide specifications on the medium being transported, as well as on the

introduction of barriers to unwanted incidents (such as cascading black‐outs in electricity

transmission and distribution). For the oil and gas industry standards specify details regarding

maintenance strategies and methods, resulting in larger degree of uniformity in the industry in the

question of maintenance management.

The case studies reveal that although the relative importance of various objectives related to

maintenance differ between the industries, certain objectives are common in all four studied

industries. Among these are costs incurred by investment, personnel and down‐time, and benefits in

the form of increased safety or risk levels (reduced probability of unwanted incident and/or reduced

effect of incidents) and effects on safety of supply. Effects on the environment may be positive or

negative, depending on the projected.


The case partners have adapted to the objectives regarded as most important in their case. For the

objectives with high importance for rail industry actors, methods from industries where the objective

is efficiently dealt with should be adapted to rail industry and incorporated in the Optirail tool(s).

The direct transferability of tools and methods is most relevant from the natural gas industry. The

organization of the sector share some characteristics with the rail sector, as does the purpose and

topology of the infrastructure. In the sector, cross‐border and cross‐organizational coordination of

maintenance activities are successfully managed by the infrastructure operator. Maintenance must

be planned well in advance (the year prior to execution) in order to be categorized as "planned", and

the various actors in the gas value chain synchronize their maintenance plans in order to keep system

down‐time to the minimum. The sector also deals efficiently with opportunistic (shadow)

maintenance.

The assessment matrix is intended to summarize the findings from the case studies. It presents a

total of 25 common elements related to maintenance identified over the cause of the case studies.

Tools and methods from the studied industries are presented in the assessment matrix and may

provide further inspiration for methods to be adopted and applied to railway infrastructure

maintenance. Additional details regarding the proposed solutions based on each industry are

available in the appendix 1‐4. The matrix allows for the ranking of the different elements by the rail

infrastructure administrators. It is intended to be updated throughout the project, and serve as input

to the definition of the "Smart Maintenance Framework" of Optirail. An initial ranking is presented

based on the view of Jernbaneverket (the Norwegian infrastructure owner).

Reliability‐Based maintenance is adopted in various degrees in all four industries. With the exception

of gas (where RCM is integrated in the industry standards), it is mainly the larger companies that

have integrated RCM in their maintenance management. A general trend in all four case studies is

however an increase in the amount of data made available to contribute to efficient maintenance

management. The increase is the result of new technologies resulting in more detailed data on the

condition of the infrastructure, as well as better routines in registering and storing data. The

representatives interviewed in the case studies share the understanding of the potential for more

effective and efficient maintenance based on use of the available data. There still exists, however, a

high degree of manual input and subjective reasoning on the state of the infrastructure and the

prioritization of maintenance and renewal activities.


6. LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Case study 1 – Electricity Networks

Appendix 2: Case Study 2 – Gas Transport Infrastructure

Appendix 3: Case Study 3 – Infrastructure for Water Distribution

Appendix 4: Case Study 4 – Airport maintenance

Appendix 5: Assessment Matrix (excel‐file)

Appendix 6: Interview Guide for case studies

CASE

Deliv

E STUDY

erable n

Y 1 – E

nº: D2.1

LECTRI

1.1

EC‐GAProjec

CITY N

A Numberct full title:

ETWOR

r: 31403DeveloFrameKnowlInfrastDecisio

RKS

31opment owork Bedge totructure ons in Railw

of a SmaBased o SuppoMaintenan

way Corrido

art on ort nce rs

D2.1.1. CAS

Transp

Partne

Respon

Title:

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ort; Grant A

rs: S

nsible: S

D

ELECTRICITY NE

Agreement

INTEF

INTEF Energ

D2.1.1

TWORKS

No 314031

gy Research

W

Ty

D

h

Work Packag

ype of docu

ate:

Version:

ge: W

ument: Ca

15

1.1

WP2.1

ase study re

5/03/2013

Page

Page 3

eport

e: 3 / 72

D2.1.1. CAS

Docu Vers.

1.0

1.1

Docu

Partner

SINTEF

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ument H

Issue Date

26/02/2013

15/03/2013

ument A

rs

Energy Rese

ELECTRICITY NE

History

C

3 Fi

3 M

a

Authors

earch

TWORKS

ontent and c

irst final vers

Minor change

nd few new

Contributo

Thomas W

Bakken Spe

changes

sion

es/correction

text added

ors

Welte, Luis

erstad, Arne

Author

T. Welt

ns T. Welt

Aleixo, Mar

Petter Brede

e et al.

e, M. Catrinu

ria Catrinu‐R

e, Jan Tore B

u‐Renström

Renström,

Benjaminsen

Page 4

Iver

D2.1.1. CAS

ExecuThis repo

provide

system –

of this re

The purp

end user

with con

The elec

transmis

distribut

distribut

countrie

The elec

compon

system

coordina

are deve

to facilit

The mai

power s

regulate

system

degree b

such as m

Technica

but deta

safety, h

SE STUDY 1/4 –

utive Suort describes

an introduc

– including it

eport.

pose of an e

rs. The energ

ntinuous pow

ctricity netw

ssion netwo

tes the elec

tion network

es or regions

ctricity netwo

ent hierarch

vulnerable

ation and co

eloped by th

ate such coo

n objectives

supply in a c

ed, rules and

operation. T

by larger com

most of the d

al‐economic

ailed cost‐be

health, enviro

ELECTRICITY NE

ummarys framework

ction to read

ts purposes,

lectricity net

gy should be

wer at all tim

work can ba

ork transpo

ctricity furth

ks. Intercon

can be view

ork system c

hy and topolo

to blackout

operation on

e European

ordination.

s of mainten

cost‐effective

d regulations

The RCM (R

mpanies, suc

distribution s

analyses are

enefit analys

onment and

TWORKS

y ks and metho

ders that ar

characterist

twork is to tr

e transporte

e with the re

asically be d

rts electricit

her to the

nection net

ed as part of

an be charac

ogy. Intercon

ts on intern

n operation a

Network of

nance of elec

e manner. S

s play an im

Reliability Ce

ch as transm

system oper

e often used

ses are made

reputation a

odologies us

re not famili

tics and prop

ransport ele

d with minim

equired qua

divided into

ty over lar

end users.

works conn

f the transm

cterized by d

nnection of e

national sca

and mainten

Transmissio

ctricity netw

Since operat

mportant role

entered Ma

mission syste

rators.

to identify t

e only by th

are given hig

ed in mainte

iar with the

perties – is d

ctric energy

mal losses. T

ntity and qua

transmissio

rge distance

This report

ecting the e

ission netwo

different asp

electricity ne

ales. This is

nance is imp

on System Op

works are to

ion of elect

e in determ

intenance) f

em operators

he most cost

e larger syst

gh priority in

enance of ele

electricity n

escribed in t

from the pro

The end user

ality.

on and distr

es and a d

covers bot

electricity ne

ork.

ects like volt

tworks acros

one reaso

ortant. In Eu

perators for

ensure relia

ricity netwo

ining the ov

framework

s, but not by

t‐effective m

tem operato

addition to

ectricity netw

network sys

the first two

oduction un

rs should be

ribution netw

distribution

th transmis

etworks of

tage level, fr

ss borders m

on why cros

urope, netwo

Electricity (E

able, safe an

orks usually

verall thinkin

is adapted

y smaller co

maintenance

ors. In such

cost‐effectiv

Page 5

works. To

stem, the

chapters

its to the

supplied

works: A

network

sion and

different

equency,

makes the

ss‐border

ork codes

ENTSO‐E)

nd secure

is strictly

ng of the

to some

mpanies,

projects,

analyses,

veness. A

D2.1.1. CAS

Cost of E

the elect

the use

collected

disturba

and oth

estimati

by the s

supporti

For most

techniqu

with ins

regulatio

evaluatio

interview

system o

There ar

corridors

mainten

be relev

such as t

Many pa

these pa

network

parts, it

the main

Only the

methods

SE STUDY 1/4 –

Energy Not S

tricity supply

of the data

d for that p

nces in the

her models

on and main

system oper

ing decision

t componen

ues exists. Co

spection inte

ons. Assessm

on. This rep

ws of the No

operator (Trø

re analogies

s in Europe,

ance. The co

vant for Eur

the cost of e

arts of the e

arts only sup

k operators m

is difficult t

ntenance of

e larger sys

s for mainten

ELECTRICITY NE

Supplied (CE

y. A national

a for mainte

purpose, but

system. The

(e.g. from

ntenance mo

rators. Mult

on maintena

ts found in e

ondition‐bas

ervals chose

ments of tec

port includes

orwegian tra

ønderEnergi

s between c

, but electri

ooperation b

opean railw

nergy not su

lectricity dis

pply few cus

must provid

to carry out

electricity n

stem operat

nance plann

TWORKS

NS) is introd

l collection o

enance purpo

t rather to g

e academic li

the field o

odelling. Such

ti‐criteria de

ance and ren

electricity ne

ed maintena

en according

chnical cond

s a state‐of‐t

ansmission s

Nett).

ross‐border

city can mu

between Eur

way corridors

upplied may

stribution ne

stomers. Nev

e all end us

cost‐benefic

networks is t

tors may ha

ing.

duced to qua

of interruptio

oses is usua

get an over

iterature pre

f artificial i

h methods a

ecision analy

newal in the

etworks, a lar

ance is most

g to the res

dition often

the‐art desc

system opera

electricity t

uch more qu

ropean trans

s. Regulator

also be of re

etwork are n

vertheless, t

sers an adeq

cial mainten

that the syst

ave the com

antify the en

on data is us

ally limited,

rview over t

esents many

ntelligence)

are, however

ysis (MCDA)

electricity ne

rge number

ly done on th

ults from a

involve a s

cription of m

ator (Statne

ransmission

uickly and ea

smission sys

ry aspects a

elevance.

ot critical w

hese parts m

quate supply

nance. Anoth

tem operato

mpetence ne

d users’ cos

sual in many

because the

the number

y failure and

for failure

r, to a very li

has also be

etwork.

of different c

he basis of s

n RCM anal

ignificant el

maintenance

tt) and a No

networks a

asily be rero

tem operato

nd technica

ith respect t

must be mai

of electricit

her importan

rs may vary

eeded to ap

sts of interru

y countries. H

e data is us

of outages

degradation

prediction,

imited exten

een investig

condition m

cheduled ins

lysis or acco

lement of s

strategies b

orwegian dis

and the main

outed in the

ors may nev

l‐economic

to vulnerabil

intained bec

ty. For such

nt aspect in

considerabl

pply more a

Page 6

ptions of

However,

ually not

and the

n models

lifetime

nt applied

gated for

onitoring

spections

ording to

ubjective

based on

stribution

n railway

e case of

ertheless

concepts

lity, since

cause the

network

fluencing

ly in size:

advanced

D2.1.1. CAS

1. Descrip1.1 SY

2. Descrip2.1 NE

2.12.1

2.2 NE2.3 NE

2.32.32.3

2.4 PO2.4

2.5 O2.52.5

2.6 VU2.6

2.7 AN2.72.72.7

3. Mainte3.1 FR3.2 M3.3 M

4. Techni4.1 OV4.2 EX

4.24.24.24.2

4.3 EX4.3

5. Condit5.1 CO5.2 AS

5.25.2

6. State‐o6.1 ST

6.16.2 TR

6.27. Discuss8. Conclu9. Refere

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ption of systeYSTEM FUNCTption of systeETWORK SYST1.1 NETWORK S1.2 COMPONENETWORK TOPETWORK OPE3.1 ELECTRICITY3.2 EUROPEAN C3.3 NETWORK AOWER QUALIT4.1 POWER QUAPERATIONAL S5.1 OPERATIONA5.2 LIFETIME OFULNERABILITY6.1 RISK AND VUNCILLARY SYST7.1 ICT SYSTEM 7.2 PROTECTION7.3 EMERGENCYenance strateRAMEWORK AMAINTENANCEMAINTENANCEical‐economicVERALL THINKXAMPLES OF M2.1 FAULT STAT2.2 COST OF EN2.3 FAILURE AN2.4 MULTI‐CRITEXAMPLES OF M3.1 COMMERCIAtion monitorinONDITION MOSSESSMENT O2.1 TECHNICAL C2.2 GUIDELINES of‐the‐art in mTATNETT .......1.1 ANSWERS FRRØNDERENER2.1 ANSWERS FRsion: Relevanusion .............ences ............

ELECTRICITY NE

em purpose aTIONS .............em characteriTEM AND COMYSTEM HIERAR

NT HIERARCHY .OLOGY ..........RATION AND Y MARKET ........CROSS BORDERANALYSIS .........TY AND OPERAALITY AND NETWSTRESSES ANDAL STRESSES ...F NETWORK COY .....................ULNERABILITY ATEMS ....................................N SYSTEM ........Y BACKUP POWegies and maiAND OVERALLE ORGANIZATIE BACKLOG ANc analyses of mKING ..............METHODS ANISTICS .............ERGY NOT SUPD LIFETIME MOERIA DECISION MAINTENANCALLY AVAILABLng .................ONITORING MOF TECHNICALCONDITION STAFOR ASSESSMEmaintenance ......................ROM STATNETTGI NETT .........ROM TRØNDERnce vs rail infr..........................................

TWORKS

TABLE

nd functions .......................stics and propMPONENT HIERCHY ..............................................................RESPONSIBIL........................R OPERATION A........................ATIONAL LIMIWORK CODES..D LIFETIME OF........................MPONENTS ..........................ANALYSIS ...............................................................................

WER SYSTEMS ...ntenance org THINKING ....ON ................ND REINVESTMmaintenance ......................D APPROACH........................PLIED (CENS) ...ODELS ..............AID .................

CE PLANNING E SERVICES AND.....................METHODS ....... CONDITION .ATES ................ENT OF TECHNIin Norwegian......................T ............................................RENERGI NETT .astructure ..............................................

E OF CONT

.....................

......................perties ..........ERARCHY .............................................................................ITIES .....................................

AND COOPERAT........................ITS .........................................F COMPONEN............................................................................................................................................................................................ganization ..................................................MENT NEEDS .projects .............................ES USED IN T................................................................................................AND SCHEDUD TOOLS ...................................................................................................ICAL CONDITIOn network com...........................................................................................................................................................

TENTS

......................................................................................................................................................................................................TION ......................................................................................NTS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ECHNICAL‐ECO................................................................................................LING ............................................................................................................................N ....................mpanies .................................................................................................................................................................

.....................

......................

.....................

............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ONOMIC ANA...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ALYSES .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Page 7

............. 9

............ 13

........... 14

............ 14

............. 14

............. 15

............ 17

............ 18

............. 20

............. 24

............. 26

............ 27

............. 27

............ 28

............. 28

............. 29

............ 30

............. 31

............ 31

............. 32

............. 32

............. 33

........... 35

............ 35

............ 37

............ 38

........... 40

............ 40

............ 43

............. 43

............. 44

............. 45

............. 46

............ 47

............. 48

........... 50

............ 50

............ 53

............. 53

............. 53

........... 55

............ 55

............. 56

............ 59

............. 60

........... 64

........... 66

........... 68

D2.1.1. CAS

Acronym

AC

CENS

CMMS

DC

DSB

DSO

ENTSO‐E

ERP

FASIT

GIS

HV

ICT

IT

LV

MV

NIS

NVE

RCM

SCADA

TSO

VHV

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ms

Alternat

Cost of E

(KILE – K

Comput

Direct C

Norweg

(Direkto

Distribu

E Europea

Enterpri

Data bas

(Feil‐ og

Geograp

High Vo

Informa

Informa

Low Vol

Medium

Network

Norweg

(Norges

Reliabilit

Supervis

Transmi

Very Hig

ELECTRICITY NE

ting Current

Energy Not S

Kostnad Ikke

terized Maint

urrent

ian Directora

oratet for Sam

tion System

an Network o

ise Resource

se on faults a

g AvbruddSta

phic Informa

ltage

tion and Com

tion Techno

tage

m Voltage

k Informatio

ian Water Re

Vassdradgs‐

ty Centered

sory Control

ssion System

gh Voltage

TWORKS

Supplied

Levert Energ

tenance Man

ate for Civil P

mfunnsikkerh

Operator

of Transmiss

e Planning

and outages

atistikk I Tota

tion System

mmunication

logy

n System

esources and

‐ og Energidi

Maintenanc

and Data Ac

m Operator

gi)

nagement Sy

Protection

het og Bered

ion System O

in the Norw

alnettet)

ns Technolog

d Energy Dire

irektorat)

ce

cquisition

ystem

dskap)

Operators fo

wegian electr

gy

ectorate

r Electricity

icity networ

rk

Page 8

D2.1.1. CAS

1. DES

The elec

Still, it re

power to

History

Over a h

happene

system m

were se

transmis

of existi

provide

Generat

The elec

Gen

imp

prod

rene

plut

Tran

mor

Use

elec

pow

SE STUDY 1/4 –

SCRIPTION

ctrical powe

elies on a ve

o customers

hundred yea

ed in 1882 a

made up of 4

eparate syste

ssion grids h

ng systems,

better acces

tion – Transp

ctrical power

neration/pro

ly large uni

ducing only

ewable reso

tonium).

nsport – Tra

re details.

(consumpti

ctrical energ

wer system.

ELECTRICITY NE

N OF SYSTE

r system is o

ery simple pr

).

ars ago, the

and the obje

400 lamps, e

ems supplyi

ave develop

and throug

ss to reliable

port ‐ Consum

r system can

duction – Th

ts with prod

a few kW.

ources like

nsport of el

on) – Electri

y to work a

TWORKS

EM PURPO

one of the m

rinciple: gene

first power

ective of the

ach one of 8

ing major in

ped through

gh the interc

sources of p

mption

be roughly d

he generatio

duction capa

The primary

water, biog

ectricity inc

icity use incl

and/or opera

OSE AND

most comple

eration, tran

plant came

e power pla

83 Watts, in a

ndustrialized

the continue

connection o

power.

divided in th

n part is wh

acity of sev

y sources o

gas and win

ludes both t

ludes all equ

ate and rece

FUNCTIO

ex systems c

nsport and co

into service

nt was to s

a 1.5 km rad

d towns. Th

ed addition o

of regional a

ree major pa

ere all electr

veral hundre

f energy ca

nd until fos

transmission

uipment, obj

eives energy

NS

conceived an

onsumption

e in Pearl St

upply power

ius area. The

e continent

of higher vo

and national

arts as also il

rical energy

ds of MW d

n also be ve

sil and ato

n and distrib

jects or appl

y from the t

nd designed

(i.e. deliver

treet, New Y

r to a public

e first power

tal‐scale high

oltage system

systems in

llustrated in

is produced.

down to sm

ery diversifi

mic fuels (

bution; see b

lications tha

transport pa

Page 9

by man.

electrical

York. This

c lighting

r systems

h‐voltage

ms on top

order to

Figure 1:

. This can

mall units

ed, from

coal and

below for

at require

rt of the

D2.1.1. CAS

The elec

Tran

amo

that

"hig

(VHV

up t

Dist

end

(also

Another

network

countrie

them. Th

as backu

between

generati

SE STUDY 1/4 –

FI

ctrical netwo

nsmission –

ounts of ene

t feed the d

ghway system

V) networks

transformers

tribution – T

‐user. In the

o known as d

type of net

ks, is the in

es, regions o

his increases

up instead o

n networks i

on compani

ELECTRICITY NE

IGURE 1 – THE

rk can basica

The transm

ergy over larg

istribution n

m" for elect

. The large p

s and feed po

The objective

e last few yea

distributed g

tworks, whic

nterconnecti

or different n

s the reliabili

of relying so

n an open m

es connected

TWORKS

E ELECTRICAL

ally be divide

mission netw

ge distances

network. Thu

tricity trans

production u

ower into the

e of distribu

ars, this netw

generation); s

ch is usually

on network

network ope

ty of the inte

olely on the

market, allow

d to neighbo

L POWER SYST

ed into trans

works are re

s from major

us, the tran

port. Theref

units are con

e grid of the

ution networ

work is also u

see Figure 1

considered

k. These ne

erators, and

erconnected

eir own) and

wing clients

ouring netwo

TEM – AN ILLU

smission and

sponsible fo

r generation

smission net

fore, these

nected to th

transmissio

rks is to tran

used for con

.

as part of t

etworks esta

they allow

d networks (s

d increases

from one n

orks.

USTRATION [1

distribution

or the transp

the load ce

twork can b

networks ar

he transmissi

n lines.

nsport and d

nection of sm

he distributi

ablish the c

transport of

since both ne

the comme

etwork to b

1].

n networks:

port of con

entres via su

be interprete

re very high

ion network

deliver energ

mall‐scale ge

ion and tran

connection

f electricity

etwork use t

ercial trade

uy electric e

Page 10

siderable

bstations

ed as the

h voltage

via step‐

gy to the

eneration

nsmission

between

between

the other

potential

energy to

D2.1.1. CAS

The inte

same sy

with diff

systems

regards t

FIGUR

SE STUDY 1/4 –

erconnection

ynchronised

ferent synch

in different

to synchroni

RE 2 – SYNCHR

ELECTRICITY NE

n of power s

frequency a

ronisms thro

t countries

ism.

RONOUSLY IN

TWORKS

systems req

t all time. In

ough direct c

in Europe a

NTERCONNECT

quires that a

nterconnect

current (DC)

are interconn

TED SYSTEMS

all interconn

ion is also p

interconnec

nected and

S WITHIN THE

ected powe

possible betw

tions. Figure

how they a

E ENTSO‐E AR

er systems s

ween power

e 2 shows ho

are coordina

REA (ENTSO‐E

Page 11

share the

r systems

ow power

ated with

2011))

D2.1.1. CAS

The leng

km (NVE

network

shown in

To give a

transfor

there w

voltages

in the tr

number

20 000 f

2005).

1 person

SE STUDY 1/4 –

gth of cables

E 2010) wh

k in Norway

n the Figure

FIGUR

an impressio

mer stations

were approxi

s above 20 kV

ansmission a

of transfor

for voltages

al communic

ELECTRICITY NE

s and overhe

ereof the m

is approxim

3.

RE 3 – THE TR

on of orders

s and switch

imately 3 50

V1. This num

and distribut

mers is pro

above 145 k

cation with L

TWORKS

ead lines in t

major part is

mately 11 000

RANSMISSION

of magnitud

gear (see se

00 transform

mber includes

tion parts. If

bably more

kV and more

L. Lundgaard

the Norweg

s distributio

0 km. A map

N NETWORK IN

de for other

ection 2.1.2 f

mer stations

s stations in

one also inc

than 100 00

e than 120 0

d, SINTEF Ene

ian electricit

n network.

p of the No

N NORWAY (M

r component

for definition

s in the No

the product

cluded low‐v

00. The num

000 for the v

ergy Researc

ty network is

The length

rwegian tran

MELD. ST. 14,

ts, we also m

n of these co

orwegian ele

tion part of t

oltage distri

mber of swit

voltage levels

h, February

s more than

of the tran

nsmission ne

, 2012)

mention num

omponents).

ectricity net

the system a

bution netw

tchgears lie

s around 20

2013.

Page 12

n 300 000

nsmission

etwork is

mbers for

. In 2008,

work for

as well as

works, the

s around

0 kV (NVE

D2.1.1. CAS

Delimita

In this re

of electr

are of im

Section 2

transmis

1.1 SYST

The mai

producti

should b

at all tim

In order

should s

transmis

Power q

various e

regulato

adopt ad

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ations and sc

eport, we wi

ricity are not

mportance fo

2.7 provides

ssion and dis

TEM FUNCTI

in function o

ion (generat

be transporte

me with the r

r to maintai

start up and

ssion system

quality refers

equipment (

ors are defini

dequate tech

ELECTRICITY NE

cope

ll focus on e

further disc

or the descrip

a short desc

stribution sys

ONS

of electrical

tion) locatio

ed with mini

required qua

n continuou

d shut down

operator, se

s to distortio

(both on pro

ng requirem

hnical solutio

TWORKS

lectricity tra

ussed here,

ption and un

cription of an

stem.

networks is

ons to the f

imal losses. T

ntity and qu

us power sup

n in a coord

ee section 2.

ons in the e

oduction and

ments for qua

ons to reduce

nsmission an

apart from w

nderstanding

ncillary syste

s to ensure

final custom

The custome

uality.

pply of requ

inated mann

.3, is respons

electrical pow

d supply side

ality of electr

e distortions

nd distributio

when aspect

g of the elect

ems that are

the transpo

mer and con

er should be

uired quanti

ner, depend

sible for this

wer supply.

e) that is con

ric energy an

s.

on. Electricit

s of generat

ricity netwo

related to o

ort of electri

sumption lo

supplied wi

ty and qual

ing upon th

coordinatio

These disto

nnected to th

nd impose th

ty generation

ion and cons

rk.

or used to co

ical energy

ocations. Th

ith continuo

ity, product

he supply ne

n).

rtions are c

he network.

he involved p

Page 13

n and use

sumption

ontrol the

from the

e energy

us power

ion units

eeds (the

aused by

National

parties to

D2.1.1. CAS

2. DES

In this ch

to differ

Netw

Netw

Netw

Pow

Vuln

In additi

in the las

2.1 NETW

2.1.1 NET

Two imp

Tran

Volt

These tw

have alre

are restr

Voltage

The volt

The netw

Low

Med

2 Voltage l

SE STUDY 1/4 –

SCRIPTION

hapter, the c

ent aspects:

work system

work topolo

work operat

wer quality an

nerability

on, ancillary

st section of

WORK SYSTE

TWORK SYSTE

portant aspe

nsmission an

tage level

wo aspects a

eady been in

ricted to the

level

age level of

work voltage

w Voltage (LV

dium Voltage

evels boundari

ELECTRICITY NE

N OF SYSTE

characteristi

m and compo

gy

tion and resp

nd operation

y systems tha

f this chapter

EM AND COM

M HIERARCH

cts of system

nd distributio

are closely re

ntroduced a

aspect of vo

a network i

e levels are c

V) – if the rat

e (MV) – if th

ies vary from co

TWORKS

EM CHARA

ics and prop

onent hierarc

ponsibilities

nal limits

at are require

r.

MPONENT H

Y

m hierarchy a

on

elated to eac

nd explained

oltage level.

s often a go

lassified in th

ed voltage in

he rated volt

ountry to count

ACTERIST

perties of the

chy

ed for the op

HIERARCHY

are:

ch other (see

d in the prev

ood guidance

he following

n the networ

tage of the n

try. Values pres

TICS AND P

e electricity

peration of t

e below). Sin

vious chapte

e to determi

g classes2:

rk is up to 1 k

etwork is ov

sented are the o

PROPERTI

network are

he network

nce transmis

r, the descri

ne the hiera

kV

ver 1 kV up to

ones applied in

IES

e described a

are briefly p

ssion and dis

iptions in thi

archy of the

o 35 kV

n Norway

Page 14

according

presented

stribution

is section

network.

D2.1.1. CAS

High

Very

Whereas

range of

Higher‐v

the trans

of custo

impacts

The len

bellowde

2.1.2 COM

All comp

they hav

its requi

In the fo

network

SE STUDY 1/4 –

h Voltage (HV

y High Voltag

s the higher

f 220 kV), the

voltage netw

smission net

omers throu

less than an

gths of the

ebajo de.

MPONENT HIE

ponents in t

ve to fulfil. A

red function

ollowing tabl

k are briefly d

ELECTRICITY NE

V) – if the ra

ge (VHV) – if

r voltage lev

e lower volta

works are mo

twork implie

ughout a vas

hundred cu

e Norwegian

TABLE 1

IN THE NO

N

ERARCHY

he network

A failure occu

ns.

e, the const

discussed.

TWORKS

ted voltage o

f the rated vo

els are used

age levels are

ore importan

s a failure to

st area, wh

stomers in a

n networks

– LENGTHS O

ORWEGIAN P

Network volt1 – 2

33 – 1150 – 4

have a purp

urs when the

ruction and

of the netwo

oltage of the

d for transm

e used for th

nt and critica

o supply of h

ile an outa

a reasonably

on differen

OF DIFFERENT

POWER SYSTE

tage (kV) 2 32 420

pose, i.e. the

e component

main functio

ork is over 35

e network is o

ission (main

he distributio

al than lowe

undreds of M

ge in the lo

confined are

nt voltage

T VOLTAGE NE

M (MELD. ST.

Length (km98 84218 68711 062

ey have one

t is no longe

ons for the m

5 kV up to 23

over 235 kV

ly VHV, in so

on network (

r‐voltage net

MW, which c

ow‐voltage d

ea.

levels are s

ETWORKS

. 14, 2012)

m)

or more req

r able to per

most relevan

35 kV

ome cases H

HV, MV and

tworks. An o

can impact th

distribution

shown in t

quired funct

rform one or

nt componen

Page 15

HV in the

LV).

outage in

housands

network

he table

ions that

r more of

nts in the

D2.1.1. CAS

CompoOverh

Line

Cabl

Transfo

Switch

Capaci

Induct

(react

coil

Insula

SE STUDY 1/4 –

onent Funhead

es

Tra

pow

les Tra

pow

rmers Tra

ene

con

hgear Con

line

inte

trig

itors Cap

to s

to t

tors

tors,

s)

Ind

ban

con

from

ators Insu

pro

sup

diff

cha

ELECTRICITY NE

TABLE 2

nction nsport elect

wer

nsport elect

wer

nsfer electro

ergy at specif

nditions

nnect or disc

es and comp

errupt curren

ggered by a s

pacitor banks

supply reacti

the network

uctors in rea

nks are used

nsume reacti

m the netwo

ulators are u

ovide mechan

pport and sep

ferently volta

arged compo

TWORKS

2 – MAIN COM

rical

rical

omagnetic

fied

connect

onents, or

nt when

signal

s are used

ive power

actance

to

ve power

ork

used to

nical

parate

age

onents

MPONENTS AN

DescriptionOverhead l

with the in

physically a

adjacent co

Cables are

favourable

and/or ope

A transform

numerous

the magne

insulating

The switch

a moving).

magnetic s

existing co

switchgear

and gas‐fill

A capacitor

store energ

consists of

separated

An inducto

stores ener

conductor

the coil is w

Insulators c

insulators h

of glass or

have a com

polymer ho

ND THEIR FUN

n line consists

sulation and

and electrica

onductors w

used instead

due to envi

erating reliab

mer is a com

parts from w

etic core, the

material.

gear is form

The moving

pring that, o

ntacts. There

r, such as sw

ed switchge

r is a passive

gy in an elect

at least two

by an insulat

or is a passive

rgy in a mag

line wound i

wound aroun

can be ceram

have an insu

porcelain, w

mposite insul

ousing

NCTIONS

of the condu

d support to

ally separated

ith different

d of overhea

ronmental, e

bility concern

mplex structu

which the mo

e windings (c

ed by two co

element is c

once activate

e are differe

itch breakers

ar.

e electrical co

tric field. A c

electrical co

tor.

e electrical co

netic field. A

in a coil. For

nd an iron co

mic or polym

lating part m

whereas polym

ating part co

uctor itself t

keep the con

d from groun

voltage.

ad lines wher

economic, sp

ns.

ure, consistin

ost importan

conductor) an

ontacts (a sta

connected to

ed, separates

nt types of

s, circuit‐bre

omponent us

capacitor usu

onductors

omponent th

An inductor is

some induct

ore.

meric. Cerami

manufacture

meric insulat

onsisting of a

Page 16

ogether

nductor

nd and

re this is

patial

ng of

nt are

nd the

atic and

o a

s the

eakers

sed to

ually

hat

s a

tors,

c

d either

tors

a

D2.1.1. CAS

2.2 NETW

The netw

and it af

Rad

in a

of a

poin

Mes

mor

prep

This

the

Ring

ring

ope

case

The desc

FIGURE

SE STUDY 1/4 –

WORK TOPO

work topolog

ffects how th

ial – Radial n

common po

a failure, this

nt.

shed – Mesh

re than one

pared to wit

s is the topo

more expen

g network w

g network is

rated as a r

e of line fault

cribed basic

4 – NETWOR

ELECTRICITY NE

OLOGY

gy usually de

he power sys

networks sta

oint. Typicall

s topology ca

hed network

line in orde

thstand the t

logy that off

sive to build

with radial us

a large mes

radial netwo

ts or disconn

network top

K POSSIBLE TO

TWORKS

epends on th

stem is opera

art on a singl

y, the startin

annot supply

ks are netwo

er to form c

transport of

fers more re

due to incre

se – A good

shed networ

ork. The lines

nection of th

pologies are i

OPOLOGIES W

RADIA

he number a

ated. Basic n

e point and

ng point will

y customers

orks where g

closed mesh

f the rated p

liability in th

eased numbe

compromise

rk with switc

s disconnect

e main lines

illustrated in

WITH (A) RAD

AL USE (PAIVA

and types of

etwork topo

spread out i

be a genera

for the area

generation a

es. All the l

power in case

he transport

er of lines.

e between r

ch breakers

ted by the s

.

n Figure 4.

DIAL, (B) MESH

A 2005)

customers t

ologies are:

nto several l

ation unit or

as that are lo

and custome

ines in this

e the other

of electrical

radial and m

that ensure

switch break

HED AND (C) R

he network

lines that ne

a substation

ocated after

ers are conn

kind of netw

line is out o

l energy and

meshed netw

e that the ne

kers act as b

RING NETWO

Page 17

connects

ever cross

n. In case

the fault

nected by

work are

f service.

it is also

works, the

etwork is

backup in

RK WITH

D2.1.1. CAS

Because

network

delivery

Topology

and mai

cost due

could be

sustaine

mainten

some cu

2.3 NETW

As the

operatio

system o

Although

own the

whole in

Transmi

Transmis

the mai

developm

the safe

TSOs are

traders,

and tran

indepen

power e

SE STUDY 1/4 –

the product

k is usually

if any fault s

y has an imp

intenance co

e to the dupl

e expected

ed through o

ance and hig

stomers.

WORK OPER

electricity n

onal respons

operators an

h in Europe t

e generation,

nfrastructure

ssion System

ssion System

in high volt

ment of the

operation (s

e the ones p

suppliers, d

nsparent ru

dently from

xchange (EN

ELECTRICITY NE

tion and loa

based on a

situation occ

pact on the

osts. For exa

lication of co

in operation

other lines. A

gh costs in o

RATION AND

network is

sibility for t

d distributio

the electricit

, networks a

e in still owne

m Operators

m Operators

tage electric

grid infrast

system balan

providing grid

distributors a

les. In the

the other e

NTSO‐E 2012)

TWORKS

d areas are

meshed ne

curs.

network reli

ample, a me

onnections b

n since a fau

A radial netw

operation du

D RESPONSIB

divided into

he network

n system ope

ty infrastruct

nd retail bus

ed by state‐o

(TSOs) are re

c networks.

ructure. In o

ncing and con

d access to t

and directly

European U

electricity ma

).

normally se

etwork in or

iability, as w

eshed netwo

between the

ult in a com

work has low

e to the cost

BILITIES

o a transmi

k is usually

erators.

ture is decen

sinesses), th

owned vertic

esponsible f

In many c

order to ens

ngestion ma

the electricit

connected

Union, inter

arket players

eparated by

rder to mai

well as on the

ork has a hig

several netw

mponent can

wer building

ts that may

ission and a

shared betw

ntralized (th

ere are coun

cally integrat

or the bulk t

countries, T

ure secure s

nagement) a

ty market pla

customers)

rnal electric

s, but provid

large distanc

ntain sufficie

e network in

gh investme

work points

n be isolated

g costs, but

result from i

a distributio

ween, respe

ere are sepa

ntries around

ted compani

transmission

SOs are als

supply, the T

and mainten

ayers (i.e. ge

according to

city market

ding informa

ces, the tran

ent redunda

nvestment, o

ent and main

although low

d and suppl

it has some

interrupted s

on system,

ectively, tran

arate compa

d the world

es.

n of electric p

so in charge

TSOs must g

nance of the

enerating co

o non‐discri

TSOs are o

ation and su

Page 18

nsmission

ancy and

operation

ntenance

wer costs

y can be

e costs in

supply to

also the

nsmission

nies who

were the

power on

e of the

uarantee

system.

mpanies,

minatory

operating

pport for

D2.1.1. CAS

Distribut

Distribut

network

Ownersh

Many TS

Germany

transmis

DSOs ar

around 1

having m

Regulati

Since th

revenue

electricit

efficient

exploitin

discrimin

In Norw

network

which in

supply (t

of the to

The inco

own cos

The inco

with res

SE STUDY 1/4 –

tion system

tion system

ks which dist

hip

SOs are state

y) where tra

ssion networ

e usually ow

160 DSOs – m

more than 10

ion of transm

he TSOs and

s, which ar

ty network,

manageme

ng their mo

natory and o

ay, the Norw

k company (

nfluence the

through CEN

otal annual p

ome cap of th

ts, depreciat

ome of distrib

pect to all o

ELECTRICITY NE

operators

operators (D

ribute electr

e (publicly) o

ansmission n

rk is operate

wned by the

most of them

00 000 custo

mission and

d DSOs hav

e the basis

are regulate

ent and deve

onopoly pos

objective tari

wegian Wate

OED 2008).

network cos

NS – cost of

permitted inc

he Norwegia

tion and grid

bution comp

other DSOs in

TWORKS

DSOs) are re

ricity to all cu

owned, altho

etworks are

d by several

e local autho

m being rath

mers (OED 2

distribution

e the mono

for funding

ed by the a

elopment of

itions, i.e. t

ffs and that

er and Energ

The income

sts, such as:

energy not s

come.

an TSO (Statn

d capital in th

panies is base

n Norway. To

esponsible fo

ustomers con

ough there a

partly privat

TSOs, for ex

orities and t

her small hav

2012).

networks

opoly on el

g of operat

uthorities. T

f the networ

to ensure t

t all custome

gy Directorat

e regulation

climate, top

supplied) is d

nett) is settle

he previous t

ed on an eva

o properly e

or maintainin

nnected to t

re countries

tely owned.

xample Germ

he state. In

ving less than

ectricity tra

ion, mainte

The scope o

rk and to pr

that networ

ers have acce

te (NVE) det

scheme tak

pography and

directly take

ed every yea

two years.

aluation of h

evaluate the

ng and opera

hese networ

(Denmark, B

In some Eur

many has fou

Norway, for

n 5 000 custo

nsport, the

nance and

f the regula

revent netw

k services a

ess to the pow

termines an

kes into acco

d network to

en into accou

ar and is bas

ow each indi

efficiency of

ating the dis

rks.

Belgium, Ne

ropean coun

r TSOs.

r example, t

omers, with

network o

developmen

ation is to e

work compan

are offered

wer market.

income cap

ount relevan

opology. Reli

unt in the ca

sed on the co

ividual DSO

f each TSO,

Page 19

stribution

therland,

tries, the

there are

only few

perators’

nt of the

nsure an

nies from

at non‐

for each

nt factors

iability of

alculation

ompany’s

performs

NVE uses

D2.1.1. CAS

the DEA

compan

By redu

scheme

when m

And sho

energy n

Funding

A netwo

regulate

the netw

The netw

electricit

compon

transmis

vary wit

income i

In additi

use. The

retailer

owning t

2.3.1 ELEC

In count

and reta

structure

SE STUDY 1/4 –

A method (d

ies such as g

cing grid co

gives the c

aking operat

rt interruptio

not supplied,

ork company

ed level. All n

work.

work tariffs

ty the user f

ent. This pa

ssion of an e

h energy us

in relation to

ion to netwo

e price for th

(or market t

the network

CTRICITY MAR

tries where t

ail operate a

e of a liberal

ELECTRICITY NE

data envelop

geographic an

ompanies’ in

ompanies a

tional or inve

ons (duratio

, Langset et a

y’s income,

network use

are made up

feeds into (i

rt of the tar

extra kWh (t

sage and inc

o the income

ork tariffs, th

his is decided

trader) whic

they are con

RKET

the power in

s separate b

ized electric

TWORKS

pment analy

nd climatic d

comes in th

n incentive

estment dec

n under 3 m

al. (2001) an

which deriv

rs (both gen

p of two ma

nput) or tap

riff reflects t

he marginal

ludes all cha

e cap

he consumer

d on the ma

ch may or m

nnected to.

ndustry is ve

businesses. F

ity system as

ysis) to take

differences.

he event of

to take cus

cisions. Both

minutes) are c

d Kjølle et al

es from tari

neration and

ain compone

ps (consump

the cost of t

loss rate). T

arges in the

rs of electric

arket (see se

may not be

ertically unbu

Figure 5, fro

s it exists for

into accoun

delivery int

tomer inter

long interru

considered (

l. (2008)).

iffs, must no

d consumers

ents. One of

tion) from t

the change

The second c

tariff that a

city must als

ection 2.3.1)

the same as

undled gene

m IRGC (200

r example in

nt relevant

terruptions,

ruption cost

ptions (dura

see also sect

ot be higher

) must pay a

these varies

he grid, and

in power los

component o

are intended

o pay for th

. They buy t

s the local d

ration, trans

06), illustrate

Europe and

differences

the CENS re

ts into cons

ation over 3 m

tion 4.2.2 on

r than the m

a tariff for th

s with the am

d is called th

ss resulting

of the tariff

d to ensure s

he actual ene

this electricit

distribution

smission, dis

es the organ

North Amer

Page 20

between

egulation

ideration

minutes).

n costs of

maximum

he use of

mount of

he energy

from the

does not

sufficient

ergy they

ty from a

company

stribution

nizational

rica.

D2.1.1. CAS

Producti

indepen

the elec

energy q

While pr

transmis

would n

distribut

the netw

discusse

users, an

optimal

FIGURE 5

3 Nord Poo

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ion units can

dent produc

ctricity is tra

quantities an

roducers and

ssion networ

not be profi

tion of elect

works (TSOs

ed above, th

nd to achiev

way.

5 – ORGANIZA

ol Spot website

ELECTRICITY NE

n be owned

cers is an imp

ded on soph

nd prices (see

d consumers

rks are consi

table for th

ricity) and a

and DSOs ‐

e responsib

ve this, they

ATIONAL STRU

e: http://www.n

TWORKS

by different

portant prem

histicated m

e for exampl

s can be com

dered natur

he society to

re therefore

transmissio

ility to main

have to buil

UCTURE OF A

nordpoolspot.c

t companies

mise for mar

market arrang

e Nord Pool

mpetitive bu

al monopoli

o have com

e under regu

n and distrib

ntain quality

d, maintain

LIBERALIZED

om/About‐us/

and the exi

rket liberaliza

gements wh

Spot websit

usiness (mark

es (i.e. due t

mpeting infra

ulatory state

bution syste

and continu

and operate

(UNBUNDLED

stence of a

ation. In mos

hich may go

e3).

ket players),

to the large i

astructures f

e control. Th

m operators

uity of elect

e the system

D) ELECTRICIT

sufficient nu

st of these c

up to hour

, the distribu

infrastructur

for transmis

e entities co

s/managers)

tricity supply

m in a socio‐e

TY SYSTEM (IR

Page 21

umber of

countries,

ly traded

ution and

re costs it

ssion and

ontrolling

have, as

y to end‐

economic

RGC 2006)

D2.1.1. CAS

The who

parallel

control,

The cro

mainten

between

The basi

Prod

Elec

Limitatio

impact o

during t

transmis

regions o

is greate

countrie

which ha

the bott

with ele

TSOs ma

made in

Limitatio

or even

time sys

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ole electricity

information

see section

oss border

ance issues

n countries a

c operation

duction = co

ctricity is trad

Bilateral co

and some m

The day ahe

The reserve

'Instant' ho

ons in the ca

on the tradi

the hours w

ssion capaci

or countries.

er than loca

es (and regio

ave usually a

tleneck occu

ctricity defic

ay need to d

advance.

ons in the tr

by planned

tem operatio

ELECTRICITY NE

y infrastruct

and comm

2.7 for more

transmission

is influenci

and by the el

principles of

nsumption +

ded in advan

ontracts – us

main industri

ead‐biding

e market

urly power e

apacity of tr

ng in the po

with peak co

ty due to t

. In these sit

l generation

ons). The TSO

a higher ma

urred. Bottle

cit. In rare sit

disconnect sp

ansmission c

maintenanc

on or betwe

TWORKS

ure is suppo

unication te

e details.

n of electri

ng and it is

ectricity mar

f the electric

+ losses at all

nce through:

sually long t

al users/reta

exchange

ransmitting p

ower marke

onsumption

the imbalan

uations, ther

n plus the im

Os may then

rginal price

enecks will t

tuations, if t

pecific custo

capacity can

ce – if the m

en TSOs.

orted by a ra

echnology (IC

icity and co

very much

rket (where

ity market a

l times. The T

erm, fix pric

ailers)

power betw

et and on m

during the

nce between

re may be re

mport throug

need to dis

comparing w

hus contribu

there are no

omers, at a c

n also be cau

maintenance

apidly increa

CT) infrastru

ooperation

influenced

it exists, bet

re:

TSOs are res

ce‐fix quanti

ween regions

arket prices

day), bottle

n generation

egions or cou

gh transmiss

spatch local r

with what w

ute to short

locally avail

cost – agree

used by failu

e plans are n

sing (in size

ucture for sy

between sy

by the way

ween differe

sponsible for

ty contracts

and countr

. For examp

necks may

n and consu

untries wher

sion intercon

reserves of g

was establishe

term price

lable reserve

ments with

res and unp

not well corr

and comple

ystem opera

ystem oper

y electricity

ent countries

r this balance

s between p

ries can have

ple, at times

exist in the

umption in

re the power

nnections w

generation c

ed on marke

increases in

es on short t

these custo

planned main

related with

Page 22

exity) and

ation and

ators on

is traded

s).

e.

producers

e a great

s (usually

physical

different

r demand

ith other

capacities

et before

n regions

term, the

mers are

ntenance

h the real

D2.1.1. CAS

SE STUDY 1/4 – ELECTRICITY NETWORKS

Page 23

D2.1.1. CAS

2.3.2 EUR

To give a

on Europ

between

organiza

of succe

(six) pred

FIG

ENTSO‐E

the EU (4

and for a

need for

and man

ensure c

transmis

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ROPEAN CROS

an example

pe. Figure 6

n different co

ations betwe

essful TSO co

decessor ass

GURE 6 – TRA

E (The Europ

41 TSOs from

all their tech

r increased c

naging effect

coordinated

ssion system

ELECTRICITY NE

SS BORDER OP

on cross bo

illustrates th

ountries in E

en the coun

oordination

sociations in

NS‐BOUNDAR

pean Networ

m 34 Europe

hnical and m

cooperation a

tive and tran

and sufficie

.

TWORKS

PERATION AN

rder cooper

he relatively

Europe which

tries TSOs (E

was taking f

Europe.

RY PHYSICAL

rk of Transm

an countries

arket issues

and coordina

nsparent acc

ently forward

ND COOPERAT

ration betwe

y high degree

h historically

ENTSO‐E 200

further by E

ENERGY FLOW

mission Syste

s) and others

(ENTSO‐E 20

ation in crea

cess to the t

d‐looking pla

TION

een transmis

e of intercon

y lead to vari

09). After the

ENTSO‐e in 2

WS (GWH) IN

em Operator

s connected

006). ENTSO

ting network

transmission

anning and s

ssion system

nnection and

ous coopera

e EU was crea

2009 which

EUROPE IN 2

rs) represent

to their netw

‐E has been

k codes: regu

networks a

sound techn

operators,

d exchange o

ation agreem

ated, the lon

unified/repl

2005 (UCTE 20

ts all electric

works, for al

established

ulations for p

cross borde

nical evolutio

Page 24

we focus

of energy

ments and

ng history

aced the

006)

c TSOs in

l regions,

from the

providing

rs and to

on of the

D2.1.1. CAS

ENTSO‐E

Code on

study. T

for ensu

applicab

Dete

coo

effic

Dete

tran

The code

the resp

or seve

coordina

relevant

mainten

specific c

Accordin

coordina

aspects t

Each reg

a) A

a

b) A

a

t

c) A

SE STUDY 1/4 –

E has recent

n Operationa

his network

ring coheren

ble. This code

ermining co

rdinated ana

cient functio

ermining co

nsmission an

e is applicab

ponsibility to

ral outage

ated mainten

t network co

ance, grid d

conditions fo

ng to the Op

ation regions

that may aff

gion will ope

All transmiss

areas;

All transmiss

availability s

through a m

All critical ne

ELECTRICITY NE

tly (7 Novem

al Planning a

code define

nt and coord

e focuses on

ommon time

alysis for rea

ning of the E

onditions to

d distributio

ble to all TSO

elaborate a

planning re

nance works

omponents,

developmen

or execution

erational Pla

s within Euro

fect the netw

rate with a c

sion and dis

sion and dist

status impac

ethodology

etwork elem

TWORKS

mber 2012) i

and Schedul

es the minim

inated prepa

cross‐borde

e horizons,

al time oper

European int

o plan outa

n system op

Os and DSOs

nd update fo

egions (parts

s having imp

containing

t, reparation

of the outag

anning and S

ope. The TSO

work operatio

common list

tribution ne

tribution net

cts another T

commonly a

ents.

issued for p

ing (ENTSO‐

mum operat

aration of re

er network is

methodolo

ration to ma

ternal electri

ages allowi

perators.

s as well as s

or each time

s of the Eu

pacts on cros

information

n or combin

ge and restit

Scheduling co

Os in each re

on, including

of relevant n

twork eleme

twork eleme

TSOs respon

agreed

ublic consul

‐E 2012) wh

tional planni

eal‐time oper

sues aiming

ogies and p

aintain oper

icity market;

ng works

significant ne

e horizon, a c

uropean Ne

ss border po

on: outage

ned, works

tution time.

ode, the TSO

egion have t

g maintenanc

network elem

ents connect

nts of a TSO

nsibility area

tation the D

ich is the m

ng and sche

ration of the

at:

rinciples all

ational secu

required by

etwork users

coordinated

etwork). The

ower flows. T

e dates, outa

to be done

Os have to de

he obligation

ce schedulin

ments includ

ting differen

responsibili

to a thresh

Draft of the

most relevan

eduling requ

e transmissio

owing to c

urity and sup

y power pr

s. Each TSO

outages pla

ese plans w

The plans wi

age reasons

e on the eq

efine relevan

n to coopera

ng.

ding for exam

nt TSOs resp

ity area for w

hold level est

Page 25

Network

t for this

irements

on system

carry out

pport the

roducers,

will have

n for one

will allow

ill list the

s such as

uipment,

nt outage

ate on all

mple:

onsibility

which the

tablished

D2.1.1. CAS

The info

should in

a) T

g

b) S

c) T

O

2.3.3 NET

A numb

network

commer

mainly u

parts of

N‐1 crite

Most po

probable

the inter

of consu

accomm

regime

consump

predicta

TSOs mo

system

computa

power s

TSOs aff

SE STUDY 1/4 –

rmation abo

nclude at lea

The reason f

grid develop

Specific con

relevant net

Time requir

Operational

TWORK ANALY

er of metho

k (i.e. analy

rcially availa

used for ope

the network

erion

ower grids a

e single even

rconnected o

umption. The

modate the a

caused by t

ption in their

ble and loca

onitor the N

(their own

ations for ris

ystem to an

ected.

ELECTRICITY NE

out the netw

ast:

for every un

pment, repar

nditions that

work elemen

ed to restor

Security.

YSIS

ods and too

ysis of cons

ble tools are

eration of th

k. The tools a

are operated

nt leading to

operation, th

e remaining

additional lo

the initial fa

r own area o

lly limited“ (

N‐1 criterion

system and

sk analysis.

n N‐1 compli

TWORKS

ork compon

available sta

ration or com

t need to b

nt and

re service o

ls exist for

equences fo

e integrated

e network, e

are also used

d according

a loss of a p

at is, trigger

network el

ad or chang

ailure. It is

on condition

UCTE 2004a

n for their o

some defin

After a con

iant conditio

ents which s

atus of a rele

mbined work

e fulfilled b

f a relevant

power flow

or the netw

part of the

e.g. for mak

d to check if t

to the N‐1

power system

r a cascade o

lements, wh

ge of genera

acceptable

that this am

)

own system

ned parts o

tingency oc

on and, in ca

shall be prov

evant netwo

ks;

before execu

t network e

study and f

work if a c

e network op

king decision

the N‐1 crite

security crit

m element sh

of trippings o

ich are still

ation, voltag

that in som

mount is com

through ob

f adjacent s

curs, each T

ase of any d

ided by each

rk element s

uting an una

lement if ne

failure analy

component

perating syst

on connect

erion is fulfille

terion which

ould not end

or the loss of

in operation

e deviation

me cases, T

mpatible with

servation of

systems) an

TSO works to

delay, immed

h TSO to the

such as main

available sta

ecessary to

ysis in the e

fails). Some

tems. Such

tion/disconn

ed.

h specifies t

danger the se

f a significan

n, should be

or transient

TSOs allow a

h a secure o

f the interco

d carry out

o rapidly re

diately infor

Page 26

ENTSO‐E

ntenance,

atus of a

maintain

electricity

e of the

tools are

ection of

that “any

ecurity of

t amount

e able to

t stability

a loss of

peration,

onnected

security

estore his

ms other

D2.1.1. CAS

The N‐1

more th

deficits,

2004b).

2.4 POW

Low qua

system a

defined

several p

In the pu

with the

with sinu

The curr

(electric

limits are

equipme

under vo

withstan

compon

some lo

frequenc

2.4.1 POW

Power q

the netw

dangero

the netw

Norwegi

SE STUDY 1/4 –

criterion ap

an one failu

inappropria

WER QUALITY

ality of the s

and even pu

by the regu

parameters (

ublic power

e continent o

usoidal wave

rent limits i

ity flow gene

e defined by

ent in/conne

oltage will in

nd large var

ent and its c

oads and ge

cy.

WER QUALITY

quality is a ve

work charact

ous for all eq

work. This is

ian regulator

ELECTRICITY NE

pproach is a

re or of mor

ate applicati

Y AND OPER

upplied elec

ut the safety

ulators of ea

(frequency a

system, the

or region, be

e shape with

in a power

erates heat)

y the insulati

ected to the

crease the c

riations of c

characteristic

enerators st

Y AND NETWO

ery importan

teristics and

quipment con

why Norway

r (NVE 2004)

TWORKS

determinist

re complex f

ion of the N

RATIONAL LIM

ctric power c

y of people a

ach country,

nd voltage li

electric pow

eing, for exa

a certain am

system are

in the trans

on capacity a

network. Ov

current which

current and

cs), the powe

tarting to d

ORK CODES

nt issue whe

its operation

nnected to t

y for exampl

).

tic approach

failure comb

N‐1 has cle

MITS

can damage

at risk. The

, who estab

imits) of the

wer is suppli

ample, 50 H

mplitude.

typically de

sport networ

and thermal

vervoltage w

h can lead to

voltage for

er system is

disconnect a

en looking at

n. Lack of po

the network

le has a very

h which doe

inations. In a

arly contrib

and/or dest

quality requ

lish the max

electric pow

ed in a dete

z in Europe

efined by th

rk like transf

limits of the

will destroy t

o overcurren

r short perio

very intolera

at variation

t electrical n

wer quality

and cause p

y strict powe

s not addres

addition to s

uted to ma

roy equipme

uirements fo

ximum disto

wer.

ermined (rate

and 60 Hz i

he thermic l

ormers, lines

e component

the equipme

nt. While the

ods of time

ant to freque

s of 2% ov

networks and

standards ca

personal dam

r quality cod

ss the occur

some metho

ajor blackou

ent connecte

or electric en

ortion accep

ed) frequenc

in the Unite

limit of com

s and cables

ts in the netw

ent/compone

e power syste

e (depending

ency deviati

ver/under th

d greatly dep

an potentiall

mage to peo

de set forwa

Page 27

rrence of

odological

ts (UCTE

ed to the

nergy are

ptable for

cy (varies

d States)

mponents

s. Voltage

work and

ent while

em might

g on the

ons, with

he rated

pends on

y be very

ple using

rd by the

D2.1.1. CAS

The netw

and req

network

operator

In addit

(Statnett

the netw

keeping

In a Eur

Europea

becomes

operatio

2.5 OPER

2.5.1 OPE

Network

network

short pe

Regardin

common

surge), t

to the ne

The mec

equipme

short‐cir

installed

SE STUDY 1/4 –

work operato

uirements,

k. This means

rs' duty to re

ion to the

t 2012). The

work. It helps

the power q

ropean pers

n transmiss

s even more

on rules of th

RATIONAL S

ERATIONAL ST

k componen

k component

eriods of time

ng electrical

n reasons fo

emporary ov

etwork or sw

chanical stre

ent can be su

rcuit lasts, th

d in open ai

ELECTRICITY NE

ors are the m

although th

s that if anyo

equire the ne

power qual

e FIKS regula

s to assure t

quality a conc

spective, the

ion network

e important

he transmissi

STRESSES AN

TRESSES

nts can be

ts are occas

e) due to ope

stress, com

or voltage str

vervoltages (

witching equi

ess refers to

ubdued to e

he more like

r, like overh

TWORKS

main respons

is responsib

one connect

eed of equip

ity code, th

tes the netw

the participa

cern among

ere is also a

k is used by

that there

ion network.

ND LIFETIME

exposed to

ionally opera

erational req

ponents can

resses are lig

(resulting fro

ipment like s

o forces and

electromecha

ely it is for e

head lines, a

sible for the

bility is to b

ted to the ne

ment to hind

here is also

work operati

tion of powe

all.

an effort in

countries to

are commo

. These rules

OF COMPON

electrical, m

ated to thei

quirements a

n suffer from

ghtning surg

om connectio

switch break

d physical st

anical forces

equipment t

are also exp

compliance

be shared by

etwork cause

der the caus

the networ

ion and the

er generatin

harmonizing

o transport

n rules to e

s are defined

NENTS

mechanical

r limits (and

and demand

m voltage st

ges (lightning

on or discon

kers) and pow

trains. In th

s during shor

to become d

posed to win

with the pow

y all of thos

es disturban

e of those di

k code, nam

connection o

g units and n

g the netwo

electric pow

nsure the sa

by ENTSO‐E

or environm

d sometimes

s or due to e

ress or curr

g hitting a li

nection of h

wer frequenc

e power sys

rt‐circuits pe

damaged). N

nd and ice.

wer quality

se connecte

ces, it is the

isturbances.

med FIKS in

of generator

network ope

ork codes. S

wer across E

ame connec

E (see section

mental stres

s over their

external reas

rent stress. T

ine creates a

igh power co

cy voltages.

stem, almos

eriods (the lo

Network com

Ice for exam

Page 28

demands

ed to the

network

Norway

r units to

erators in

Since the

Europe, it

ction and

n 2.3.2).

sses. The

limits for

sons.

The most

a voltage

onnected

st all the

onger the

mponents

mple can

D2.1.1. CAS

accumul

addition

originate

expansio

Environm

This gro

Compon

specifica

isolation

in salt‐re

using eq

and may

parties.

2.5.2 LIFE

Table 3

numbers

can be s

practical

stresses

Thus, the

There is

In addit

realistic

in Table

T

SE STUDY 1/4 –

late on over

al mechanic

ed by huma

on due to he

mental stres

up of stress

nents and eq

ally designed

n in cables an

esistant con

uipment in a

y lead to in

TIME OF NET

shows estim

s in the table

seen that the

l experience

on the com

e lifetime es

a need for c

ion, stresses

lifetime esti

4.

TABLE 3 – EST

ELECTRICITY NE

head lines a

cal strains to

an actions (

at or during

ss depends o

ses includes

quipment ins

d to operate

nd insulators

tainers, etc.

aggressive en

stallation fa

WORK COMP

mates for th

e are based o

e expected l

e shows the

mponents are

timates in Ta

condition mo

s on the ind

imate. The in

IMATED LIFET

Type oOve

Tra

TWORKS

nd their stru

o the compo

cuts or inap

specific ope

on location,

corrosion, w

stalled in env

in that envi

s, equipment

. The lack o

nvironments

ilure and in

PONENTS

he expected

on NVE (200

ifetime of m

real lifetim

e very differe

able 3 canno

onitoring (se

dividual com

nfluence of d

TIMES FOR DI

of componenterhead lines

Cables

ansformers

Breakers

uctures, incre

onents. Othe

ppropriate h

erating condi

for instance

which is a p

vironmentall

ronment. Fo

t installed n

of considerat

s will decreas

creased safe

lifetime of

05, Table 2) a

most of the c

e varies qui

ent, depend

ot be used as

e chapter 5)

mponent mu

different fac

IFFERENT TYP

t Estimat

easing the o

er mechanic

handling of

tions.

e industrial e

particularly i

ly aggressive

or example:

ear coastal a

tion regardin

se the equip

ety risk to m

components

and are best

components

ite much, be

ding on wher

s basis for ma

to reveal th

ust be consid

ctors on the

PE OF COMPO

ted lifetime [y35‐45

40‐70

40‐50

35‐45

verall weigh

al stresses c

equipment)

environment

mportant iss

e locations a

the oil indus

areas may be

ng environm

ment and/o

maintenance

s in the elec

estimates pr

is around 40

ecause oper

re the comp

aintenance s

he componen

dered to co

lifetime of c

ONENTS (NVE

years]

ht, and this c

can be due

and or to

ts and coast

sue in coast

are often pre

stry uses oil‐

e hermetical

mental stress

r componen

e personnel

ctricity netw

rovided by e

0‐50 years. H

rational and

ponents are

scheduling.

nts' individua

ome up with

components

2005, TABLE

Page 29

can cause

to errors

material

tal areas.

tal areas.

epared or

‐resistant

lly sealed

ses when

t lifetime

or third‐

work. The

experts. It

However,

external

installed.

al health.

h a more

is shown

2)

D2.1.1. CAS

TABL

TypcompOverhe

Ca

Transf

Bre

Importance1 Factor has2 With regar3 Mechanica4 Ambient te5 Number of

2.6 VULN

The elec

critical b

as well

disruptio

criticality

internat

Vulnerab

Hofmann

ability to

Analyses

a combin

min

ove

malf

syst

SE STUDY 1/4 –

E 4 – FACTOR

pe of ponent ead lines

bles

formers

akers

e of lifetime influe

s some importanc

rd to how long th

al stresses, e.g. m

emperature. Env

f operations.

NERABILITY

ctric power s

because pow

as for the

ons of electr

y is high as

ional), magn

bility has tw

n et al. 2012

o recover aft

s of recent b

nation of fac

or single eve

r an overhea

function of

tem automat

ELECTRICITY NE

RS THAT INFLU

Operational

(e.g. current,

number of op

○ 1 ● ● 5

encing factor:

ce, but much less

he equipment is s

movement. Climat

ironmental stres

system is a c

wer supply is

functioning

ricity supply,

s the impac

nitude (major

wo important

2), i.e. the se

er an undesi

blackouts rev

ctors (related

ents ‐ fall of

ad line, or ov

critical equi

tion insufficie

TWORKS

UENCE THE LIF

stresses

voltage,

erations)

○ some i

s than environme

subject to environ

te may be import

ses for transform

omplex, larg

very import

g of other

at least not

ct of a failu

r) and effect

t aspects: Su

ensitivity of

ired event.

vealed that t

d to suscepti

a tree (due t

verload of a l

pment (pos

ent to cope w

FETIME OF DI

Lifetime Environmenta

external stress

wind, snow/

humidity, ligh

● ○ 3 ● 4 ●

mportance

ental and externa

nmental and exte

tant for (cable) te

mers mounted on

ge, extensive

tant for man

vital infrast

t over a wide

ure, loss or

s of time (im

usceptibility

the system

the blackout

bility), as for

to inadequat

ine

sibly as a re

with several

IFFERENT COM

influencing faal and

es (e.g.

/ice,

tning)

C

o

●high imp

l stresses.

ernal stresses.

erminations.

power poles.

e and vulnera

ny social and

tructures. M

e area and a

unavailabili

mmediate) (IR

and coping

to be affect

causes are s

r example:

te vegetation

esult of inad

cascading ev

MPONENTS (N

actorhanges in opera

(e.g. increase

operation, overl

load cycles)

● ● ● ○

portance

able infrastr

economic a

Modern soci

long time p

ty is high i

RGC 2006).

capacity (H

ed by undes

systemic in n

n maintenan

dequate diag

vents

NVE 2005, TA

ration

ed

load,

)

ructure. It qu

activities and

ieties canno

period. The d

n scope (po

Hofmann et

sired events,

nature and r

nce and bad

gnostic tech

Page 30

BLE 1)

Age

○ 2 ○ ●

ualifies as

d services

ot afford

degree of

otentially

al. 2011,

, and the

represent

weather)

niques) ‐

D2.1.1. CAS

the

ade

hum

pote

Operato

prepared

case sce

interrup

personn

high eco

In order

analyses

2.6.1 RISK

In Norw

power sy

hazards,

reducing

reducing

(NVE 201

2.7 ANC

Electricit

working

guarante

substatio

system,

SE STUDY 1/4 –

system is

quate transm

man‐related

entially far‐r

ors of the e

d to re‐estab

enario in elec

tion of elect

el or third p

onomic losse

r to avoid su

s, and they e

K AND VULNE

ay, the natio

ystem: NVE

, threats an

g measures,

g measures a

13).

CILLARY SYST

ty networks

behind it to

ee the qualit

ons, but the

the protectio

ELECTRICITY NE

operated to

mission capa

economic a

eaching failu

lectricity ne

blish the pow

ctricity distri

tricity supply

parties, even

s.

uch events a

stablish plan

RABILITY ANA

onal regulato

(2010) and

nd undesired

present the

and emergen

TEMS

are not jus

o ensure the

ty of the ene

ey can also

on system an

TWORKS

o its limits

acity

and contextu

ures and of s

twork must

wer supply w

ibution netw

y. Other und

ts that lead

and to be p

ns for emerge

ALYSIS

or, NVE, pro

NVE (2012).

d events, as

e results (e

ncy prepared

t overhead

e optimal op

ergy that flo

be found alo

nd the emer

– inadequat

ual factors –

hort‐term em

avoid that

when it is int

works is a m

desired even

to environm

repared, the

ency prepare

ovides guidel

The suggest

ssess the ri

.g. in risk m

dness. Emer

lines and ca

peration of t

ows in the ne

ong other p

rgency backu

te investme

– lack of bo

mergency pr

the power

errupted du

ajor black ou

ts are event

mental dama

e companies

edness.

lines for risk

ted method

sk (probabi

matrices) and

rgency prepa

ables, but th

the network

etwork. Thes

points in the

up power sys

ents in upgr

oth of situa

reparedness

supply stop

e to extraord

ut leading to

ts that comp

ages, or othe

s carry out r

k and vulnera

is based on

lity/consequ

d finally est

aredness is a

hey have ma

k, maintain s

se systems a

e network. T

tems.

rades to ac

ational awar

ps and/or sh

dinary cases

o long and a

promise the

er events tha

risk and vuln

ability analy

a process to

uences), ide

tablish plans

also regulate

any ancillary

system reliab

are usually p

They include

Page 31

hieve an

reness of

hould be

. A worst

area‐wide

safety of

at causes

nerability

sis in the

o identify

ntify risk

s for risk

ed by law

y systems

bility and

resent at

: the ICT

D2.1.1. CAS

2.7.1 ICT S

Informat

the seve

from op

in opera

The ICT

real‐time

of switch

be used

locations

2.7.2 PRO

The netw

of the e

between

Today, p

relays, w

failure s

can be s

The pro

operates

from th

insulator

voltage

method

typical o

installed

SE STUDY 1/4 –

SYSTEM

tion and com

enties. The i

erational cen

tional centre

system is b

e measurem

hgear. The t

copper lines

s with very d

OTECTION SYS

work protect

energy flow

n metallic pa

protection sy

which makes

ituations tha

aid to repres

otection syst

s. The groun

he ground t

rs, etc.). The

differences

used greatly

of short‐circu

d in the netw

ELECTRICITY NE

mmunication

introduction

ntres. Today

es, to which

ased on sup

ments from e

ypical suppo

s (in older pa

difficult acces

STEM

tion system

wing through

arts and the

ystems are

s them mor

an the previ

sent the netw

tem is also

nding can be

that suppor

e purpose o

that may ap

y influences

uits, thereby

work.

TWORKS

n technology

of ICT allow

y, the entire

real‐time me

pervisory con

quipment an

ort for the IC

arts of the n

ss).

is present in

h the netwo

surrounding

highly autom

re reliable, e

ious electro‐

work brain, a

very depen

e roughly ex

rts the phys

of grounding

ppear in the

the values o

y defining th

y (ICT) starte

wed networ

network is a

easurements

ntrol and da

nd compone

CT network t

etwork) and

n the entire s

ork. Fault c

gs that may b

mated and r

effective and

‐mechanical

and the brea

dent on the

xplained as

sical structu

g is to remo

e case of sh

of the short‐

he type of e

ed to be inte

rks to be co

automatized,

s from large

ata acquisitio

ents in the ne

today is fibre

d wireless sat

system and g

urrents to e

be a hazard

rely on auto

d faster in s

relays. In th

akers represe

e type of g

how the net

ures of the

ove or reduc

ort circuits

‐circuit curre

equipment a

grated in th

ontrolled and

, and the op

parts of the

on (SCADA)

etwork and a

e optics, alth

tellite comm

guarantees t

earth cause

to humans a

omatized pro

short‐circuit

he protectio

ent the netw

rounding in

twork is con

network (

ce the dang

or ground fa

ents and volt

nd compone

e power net

d operated

eration is ce

network con

systems tha

allow remot

hough there

munication (i

the safety an

e voltage dif

as well as to

ogrammed e

and other

on system, t

work muscle.

which the

nnected and

poles, trans

gerous effect

aults. The g

tage rise phe

ents that ne

Page 32

tworks in

remotely

entralised

nverge.

t receive

e control

can also

n remote

nd quality

fferences

animals.

electronic

network‐

he relays

network

d isolated

sformers,

ts of the

rounding

enomena

eed to be

D2.1.1. CAS

2.7.3 EME

As techn

energy s

generato

continue

substatio

compon

backed w

continue

the safe

reconne

The typi

(up to a

power s

UPS for

to 10 se

than 20

systems

4 UPS stan

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ERGENCY BAC

nical system

supply they

ors and even

e their norm

ons in the

ents are sel

with emerge

e active durin

ety of equip

ction.

cal emergen

couple of da

upply (up to

the first seco

econds, depe

millisecond

are capacito

nds for Uninterr

ELECTRICITY NE

CKUP POWER

ms become m

become as

n UPS4, can b

mal operatio

network wi

lected (acco

ency backup

ng blackout

pment and

ncy backup s

ays) and UPS

o 1 day). The

onds while t

ending on its

ds, supports

or banks, ine

ruptable Power

TWORKS

SYSTEMS

more depen

well. There

be seen inst

on even wh

ll not requi

ording to the

systems. Th

situations so

people are

systems are

S systems su

ese two type

the diesel ge

s size, and d

the loads.

rtia drivers a

r Systems

ndent on ele

efore, emerg

alled in subs

hen there i

ire the nee

eir importan

his allows m

o that upon t

already op

diesel gene

upported by

es of emerge

enerators sta

during that t

Other equip

and simple b

ectronics an

gency backu

stations to e

is a power

d of emerg

nce for the

measuring sys

the reconnec

perating in

rators, used

batteries, us

ency power

art. Starting o

time the UPS

pment typic

batteries.

nd ICT, the

p systems, w

ensure that a

failure. Alt

gency power

network no

stems and p

ction, all the

case there

for medium

sed for very

are usually a

of a diesel ge

S, which can

cal of emerg

more depen

which includ

all electronic

though mos

r, key locat

ormal operat

protection sy

e systems tha

is a fail du

m term powe

short and sh

associated, b

enerator can

n be activate

gency backu

Page 33

ndent on

de diesel

c systems

st of the

ions and

tion) and

ystems to

at ensure

uring the

er supply

hort term

being the

n take up

ed in less

up power

D2.1.1. CAS

3. MAI

3.1 FRAM

Mainten

making‐

the elect

personn

The mai

obliged (

The main

Reli

Cost

Envi

Safe

Secu

Rep

The pro

network

not very

this situ

benefit a

for decis

Due to t

generally

group of

such as f

good ba

SE STUDY 1/4 –

INTENANC

MEWORK AN

nance activit

up a large p

tricity netwo

el and third

n driver for

(by law) to s

n objectives

ability: Avoid

t‐effective

ironmental‐f

ety: For perso

urity/vulnera

utation

blem for m

k consists of

y critical (e.g

uation, the p

analyses and

sion support

the vast am

y groups of

f componen

failures, maj

lance betwe

ELECTRICITY NE

CE STRAT

ND OVERALL

ties are an

percentage o

ork. In additio

parties, and

maintenance

upply the cu

of maintena

d failures an

friendly: Imp

onnel/third

ability: Impa

any networ

many compo

. due to few

prioritizing o

d extensive m

and mainten

mount of com

assets. The

nts, e.g., tec

jor storms o

en preventiv

TWORKS

EGIES AND

L THINKING

important p

of operation

on, maintena

d it has a po

e is the secu

stomers wit

ance and rein

d outages an

pact on envir

parties

ct of weathe

k operators

onents and t

w customers

of maintena

maintenance

nance execu

mponents in

e strategy in

hnical condi

r heavy snow

ve maintenan

D MAINTE

part of the

costs, and t

ance is vital

otential sign

urity of supp

h electricity.

nvestment ca

nd provide re

ronment as l

er and climat

is (especial

that some pa

supplied by

nce may be

e programs a

ution are req

n the distrib

ndicates wha

ition, operat

wfall). A cha

nce (and rein

ENANCE O

managemen

triggering a

for the safet

ificant impa

ly, because t

.

an be summ

eliable electr

ow as possib

te and terror

lly for the d

arts of the ne

the networ

ecome chall

are not possi

uired.

ution system

at should tri

tion conditio

allenge for di

nvestments)

ORGANIZA

nt of electri

majority of t

ty of the netw

ct on the co

the operator

arised as:

ricity supply

ble/necessary

rists

distribution c

etwork (and

k part). If a c

enging, beca

ble. In this c

m, maintena

gger mainte

ons, timing (

istribution co

and correct

ATION

icity networ

the reinvest

work compa

ompany’s re

rs of the net

to customer

y

companies)

the compon

company oft

ause extens

case, simple

ance strateg

enance for a

(after specia

ompanies is

tive mainten

Page 35

rk assets,

tments in

any’s own

putation.

twork are

rs

that the

nents) are

ten faces

sive cost‐

methods

ies cover

a specific

al events,

to find a

ance.

D2.1.1. CAS

Role of r

Since th

operatio

Some ex

are:

Reg

199

Reg

Reg

Reg

Reg

201

Reg

(FOR

Reg

201

Reliabili

The RCM

network

detailed

required

When R

optimiza

mainten

requirem

predictiv

In 2001,

publishe

provides

SE STUDY 1/4 –

rules and reg

e electricity

on and maint

xamples of r

ulation of pr

0‐12‐07‐959

ulation of in

ulation of sy

ulation of se

ulation of p

2‐12‐07‐115

ulation of s

R‐2006‐04‐2

ulation of re

1‐03‐10‐263

ty Centered

M methodolo

k operators.

RCM analys

d), most of th

CM is carrie

ation of ma

ance is sch

ments for fur

ve models to

an IEEE rep

ed (Endrenyi

s a good ove

ELECTRICITY NE

gulations

network is

tenance is su

regulations t

roduction, tr

9)

stallations fo

ystem respon

ecurity of sup

preventive se

57)

afety at wo

8‐458)

equirement

3)

Maintenanc

ogy is to a qu

Whereas pr

sis (mostly g

he smaller di

ed out, the

aintenance

heduled ins

rther actions

o estimate m

port on the p

et al. 2001).

erview of the

TWORKS

one of the

ubject to regu

that are of m

ansforming,

or electric po

nsibility in th

pply in the po

ecurity and e

rk in electri

of compete

ce (RCM)

uite different

robably all t

generic analy

stribution sy

RCM‐decisio

or inspectio

pections at

s, additional

aintenance n

present stat

The work fo

e status in th

most import

ulation by th

major impor

transmissio

ower supply

he power sys

ower system

emergency

c installatio

ence etc. at

t degree imp

transmission

ysis of group

ystem operat

on logic is q

on intervals

t fixed time

corrective ac

needs (e.g. d

us of mainte

or this report

he power in

tant infrastr

he authoritie

rtance for th

n, trade, dist

(FOR‐2005‐1

tem (FOR‐20

m (FOR‐2004‐

preparednes

ns and at o

installation

plemented in

system ope

ps of equipm

tors do not u

uite often t

s is hardly

e intervals.

ctions are sc

dependent o

enance strat

t was carried

dustry at th

uctures in m

s.

he network o

tribution and

12‐20‐1626)

002‐05‐07‐44

‐11‐30‐1557)

ss in the ele

peration of

and area co

the mainten

erators carry

ment with sp

use RCM.

he last step

performed.

If the ins

heduled and

n loading etc

tegies in the

d out 1995‐1

e end of the

modern socie

operators in

d use of ene

48)

)

ectricity supp

electric inst

oncessionair

nance routin

y out a mor

pecific adjust

in the anal

. Most part

pections re

d initiated. T

c.) is not usu

e power indu

999. Thus, th

e 1990s. The

Page 36

eties, the

n Norway

rgy (FOR‐

ply (FOR‐

tallations

res (FOR‐

nes of the

re or less

tments if

lysis. The

t of the

veal the

he use of

ual.

ustry was

he report

e focus in

D2.1.1. CAS

the repo

a numbe

industry

mainten

The stat

or in a m

Only in

conditio

monitor

vibration

Accordin

nearly h

least par

"as need

Even tho

valid (to

Live‐line

Live‐line

the equ

electricit

mainten

under op

under m

3.2 MAI

The net

managem

work is e

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ort is on mai

er of compan

. The resul

ance strateg

us in 2001 w

modified form

a few case

n‐based ma

ing was app

n, bearing te

ng to the sur

alf of the co

rt of the ma

ded" or only

ough the res

some degre

e working

e working is

ipment is u

ty supply, liv

ance tools

peration. Liv

maintenance

NTENANCE O

twork oper

ment depar

either carrie

ELECTRICITY NE

ntenance of

nies in order

lts of this

gy for differe

was that ma

m where add

es, the exclu

intenance n

plied for sur

mperature);

rvey, RCM w

orresponden

intenance. H

for special te

sults in the I

ee), especiall

the executio

under operat

ve‐line work

have been d

ve‐line work

execution m

ORGANIZAT

rators have

rtment respo

d out by the

TWORKS

generators,

r to get an o

survey indi

ent companie

ny utilities o

ditional corre

usive use of

eeds, period

rveillance of

see Endreny

was not gene

nts considere

However, the

ests, while o

IEEE report a

y for smaller

on of mainte

tion. Since t

king has incr

developed t

requires goo

may have fata

ION

usually an

onsible for

e network op

, transforme

overview ove

cated that

es.

only did sche

ective action

f predictive

dic inspectio

f some spec

yi et al. (200

rally used at

ed its introd

ere was a di

others contra

are approx.

r distribution

enance wor

the network

reasingly be

to allow for

od procedure

al consequen

n operation

maintenance

perator’s ow

rs and break

er the curren

there was

eduled maint

ns are taken

maintenan

ns were mo

cific conditio

01) for furthe

t that time. H

uction. It wa

fference to

act out major

15 years old

n system ope

k at high vo

k operators

en in use in

maintenanc

es and well‐t

nces.

nal departm

e and reinv

n maintenan

kers. A quest

nt practice o

a consider

tenance (at

if required b

ce was repo

ost often car

on paramete

er details.

However, it w

as quite usu

what degree

r maintenanc

d, many of t

erators.

ltage electri

want to av

n the last ye

ce work whi

rained perso

ment and a

estment pla

nce teams (th

tionnaire wa

of maintenan

rable spread

fixed time in

by inspectio

orted. For d

rried out. Co

ers (e.g. oil

was pointed

ual to contra

e: some utili

ce work.

them seem t

ical equipme

void interrup

ears. Special

ile the equi

onnel, becau

a maintenan

anning. Main

hat are eithe

Page 37

as sent to

nce in the

d in the

ntervals),

n results.

detecting

ontinuous

leakage,

d out that

ct out at

ties do it

to be still

ent while

ptions of

types of

pment is

use errors

nce/asset

ntenance

er part of

D2.1.1. CAS

the com

provider

Outsour

Outsour

mainten

mainten

required

executio

Norwegi

compete

regulatio

Energy D

In Norw

are often

requirem

Internat

See sect

3.3 MAI

In gener

network

investme

Low

an i

Intro

exam

5 REN – Rdescriptio

SE STUDY 1/4 –

mpany or a

rs.

rcing

cing of mino

ance is onl

ance person

d. In some ot

on of most o

ian authorit

ence (i.e. out

on of requir

Directorate (

ay, a collect

n used by ele

ments for ma

tional coope

ion 2.3.2 abo

NTENANCE B

ral, large bac

k operators

ents in the n

w investment

ncrease of th

oduction of

mple due to

Rasjonell Elektrns are called "R

ELECTRICITY NE

subsidiary

or or major

ly outsource

nnel is not su

ther compan

of the mainte

ies if outso

tsourcing of

ements of c

NVE 2011).

tion of stand

ectricity dist

aintenance w

ration

out ENTSO‐E

BACKLOG AN

cklogs of ma

in Norway.

network. This

ts in existing

he reinvestm

f new techn

risk NettvirksomRENblad" (REN

TWORKS

of the com

parts of the

ed occasion

ufficient, or

nies, the net

enance activ

urcing may

work is acce

competence

dardized wo

ribution net

work that is o

E.

ND REINVEST

intenance w

However, t

s has several

g electricity n

ments in the f

nologies req

mhet (rational paper)

pany), or t

e maintenan

nally, e.g. in

for some sp

twork operat

vities is outs

lead to rep

epted, but n

was prepar

rk descriptio

work operat

outsourced.

TMENT NEE

work seems n

here is an

reasons:

network infr

future years

quiring a red

(i.e. effective)

he work is

nce work is q

n periods w

pecific activit

tor plans the

ourced. The

placement o

not outsourc

red by the N

ons is publis

tors as stand

DS

not to be a m

increased ne

astructure a

; see NVE (20

design and

) electric netw

outsourced

quite usual.

where the c

ties where sp

e maintenan

latter has b

of own com

ing of comp

Norwegian W

hed by REN5

dardized desc

major proble

eed for rein

nd ageing co

005).

upgrading o

work operation)

to externa

In some co

capacity of

pecial comp

nce activities

been criticize

petence by

etence). Thu

Water Resou

5. These des

criptions of t

em for the e

nvestments

omponents

of the netw

), www.ren.no

Page 38

al service

mpanies,

the own

etence is

, and the

ed by the

external

us, a new

urces and

scriptions

tasks and

electricity

and new

requiring

work, for

, the work

D2.1.1. CAS

The inve

billion N

there wa

producti

industry

electricit

6 Investmhttp://ww

SE STUDY 1/4 –

Introductio

Changing in

Changing of

scale produ

estment nee

NOK in the n

as a large inc

ion and elec

will stay at

ty will furthe

ments in inww.ssb.no/ener

ELECTRICITY NE

on of more IC

n consumptio

f production

uctions in sm

eds in the No

next 10 year

crease in inv

ctricity trans

this high le

er increase, w

ndustry, minigi‐og‐industri/s

TWORKS

CT in networ

on behaviour

(increase in

all hydro pow

orwegian ele

rs (2012‐202

vestments in

sport). It is e

vel, mainly b

whereas inve

ng and elestatistikker/kis/

rk operation

r (smart met

n distributed

wer stations

ectricity net

21), (Sanderu

n the electric

expected tha

because inve

estments in p

ectricity indu/kvartal/2013‐0

tering, electr

generation o

s or by wind t

work has be

ud 2012). Ac

city industry

at the gener

estments in

production o

ustry, Statistic03‐04

ric vehicles, e

of electricity

turbines and

een estimate

ccording to t

in recent ye

ral investme

transmissio

of electricity

cs Norway,

etc.)

y, i.e. many n

d solar panel

ed to be aro

the official s

ears 6 (both e

ents in the e

n and distrib

will decreas

retreived 2

Page 39

new small

s)

ound 100

statistics,

electricity

electricity

bution of

e.

2013‐03‐14,

D2.1.1. CAS

4. TEC

Today,

structure

the com

utilize di

In Norw

required

4.1 OVE

The mai

cost‐effe

overhau

new equ

The gene

aspects

Some ty

Cost

Con

Loss

Effic

Fina

Cost

Cost

In the an

cost‐ben

(LCA/LCC

calculate

SE STUDY 1/4 –

HNICAL‐E

only the la

ed technical

mpanies cond

ifferent elem

way, many co

d by the regu

RALL THINK

n objective

ective projec

l of a netwo

uipment.

eral approac

(both on the

pical cost dr

ts of mainten

sequences o

ses due to ou

ciency of equ

ancial costs

ts related to

ts due to los

nalyses of m

nefit analysi

C/LCP). It is

ed.

ELECTRICITY NE

CONOMIC

argest netwo

l‐economic a

duct a simpl

ments of such

ompanies ca

ulator, see se

ING

in technical

cts. A projec

ork compone

ch in such an

e cost and th

ivers relevan

nance projec

of failures

utages (Cost

uipment

safety, heal

s of reputati

maintenance

is and life‐

quite usual t

TWORKS

C ANALYS

ork operato

analyses of m

ified analysi

h analyses.

arry out risk

ection 2.6 for

‐economic a

ct can, for e

ent), a new m

alyses is to e

he benefit si

nt for networ

ct

of Energy N

th and envir

on

projects are

cycle assess

that all costs

SES OF MA

ors (mainly

maintenance

is (e.g. cost

k and vulner

r more detai

analyses of

example, be

maintenance

establish a co

de) of maint

rk operators

ot Supplied,

ronment (SH

e therefore p

sment/life‐cy

s are discou

AINTENAN

transmissio

e projects in

analysis wit

rability analy

ls.

maintenance

e a specific m

e strategy or

ost model th

tenance dec

s are:

see section

E)

principles ap

ycle cost a

nted and tha

NCE PROJE

n system o

n a systemat

hout calcula

yses, becaus

e project is

maintenance

r the investm

hat takes into

isions and m

4.2.2)

plied that ar

nalysis/life‐c

at the net p

ECTS

operators) c

tic manner.

ating cost‐be

se such ana

to identify t

e task (like

ment in upg

o account all

maintenance

re commonly

cycle profit

resent value

Page 40

carry out

Some of

enefit) or

lyses are

the most

repair or

rading or

l relevant

projects.

y used in

analysis

e (NPV) is

D2.1.1. CAS

Main dri

Econom

Included

technica

solutions

failure m

with the

econom

analysis.

mainten

that hav

mainten

Safety, h

SHE aspe

Neverth

own per

to the as

Reputat

Some m

positive

Rules an

Rules an

mainten

Norway

Protectio

replacem

(decreed

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ivers for carr

y

d in this gro

al condition

s. Old equip

may lead to

e economic

ically benef

. Some relev

ance action

ve higher e

ance costs).

health and e

ects may mo

eless, such p

rsonnel or m

spect of repu

ion

maintenance

public reput

nd regulation

nd regulatio

ance tasks a

are the insp

on – require

ment of tra

d by law by D

ELECTRICITY NE

rying out ma

up are for e

and replace

pment and e

an outage. T

consequenc

icial at som

vant models a

is often also

efficiency (le

environment

otivate for s

projects are s

may have pos

utation; see

projects ar

tation even t

ns

ns largely in

and projects

pection freq

s that overh

nsformers in

DSB ‐ the No

TWORKS

intenance an

example the

ment of equ

quipment w

The econom

es of the fa

me time. Mo

and method

o given when

ess electrica

t (SHE)

some project

sometimes c

itive influen

below.

re carried o

though it can

nfluence the

must be car

uency of ov

ead lines are

nstalled on

orwegian Dire

nd reinvestm

e repair or r

uipment due

with poor tec

mic risk due t

ailure make

odelling the

s are discuss

n replacing o

al losses) o

ts even thou

carried out if

ce on the en

ut by netw

nnot be prov

e maintenan

rried out if re

erhead lines

e thoroughly

power pole

ectorate for

ment projects

eplacement

e to availabi

chnical condi

to increasing

usually a re

economic r

sed in sectio

old and ineff

or reduce o

ugh the econ

f they, for ex

nvironment.

ork compan

ven that the p

nce work of

equired by th

s (DSB ‐ the

y inspected m

es operated

Civil Protect

s in the elect

of ageing e

ility of new

ition is usua

g probability

placement o

risk is a cha

n 4.2. An eco

fective equip

ther costs

nomic benef

xample, incre

Such project

nies because

projects are

network co

he authoritie

e Norwegian

minimum ev

from pole

tion).

tricity netwo

equipment w

and better

lly replaced

y of failure c

of ageing eq

allenging pa

onomically b

pment with

(e.g. operat

fit cannot be

ease the safe

ts are usuall

e they contr

cost effectiv

ompanies. O

es. Some exa

n Directorate

very 10th yea

mounted p

Page 41

orks are:

with poor

technical

before a

combined

quipment

rt in the

beneficial

solutions

tion and

e proven.

ety of the

y related

ribute to

ve.

Obviously,

amples in

e for Civil

ar) or the

platforms

D2.1.1. CAS

Some of

reputatio

been use

by such

Importa

Industria

different

private h

rely on a

services.

importan

TAB

(B

SE STUDY 1/4 –

f the cost d

on are diffic

ed to suppo

aspects; see

nce of powe

alized societ

t areas and

households,

an increasing

. Thus, a w

nt for the we

BLE 5 – DEVEL

BASED ON TAB

Areas oPrivate

HeatHot wLightHousElect

Energy‐ElectMechCont

Other iMechVarioContHeat

ServiceHeatCooliVentLightTech

Other cTelecOil aWateBankHealt

TranspoCharDriviNot

ELECTRICITY NE

drivers, esp

cult to quant

rt the makin

4.2.4 for mo

er supply and

ies rely on r

for differen

all types of

g part of "el

ell‐dimensio

ealth and de

LOPMENT OF

BLE 2.1 PRESE

of and purpos customers (hoting water t sehold appliancestric equipment ‐intensive indutrolysis/smelting hanical equipmenrol systems ndustries hanical equipmenous processes rol systems ting sector ting ing ilation t nical equipment critical industriecommunication nd fuel er supply king sector th ort ging (cars/ferriesng and movemenused:

TWORKS

ecially those

tify in econo

ng of decisio

ore informat

d investmen

reliable pow

nt purposes

industries a

lectrification

oned, robust

velopment o

USE OF ELECT

ENTED IN A RE

ses for electriousehold)

s (fridge, washing

ustries plant nt

nt

es

s) nt (train and railw

Used

e influencin

omic terms.

ons on maint

tion.

nts in the ele

wer supply. A

s increased

and service s

n" in order to

t and reliab

of a modern

TRICITY FOR D

EPORT BY THE

icity use

g machine, etc.)

way) d:

g social asp

Thus, multi‐

tenance proj

ectricity netw

As shown in

much during

sectors, criti

o produce th

le power sy

society.

DIFFERENT AP

EMA CONSUL

1900

Most used:

pects and a

‐criteria deci

ects that are

work

Table 5, the

g the last c

cal infrastru

heir product

ystem and e

PPLICATIONS A

LTING GROUP

1950

:

spects like

ision aid (M

e strongly in

e use of elec

century. Tod

uctures and t

ts or to prov

electricity ne

AND CUSTOM

P (THEMA 201

2010

Page 42

SHE and

CDA) has

nfluenced

ctricity in

day, both

transport

vide their

etwork is

MERS

13))

D2.1.1. CAS

Accordin

for reinv

beneficia

overload

having t

will usua

4.2 EXAM

4.2.1 FAU

Many ut

equipme

collectio

problem

they lea

outages

mainten

compon

FASIT

FASIT (F

system u

are oblig

Statnett

informat

(Energy

to the ne

The aim

system.

switchge

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ng to an ana

vestments an

al. It is con

ding and coll

oo marginal

ally always b

MPLES OF M

ULT STATISTIC

tilities and o

ent. Howeve

ons. A good

m of most ex

ad to an out

and disturb

ance purpos

ents is not d

Feil og Avbru

used to regi

ged to repo

and the N

tion must fo

Norway 201

etwork with

of the data

However, i

ear/breakers

ELECTRICITY NE

lysis perform

nd new inves

cluded that

lapses result

capacity. Th

e beneficial f

METHODS AN

S

organization

er, there are

overview of

isting fault s

tage or dist

bances are

ses. Anothe

etailed enou

uddsStatistik

ster faults a

ort operatio

Norwegian W

ollow the ru

2). Productio

voltage leve

a collection

if a failure

s) or an inte

TWORKS

med by the T

stments in t

it is better

ting in shutd

hus, investm

for the socie

ND APPROAC

ns in the wo

e currently n

f different s

statistics is, t

urbance in

not register

r problem is

ugh for main

kk I Totalnet

and outages

nal disturba

Water Resou

ules and met

on plants are

el > 33 kV.

is to get an

doesn’t lea

rruption, it m

Thema Consu

he Norwegia

r to have so

downs and la

ments in the

ety.

CHES USED I

orld have es

no standards

statistics is g

that compon

electricity s

red. This lim

s often that

tenance pur

ttet ‐ Fault

in the Norw

ances and in

urces and E

thods descr

e also oblige

n overview o

ad to a dist

must not be

ulting Group

an electricity

ome free ca

arge consequ

electricity n

N TECHNICA

stablished fa

s generally a

given in an

nent failures

upply. This

mits the valu

t the inform

rposes.

and outage

wegian powe

nterruptions

Energy Direc

ibed in the

d to report,

over disturba

turbance (u

e reported. T

(Thema 201

y network wi

apacity in th

uences for th

etwork to fu

AL‐ECONOMI

ault statistic

accepted for

ELFORSK‐rep

s are usually

means that

ue of the ex

mation about

statistics in

er system. A

that occur

ctorate (NVE

FASIT requi

but only if th

ances and o

sually ident

Thus, the FAS

13), the exist

ill be socio‐e

he network

he society, in

ulfil this req

IC ANALYSES

cs for electr

r data recor

port by He (

y first report

failures not

xisting datab

t type and d

n the total g

All network o

in their ne

E). The repo

irement spe

he plant is co

outages in th

tified by tri

SIT system h

Page 43

ting plans

economic

to avoid

nstead of

uirement

S

ic power

rding and

(2010). A

ted when

t causing

bases for

design of

grid) is a

operators

twork to

orting of

cification

onnected

he power

pping of

has some

D2.1.1. CAS

limited v

FASIT, b

the FASI

system (

the next

4.2.2 COS

Custome

insignific

homes c

interrup

Network

consider

CENS (C

network

in previo

the CEN

improve

The CEN

minutes

notified

installati

users at

energy

(Heggset

CENS is

event of

industry

nation‐w

SE STUDY 1/4 –

value for ma

ecause they

T data can b

(optimistic es

t years to ma

ST OF ENERGY

er costs that

cant if the a

can be upset

tion affects a

k companies

ration the qu

Cost of ener

k companies’

ous years (La

NS arrangem

ements in the

NS arrangem

). Short inte

and non‐no

ions > 1 kV.

all network

not supplied

t et al. 2009)

an expressi

f interruption

, Public sec

wide survey

ELECTRICITY NE

aintenance,

never resul

be used to e

stimates). Be

ake it more a

Y NOT SUPPLIE

t result from

ffected cust

tting, but us

a financial da

s are increas

uality of sup

rgy not sup

’ revenue ca

angset et al.

ent provide

e developme

ment came in

erruptions (

otified inter

The arrange

levels > 1 kV

d, according

).

on of the to

ns. The end‐

ctor, Agricult

performed i

TWORKS

because no

ted in a dist

stablish roug

ecause of the

applicable for

ED (CENS)

m a power s

tomer is resi

ually brings

ata centre th

ingly being

pply (CEER 2

plied; Norw

ps are adjust

2001, Kjølle

the distribu

ent and oper

nto force in

≤ 3 minute

rruptions res

ement is bas

V and a stand

g to the No

otal costs to

users are div

ture, Reside

n the period

ot all failures

turbance or

gh estimates

e limitations

r other purp

supply interr

idential (a o

no costs) to

hat processe

subjected to

011). One e

wegian: "KILE

ted in accor

e et al. 2008)

ution netwo

ration of thei

2001, but

es) are incor

sulting from

sed on the m

dardized met

orwegian FA

o the Norwe

vided in six c

ential. The c

d 2001 – 20

s that occur

interruption

s of failure r

s mentioned,

oses.

ruption even

one‐minute p

o many thou

s real‐time o

o regulatory

xample is th

E ‐ Kostnad

dance with t

). Penalty sch

ork compani

ir networks.

only with re

rporated fro

m planned a

mandatory re

thod for esti

ASIT standar

egian econom

ustomer gro

current cost

03 (Kjølle et

in the syste

s in power s

ates for equ

, it is planned

nt can vary

power supply

sands of eur

operations.

regimes tha

he Norwegia

ikke levert

the custome

hemes or fin

es with ince

egard to lon

om 2009. C

and forced o

eporting of in

mation of in

rd for reliab

my incurred

oups: Industr

figures use

t al. 2008). B

em are regi

supply. Neve

uipment in th

d to improve

hugely, from

y interruptio

ros per minu

at explicitly

an regulation

energi") w

ers’ interrupt

nancial incen

entives for

ng interrupti

ENS compri

outages in

nterruptions

terrupted po

bility data c

by end use

ry, Commerc

ed are based

Based on thi

Page 44

stered in

ertheless,

he power

e FASIT in

m almost

on in our

ute if the

take into

n scheme

here the

tion costs

ntives like

reliability

ions (> 3

ses both

electrical

s for end‐

ower and

collection

ers in the

cial, Large

d on the

is survey,

D2.1.1. CAS

cost func

of interr

interrup

interrup

account

interrup

cost from

CENS co

mainten

4.2.3 FAIL

The ben

equipme

failure p

standard

Failu

Deg

Stre

Physical

mechani

2001). M

7 Different(2009) and

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ctions are es

ruption dura

tion of vary

tion should

of duration

tion cost is h

m the refere

osts as a m

ance project

LURE AND LIF

efit of many

ent that is m

probability, d

d models are

ure models

Constant fa

Failure time

Time‐/age d

Counting pr

gradation mo

Markov pro

al. 2005, W

Degradation

ess‐strength

models ha

ism, e.g. the

Methods from

t ways of repred Abeygunawar

ELECTRICITY NE

stablished fo

ation. These

ying duratio

be calculate

n and time

handled thro

ence cost (K

major input

ts for quantif

ETIME MODE

y maintenan

aintained, a

different stoc

e applied, suc

ilure rates

e distribution

dependent fa

rocesses

odels

ocesses 7 (En

elte et al. 20

n path mode

models (Gus

ve been ap

e Arrhenius

m the field o

senting degradrdane and Jirut

TWORKS

or each of the

costs are re

on occurring

ed using the

of occurren

ough correct

Kjølle et al. 2

parameter

fying the eco

ELS

ce projects i

nd thus the

chastic failur

ch as:

ns (e.g. Chris

ailure rates e

drenyi et al.

006)

el (Li et al. 20

stavsen et al.

pplied for li

equation fo

of artificial i

ation and mainitijaroen (2011)

e six groups

eferred to a

g on a wor

e cost functi

nce of the

tion factors

2009). Norw

in risk ana

onomic effec

is given by t

reduction of

re and lifetim

stodoulou et

e.g. (Bertling

1998, Ande

005)

. 2002)

ifetime and

or ageing of

ntelligence (

ntenance by Ma).

as normalize

a reference s

king day in

ions valid fo

interruption

based on th

wegian electr

alyses and

cts of outage

he reduction

f the future e

me models c

al. 2009)

g 2002)

ers 1990, End

degradatio

insulation in

(e.g. Bayesia

arkov models h

ed costs in N

scenario wh

January. T

or the refere

n. The time

e informatio

ricity networ

technical‐ec

es.

n of the failu

economic ris

can be used.

drenyi and A

n modelling

n transforme

an belief net

as been subjec

NOK/kW as a

hich is a hyp

The cost of

ence scenari

dependenc

on about dev

rk operators

conomic ana

ure probabili

sk. For estim

. Usually, we

Anders 2006,

g for specifi

ers (Lundgaa

tworks, fuzzy

ct of discussion

Page 45

function

pothetical

a single

o, taking

cy in the

viation in

s use the

alyses of

ity of the

ating the

ell known

, Black et

ic failure

ard et al.

y logic or

; see Welte

D2.1.1. CAS

neural n

Castro (

example

The refe

applicati

referred

The case

co‐opera

are furth

theoreti

4.2.4 MUL

Multi‐Cr

multiple

disciplin

assisting

MCDA ca

abundan

At comp

compon

mainten

At strate

groups b

optimiza

mainten

cost), an

compon

SE STUDY 1/4 –

etworks) hav

(2005), Cast

es.

erences prov

ions on pow

to standard

e studies and

ation with ut

her applied b

cal work pre

LTI‐CRITERIA

riteria Decisi

conflicting

e provides m

g the whole d

an be used a

nt literature

ponent level

ent and the

ance or inve

egic level, M

by allocating

ation has be

ance by con

nd the maint

ents, structu

ELECTRICITY NE

ve also been

tro and Mir

vided for the

wer system

d text books.

d application

tilities. It is o

by the comp

esented in th

DECISION AID

on Analysis

criteria can

methods and

decision proc

at different l

on this topic

MCDA can h

risks it may

estment cost

CDA can als

g budgets an

een propose

nsidering cu

tenance cost

ure, and avai

TWORKS

n applied in s

rinda (2005)

e methods p

components

ns presented

often uncerta

anies in thei

e literature a

D

(MCDA) incl

n be formall

d techniques

cess, to mult

evels in elec

c.

help (Catrinu

y induce by i

s, cost of int

o help in ma

nd company

ed for findi

stomers’ de

t for the DSO

lable resour

some case st

), Hathout (

presented in

s. For more

in the litera

ain if the me

ir daily work

and the appl

udes metho

ly incorpora

s that vary fr

ti‐objective m

ctricity system

2007) in str

ts failure: co

terruption, e

aking decisio

y resources

ing the opt

emands for p

O (costs are

ces).

tudies in the

(2006) and

this section

e information

ature are mo

ethods appli

k. There is ob

lication of th

ods and proc

ated into th

rom problem

mathematica

m maintena

ucturing and

ondition, env

tc.

ons on how t

(Catrinu 200

imal balanc

power deliv

e closely rela

power indus

Nordgård a

n are related

n regarding

ostly carried o

ed remain a

bviously a ga

he models in

edures by w

e decision m

m structuring

al optimizatio

nce planning

d using the in

vironmental

to maintain

08). At this l

e of preven

ery (total cu

ted to the a

stry; see Mir

and Sand (2

d to case stu

general the

out by resea

case study

ap between t

the utilities.

which concer

making proc

g and model

on models.

g as suggeste

nformation a

stress, safet

different co

level, multi‐

ntive and c

ustomer inte

analysed net

Page 46

rinda and

2008) for

udies and

eory it is

archers in

or if they

the more

.

rns about

cess. The

building,

ed by the

about the

ty issues,

mponent

objective

corrective

erruption

twork, its

D2.1.1. CAS

Uncertai

2010).

Howeve

limited a

(CIGRE 2

4.3 EXAM

In severa

been de

they we

systema

analysed

The ana

informat

Approac

with cas

(2010) a

A tool fo

research

principle

mainten

drawbac

(2009) a

Note tha

found in

presente

models r

SE STUDY 1/4 –

inty and risk

r, the pract

and includes

2012)

MPLES OF M

al SINTEF pr

eveloped. Th

ere later als

tic aggregat

d. All costs/i

alysis results

tion e.g. be f

ches with foc

se studies on

nd Catrinu &

or asset ma

h group in Ca

es for cost‐

ance. The

cks in applica

nd Abeygun

at a huge n

n the scienti

ed. However

remain in the

ELECTRICITY NE

k in mainten

ical applicab

at most sim

MAINTENANC

ojects, tools

e tools were

so used for

tion of all c

ncomes due

s allow for

found in Heg

cus on risk a

n componen

& Nordgård (

anagement o

anada, see A

‐benefit ana

Markov mo

ations where

awardane &

umber of d

fic literature

r, only a few

e case study

TWORKS

nance plann

bility of thes

mplistic decis

CE PLANNING

s for cost‐ben

e originally d

similar ana

cost drivers

e to benefits

comparing d

ggset et al. (2

assessment

nts in the ele

2010).

of componen

Anders et al.

alysis, and a

odel has lat

e condition‐b

Jirutitijaroe

ifferent mod

e. Together

models are

status.

ning has also

se methods

ion support

G AND SCHE

nefit analysi

designed for

lyses in the

and benefi

are discoun

different ma

2010) or Heg

have also be

ectricity netw

nts in the e

(2001) or En

a Markov m

ter been im

based maint

en (2011).

dels for mai

with these

later applied

o been cons

at electrici

(graphical a

EDULING

s of mainten

applications

e electricity

ts associate

nted and the

aintenance

ggset et al. (2

een develop

work can e.g

electricity ne

ndrenyi & An

model is us

mproved, sin

enance is m

ntenance pl

models, a la

d by compan

idered in th

ty network

id) for high‐l

nance and re

s in power p

network. Th

ed with the

e net presen

and renewa

2007).

ped in SINTE

g. be found

twork has b

ders (2006).

sed to mod

nce it appea

odelled, see

anning and

arge number

nies in their d

he literature

companies

level decisio

enewal proje

production, h

he tools allo

project alt

nt value is ca

al alternative

EF projects. E

in Nybø & N

been presen

. The tool is

del degrada

ared to ha

e discussions

optimizatio

r of case stu

daily work, a

Page 47

(Catrinu

is rather

n making

ects have

however,

ow for å

ernatives

alculated.

es. More

Examples

Nordgård

nted by a

based on

tion and

ve some

in Welte

n can be

udies are

and many

D2.1.1. CAS

4.3.1 COM

Differen

operator

assessm

or Kinect

Insp

Failu

Asse

Pred

Calc

Some an

sections

In additi

(load‐flo

are avail

DSOs an

ERP

NIS

CMM

This IT

informat

SE STUDY 1/4 –

MMERCIALLY

t consulting

rs in the fie

ent. Many o

trics) offer to

pections and

ure analysis

essment of a

diction of co

culation of co

nalysis tools

, such as tec

on, consultin

ow, power sy

lable. Some

d TSOs are:

system (Ent

For managi

(Network In

For managi

network, as

connections

The NIS is u

MS (Comput

For managi

The CMMS

support ma

tion is scat

ELECTRICITY NE

AVAILABLE SE

g companies

eld of condit

of the bigger

ools and ana

condition m

asset conditio

ndition deve

osts and risk

s and metho

hnical condi

ng services a

ystem stabili

of the tools

terprise Reso

ng company

formation Sy

ing all data

s well as com

s between th

usually based

terized Main

ng maintena

is often inte

ay lead to

ttered in d

TWORKS

ERVICES AND

provide va

tion monitor

internationa

alysis service

monitoring se

on

elopment un

ods are bas

tions states/

and software

ity, etc.). He

can be part o

ource Plannin

finances, et

ystem)

related to n

mponents in

hem)

d on or integr

tenance Man

ance and fau

grated part o

challenges f

ifferent sys

D TOOLS

arious servic

ring, conditi

ally acting co

s on:

ervices

der different

sed on tech

/health indic

e tools are o

ere, different

of the SCADA

ng)

tc.

network ope

the networ

rated in a GI

nagement Sy

lts

of the NIS or

for the netw

stems. For

ces to distrib

on assessme

ompanies (su

t maintenan

niques pres

ces and Mark

offered for th

t methods a

A system. Ot

ration, and

k (e.g. comp

S (Geograph

ystem)

r ERP system

work opera

instance, co

bution and

ent, asset m

uch as DNV K

ce strategies

ented in the

kov models.

he problem o

nd tools are

ther systems

design and

ponents and

hical Informa

m

tors (Schne

ommercial/f

transmission

management

KEMA, EA Te

s

e previous/f

of network o

e developed

s commonly

construction

their prope

ation System

ider 2006),

financial dat

Page 48

n system

and risk

chnology

following

operation

that also

in use by

n of such

rties, the

)

because

ta about

D2.1.1. CAS

equipme

groups (

operatio

Geograp

often st

managem

conditio

Potentia

Today, t

informat

makes it

might b

tempera

conserva

etc.). Ho

been ful

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ent can be f

(e.g. voltage

on and maint

phical data a

tored in se

ment tools

n monitoring

al use of GIS

the network

tion about t

t in principle

be of intere

ature, precip

ation areas,

owever, the l

ly utilized by

ELECTRICITY NE

found in ge

levels) and

tenance cost

are found in

parate data

for the eva

g.

information

k operators m

opography)

possible to

est for ma

pitation, etc.)

etc.) or dista

arge scale ex

y the electric

TWORKS

neric ERP sy

not related

ts are usually

n GIS/NIS sys

abases (e.g.

luation of m

n for mainten

mainly extra

from the GI

automatical

intenance p

), vegetation

ances to oth

xtraction of G

city network

ystems, but

to single (sp

y not related

stems, while

the CMMS

maintenance

nance purpo

act geograph

S systems. H

ly extract fro

planning, fo

n and enviro

her places of

GIS‐based in

operators ye

the data is

pecific) equip

d to the spec

e maintenan

S). On top

e strategies,

oses

hic informat

However, the

om any othe

or example,

onmental asp

f interest (dis

nformation fo

et.

often subd

pment and c

ific equipme

nce‐related d

of these, t

network ca

ion (location

e integration

er GIS additio

climatic fa

pects (type o

stance to sho

or maintenan

ivided in on

components

ent being ma

data and rep

there are a

alculations o

n of compon

n of the NIS

onal informa

actors (wind

of vegetation

ore, roads, b

nce purpose

Page 49

nly a few

. Internal

aintained.

ports are

additional

or on‐line

nent and

with GIS

ation that

d speed,

n, nature

buildings,

es has not

D2.1.1. CAS

5. CON

A large

electricit

accordin

results f

requeste

In additi

(potentia

frequenc

stable p

time).

5.1 CON

A good

presente

of differe

Ove

Cab

Tran

Swit

Cap

Surg

Insu

Inst

Gas

In additi

example

SE STUDY 1/4 –

NDITION M

number of

ty network

ng to a calen

from an RC

ed from the a

on to condit

al) failures, c

cy, etc.) is us

ower system

NDITION MO

overview of

ed by Skjølbe

ent methods

erhead lines

les

nsformers

tching equip

acitors

ge arresters

ulators

rument tran

‐insulated su

ion, the repo

e is presented

ELECTRICITY NE

MONITOR

different co

(see section

ndar‐based s

M analysis

authorities).

tion monitor

continuous m

sed in the wh

m operation

NITORING M

f condition

erg (2007) in

s for the follo

ment

sformers

ubstations

ort classifies

d.

TWORKS

RING

ndition mon

n 5.1). Cond

chedule whe

or accordin

ring method

monitoring o

hole electric

and regulat

METHODS

monitoring

a comprehe

owing main n

s the method

nitoring met

ition monito

ere the insp

g to public

s for the pu

of different e

ity network.

tion of the s

methods fo

ensive report

network com

ds according

thods exist f

oring and in

ection interv

regulations

rpose of rev

electrical qua

The main pu

system (to e

or componen

t. The report

mponents:

g to differen

for the main

spection are

vals are e.g.

(if minimu

ealing techn

antities (such

urpose of th

ensure good

nts in the e

t briefly desc

nt aspects; se

n componen

e mainly ca

chosen acco

m requirem

nical degrada

h as voltage,

ese measure

power qua

electricity ne

cribes a large

ee Table 6 w

Page 50

nts in the

rried out

ording to

ments are

ation and

, current,

ements is

lity at all

etwork is

e number

where an

D2.1.1. CAS

The aim

diagnost

network

compon

methods

Use of h

In recen

helicopt

infrared

inspectio

difficult

.

8 As an estin an interperson yea

SE STUDY 1/4 –

m of the rep

tic methods

k. It presents

ents. The re

s are establis

helicopter

nt years, the

ers are equi

cameras o

ons is that it

topography.

timate of the erview (http://wars of manual w

ELECTRICITY NE

ort by Skjøl

used to as

s the results

eport only c

shed and to w

e use of hel

ipped with h

r sensors re

t is a very tim

.

effectiveness ofwww.bt.no/tv/?work (going alo

TWORKS

berg (2007)

ssess the co

from a litera

considers co

what degree

icopters for

high‐resoluti

egistering e

me‐effective

f the method, tid=18339): inspng the lines)

) is to give

ondition of

ature study

ommercially

e they are us

inspection

ion cameras

lectromagne

e method fo

the following nupection of appr

a comprehe

high voltage

and intervie

available m

sed can vary.

of overhead

and can ad

etic radiatio

r inspection

umbers were gox. 2000 km of

ensive and c

e componen

ews with exp

methods, alth

d lines beca

dditionally be

n. The adva

of overhead

iven by a helicooverhead line

compact ove

nts in the e

perts on the

hough how

me quite us

e equipped

antage of h

d lines8, esp

opter inspectioin 2‐3 weeks, i

Page 51

erview of

electricity

different

well the

sual. The

with e.g.

helicopter

pecially in

on operator nstead of 5

D

M

VinC(ghe

ODE

ODS

…RFMEDInTofjoJoRM…12345

67

2.1.1. CASE STUDY 1/4

TABLE 6 – OVERHE

Method Condes

Visual nspection of Conductor ground or elicopter)

Concorrinteexte

OHL Corrosion Detector –

ddy current

Intecorr

OHL Corrosion Detector –

teel Core

Intecorr

… Radio

requency / Microwave

mission Detector

Winindudam

nfra Red hermography f conductor

oints

Conjoin

oint Resistance Measurer

Conjoin

… ) On‐line or off‐line) If measurements ) Qualification of op) Reference. Note: ) Application of medetailed analyses

) The line must be o) ACSR: Aluminium

4 – ELECTRICITY NETWO

EAD LINE (OHL) INS

ndition scriptor

Measureparamete

nductor rosion –

ernal and ernal

Visible siof conduccorrosion

ernal rosion

Resultanmagneticwhen eddcurrents ainduced

ernal rosion

Electromic pulses

nd uced mage

Corona pattern

nductor t defects IR radiati

nductor t defects

Resistanjoint

e method (i.e. if theare performed on aperator, G: Generareferences shown iethod. It is distingus, (C) Methods thatoff‐line if measuremm Conductor Steel R

ORKS

SPECTION METHOD

ed er Criteria

gns ctor

n.

Bulging, corrbetween the corrosion prooxide etc.

t c field dy are

A disturbed mindicates an galvanising.

agnet

The steel crois measured and receivingsecond. Losscorrosion pro

Irregular coroindicate defeelements.

ion Temperaturelower than ththe conducto

ce of Increased regreen/red LEdefect joints.

e method can be apa continuous or perl component knowin the table are notuished between A‐,t are rarely used; sements are to be takReinforced, AACSR:

DS. THE TABLE BELO

rosion products strands, external

oducts, copper

magnetic field attack of the

oss sectional area by generating

g 2000 pulses per s of steel indicates oblems.

ona pattern can ective line

e of joint should be he temperature of or.

esistance or EDs indicate .

pplied while the equriodical basis: C: Coledge, H: High knot listed in this repor, B‐ and C‐methodsee Skjølberg (2007) ken far up from the Aluminium Alloy C

OW IS AN (INCOMP

1) 2) 3)

On-line 6)

P H

On-line (< 400 kV)

P H

Off-line P H

On-line P H

On-line P H

On-line/ Off-line P G

uipment is under opntinuous, P: Periodowledge of componrt but only in Skjølbs: (A) Simple methofor more details ground onductor Steel Rein

PLETE) EXTRACT FRO

Comments

Simple and importacorrosion problems

Quantitative. Additiperformed to determstrength of conductoptical cable has be

Sufficient sensitive [4]. Additional (destperformed to determstrength of conductoptical cable has be

Not very sensitive tstage. Additional mare required.

Quick and simple mincrease will be medependent. Must bereadings. More direct than IRbad joints. Time coIR survey.

peration (on‐line) odical nent, S: Specialist eerg (2007) ods that are comm

nforced

OM THE FULL TABL

ant method, but will nos at an early stage.

ional (destructive) testmine the extent of cortor. Cannot be used ween wrapped on the e

to indicate very smalltructive) tests should bmine the extent of cortor. Cannot be used ween wrapped on the e

to conductor wear in amethods (e.g. visual ins

method. Only severe reeasured. Load and wee aware of sources to

R. Will not easily deteconsuming. Can be use

r not (off‐line))

expertise

mon practice, (B) M

LE PRESENTED IN S

Compapplic

ot detect Condu

ts should be rrosion and where an earth wire.

ACSRAACScondu

steel losses be rrosion and where an earth wire.

ACSRAACScondu

an early spections) Condu

esistance ather erroneous

Condujoints

ct “medium” d to confirm Condu

joints

ore advanced meth

Page 52

KJØLBERG (2007).

ponent cations 4) 5

uctor 1, 4 A

R, 7)

SR uctors

12 B

R, , 7) SR uctors

4 B

uctor 4 C

uctor 4

B

uctor 4

hods used for more

)

A

B

B

C

B

e

D2.1.1. CAS

5.2 ASSE

Assessm

monitor

monitor

interpret

feeling,

the tech

exist als

rules and

5.2.1 TECH

A quite

(discrete

different

failure m

conditio

Example

al. (2006

5.2.2 GUID

In Norw

compon

Con

EBR

REN

9 http://ww10 http://w11 http://w

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ESSMENT OF

ment of tech

ing. The res

ing methods

tation and c

i.e. the main

hnical condit

o a number

d guidelines

HNICAL COND

usual appro

e) technical

t, because t

mechanism

ns) or in a ve

es of technica

6) and Welte

DELINES FOR

ay and othe

ents’ conditi

dition monit

R standards10

N guidelines11

ww.energinorgwww.svenskenewww.ren.no

ELECTRICITY NE

F TECHNICAL

hnical condi

ults must be

s are applied

combination

ntenance tec

ion somewh

r of more st

or by means

DITION STATE

oach for de

condition st

he states ca

and failure

ery aggregat

al condition

& Skjølberg

ASSESSMENT

er countries,

ion have bee

toring handb0, Swedenerg1, REN, Norw

ge.no/energiakaergi.se/sv/Vi‐ar

TWORKS

L CONDITION

tion is usua

e interprete

, the results

is a topic of

chnician carr

here betwee

tructured ap

s of other, m

ES

escription an

ates. The de

an either be

mode on a

ed way (a wh

states and th

(2010).

T OF TECHNIC

a number o

en published

books9, Energ

gy, Sweden

way

ademiet/ betar‐med/Nat

N

ally based o

ed, and in ca

from these

f subjective

rying out ins

en as good a

pproaches w

more advance

nd classificat

efinition and

applied in a

a given com

hole system

heir applicat

CAL CONDITIO

of guidelines

d. Examples o

gy Norway, N

t/EBR/

on results f

ases where s

methods mu

evaluations

spection or a

s new and v

where the co

ed methods.

tion of cond

d meaning o

a quite stric

mponent wit

subject to d

tion can be fo

ON

s for conditio

of such guide

Norway

from inspec

several inspe

ust be combi

based on ex

a maintenan

very poor/fa

ndition is as

dition assess

f such a stat

t and detaile

th known d

ifferent failu

ound in War

on monitorin

elines are:

ctions and c

ection and c

ined. Most o

xperience an

nce engineer

ailed. Howev

ssessed acco

sment is th

te can be so

ed way (one

esign and o

ure modes).

reing (2005),

ng and asse

Page 53

condition

condition

often, the

nd/or gut

assesses

ver, there

ording to

e use of

omewhat

e specific

operating

Welte et

ssing the

D2.1.1. CAS

Inte

(200

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ernational sta

08)

ELECTRICITY NE

andards, e.g

TWORKS

for analysis of gas in traansformer oil: IEC 60599

(1999), IEEE

Page 54

E C57.104

D2.1.1. CAS

6. STA

COMP

The stat

chapter.

Trønder

Norway.

compan

6.1 STAT

Statnett

voltage e

voltage t

responsi

regional

Statnett

responsi

correct

electric

Nordic T

Statnett

To ensu

whether

control s

lines, etc

12 Informdoes/NatioOperation

SE STUDY 1/4 –

TE‐OF‐TH

ANIES

te‐of‐the art

A questionn

Energi, the o

. The main f

ies for maint

TNETT

is Norway’s

electricity tra

transmission

ible for the

distributors

is also appo

ibility of coo

balance bet

power exch

TSOs.

is also respo

ure a long‐te

r the networ

systems, syst

c. 12

mation retrievonal‐main‐grids/

ELECTRICITY NE

E‐ART I

t in mainten

naire was se

operator of t

focus was o

tenance plan

s national ma

ansmission i

n lines as we

generation o

and thereby

ointed the ro

ordinating t

ween supply

hange with o

onsible for n

erm satisfac

rk capacity c

tem protect

ved from St‐owner/ a

TWORKS

N MAIN

nance in Nor

ent to Statne

he distributi

n well‐estab

nning and op

ain grid own

n Norway. T

ell as numer

of electricity

y the end‐us

ole as Norwa

he operatio

y and dema

other nation

ecessary dev

ctory transm

can cater fo

ion, acquisit

tatnett's homand http://

NTENANC

rwegian net

ett, the Norw

on system in

blished meth

ptimization.

er and oper

The main grid

rous transfo

y itself, but

er at all time

ay’s Transmi

on of the co

and at all tim

nal TSOs abr

velopment o

mission netw

r market de

ion, disposa

mepage: http/www.statnett

E IN N

twork compa

wegian trans

n Trondheim

hods that are

ator, and is f

d consists of

rmer and co

for ensuring

es.

ission System

ountry’s elec

mes. In doin

road, primar

of the main e

work adequa

emands – fo

l, modernisa

://www.statne.no/en/About‐S

NORWEGI

anies is brie

smission syst

and the sou

e used in ev

first of all re

approximate

onnector stat

g that the el

m Operator (

ctric power

ng so, Statne

rily involving

electricity ne

cy, Statnett

r example, n

ation of subs

tt.no/en/AboutStatnett/What‐

AN NET

efly describe

tem operato

uthern part o

very day wo

esponsible fo

ely 10 000 km

tions. Statne

lectricity rea

(TSO) with a

system, ma

ett also reg

g those of t

etwork infras

t continually

new power

stations, tran

t‐Statnett/Wha‐Statnett‐does/

Page 55

TWORK

ed in this

or, and to

of Central

ork in the

or all high

m of high

ett is not

aches the

an overall

aintaining

ulates all

the other

structure.

y reviews

lines and

nsmission

at‐Statnett‐/Main‐Grid‐

D2.1.1. CAS

6.1.1 ANS

1. Wh

As la

use

thro

the

mai

mon

othe

part

such

2. Mai

Stat

with

Mai

base

3. Mai

a.

b.

c.

d.

SE STUDY 1/4 –

SWERS FROM

at are the ov

aid down by

of energy e

ough good m

overall str

intenance s

nitoring as a

ers, based o

ticularly imp

h as addition

intenance or

tnett has a

h responsibili

intenance gr

ed on RCM),

intenance pl

When are c

Component

condition is

Does Statn

their comp

Statnett is n

for followin

oil‐/gas ana

gas‐filled sw

How is top

componen

place A com

operationa

Local adapt

How are di

ELECTRICITY NE

STATNETT

verall princip

Act relating

etc. (Energy

maintenance.

rategy of S

trategy con

a result of R

n availability

portant insta

nal maintena

rganization,

central main

ity for princip

roups plan a

corrective m

lanning and o

components

ts are repla

poor.

ett use a con

ponents?

not classifyin

ng up conditio

alysis of tra

witchgear, th

pology taken

ts in the net

mpared to w

al stresses.)

tations are m

fferent envir

TWORKS

ples for main

to the gener

Act), Statne

. The main d

tatnett. The

nsisting of

RCM. The ex

y demands g

allations can

ance actions

departments

ntenance de

ples and inst

and carry ou

maintenance

optimization

maintained/

aced when t

ndition index

ng technical

on developm

nsformer oil

hermography

n into accou

twork; the s

when installe

made accordi

ronmental st

ntenance pla

ration, conve

ett is to pro

driver is the

e maintenan

time‐based

xtent and sco

given by the

n get a mor

and/or short

s and respon

epartment (w

tructions, an

ut appointed

and other a

n:

/replaced?

they are wo

x, health ind

condition. Bu

ment and for

l, testing of

y, etc.)

unt in main

same compo

ed at place B

ing to the RC

tresses (wind

nning in Stat

ersion, trans

ovide availab

security of s

nce philosop

actions, vis

ope of the m

e network op

e intense pr

ter maintena

nsibilities:

which is own

d for follow‐

d maintenan

ctions within

orn‐out (age

ices, etc. to

ut Statnett h

maintenanc

f circuit‐brea

tenance pla

onent may b

B. Different l

CM analysis.

d, ice, corros

tnett?

mission, trad

ble electricity

supply, whic

phy is base

sual inspect

maintenance

peration cont

reventive ma

ance interval

ner of the m

up of these.

nce (accordin

n their area o

eing/wear)

classify the t

has some ind

ce analyses a

akers, pressu

nning? (Tha

e more critic

ocation may

sion) taken in

ding, distribu

y transport

ch is deeply r

ed on a pr

tions and c

e is adjusted

trol. This me

aintenance p

ls.

maintenance

ing the annu

of responsibi

or if their

technical con

dicators that

and assessme

ure measure

at is, the loc

cal when ins

y also cause

nto account?

Page 56

ution and

corridors

rooted in

reventive

condition

d, among

eans that

program,

process)

ual order

ility.

technical

ndition of

are used

ents (e.g.

ments of

cation of

stalled at

different

?

D2.1.1. CAS

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

k.

l.

4. Risk

SE STUDY 1/4 –

They are tak

Is continuo

defined for

Continuous

filled switch

cases, thre

pressure ch

Which cond

We use vari

Do criteria

We categor

Methodolo

Statnett ha

traditional

and risk an

requiremen

Long term

All mainten

which is ou

planning to

decisions fo

portfolio pla

Tools and m

IFS is Statne

value calcul

RCM – W

componen

Statnett us

adjustment

Calculating

This has not

k analysis:

ELECTRICITY NE

ken into acco

ous monitor

r the monito

monitoring

hgear and fo

shold values

anges in tran

dition monit

ious trend an

for categori

rize equipme

ogy for maint

as recently b

managemen

nd vulnerabi

nts of mainte

/ short term

nance (yearly

ur enterprise

ool for adm

or system de

an.

methods for

ett's ERP sys

lations are u

hich compu

ts, or only fo

ses Bi‐cycle f

ts (see also a

g remaining l

t been develo

TWORKS

ount as a pa

ing used, an

red value re

is used for p

r temperatur

s are used.

nsformers.

toring / diagn

nalyses on re

zation of equ

ent by type, a

tenance/asse

been certifie

nt loop based

ility analyses

nance.

planning:

y plans and f

e resource p

ministration

evelopment

maintenanc

stem which a

sed, as well

ter program

or groups of

for RCM an

nswer 3c).

ifetime (tool

oped to any

art of the RCM

nd to which

sulting in a w

pressure me

re and gas m

There are

nosis techniq

esponse time

uipment for

age, and con

et managem

ed according

d on the De

s are today

four‐week p

planning (ER

of projects

(new constr

ce/asset man

also is used

as cost‐bene

m is used fo

components

alysis. RCM

ls, methods

great extent

M analysis.

extent (mu

warning sign

easurements

measuremen

also test pr

ques does St

es, motion, te

maintenanc

dition.

ment:

g to PAS 55

ming cycle (

the most im

plans) is plan

RP) system.

and for po

ructions) are

nagement:

for mainten

efit analysis a

or the analy

s / selected c

is carried o

(e.g. stochas

t.

ch / not mu

al if the thre

(for detectin

ts in transfor

rojects on o

atnett use?

emperature a

e/replaceme

. Statnett w

(PCDA – plan

mportant me

nned and ad

In addition,

ortfolio main

e based on

ance manag

and power n

ysis? Is RCM

components?

out for all e

stic methods

uch)? Are th

eshold is cros

ing gas leaks

rmers. For bo

online moni

and gas qua

ent exist?

works accord

n‐do‐check‐a

ethods to co

dministered u

n, we use a

ntenance. Lo

the use of

germent. Ne

network simu

M carried ou

?

equipment w

s etc.))?

Page 57

hresholds

ssed?

s) in gas‐

oth these

toring of

ality.

ding to a

act). RCM

omply to

using IFS,

n overall

ong‐term

a project

t present

ulations.

ut for all

with local

D2.1.1. CAS

a.

b.

c.

5. Fau

a.

b.

6. Log

a.

SE STUDY 1/4 –

Is risk ana

different ri

We do both

in different

adaptations

Does Statn

say the risk

is probably

We do not

down on a

planning. H

(Norwegian

Other risk a

Risk matric

improveme

ult analysis:

Individual f

Statnett has

Fault statis

The FASIT‐s

Based on FA

analyses are

gistics:

Are metho

manageme

etc.)? The

maintenan

example th

at right pla

from far n

avoided).

There are n

coordinated

ELECTRICITY NE

alysis done

sk) or is this

h. First repre

t categories,

s for the spec

ett have a (a

k for the tra

y also related

have a syst

reas/lines th

However, we

n acronym: R

analysis met

ces are use

nt and use of

fault analysis

s its own fau

stics (fault an

system exist

ASIT, annual

e carried out

ods or tools i

ent (availabl

background

ce tasks an

hat maintena

ace at right

north to so

no specific m

d taking into

TWORKS

for individu

done for com

esentative sp

, after whic

cific location

aggregated)

nsmission ne

d to vulnerab

tem that ag

hat have be

e do calcula

ROS).

hods: Which

ed as part

f additional

s (e.g. after a

ult analysis g

nalysis for gro

ts in Norway

fault statisti

t if required.

in use for op

le spare pa

d for the qu

d work ove

ance person

time (and t

uthern part

methods or

o account da

al compone

mponent gro

pecialist grou

ch RCM ana

ns.

risk measure

et is increasi

bility. Is the v

ggregates ris

en carried o

te overall ri

h other meth

of RCM. T

method at S

an item has f

group.

oups of com

y (obligatory

ics are publis

ptimisation o

arts, mainte

uestion is th

er the whol

nnel, machin

that bottlen

ts of the co

tools used f

aily maintena

ents (becaus

oups (compo

ups perform

alyses are d

e for the who

ing or decrea

vulnerability

sk, but we d

out by those

isk based on

hods/tools do

There are a

Statnett.

failed):

ponents / th

y for all net

shed. Apart f

of logistics a

nance perso

hat Statnett

e country w

es/tools/veh

ecks/restrict

ountry and

for this, but

ance, reinves

se different

onents of sam

analyses of

done locally

ole transmiss

asing – due t

of the netwo

do have risk

e who do th

n risk and v

oes Statnett

lready activ

he whole net

work compa

from these a

spects in ma

onnel, mach

probably al

which must

hicles and m

tions and un

immediately

t all our act

stments and

location m

me design/ty

f equipment

with the n

sion net? (in

to some rea

ork changing

assessment

he network e

vulnerability

use?

vities and p

twork):

anies, see se

activities, onl

aintenance a

hines/tools,

lways have

be coordin

aterials are

nnecessary t

y back to n

tivity is plan

d new installa

Page 58

ay cause

ype)?

classified

necessary

n order to

son) This

g?

ts broken

extension

analyses

plans for

ection 0).

ly specific

and asset

vehicles,

on‐going

ated, for

available

transport

north are

nned and

ations. In

D2.1.1. CAS

7. O

a.

b.

c.

8. Oth

a.

b.

6.2 TRØ

Trønder

construc

Trondhe

SE STUDY 1/4 –

addition, th

parts, and b

Operating an

Responsibi

border? (bo

We are resp

at the bord

boundary is

(Cross‐bord

coordinate

routines (w

works requ

Common pl

ENTSO‐E (E

recently pu

How and to

ENTSO‐E's w

Network Co

important s

hers question

Are metho

The mainten

Does Statn

Statnett us

preventive m

is focus on d

NDERENERG

Energi’s subs

ction, opera

eim area and

ELECTRICITY NE

here are exte

backup equip

nd maintaini

lity: Who ha

oth TSOs, ea

ponsible for

der line, in o

s set at the p

der) effect o

ed analysis

what and wh

uired by pow

lanning carri

European N

ublished sev

o which degr

work does to

ode on Opera

standard for

ns:

ds/principles

nance in Sta

ett have (ma

ses a KPI po

maintenance

developing th

GI NETT

sidiary Trønd

tion and m

in the Sør T

TWORKS

ernal and in

pment.

ng cross‐bor

as responsib

ach for the pa

what we ow

other cases

oint where t

of faults: Wh

of faults? C

en informati

wer producer

ed out by Sta

etwork of T

veral guideli

ree will ENTS

o a large deg

ational Plann

Statnett's m

s such as Wo

tnett is base

aintenance r

ortal that c

e, delays of p

his further in

derEnergi Ne

aintenance

røndelag cou

nternal requi

rder connect

bility for, for

art until the

wn. In most c

it is at the

the cable ent

hat methodo

Coordination

ion is exchan

rs, transmissi

atnett as res

Transmission

nes/standar

SO‐E's work i

gree influenc

ning and Sch

maintenance

orld Class Ma

ed on the WC

related) key p

covers unfor

preventive m

n 2013.

ett AS is resp

of the regi

untry, Centra

irements for

tions, interna

r example, a

border line;

cases, this m

middle of th

ters the onsh

ologies and

n of planne

nged betwee

ion and distr

sponsible ope

System Op

ds (network

influence Sta

ce the work t

heduling ‐ NC

work.

aintenance (

CM principle.

performance

reseen corre

maintenance

ponsible for p

onal and lo

al Norway.

emergency

ational coord

line or a ca

or one for th

means that th

he cable. Fo

hore terminal

principles a

ed maintena

en TSOs) to p

ribution syste

erator of the

erators for

k codes) for

atnetts work

that has cros

C OPS (ENTSO

WCM), 5S, e

e indicators (

ective maint

e, backlog of

power distrib

ocal distribut

preparedne

dination:

able that cro

he whole lin

he responsib

or subsea ca

l.

re used to c

ance: What

plan outages

em operator

e system.

Electricity):

the Europe

k?

ss‐border eff

O‐E 2012) is

etc. used?

(KPIs)?

tenance, pro

f critical erro

bution, as w

tion networ

Page 59

ess, spare

osses the

e/cable)

bility ends

ables, the

carry out

are the

s allowing

rs?

ENTSO‐E

an TSOs.

fects. The

the most

ogress of

ors. There

ell as the

rk in the

D2.1.1. CAS

6.2.1 ANS

1. Wh

The

prin

with

supp

2. Mai

The

proj

asse

3. Mai

a.

b.

c.

d.

SE STUDY 1/4 –

SWERS FROM

at are the ov

overall prin

nciple for all

h health, saf

ply and risk a

intenance or

asset mana

ject departm

embly depart

intenance pl

When are c

Maintenanc

and correct

Does Trøn

condition o

Such indices

How is top

componen

place A com

For many ty

to potentia

differentiat

i. Differe

ii. How a

We ar

expose

maint

Is continuo

defined for

For examp

maintenanc

ELECTRICITY NE

TRØNDEREN

verall princip

nciple is risk‐

maintenanc

fety and env

associated w

rganization,

agement dep

ment is resp

tment is resp

lanning and o

components

ce planning i

tive strategie

derEnergi u

of their comp

s are not use

pology taken

ts in the net

mpared to w

ypes of comp

al conseque

e maintenan

ent location

are different

re in the pro

ed to (high

enance. An e

ous monitor

r the monito

le, the tem

ce purposes,

TWORKS

ERGI NETT

ples for main

‐based main

ce measures

vironmental

with reputatio

departments

partment is r

ponsible for

ponsible for p

optimization

maintained/

involves elem

es.

se a condit

ponents?

ed as of now,

n into accou

twork; the s

when installed

ponents, com

ences of the

nce of such co

may also cau

environmen

ocess of class

h, medium,

example of s

ing used, an

red value re

mperature of

but only for

ntenance pla

ntenance: Th

s. TrønderEn

factors, risk

on.

s and respon

responsible f

r planning o

performing t

n

/replaced?

ments from b

ion index, h

, but there a

unt in main

same compo

d at place B.

mponents are

eir failure

omponents.

use different

ntal stresses

sifying comp

or low) an

uch stresses

nd to which

sulting in a w

f transforme

the purpose

nning in Trø

e need to co

ergi conside

ks associate

nsibilities:

for decisions

of maintena

the maintena

both time‐ba

health indice

re plans to e

tenance pla

onent may b

)

e classified a

(as quantifi

t operationa

(wind, ice, c

ponents by t

nd will use

is the tempe

extent (mu

warning sign

ers is moni

e of adjustme

nderEnergi?

ontrol or red

rs economic

d with secur

s and procur

ance and re

ance.

ased, age‐ba

es, etc. to c

employ them

nning? (Tha

e more critic

s high, medi

ied by CEN

l stresses.

orrosion) tak

the level of t

this to gui

erature of tra

ch / not mu

al if the thre

itored, but

ent and recon

duce risk is

c risk, risk as

rity of the e

rement/orde

enewal proje

ased, conditi

classify the

m in the future

at is, the loc

cal when ins

ium, or low a

NS). This is

ken into acco

the stresses

ide the inte

ansformers.

uch)? Are th

eshold is cros

his is not

nnection.

Page 60

the basic

ssociated

electricity

ering. The

ects. The

on‐based

technical

e.

cation of

stalled at

according

used to

ount?

they are

ensity of

hresholds

ssed?

used for

D2.1.1. CAS

e.

f.

g.

h.

i.

j.

SE STUDY 1/4 –

Which cond

A number o

chapter 5.1

Do criteria

There is ext

this guides

dimensions

of stresses,

i. Are th

of the

There

of net‐

Methodolo

Maintenanc

question 1)

also follow

companies,

large degre

standards c

used.

Long‐term

The kind of

from that, m

longer time

Tools and m

For major r

carried out

principle. M

maintenanc

maintenanc

Is TrønderE

No, RCM an

ELECTRICITY NE

dition monit

of methods

in the repor

for categori

tensive use o

the intensi

such as the

as mentione

here plans fo

line?

are no very

‐present‐valu

ogy for maint

ce in Trønde

). Guidelines

wed (for ex

TrønderEne

ee what ma

contain recom

/ short‐term

f long‐time p

maintenance

e scales woul

methods for

renewals at

t. These are

Methods such

ce managem

ce managem

Energi carryi

nalyses are n

TWORKS

toring / diagn

are in use f

rt.)

zation of equ

of categoriza

ity of maint

importance f

ed previously

or whether o

formal meth

ue analysis f

tenance/asse

erEnergi is

from the N

ample on r

ergi develope

aintenance s

mmendation

m planning:

plan is effecti

e decisions a

d have to be

maintenanc

main parts

typically (m

h as fuzzy log

ment system.

ment system (

ng out RCM‐

ot carried ou

nosis techniq

for a numbe

uipment for

ation in “arch

tenance. Com

for electricit

y.

one replaces

hods in use,

for this quest

et managem

driven by ri

Norwegian W

risk and vu

ed their own

trategy is u

ns on mainte

tively determ

are restricted

e based purel

ce/asset man

of the grid,

more or less

gic are not u

. NetBas is a

(CMMS).

‐analyses?

ut.

ques does Tr

er of differe

maintenanc

hetypes” acco

mponents ar

ty supply (as

e.g. the ent

but Trønder

tions

ment:

isk‐based co

Water Resou

ulnerability

n "maintena

used for diffe

nance and in

mined by an e

d to a time ho

ly on assump

nagement:

, relatively d

s detailed) a

sed. Trønder

a GIS‐based

ønderEnergi

nt types of

e/replaceme

ording to com

re also cate

quantified b

ire line or ju

rEnergi start

onsiderations

rces and En

analysis). T

ance standar

erent types

nspection int

estimated ye

orizon of five

ptions.

deep and th

analyses bas

rEnergi uses

NIS‐system

i use?

equipment.

ent exist?

mponent de

egorized alo

by CENS) and

st some com

ted to emplo

s (cf. the an

nergy Directo

Together wi

rds" that def

of compone

tervals. PAS 5

ear of renew

e years, as p

horough ana

sed on the

Powel NetB

that also in

Page 61

(Cf. also

sign, and

ng other

d the level

mponents

oy a form

nswer to

orate are

ith other

efine to a

ents. The

55 is also

wal. Apart

lans over

alyses are

life‐cycle

as as our

ncludes a

D2.1.1. CAS

k.

4. Risk

a.

b.

c.

5. Fau

a.

b.

6. Log

SE STUDY 1/4 –

i. If so, is

compon

A RCM‐

(“arche‐

Calculating

Stochastic m

components

component

mean lifetim

and conditio

k analysis:

Is risk ana

different ri

Risk analysi

Does Trønd

order to sa

reason) Th

changing?

TrønderEne

to the lack o

Which othe

Risk matric

event trees

ult analysis:

Individual

happened

The departm

Fault statis

data for FA

companies

this area?

Unfortunate

gistics:

ELECTRICITY NE

RCM carried

nents?

like methodo

‐“)types of e

g remaining l

methods are

s. The renew

has an exp

me. Howeve

on specific in

alysis done

sk) or is this

is is done for

derEnergi ha

ay the risk f

his is probab

ergi plans to

of data.

er methods/

ces are used

are not used

fault analys

in the netwo

ment of netw

stics (fault an

ASIT is must

s). And annua

ely not, altho

TWORKS

d out for all c

ology is emp

quipment, b

ifetime (tool

e not used.

wal year is f

pected lifetim

er, the renew

nformation fr

for individu

done for com

r component

ave a (aggre

for the trans

bly also relat

introduce su

/tools for risk

d quite exten

d.

sis: TrønderE

ork and on co

work operatio

nalysis for gr

t be collecte

al fault statis

ough Trønde

components,

ployed to dev

ut the metho

ls, methods

A (determin

first estima

me. Thus, th

wal year is u

from inspecti

al compone

mponent gro

t groups.

gated) risk m

smission net

ted to vulne

uch a measu

k analysis do

nsively, but

Energi is pr

omponents?

on control is

oups of com

ed (obligator

stic reports a

erEnergi has

, or only for

velop mainte

od is not a fo

(e.g. stochas

nistic) "year

ted based o

he renewal y

updated whe

ions is availa

ents (becaus

oups (compo

measure for

t is increasin

erability. Is t

ure, but it ha

es TrønderE

quantitative

robably carr

? Is there a d

responsible

mponents/ th

ry to report

are publishe

big ambition

groups of co

enance stand

ormal RCM.

stic methods

of renewal"

on rough ass

year is the y

n the compo

able.

se different

onents of sam

the whole t

ng or decrea

the vulnerab

as not yet be

nergi use?

methods su

ying out an

epartment/g

for fault ana

e whole netw

for all netw

d. Is there a

ns.

omponents /

dards for the

s etc.))?

" is estimate

sumptions t

year of insta

onents beco

location m

me design/ty

transmission

asing – due

bility of the

een impleme

uch as fault

nalysis of fa

group doing

alysis.

work): We k

work and pr

nything else

Page 62

/ selected

different

ed for all

that each

allation +

me older

ay cause

ype)

n net? (in

to some

network

ented due

t trees or

ults that

this?

now that

roduction

e done on

D2.1.1. CAS

a.

7. Ope

netw

a.

8. Oth

a.

b.

SE STUDY 1/4 –

Are metho

manageme

etc.)?

We do not h

are conting

procured. T

network (an

delivery of s

erating and

work compa

Coordinatio

TrønderEne

operators t

shut downs

transmissio

regional ne

hers question

Are metho

The networ

Does Trønd

A clear idea

but they ha

data require

ELECTRICITY NE

ods or tools i

ent (availabl

have compe

gency plans

The NIS prov

nd that coul

spare parts)

maintaining

anies or the t

on of planne

ergi is conn

that are sup

s are coord

n network o

tworks, and

ns:

ds/principles

rk manageme

derEnergi (m

a of relevant

ave not yet b

ed for being

TWORKS

in use for op

le spare pa

tence on log

for, e.g., th

vides an ove

ld be used a

has been ou

lines/cables

transmission

ed maintenan

ected to a

pplied by Trø

dinate with

operated by

maintenanc

s such as Wo

ent policy is

maintenance

KPIs exist (a

been implem

able to calcu

ptimisation o

arts, mainte

gistics on a h

he case tha

erview of ina

as spare par

utsourced.

s and compo

n net.

nce:

number of

ønderEnergi'

these. In

Statnett, the

ce and shut d

orld Class Ma

based on PA

related) key

a report on r

ment as Trøn

ulate the KPI

of logistics a

nance perso

igh formal o

t a large nu

active comp

rts). The logi

onents which

f (minor) ne

's regional n

addition to

e network is

downs are co

aintenance (

AS 55.

performanc

relevant KPIs

nderEnergi is

Is.

spects in ma

onnel, mach

or academic l

umber of tr

onents that

istics functio

h are connec

eighbouring

network. Ma

being conn

s also connec

ordinate wit

WCM), 5S, e

ce indicators

was establis

still working

aintenance a

hines/tools,

level. Howev

ransformers

are availab

on itself (sto

cted to neig

distribution

aintenance w

nected to t

cted to neig

th these as w

etc. used?

(KPIs)?

ished in earli

g on establis

Page 63

and asset

vehicles,

ver, there

must be

ble in the

rage and

hbouring

n system

work and

the main

ghbouring

well.

ier work),

shing the

D2.1.1. CAS

7. DISC

The requ

need of

consume

special c

other tr

borders,

is basica

kilometr

alternati

can be c

Since re

electricit

topology

section

network

network

that is o

(because

bottlene

transmis

electricit

responsi

correct b

scheduli

carried o

The elec

whereas

The pow

SE STUDY 1/4 –

CUSSION:

uirement for

f transport o

ers (apart fr

characteristi

ransport sys

, but only the

ally not a p

res (e.g. in

ive network

ompensated

routing of e

ty network w

y (which is

2.2), if the

k part can be

k loading is lo

off). Howeve

e the n‐1 crit

ecks in the re

ssion networ

ty marked

ibility of coo

balance betw

ng of the e

out in a coor

ctrical transm

s the electric

wer frequenc

ELECTRICITY NE

RELEVAN

r both the ra

of, respectiv

rom passeng

c of the “tra

stems) that

e electricity

problem. Th

case of mai

capacity is

d by increase

electricity is

will usually n

usual for t

network is

e tolerated (

ow (i.e. part

er, a shutdo

terion is not

emaining net

rks – are coo

disturbance

ordinating th

ween supply

electricity ne

dinated and

mission netw

cal distributio

cy of the elec

TWORKS

NCE VS RA

ailway infras

vely, goods

ger transpor

ansport syst

equipment

itself. Since

hat means t

intenance) i

available an

ed productio

usually poss

not lead to co

ransmission

operated ac

see section

s in the netw

own will usu

fulfilled duri

twork). Thus

ordinated to

es. Since th

e operation

y and deman

etwork in ge

predictable

works can be

on network

ctrified railwa

AIL INFRAS

structure and

and electric

rt which is t

em” electric

is not phys

electricity tr

that "rerout

s possible w

nd as long as

n.

sible, the sh

onsequence

networks a

ccording to

0), and if th

work have a

ually lead to

ing the down

s, planned sh

o reduce the

he transmis

of the coun

nd at all tim

eneral, and

manner acc

e compared

can be com

ay systems c

STRUCTUR

d the electric

city, from t

the second m

city network

sically trans

ransport is fa

ting" of elec

without any

s the transp

hutdown of

s for custom

and intercon

the N‐1 cri

e shutdown

vailable capa

consequenc

ntime) or hig

hut downs –

e probability

ssion system

ntry’s electri

mes, they are

of cross bo

ording to the

with the m

pared with t

can be differ

RE

city network

he places o

main functio

s is (compar

ported over

ast, transpor

ctricity over

time delay,

ort losses ar

lines or oth

mers if the ne

nnections cr

terion wher

is planned i

acity that ca

ces such as

gher electrici

– especially in

for potentia

m operators

c power syst

e interested

rder connec

e rules given

main railway

the commute

ent in differe

k infrastructu

of productio

on of the ra

red with rai

r distance o

rt over long d

r many hun

, as long as

re acceptabl

er equipme

etwork has a

rossing bord

re unavailab

in periods w

an substitute

higher vuln

ity prices (be

n the interco

al conseque

s have the

tem and ma

in that main

ction in part

n by ENTSO‐E

corridors in

er and local

ent countrie

Page 64

ure is the

n to the

ilway). A

lway and

or across

distances

dreds of

s enough

e and/or

nt in the

a meshed

ders; see

bility of a

where the

e the part

nerability,

ecause of

onnected

nces and

e overall

aintaining

ntenance

ticular, is

E.

n Europe,

services.

s (e.g. 50

D2.1.1. CAS

Hz and 6

frequenc

Since bo

type of

exchang

interesti

transmis

Since ne

of Energ

very rele

railway.

not with

SE STUDY 1/4 –

60 Hz), whe

cy is not sync

oth the elect

high‐voltage

ed, e.g. use

ng for the o

ssion system

etwork opera

gy Not Suppl

evant topic in

(Note: meth

hin the main

ELECTRICITY NE

reas the fre

chronised in

tricity netwo

e equipment

of condition

operation of

operators t

ation is subje

ied ‐ CENS)

n electricity

hods related

focus of this

TWORKS

quency in th

all countries

ork and the e

t, experience

n monitoring

f European r

hrough ENTS

ect to much r

might be of

networks. Th

to vulnerab

s report; the

he electricity

s).

electrified ra

e in maintain

g methods (c

railway corr

SO‐E (netwo

regulation, r

interest for

hus, method

bility are not

references i

y network is

ailway netwo

ning and op

chapter 4.3.1

ridors is the

rk codes, see

regulatory as

railway as w

ds applied in

t much desc

n section 2.6

s always 50

ork consist o

erating this

1). Another

cooperation

e section 2.3

spects and m

well. In addit

this field mi

ribed in this

6 may provid

Hz (even th

of much of t

equipment

area which

n between E

3.2).

methods (suc

tion, vulnera

ight be of int

s report, bec

de more info

Page 65

ough the

the same

could be

might be

European

h as Cost

bility is a

terest for

ause it is

rmation)

D2.1.1. CAS

8. CON

The elec

in all pa

critical (

custome

though a

Thus, su

with e.g

problem

The com

small an

others –

extensiv

France) w

national

2000 em

This me

planning

type of c

advance

must rel

more ad

In gener

in the lit

(mostly

research

13 2011‐fighttp://abo

SE STUDY 1/4 –

NCLUSION

ctricity netwo

rts of the ne

(e.g. parts i

ers). The netw

a cost‐benef

uch parts of

. an inspecti

ms are report

mpanies oper

nd have only

– especially

ve network a

which has 37

public budg

mployees invo

eans that th

g and metho

company. M

ed (mathema

ly on comm

dvanced met

ral, there is a

terature. In t

scientifically

h institutions

gures for the out‐us.edf.com/

ELECTRICITY NE

N

ork consists

etwork must

n the elect

work operat

ficial way to

the network

ion every 10

ed for furthe

rating the ele

few employ

the transm

and an own

7.7 million cu

get of the No

olved in rese

he current s

ds applied fo

Many (especia

atical) metho

ercially avai

hod.

a large gap b

the scientific

y motivated)

s (sometimes

whole EDF‐gr/profile/key‐fig

TWORKS

of a huge am

t be maintai

ricity netwo

tors are – by

operate and

k must be m

0th year whe

er following

ectricity netw

yees, some t

ission syste

R&D depar

ustomers wo

orwegian sta

earch13.

tatus on m

or condition

ally smaller)

ods and deve

lable tools a

between met

c literature, o

case studie

s in more or

roup (generatiogures‐43669.htm

mount of dis

ned, even th

ork – especi

law – oblige

d maintain su

maintained a

ere minor pr

up.

work are of q

thousand cu

m operator

rtment. One

orldwide, sal

ate) and rese

aintenance

monitoring

utilities do

elop comput

and consulta

thods applie

one can find

es. These stu

less cooper

on, transmissiml, retrieved 10

stributed com

hough, parts

ially in rura

ed to deliver

uch network

ccording to

roblems are

quite differen

stomers and

s – are very

example of

les of 65.3 b

earch budget

strategies,

is quite diffe

not have th

ter tools bas

ation by ext

ed by the com

d a quite larg

udies are oft

ation with n

on, distributio0.02.2013

mponents. A

s of the netw

l areas – th

electricity to

parts is mor

a minimal m

immediately

nt size. Some

d a small, loc

y large com

f the latter i

illion € (whic

t of 518 mill

methods us

erent, depen

e in‐house c

ed on these

ernals if the

mpanies, and

ge number o

en carried o

etwork oper

n, trading, en

All these com

work will no

hat supply

o all custom

re or less im

maintenance

y repaired a

e companies

cal network,

mpanies with

is EDF (Elect

ch is close to

lion € and m

sed for main

ndent on the

competence

methods. T

ey want to i

d methods d

of methods a

out by unive

rators). How

ngineering and

Page 66

mponents

t be very

only few

ers, even

mpossible.

e strategy

nd larger

s are very

whereas

h a huge

tricité de

o ½ of the

more than

ntenance

e size and

to apply

hus, they

ntroduce

described

applied in

ersities or

wever, the

d services),

D2.1.1. CAS

results a

of new m

challeng

SE STUDY 1/4 –

and the meth

methods in a

ge.

ELECTRICITY NE

hods describ

an existing o

TWORKS

bed remain o

organizationa

often in a ca

al structure a

ase study sta

and building

age, because

in‐house co

e the implem

ompetence is

Page 67

mentation

s a major

D2.1.1. CAS

9. REF

Abe

mai

And

Bert

doct

Stoc

Cast

tran

Catr

dist

Dist

Catr

netw

Catr

in e

app

Czec

Catr

Rein

to P

CIGR

Tran

CEE

Ene

Chri

Oiko

eval

of P

Ene

Vers

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ERENCES

eygunawarda

ntenance mo

ders, G.J. (199

tling, L. (20

toral dissert

ckholm.

tro, A.R.G.; M

nsformer fail

rinu, M., No

ribution sys

tribution, CIR

rinu, M., Ny

works, The 8

rinu, M., Nor

electricity dis

lications: pro

ch Republic,

rinu, M.D.,

nvestment D

Power System

RE (2012),

nsmission, CI

R (2011), 5t

rgy Regulato

istodoulou,

onomou, D.S

luation of th

Performance

rgy Norway

sion 2012'], E

ELECTRICITY NE

ane, S.K., J

odels", IEEE

90), Probabi

002), Reliabi

ation, Royal

Miranda, V.

ure diagnosi

rdgård, D. E

stem asset

RED, paper 05

ybø, A, Nord

8th Nordic Ele

rdgård D.E. (

stribution sy

oceedings of

7‐10 Septem

Nordgård,

Decisions”, Pr

ms (PMAPS 2

Asset Man

IGRE Workin

th Benchmar

ors, http://w

C.A.; Ekon

S.; Harkiolak

e wood pole

of Construct

(2012), FAS

Energy Norw

TWORKS

irutitijaroen

Trans. Powe

lity concepts

ility centred

Institute of

(2005), "Kno

s", IEEE Tran

E., Sand, K, N

managemen

588.

dgård, D.E. (

ectric Distrib

(2010), “Inco

ystem asset

f the Europea

mber 2009.

D.E., (2010

roceedings In

010), pp. 37

nagement D

ng Group C1.

rking report

ww.energy‐r

nomou, L.;

kis, N.; Chat

es which sup

ted Facilities,

SIT kravspesif

way, Oslo.

, P. (2011

er Sys., vol. 2

s in electric p

d maintenan

Technology

owledge disc

ns. Power Sys

Norhagen, J‐

nt”, The 19

2008), “Rein

bution and As

orporating ris

managemen

an Safety an

), “Method

nternational

2‐377, IEEE.

Decision M

25.

on the qual

regulators.e

Stefanou,

tzarakis, G.E

pport the Hel

, vol. 23, no.

ifikasjon. Ver

), "New st

6, no. 4, pp.

power system

ce for elect

(KTH), Depa

covery in neu

s., vol. 20, no

‐K (2007), “M

9th Internat

nvestment s

sset Manage

sk analysis a

nt”, in Reliab

d Reliability

ology for R

Conference

Making and

lity of electri

u.

K.A.; Fotis,

E.; Stathopul

llenic electric

5, pp. 314‐3

rsjon 2012 [

ate diagram

2207‐2213.

ms, Wiley, Ne

tric power d

artment of E

ural network

o.2, pp. 717‐

Multi‐criteria

tional Confe

trategy mak

ement Confer

nd multi‐crit

bility, risk an

Conference,

Risk‐Informed

on Probabili

Risk Indica

icity supply,

, G.P.; Kar

los, I.A. (200

cal distributi

319.

['FASIT requir

ms for pro

ew York.

distribution

Electrical Eng

ks with appli

‐724.

a decision su

erence on E

king for dist

rence, NORD

teria decisio

nd safety; th

ESREL 2009

d Maintena

istic Method

ators for E

Council of E

ramousantas

09) "Life ex

ion network"

irement spec

Page 68

obabilistic

systems,

gineering,

cation to

upport in

Electricity

ribution”

DAC.

n making

eory and

9, Prague,

ance and

ds Applied

Electricity

European

s, D.Ch.;

xpectancy

", Journal

cification.

D2.1.1. CAS

End

mai

End

equ

pp.

End

Dial

Nitu

of m

Sys.

ENT

Tran

ENT

wor

code

Tran

Gus

Sand

Dist

He,

ELFO

Heg

of re

Heg

Too

Hilb

Mai

Hof

and

Dec

Hof

vuln

SE STUDY 1/4 –

renyi, J.; An

ntenance on

renyi, J.; And

ipment heal

59‐67.

renyi, J., Abo

ynas, E.N., F

u, P., Rau, N.

maintenance

, vol. 16, no.

TSO‐E (2011)

nsmission Sy

TSO‐E (2012)

rk still on‐go

e‐developme

nsmission Sy

tavsen, B.,

dvik, H., Tho

tribution Ove

Y. (2010), S

ORSK, Stockh

ggset, J., Kjøl

eliability dat

ggset, J., Nor

l Box Version

ber, P., Miran

ntenance Po

mann, M., G

d framework

ember 2011

mann, H.,

nerabilities in

ELECTRICITY NE

nders, G.J.; L

n reliability ‐

ders, G.J. (20

th and exten

oresheid, S.,

Fipper, M., F

, Reppen, N.

e strategies a

. 4, pp. 638‐6

, Factsheet

ystem Operat

, Network co

oing, check

ent/operatio

ystem Operat

Rolfseng, L.,

omassen, H.

erhead Lines

Study and An

holm.

le, G.H., Sag

a”, in Proc. 2

rdgård D.E.,

n 2, report n

nda, V., Mat

olicy for Elect

Gjerde, O., Kj

k for vulnera

.

Kjølle, G.H

n power syst

TWORKS

Leite da Silva

An applicatio

006), "Aging,

nding equipm

Allan, R.N.,

Fletcher, R.H

.D., Salvader

and the imp

646.

2011, https

tors for Elect

ode on opera

latest status

onal‐planning

tors for Elect

, Andresen,

(2002), “Sim

”, IEEE Trans

nalysis of Di

en, K. (2009

2009 Int. Con

Solvang E.,

o. 319.2011,

tos, M.A, Be

trical Netwo

ølle, g.H. (20

ability indica

., Gjerde,

ems”, Proce

a, A.M. (199

on", IEEE Tra

, maintenan

ment life ", I

Anders, G.J

H., Grigg, C.,

ri, L., Schneid

act of maint

s://www.ent

tricity, Bruss

ational plann

s here: http

g‐scheduling

tricity, Bruss

Ø., Christe

mulation of W

sactions on P

istribution E

), ”FASIT – a

nf. on Electric

Welte T. (2

, Energy Nor

ertling, L. (20

orks, IEEE Tra

011), Vulnera

ators, SINTEF

O. (2012),

edings PSAM

98), "Probab

ans. Power S

ce, and relia

IEEE Power &

., Asgarpoor

, McCalley, J

der, A., Singh

tenance on

tsoe.eu/, EN

sels.

ning and sch

s://www.ent

g/, ENTSO‐

sels.

nsen, H., Fa

Wood‐Pole R

Power Delive

Equipment Re

a tool for col

city Distribut

2011), User’s

way, Oslo.

007), Multio

ansactions on

ability in elec

F Energy Re

“Developm

M11 & ESREL

ilistic evalua

ys., vol. 13, n

ability ‐ Appr

& Energy Ma

r, S., Billinton

J., Meliopou

h, Ch. (2011)

reliability", I

NTSO‐E – Eu

eduling (NC

tsoe.eu/maj

E – Euro

alch, B., Jan

Replacement

ery, vol. 17, n

eliability Dat

lection, calcu

tion (CIRED),

s Guide to O

objective Opt

n Power Syst

ctric power g

search, Tech

ment of ind

2012, Helsin

ation of the

no. 2, pp. 57

roaches to p

agazine, vol.

n, R., Chowd

ulos, S., Miel

), "The prese

IEEE Trans. o

uropean Ne

OPS), draft a

or‐projects/

opean Netw

kila, K.A., M

t Rate: Appli

no. 4, pp. 10

ta, report n

ulation and r

, Prague.

Optimal Main

timization A

tems, Vol. 22

grids. State o

hnical repor

dicators to

nki, June 201

Page 69

effect of

76‐583.

reserving

4, no. 3,

dhury, N.,

lnik, T.C.,

ent status

on Power

twork of

available,

network‐

work of

Myhr, M.,

cation to

50‐1056.

o. 10:33,

reporting

ntenance

pplied to

2, No. 4.

of the art

rt A7120,

monitor

12.

D2.1.1. CAS

IEC

inte

Elec

IEEE

Tran

IRGC

criti

Kjøl

inte

no.

Kjøl

Dep

Elec

Lang

mod

Ams

Li, Y

path

Ame

Lund

tran

Oslo

Mel

abo

parl

Mira

with

250

Nor

elec

Barn

Proc

SE STUDY 1/4 –

60599 (199

erpretation o

ctrotechnical

E C57.104 (

nsformers, IE

C (2006), W

ical infrastru

le, G. H., S

erruptions an

3, 1030‐103

le, G.H., Sa

pendency of

ctricity Distrib

gset, T., Tren

del for qualit

sterdam.

Y., Yeddanap

h model for

erican Power

dgaard, L.E.

nsformers w

o.

d. St. 14 (2

ut the deve

liament "Sto

anda, V., Ca

h knowledge

9‐2516.

dgård, D.E.,

ctricity distri

nett, J. (ed

ceedings of t

ELECTRICITY NE

9), Mineral

of dissolved

l Commission

(2008), Guid

EEE standard

White Paper N

ctures, The I

amdal, K., S

nd voltage p

8.

amdal, K.,

Interruptio

bution (CIRE

ngereid, F., S

ty of supply

pudi, S., McC

r wood pol

r Symposium

., Linhjell, D

inding", rep

012), "Vi by

elopment of

rting"'], Mel

astro, A.R.G.

e extraction f

, Sand, K. (

bution syste

.), Safety, R

the joint ESR

TWORKS

oil‐impregn

d and free

n (IEC).

de for the

d, IEEE.

No.3 on Ma

nternationa

Singh, B., an

roblems: me

Brekke, K.

n Costs in C

D), Prague.

Samdal, K., a

regulation” i

Calley, J.D., C

e asset ma

m, pp. 275‐28

D., Hansen,

port no. 43‐

ygger Norge

the power

d. St. 14. Ro

(2005), "Im

from neural

(2008), "App

em maintena

Reliability a

REL 2008 and

nated electr

gases ana

Interpretati

anaging and

l Risk Govern

nd Kvitastei

ethodology a

(2009) "Inc

Continuity o

nd Heggset,

in Proc. 2001

Chowdhury,

nagement",

80.

W., Anker

‐2001, Norw

– om utbyg

grid'], Meld

oyal Norwegi

mproving the

networks", I

plication of

ance manag

and Risk An

d SRA‐Europe

rical equipm

alysis, intern

ion of Gass

reducing so

nance Counc

n, O.A. (200

and results,”

corporating

of Supply Re

J. (2001), ”Q

1 Int. Conf. o

A.A., Moore

in Proceed

, M.U. (200

wegian Elect

gging av str

ding til Storti

ian Ministry

e IEC table f

IEEE Trans. P

Bayesian n

ement", in

nalysis: Theo

e conference

ment in serv

national sta

ses Generat

ocial vulnera

cil (IRGC), Ge

08), “Custom

” IEEE Trans.

Short Inter

eg.", in Proc

Quality adjus

on Electricity

ehead, M. (2

ings of the

01), Ageing

ricity Indust

ømnettet" [

inget ['Repo

of Petroleum

for transform

Power Delive

etworks for

Martorell, S.

ory, Method

e, pp. 2561‐2

vice ‐ Guide

ndard, Inte

ted in Oil‐Im

abilities from

eneva.

mer costs re

. Power Sys.

rruptions a

c. 2009 Int.

sted revenue

y Distribution

2005), "Deg

37th Annu

and restor

try Associatio

['We build N

ort to the No

m and Energy

mer failure d

ery, vol. 20, n

r risk assess

., Guedes So

ds and App

2568.

Page 70

e to the

rnational

mmersed

m coupled

elated to

, vol. 23,

nd Time

Conf. on

e caps – a

n (CIRED),

radation‐

ual North

ration of

on (EBL),

Norway –

orwegian

y.

diagnosis

no. 4, pp.

sment in

oares, C.,

plications,

D2.1.1. CAS

NVE

pow

http

NVE

rein

rein

NVE

(kom

conc

and

NVE

vuln

Ene

NVE

colle

Wat

NVE

(ber

elec

Wat

Nyb

elec

OED

http

eng

OED

http

Paiv

Sand

regi

Schn

(200

643

SE STUDY 1/4 –

E (2004), For

wer system

p://www.lov

E (2005), Al

vesteringer

vestments'],

E (2011), Fo

mpetansefor

cessionaires

Energy Dire

E (2010), Veil

nerability ana

rgy Directora

E (2012), Eks

ection risk a

ter Resource

E (2013), Fo

redskapsfors

cticity suppl

ter Resource

bø, A., Nordg

ctricity distrib

D (2008) Fa

p://www.reg

.pdf

D (2012) t

p://www.reg

va, J. P. S. (20

derud, P. (20

me'], presen

neider, J., G

06), “Asset m

‐654.

ELECTRICITY NE

rskrift om lev

m'], Norwe

data.no/for/

ldersfordelin

['Age distrib

, report no. 8

rskrift om

rskriften) ['Re

(competenc

ectorate (NVE

ledning i risi

alyses for po

ate (NVE).

sempelsamli

and vulnerab

es and Energy

orskrift om

skriften) ['Re

ly (Emergen

es and Energy

gård, D.E. (20

bution asset

cts 2008 :

gjeringen.no/

he Official

gjeringen.no/

005), Redes

012), “Nye fø

ntation at En

Gaul, A.J., Ne

management

TWORKS

veringskvalit

egian Wat

/sf/oe/oe‐20

g for kom

bution of com

8‐2005, Norw

krav til kom

egulation of

ce regulation

E).

ko‐ og sårba

ower supply']

ing Risiko‐

bility analyse

y Directorate

m forebygge

gulation of

ncy prepare

y Directorate

010), Princip

s

Energy and

/upload/OED

site of th

/nb/dep/oed

de Energia E

øringer for fr

ergy Norway

eumann, C.,

t techniques

tet i kraftsyst

ter Resour

0041130‐155

mponenter i

mponents in

wegian Wate

mpetanse m

f requiremen

n)'], FOR‐20

arhetsanalys

'], guideline

og sårbarh

es for power

e (NVE).

ende sikke

preventive s

dness regul

e (NVE).

ples for main

d Water Res

D/pdf%20file

he Norweg

d/dok/NOU‐e

Eléctrica ['Ele

remtidens ne

y’s Winter Co

Hogräfer, J

s”, Electrical

temet ['Regu

rces and

57.html.

kraftsystem

n the power

er Resources

mv. hos anl

t of compete

011‐03‐10‐26

er for kraftfo

no. 2‐2010,

etsanalyser

r supply'], gu

rhet og b

security and

lation)'], FO

ntenance an

sources in

er/Faktahefte

gian Ministr

er/2012/nou

ectric energy

ettregime” [

onference, 2

J., Wellßow,

Power and E

ulation of qu

Energy

met – Leve

system – Li

and Energy

eggs‐ og o

ence etc. at

63, Norwegia

orsyningen [

Norwegian W

for kraftfo

uideline no.

beredskap

emergency

OR‐2012‐12‐0

d reinvestme

Norway. Th

et/EVfakta08

ry of Petro

u‐2012‐9/14/

networks'],

'New guidan

23 March 201

W., Schwan

Energy System

uality of supp

Directorate

vetid og be

ifetime and

Directorate

områdekonse

installation

an Water R

['Guideline in

Water Resou

orsyningen [

18‐2012, No

i energifor

preparedne

07‐1157, No

ents manage

e transmiss

8/EVFacts08_

oleum and

/1.html?id=6

IST Press, Lis

nce for the fu

12, Warsaw.

n, M., Schn

ms, vol. 28, n

Page 71

ply in the

(NVE),

ehov for

need for

(NVE).

esjonærer

and area

Resources

n risk and

urces and

['Example

orwegian

rsyningen

ess in the

orwegian

ement of

sion grid.

_kap06_

Energy,

675589

sbon.

uture net

ettler, A.

no. 9, pp.

D2.1.1. CAS

Skaa

Dire

Skjø

tech

Elec

Stat

syst

The

imp

UCT

(UCT

UCT

Italy

War

indi

Wel

and

Prob

Wel

IEEE

Wel

XLP

(CIR

SE STUDY 1/4 –

ansar, E. (ed

ectorate (NV

ølberg, J. (20

hniques and

ctricity Indus

tnett (2012)

tem'], Statne

ma (2013), P

ortance for v

TE (2004a), O

TE).

TE (2004b), F

y, Union for t

reing, B. (20

ces, Instituti

lte, T.M., Va

renewal of

babilistic Me

lte, T.M. (20

E Trans. Pow

lte, T.M, Skj

E undergrou

RED 2010), Pr

ELECTRICITY NE

d.) (2010), En

E).

007), Conditi

evaluation o

try Associati

, Funksjonsk

ett, Oslo.

På nett med

value creatio

Operational H

Final Report o

the Co‐ordin

005), Wood

on of Electri

tn, J., Heggs

hydro powe

ethods Applie

09), "Using s

wer Sys., vol. 2

ølberg, J. (2

und cables”,

raha.

TWORKS

nergistatus ['

ion assessme

of methods,

ion), Oslo.

krav i krafts

framtida – K

on'], report n

Handbook, U

of the Invest

nation of Tra

pole overhe

cal Engineer

set, J. (2006)

r component

ed to Power S

state diagram

24, no. 1, pp

010), “Deter

Proceedings

'Energy statu

ent of electr

report no. 2

systemet (FI

Kraftnettets

nr. THEMA R

Union for the

tigation Com

nsmission of

ead lines, Ch

rs.

), "Markov s

ts", in Proce

Systems (PM

ms for mode

p. 58‐66.

rioration an

s 20th Intern

us'], Norweg

rical grid com

260‐2007, En

KS) ['Functio

betydning fo

2012‐34, Th

e Co‐ordinat

mittee on th

f Electricity (

hapter 13: C

state model

edings of the

MAPS).

elling mainte

d failure pro

national Conf

gian Water R

mponents –

nergy Norway

onal require

or verdiskapi

hema Consult

tion of Trans

he 28 Septem

UCTE).

ondition ass

for optimiza

e 9th Interna

enance of de

obability of w

ference on E

Resources an

Survey of d

y (former No

ements in th

ng ['The pow

ting Group,

smission of E

mber 2003 Bl

sessment an

ation of main

ational Confe

eteriorating s

water tree d

Electricity Dis

Page 72

nd Energy

diagnostic

orwegian

he power

wer grid's

Oslo.

Electricity

ackout in

nd health

ntenance

erence on

systems",

degraded

stribution

CASE STUDY 2: GAS TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE

Deliverable nº: D2.1.2



Work Package: WP2.1

Type of document: Case study report

Date: 19.02.2013


Partners: SINTEF Technology and Society

Responsible: SINTEF Technology & Society

Title: D2.1.2 Version: 1 Page: 0 / 44

D2.1.2. CASE STUDY 2/4 – GAS TRANSPORT Page 1


0 19.02.2013 First final version Økland et al.

Document Authors


SINTEF T&S Andreas Økland, Hanne Marie Gabriel, Anandasivakumar

Ekambaram & Siri Bø Halvorsen


Executive Summary Gassco's was establihsed in 2001 to manage the Gassled infrastructure transporting gas from the

Norwegian Continental Shelf to European customers. The gas infrastructure is an integrated network,

connected to the producers of natural gas and to the European distribution network. The

infrastructure operated by the company consists of 7 975 kilometers of transmission pipes, 6

processing plants in Norway, 6 receiving terminals and 3 platforms. The case study focuses on

maintenance management and maintenance coordination in the gas value chain.

There are a range of stakeholders in the gas value chain, and regulations from the Norwegian

Government, European Governments and the EU affect the company. The company adapts to the

regulations by adapting to industry practises proposed in the Industry standards, such as NORSOK

and recommended practices (DNV).

The maintenance strategy applied is Reliability Centred and risk‐based. Every item (or "tag") in the







Successful maintenance management and cross‐organizational, cross border coordination of

maintenance activities contribute to the company achieving regularity measure of 99.17 % and

quality measure of 99.99 %. Communication with up‐ and downstream actors, by meetings and

integration of systems is essential to achieve efficient use of the network.


industry. Amongst these are the coordination of maintenance activities, attitude to opportunistic



TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM PURPOSE AND CRITICAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................. 5

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 5 1.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GAS PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM ...................................................... 5 1.1.2 ACTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS IN THE INDUSTRY ................................................................................................... 7 1.1.3 INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR PETROLIUM ACTIVITIES ON THE NORWEGIAN CONTINENTAL SHELF ....................... 9 1.1.4 DELIMITATION AND SCOPE .................................................................................................................................. 11

1.2 PURPOSE(S) ................................................................................................................................................ 12 1.3 CRITICAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................. 13 1.4 VULNERABILITY ........................................................................................................................................... 14

2. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES ................................................................. 15 2.1 NETWORK CAPACITY AND CAPACITY MANAGEMENT ................................................................................ 15 2.2 TOPOLOGY AND SYSTEM HIERARCHY ........................................................................................................ 16 2.3 THRESHOLDS AND OPERATIONAL LIMITS................................................................................................... 20

3. MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES AND MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION ........................................................... 25 3.1 OBJECTIVE OF MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................................... 25 3.2 ORGANISATION OF MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................................ 25 3.3 FRAMEWORK AND OVERALL THINKING ..................................................................................................... 28

3.3.1 RELIABILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE AND GENERIC MAINTENANCE CONCEPTS ............................................. 28 3.3.2 RISK BASED MAINTENANCE APPROACH FOR OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS ....................................................... 30 3.3.3 INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT OF THE SUBMARINE PIPELINE SYSTEM ..................................................................... 32 3.3.4 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AT GASSCO ........................................................................................................ 33 3.3.5 TECHNICAL/ECONOMICAL ANALYSES OF MAINTENANCE PROJECTS ................................................................... 34

3.4 EXAMPLES OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULING .................................................................... 35 4. CONDITION MONITORING ....................................................................................................................... 37 5. DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE VS RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................ 39 6. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 40 7. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 41


Acronyms

BUP boiler upgrade project CoF consequence of failure CUP compressor upgrade project DNV det norske veritas FMEA Failure mode and effect analysis FMECA failure mode, effect and criticality analysis GMC generic maintenance concept HSE health, safety and environment IM integrity management IMP integrity management process IMS integrity management system KEP kårstø expansión project LNG liquefied natural gas LPG liquefied petroleum gas NCS Norwegian Continental Shelf NGL natural gas liquids NPD Norwegian Petroleum Directorate PoF probability of failure PSA the petroleum safety authority RBI risk based inspection RCM reliability centred maintenance SDFI norwegian state’s direct financial interest in petroleum activities SIL safety integrity level TSP technical service providers


1. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM PURPOSE AND CRITICAL FUNCTIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A vast network of pipelines has been developed in the North Sea since Frigg and Norpipe first started

transporting natural gas from the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS) to European customers in 1977.

This case study focuses on the organization of maintenance of the infrastructure that supplies some

20 percent of European gas consumption.

The company responsible for the transport of gas from the Norwegian continental shelf since 2002 is

Gassco. Some 90 billion standard1 m3 are transported yearly through the system, resulting in

regularity measure2 of 99,17 % and quality measure3 of 99,99 % for 2011. Gassco is a neutral,

independent operator of the gas transport system Gassled. Gassled is a joint venture with 11

different owners, whereof Petoro4 is the largest with a 46 % stake.

System operation entails planning, monitoring, coordination and management of the product

streams from the fields, through the transport network to gas terminals abroad. Another important

part of the system operation is coordination of maintenance of pipelines and facilities on the

Norwegian continental shelf (Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 2012).

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GAS PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

About 30 installations (platforms or production ships)

produce natural gas on the Norwegian continental shelf.

Rich gas (a blend of dry gas and Natural Gas Liquids, NGL)

from the fields is transported by pipelines from the fields to

facilities on shore for treatment.

1 150C and pressure of 1, ,01325 bar 2 Regularity is measured as the volume delivered from the transport system (Gassled area D) in relation to shipper orders. 3 Quality standards are specified in Gassled’s terms and conditions, and are measured in relation to the gas quality delivered from the transport system (Gassled area D). 4 The company managing the Norwegian State’s Direct Financial Interest in the petroleum sector


NGL, Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) and Liquified Petroleum Gases (LPG) are transported by ship from

the facilities (and will not be treated further in the following text), whereas dry gas (mainly methane)

is transported through the pipelines to receiving terminals.

The owners of natural gas transported through the pipelines are known as "shippers". The majority

of the shippers are owners of stakes in the gas fields, but may also be traders of natural gas. All

shippers are treated equally, independently of the volumes of gas they wish to transport.

At the receiving terminals pressure is reduced to meet the specifications of the national grid for

further transport to the customers.

Overall, the gas transportation system consists of 22 pipelines with a total length of 7 975 kilometers.

In addition to the pipelines, the system consists of 3 riser/compressor platforms, 6 processing plants

on the Norwegian shore and 6 receiving terminals, 2 on the British Isles and 4 on the European

continent. For the Gjøa pipeline and receiving terminals in continental Europe and in Easington in the

UK, daily operation and maintenance is performed by Gasscos own organization. For the remaining

part of the network daily operation and maintenance managed according to agreements with Statoil,

Total and ConocoPhillips who serve as Technical service providers (TSPs).


FIGURE 1 EXISTING AND PROJECTED PIPELINES (NORWEGIAN PETROLEUM DIRECTORATE, 2012)

1.1.2 ACTORS AND STAKEHOLDERS IN THE INDUSTRY

Licensees: Defined by the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD) as "A physical or legal person, or

several such persons, who, under the terms of the Norwegian Petroleum Act or earlier jurisdiction,

has a license to search for, recover, transport or utilize petroleum. If a license is awarded to several

such persons together the expression licensee can cover both the licensees combined and the

individual participant". NDP further states that "a production license gives a monopoly to perform

investigations, exploration drilling and recovery of petroleum deposits within the geographical area

stated in the license. The licensees become owners of the petroleum that is produced. A production


license may cover one or more blocks or parts of blocks and regulates the rights and obligations of

the participant companies with respect to the Government".

Operators: Defined by NPD as "The agent who, on behalf of the licensee, is in charge of the day‐to‐

day management of the petroleum activity". All the major international oil companies are present on

the Norwegian continental shelf. During the past decade one has seen an increase in the number of

small to medium sized companies establishing themselves to develop mature and less profitable

fields, making the total number of operators present on the Norwegian continental shelf about 50.

The dominant operator is Statoil.

TSPs: Companies serving as technical service providers (TSPs) on a company's behalf are responsible

for daily operation and maintenance of plants and installations in the production, treatment or

transport system. Pursuant to its operator agreement and Norway’s Petroleum Activities Act,

however, the parent company retains overall responsibility for safe and efficient operation.

Suppliers: The petroleum value chain can be split in three main phases: search, development,

operation and decommissioning/removal. Every phase has a number of suppliers. The Norwegian

supplier industry was non‐existing 40 years ago, but has grown to be a technology exporter in the

petroleum sector. The supply companies are situated in every part of the country and have a mix of

national and international ownership.

Personnel/Employees: About 20 000 people are directly involved in the Norwegian petroleum

sector, a number which increases to about 80 000 when employees of the suppliers are included.

Shippers: Owners of gas to be transported through the pipelines operated by Gassco.

Gassled: The joint venture owning the gas Transportation System on the Norwegian continental

shelf.

Petoro: Petoro serves as the licensee for the Norwegian state’s direct

financial interest (SDFI) in petroleum activities.

The Norwegian State/Government: The Norwegian state provides the foundation for all activity on

the Norwegian continental shelf through legislation and concessions (by The Ministry of Oil and


Energy, and the Petroleum Directorate). The Norwegian state is also involved through ownership of

licenses (SDFI handled by Petoro), and in operators and supply companies.

1.1.3 INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR PETROLIUM ACTIVITIES ON THE NORWEGIAN CONTINENTAL SHELF

The petroleum activity in Norway is regulated by the Petroleum Law of 29th of November 1996.

Issues regarding safety and security is regulated by the PSA Regulation of 31th of August 2001

"Regulations relating to Health, Environment and Safety in the petroleum activities" (known as "the

Framework Regulations").

International (developed by ISO) and European standards (developed by CEN) form the basis of all

activities in the petroleum industry. Most of the international standardisation activities are organized

in ISO/TC 67 "Materials, equipment and offshore structures for petroleum, petrochemical and

natural gas industries". By third quarter 2011 154 standards are published of which 52 are in revision

and 43 new work items are proposed. A total of 60 countries participate or observe the activities.

However, Norwegian safety framework and climate conditions may require own standards, or

additions and supplements to International Standards (ISO) and European Standards (EN). The

NORSOK standards are developed by the Norwegian petroleum industry to ensure adequate safety,

value adding and cost effectiveness for petroleum industry developments and operations. The

standards are owned by the Norwegian petroleum industry represented by The Norwegian Oil and

Gas Association and The Federation of Norwegian Industry. The standards are administrated and

published by Standards Norway (available for free download from www.standard.no). Furthermore,

NORSOK standards are as far as possible intended to replace oil company specifications and serve as

references in the authorities regulations (standard.no, 2013).

The NORSOK standards are intended to cover all aspects of petroleum activities on the Norwegian

continental shelf, of which the case study will focus on maintenance activities of the gas transport

infrastructure. The primary NORSOK standard considered in the case study is hence the NORSOK Z –

008: Risk based maintenance and consequence classification ‐ Rev. 3, June 2011. It consists of 12

sections and four annexes organized as presented in Figure 2.


FIGURE 2: STRUCTURE OF NORSOK STANDARD Z‐008: RISK BASED MAINTENANCE AND CONSEQUENCE

CLASSIFICATION (NORSOK, 2011)5.

The additional normative standards and guidelines for the NORSOK Z‐008 are:

TABLE 1: ADDITIONAL NORMATIVE STANDARDS FOR THE NORSOK Z‐008 :RISK BASED MAINTENANCE

(NORSOK, 2011)

API RP 580, Risk‐Based Inspection DNV RP‐F‐206, Riser Integrity Management DNV RP‐F‐116, Integrity Management of Submarine Pipeline System DNV RP‐G‐101, Risk Based Inspection of Topside Static Mechanical Equipment IEC 60300‐3‐11, Dependability Management Part 3‐11: Application guide – Reliability centred

maintenance IEC 61508, Functional safety for electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety‐related

systems IEC 61511, Functional Safety – Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector ISO 17776, Petroleum and natural gas industries – Offshore production installations – Guidelines

on tools and techniques for hazard identification and risk assessment ISO 208151, ISO 13702,

Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Production assurance and reliability management Petroleum and natural gas industries – Control and mitigation of fires and explosions on offshore production installations – Requirements and guidelines

ISO 14224, NORSOK S‐001,

Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Collection and exchange of reliability and maintenance data for equipment Technical safety

5 Section 1 and 2 are not included in Figure 2 as they comprise the introduction to the standard and the list of normative and informative standards presented in Table 1 and Table 2.


NORSOK Z‐013, Risk and emergency preparedness analysis OLF 070, Guidelines for the Application of IEC 61508 and IEC 61511 in the petroleum activities

on the continental shelf OLF 122, Life extension guideline

In addition to the normative standards given in Table 1, the following standards are presented as

informative:

TABLE 2: ADDTIONAL INFORMATIVE STANDARDS TO NORSOK Z‐008 (NORSOK, 2011)

BS 3811, Glossary of terms used in terotechnology EN ISO 12100, Safety of machinery – General principles for design – Risk assessment and risk

reduction EN 13306,

Maintenance – Maintenance terminology Maintenance

EN 15341, Maintenance Key Indicators NORSOK Z-DP-002,

Coding System

1.1.4 DELIMITATION AND SCOPE

The scope of this case study is to describe how maintenance work is planned and coordinated by

Gassco. In addition to the responsibility for maintenance on the infrastructure of which Gassco is the

operator, the company plays a central role in coordinating maintenance work on other parts of the

gas supply chain. The methods and experiences used in coordinating maintenance work of other

actors are as central in the report as the maintenance management of the infrastructure of which

Gassco is the operator.

The petroleum activity on the NCS is regulated by Norwegian law, in the form of acts and regulations.

In addition, The Norwegian Petroleum Directorate publishes guidelines based on the acts and

regulations. The industry has developed standards that propose solutions based on the guidelines,

fulfilling the requirements in the acts and regulations. The case study draws heavily on information

found in the NORSOK standard Z‐008: Risk based maintenance and consequence classification, the

DNV recommended practice (2009). The information contained in the standard and the

recommended practices apply to both oil and gas industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, and

are hence not limited to Gassco and the gas infrastructure. Interviews with maintenance and

operations management personnel at Gassco at Bygnes have been performed. The interviewed

personnel are involved in maintenance coordination for the transport system and maintenance


management for the receiving terminals on continental Europe and in Easington. The information

referred for the interviews has been reviewed by the interviewees at Gassco.

1.2 PURPOSE(S)

The purpose of the pipeline network is to ensure secure transport of gas with correct quality to the

European market. To fulfil that purpose, Gassco depends on the production of natural gas from the

gas fields on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, the processing plants, its riser/compressor platforms

and it's receiving terminals, in addition to the pipelines.

The processing plants treat rich gas and condensate to separate dry gas, which goes into the

transport pipelines, from liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) naphtha and stabilized condensate which

are transported by ships. The dry gas pass through compressors as it enters the pipeline, as the

transport takes place under high pressure. Statoil is TSP for the processing plants at Kårstø and

Kollsnes.

The riser platforms serve as transportation hub in the pipeline network. Gas from various parts of the

North Sea has varying quality, and mixing may be necessary to achieve the agreed quality to be

delivered. The platforms also serve to monitor the gas pressure, volume and quality. The compressor

platform serves as a compressor station on the Norpipe line to Emden. Statoil is TSP for the Draupner

S/E platform and HRP. ConocoPhillips is TSP for the B11 platform.

The dry gas continues by pipeline to receiving terminals in continental Europe and the UK. Receiving

terminals receives and processes gas from the North Sea fields. The terminal is responsible

for transporting offshore gas to shore, receiving the gas onshore, processing the gas to National Grid

specifications, delivering the gas to shippers and ensuring a balance between supply and demand.

Gassco operates the terminals in continental Europe and in Easington, while Total UK is TSP for the

terminal in St. Fergus.

The pipelines serve transport and storage (by line pack) purposes.


1.3 CRITICAL FUNCTIONS

As the medium being transported is a flammable gas under high pressure, one will find a range of

safety barriers in the system. All functions that directly influence safety, are considered critical

(system or sub‐system is hence classified as safety critical). Systems, sub‐systems and components

shall have a defined a main function, and the consequences of failure to perform the main function

form the basis of the consequence classification of the system, sub‐system, and components.

In the regulations and NORSOK standard details concerning demand for redundancy and testing of

safety critical equipment are presented. The regulations are less detailed for equipment and systems

regarded as production critical. The terms and conditions agreed with the shippers may however still

result in need for redundancy of production critical equipment to make the company able to deliver

agreed volumes of gas. The consequence classification may define systems as production critical.

Some examples of critical functions(safety‐ or production critical) are given Table 3.

TABLE 3: EXAMPLES OF CRITICAL FUNCTIONS

Processing plants (must be able to):

Contain gas

Detect leaks of gas

Separate dry gas for transportation by

pipeline

Provide high pressure (via compressors) to

enable the gas transport

Measure quality, pressure and volume of

transported gas

Riser platforms (must be able to):

Redirect gas under transport

Detect leaks

Mix gas from various gas fields to provide gas

with correct quality/composition


transported gas

Receiving terminals (must be able to):


transported gas

Reduce pressure for further transport by

downstream operators

Regulate gas temperature

Remove hydrogen sulphide

Remove residual liquids

Compressor platform (must be able to):


transported gas

Detect leaks

Provide high pressure (via compressors) to

enable the gas transport


Remove residual solids

Detect leaks

Pipelinges (must be able to):

Contain and transport dry gas to the receiving terminals

Contain and transport dry & wet gas and condensate to the processing plants

Withstand high pressure (inner and outer)

Withstand changes in pressure

1.4 VULNERABILITY

The total volume of gas delivered to Gassco's receiving terminals in Europe during 2011 was 94.2

billion standard cubic metres. This is approximately 20% of the gas consumption in Europe. The

significant market share means it is essential that the market can rely on gas deliveries from the

Norwegian Continental Shelf.

The nature of gas transport will however always include certain vulnerability. The medium being

transported is explosive and safety concerns will trump production in case incidents occur.

International (EU), national and company policies aim at reducing the vulnerability of the system

both in regards of safety and production.

The distributed network does also introduce vulnerability as a result of the dependence on several

components (such as valves) in the network operating in series. Each valve may, for example, have a

small probability of each of the failure modes "failure to close on demand" or "failure to open on

demand". The probability of such incidents occurring when one regards the overall system is

considerably larger than for single components. A failure to open or close on demand for a valve may

result in the system not being able to deliver agreed volumes of gas.


2. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES

The Gassco gas transportation network covers long distances, and consists of components both on

shore, offshore (on platforms) and submarine. It is an integrated system, connected to the gas

producers on the one end, and the European gas distribution network on the other. The gas

transportation network is the largest of its kind in the world.

The system consists of both active and passive components. The pipelines are passive components,

whilst the active components include various equipment including valves (block valve stations),

regulator stations, compressor stations and a number of field devices for monitoring (flow, pressure,

temperature etc). The field devices are connected to a remote terminal unit which communicate

with the main control room.

At the processing plant and the receiving terminals equipment and the maintainable items are

available for inspection and interaction. The situation is somewhat different for the submarine pipe

network where maintenance action requires a long planning period and the infrastructure is hard to

access.

2.1 NETWORK CAPACITY AND CAPACITY MANAGEMENT

Gassco is responsible for capacity management of the gas transportation network. Capacity is

booked by shippers on long, medium, short, and day‐terms. The shippers may trade capacity in the

online secondary market, resulting in efficient use of the available capacity in the transport system.

The terms and conditions for transporting gas in Gassled (the gas transportation system) specify

demands to shippers and specify Gassco's commitment concerning planning and execution of

maintenance on the infrastructure (Gassco, 2011).

Due to restrictions in the transport system, the bookable capacity is not equal to the total capacity of

the network (illustrated inFigure 3). Unplanned shut downs may to a certain degree be handled by

the flexibility in the system (the ability to increase production from other fields to compensate for

shut downs of parts of the system).


A round‐the‐clock operation of the integrated transport network is run from the control centre at the

company`s head office. The main duties are to manage the gas flow through constant monitoring,

regulate quality and ensure that the gas blend is correct. The control room is also involved in

planning maintenance and short term shutdowns (Gassco, 2012b).

FIGURE 3: CAPACITY OF NETWORK (HENDRIKS, 2011)

2.2 TOPOLOGY AND SYSTEM HIERARCHY

The network topology of the transport system has over time developed from having being radial

(start point to end point) to being a meshed network with several inlets, hubs and potential

endpoints. The processing plants and the riser platforms serves as "hubs" in the network, where gas

can be redirected and gas from various fields can be mixed to obtain the particular quality agreed

with the shippers.

In the following tables a description of the infrastructure is provided.

Table 4 gives a description of all the pipelines which constitute Gassled, the gas transportation

system. Gassco is the operator of all the pipelines except from Flags pipeline that is operated by

Shell, and or the Ormen Lange and Troll Gas pipe, which is operated by Statoil (Gassco, 2012c).


TABLE 4 PIPELINES IN NORWAY GAS TRANSPORT SYSTEM (GASSCO, 2012C)

Name From To Length Diameter Haltenpipe Heidrun Tjeldbergodden 250 km 16"

Europipe Draupner E Dornum/Emden 620 km 40"

Norne Gas Transport Norne Heidrun 128 km 16"

Franpipe Draupner E Dunkerque 840 km 42"

Åsgard Transport Åsgård Kårstø 707 km 42"

Norpipe Ekofisk Emden 440 km 36"

Statpipe Rich Gas Statfjord Kårstø 308 km 30"

Vesterled Heimdal St. Fergus 360 km 32"

Statpipe Kårstø/

Draupner S/ Heimdal

Draupner S/ Ekofisk Y/ Draupner S

228/ 203/ 155 km 28"/ 36"/ 36"

Oseberg Gas Transport Oseberg Heimdal 109 km 36"

Zeepipe Sleipner Zeebrugge 813 km 40"

Zeepipe 2 A Kollsnes Sleipner 299 km 40"

Zeepipe 2 B Kollsnes Draupner E 301 km 40"

Langeled North Nyhamna Sleipner 627 km 42"

Langeled South Sleipner Easington 543 km 44"

Europipe 2 Kårstø Dornum 658 km 42"

Tampen Link Statfjord FLAGS 23 km 32"

Kvitebjørn gas export Kvitebjørn Kollsnes 147 km 30"

Gjøa gas pipeline Gjøa FLAGS 131 km 28"

FLAGS6 ‐ ‐ 450 km 36"

Ormen Lange7 Ormen Lange Nyhamna 120 km 30"

Troll Gas pipe8 Troll Kollsnes 133 km 36"

Table 5 gives a description of Gassco's six receiving terminals, located on the European Continent and

the British Isles. The following descriptions are collected from (Gassco, 2012C).

6 Operated by Shell 7 Operated by Statoil 8 Operated by Statoil


TABLE 5 RECEIVING TERMINALS IN NORWAY GAS TRANSPORT SYSTEM (GASSCO, 2012C)

Location Description

Dornum

(ERF)

The Europipe receiving facilities (ERF) at Dornum on the north German coast reduce the pressure of the gas

and heat it up. After metering, the gas enters the Netra downstream transport system.

Dunkerque The receiving terminal in north‐east France removes possible liquid residues and solid particles from gas

arriving in the Franpipe line. Gas pressure and temperature are adjusted before metering and quality

control.

Emden

(EMS)

The Europipe metering station (EMS) at Emden checks gas quality and meters its volume before transferring

it to the downstream transport operators. This station is remotely‐operated from the control room at the

Europipe receiving facilities (ERF), 48 kilometres away.

Emden

(NGT)

Gas pressure and temperature are regulated at the terminal before it passes through a treatment plant to

remove hydrogensulphide. After metering and quality control, the gas is delivered tothe transport operators

downstream of the terminal.

Easington The southern leg of Langeled is a 44‐inch pipeline from the Sleipner East hub to the receiving terminal at

Easington on the English east coast.

After arriving at the terminal, the gas is regulated to the correct pressure and temperature before being

passed to the downstream transport operator.

This part of the system became operational on 1 June 2006.

St. Fergus The receiving terminal at St. Fergus in Scotland stands 61 kilometres north of Aberdeen and became

operational in 1977. It receives lean gas through the Vesterled system as well as rich gas from the British

Frigg pipeline. Gassled owns and uses part of the technical installations at the facility. Total UK is TSP for the

Gassled part of the facility.

Zeebrugge The Zeepipe receiving terminal stands in the port area of Zeebrugge in Belgium, about five kilometres from

the landfall.

This facility removes possible residual liquids and solids, and regulates gas pressure and temperature. In

addition, it meters volume and checks quality before the gas continues to the transport operator

downstream of the terminal.

The Zeepipe terminal also remotely operates the Franpipe receiving terminal at Dunkerque in France.

Table 6 gives an overview of each of the six processing plants connected to the network. These are

located at Kollsnes, Kårstø, Nyhamna, Sture, and Tjeldbergodden in Norway. Gassco is the operator

of Kollsnes and Kårstø, while Statoil operates Mongstad, Sture, and Tjeldbergodden. Shell operates

Nyhamna. The following descriptions are collected from (Gassco, 2012c).


TABLE 6 PROCESSING PLANTS IN NORWAY GAS TRANSPORT SYSTEM (GASSCO, 2012C)

Location Description

Kollsnes The processing plant north‐west of Bergen receives rich gas from Troll, Kvitebjørn and Visund

in the North Sea for separation into gas, natural gas liquids and condensate. After dewatering

and compression, the gas is exported by pipelines. Vestprocess pipeline transport NGL to the

Mongstad refinery. Statoil is TSP.

Kårstø The Kårstø processing plant north of Stavanger in Norway, separates rich gas arriving in the

Statpipe and Åsgard Transport pipelines. Kårstø also receives unstabilised condensate

through a pipeline from the Sleipner area of the North Sea. Dry gas transported to the

customers by pipelines. Natural gas liquids and condensate are exported by ship. Statoil is

TSP.

Mongstad The industrial plant at Mongstad north of Bergen currently comprises an oil refinery, the

Vestprosess fraction plant for natural gas liquids and crude from shuttle tankers. The plant is

the receiving terminal for oil pipelines from North Sea fields. Statoil is Operator.

Nyhamna The processing plant at Nyhamna in mid‐Norway dewaters and compresses gas from Ormen

Lange in the Norwegian Sea before piping it on through the Langeled system to Easington on

the English east coast Condensate is also treated at Nyhamna. Shell is Operator

Sture The terminal north‐west of Bergen receives oil and natural gas liquids from the Norwegian

continental shelf. A plant for recovering volatile organic compounds has been installed. In

addition, a fractionation plant produces LPG mix for export by ship or delivery to Vestprosess

at Mongstad by pipeline. Statoil is Operator.

Tjeldbergodden The Tjeldbergodden facility in mid‐Norway receives gas from the Heidrun field in the

Norwegian Sea through the Haltenpipe system. It comprises four plants, for gas reception,

methanol, air gas and gas liquefaction respectively. Statoil is Operator. Gassco is operator for

the Haltenpipe inlet facilities, and Statoil is TSP.

Table 7 gives a description of the riser and compressor platforms in the transport system. Draupner

S/E, Heimdal riser, and B11 are all operated by Gassco. The following descriptions are collected from

(Gassco, 2012c).


TABLE 7 RISER/COMPRESSOR PLATFORMS IN NORWAY GAS TRANSPORT SYSTEM (GASSCO, 2012C)

Location Description Draupner

S/E

The Draupner S and E platforms in the North Sea form a key hub in Norway's network of submarine gas

pipelines, with pressure, volume and quality monitoring of gas flows as their most important functions

Draupner S was installed in 1984 as part of the Statpipe system. It tied the Statpipe lines from Heimdal and

Kårstøtogether for onward transmission of dry gas to Ekofisk.

The first gas flowed through the platform in April 1985. Draupner E was installed in 1994 as part of the

Europipe I gas trunkline system from the Sleipner fields to Emden in Germany.

With seven risers measuring 28 to 42 inches in diameter and associated manifolds, these installations

occupy an important place in Norway's gas transport system to continental Europe. Statoil is TSP.

Heimdal

Riser

The Heimdal Riser platform (HRP) in the North Sea is tied back to, and operated as an integrated part of, the

Heimdal platform.

It serves as a hub for the allocation of gas from the Oseberg Gas Transport line, as well as from Huldra,

Heimdal and Vale, between Statpipe and Vesterled.

These systems run to continental Europe and Britain respectively. The platform will also export gas to

provide pressure support for oil production from the Grane field. Statoil is TSP.

B‐11 The B‐‐11 compressor platform stands in the German sector of the North Sea, south‐east of the Ekofisk

centre, and serves as a compressor station on the Norpipe gas line to Emden. ConocoPhillips is TSP.

2.3 THRESHOLDS AND OPERATIONAL LIMITS

Thresholds and operational limits may be related to either the equipment and infrastructure, or the

products being transported. In the following, focus is on the products transported in Gassled.

The gas transportation infrastructure is divided into areas A to F. The dry gas transportation network

considered in the case study consists of Area D with 7 entry points and 10 exit points.


FIGURE 4: OVERVIEW OF AREA A TO AREA I OF THE GAS TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE (HENDRIKS,

2011)

Entry specifications for the gas entering Area A and Area B are presented in Table 8.

TABLE 8: SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS INTRODUCED FOR TRANSPORT IN AREA AND AREA B (GASSCO, 2011)

Designation and unit Spec. for gas entering transportation system in Area A

Spec. for gas entering transportation system in Area B

Maximum operating pressure (barg) 1679 21010

Minimum operating pressure (barg) 120 112 Maximum operating temperature (°C) 50 60 Minimum operating temperature (°C) ‐ ‐10 Maximum cricondenbar pressure (barg) 110 105 Maximum cricondentherm temperature (°C) 40 40 Maximum water content (mg/Sm3) 40 ‐18 Maximum carbon dioxide (mole %) 2.0011 2.0012,13

9 Based on maximum operating pressure at Statfjord B 10 Calculated at the Entry Point B1. 11 Subject to article 4.4.2 the maximum sum of hydrogen sulphide and COS is 20 ppm(vol). 12 For Gas processed at Åsgard B maximum carbon dioxide is 2.30 mole %.


Designation and unit Spec. for gas entering transportation system in Area A

Spec. for gas entering transportation system in Area B

Maximum hydrogen sulphide and COS (ppm vol) 2.514 2.015, 16 Maximum O2 (ppm vol) 2.0 2.0 Max. daily average methanol content (ppm vol) 2.5 2.5 Max. peak methanol ‐ 20 Max. daily average glycol content (litres/MSm3) 8 8

Entry specifications for the gas entering Area D are presented in Table 9.

TABLE 9: SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS ENTERING THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN AREA D (GASSCO, 2011)

Entry Point Maximum operating pressure

[barg]

Maximum operating

temperature [°C]

Minimum operating

temperature [°C]

D3 (Oseberg) 170 70 -20 D4A (Heimdal) 151.8 50 -10 D4B (Heimdal) 149 50 -20 D6 (Jotun) 151.8 50 -10 D7A (Sleipner) 149 60 -10 D7B (Sleipner) 1491 60 -10 D8 (Ekofisk) 120 49 -5 D9 (Nyhamna) 248 50 -10 Designation and unit Specification Hydrocarbon dewpoint (°C at 50 barg) < - 10 Water dew point (°C at 69 barg) -18 Maximum carbon dioxide (mole %) 2.50Maximum oxygen (ppm vol) 2 Maximum hydrogen sulphide incl. COS (mg/Nm3) 5Maximum mercaptans (mg/Nm3) 6.0 Maximum sulphur (mg/Nm3) 30

13 Subject to articles 4.4.1 and 4.5.1 the maximum carbon dioxide is 6.00 mole % 14 Subject to articles 4.4.1 and 4.5.1the maximum carbon dioxide is 6.00 mole % 15 Subject to article 4.4.2 the maximum sum of hydrogen sulphide and COS is 50 ppm (vol). 16 For Gas processed at Åsgard B maximum hydrogen sulphide including COS is 2.5 ppm (vol). 17 Current maximum operating pressure at Entry Point D7A/B (Sleipner) limited to 149 barg due to maximum operating pressure at Sleipner A. Maximum pipelineoperating pressure is 151.8 barg. 18 For the commingled stream of PL018 Gas, PL006 Gas and PL033 Gas at the Entry Point D8 (Ekofisk) the maximum carbon dioxide is 2.60 mole %. Subject to article 4.5.2 the maximum carbon dioxide is 6.00 mol %. 19 For the comingled stream of PL 018 Gas, PL 006 Gas and PL 033 Gas at the Entry Point D8 (Ekofisk) the maximum hydrogen sulphide excluding COS is 15 mg/Nm3. Subject to article 4.5.3 the maximum hydrogen sulphide is 36 mg/Nm3 for the commingled stream of PL 018 Gas, PL 006 Gas and PL 033 Gas at the Entry Point D8 (Ekofisk) and 15 mg/Nm3 for all other Entry Points.


Entry Point Maximum operating pressure

[barg]

Maximum operating

temperature [°C]

Minimum operating

temperature [°C]

Gross Calorific Value (MJ/Sm3) 38.1 – 43.7 Gross Calorific Value (MJ/Nm3) 40.2 – 46.0 Gross Calorific Value (kWh/Nm3) 11.17 – 12.78 Wobbe Index (MJ/Sm3) 48.3 – 52.8 Wobbe Index (MJ/Nm3) 51.0 – 55.7 Wobbe Index (kWh/Nm3) 14.17 – 15.47

Exit specifications for gas being redelivered from Area D are precented in Table 10.

TABLE 10: EXIT SPECIFICATIONS FOR GAS BEING REDELIVERED FROM AREA D (GASSCO, 2011)

Exit Point Minimum contractual

pressure [barg]

Maximum operating

temperature [°C]

Minimum operating

temperature [°C]

D1 (Snurrevarden) D2 (Dornum) 84 30 2 D3 (EMS) 45-49 30 2 D4 (Norsea) 45-49 18 4 D5 (Zeebrugge) 80 32 2 D6 (Dunkerque) 60 32 2 D7 (St. Fergus) 41 1 D8 (Grane) 130 50 -20 D9 (Rogass) 50 -10 D10 (Easington) 70 38 1 D11 (Naturkraft) 50 -10 Designation and unit for all Exit Points Specification Hydrocarbon dewpoint (°C at 1 – 69 barg) < -3 Maximum water dew point (°C at 69 barg) -12 Maximum carbon dioxide (mole %) 2.50Maximum oxygen (ppm vol) 2Maximum H2S incl. COS (mg/Nm3) 5Maximum mercaptans (mg/Nm3) 6.0 Maximum sulphur (mg/Nm3) 30

20 For the Entry Point D8 (Ekofisk) the maximum total sulphur is 150 mg/Nm3 (120mg/Nm3 annual average). 21 For the Exit Point D7 (St. Fergus) the maximum carbon dioxide is 4.00 mole %. Maximum carbon dioxide at the Exit Point D4 (Norsea) for PL018 Gas, PL006 Gas and PL033 Gas is 2.60 mole %. For the Exit Point D11 (Naturkraft) the maximum carbon dioxide is 3.00 mole %. 22 O2 specification Exit Points D7 and D10 (St. Fergus and Easington) is 10.0 ppm. 23 Maximum H2S excl. COS at the Exit Point D10 (Easington) is 5 mg/Nm3.


Exit Point Minimum contractual

pressure [barg]

Maximum operating

temperature [°C]

Minimum operating

temperature [°C]

Gross Calorific Value (MJ/Sm3) 38.1 – 43.7 Gross Calorific Value (MJ/Nm3) 40.2 – 46.0 Gross Calorific Value (kWh/Nm3) 11.17 – 12.78 Wobbe Index (MJ/Sm3) 48.3 – 52.824 Wobbe Index (MJ/Nm3) 51.0 – 55.724 Wobbe Index (kWh/Nm3) 14.17 – 15.4724

Incomplete Combustion Factor (ICF) ≤ 0.4825 Soot Index (SI) ≤ 0.6025

24 Wobbe Index specification the Exit Points D7 and D10 (St. Fergus and Easington) is max. 51.41 MJ/Sm3, 54.23 MJ/Nm3, 15.06 kWh/Nm3. 25 Only applicable for Exit Points D7 and D10 St. Fergus and Easington.


3. MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES AND MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

Maintenance strategy for companies in the oil and gas sector operating on the Norwegian

Continental shelf must be in accordance with national regulations. The NORSOK standards provide

guidelines for a risk‐based and reliability centered maintenance strategy. Recommended practices

from DNV provide further details of maintenance organization for various types of equipment and

systems. DNV recommended practice referred to in this text includes "Risk‐based inspection of

topside static mechanical equipment" (DNV, 2009) and "Integrity Management of Submarine Pipeline

systes" (DNV, 2010).

In the following chapter further details are provided.

3.1 OBJECTIVE OF MAINTENANCE

Maintenance management is carried out to balance different concerns including safety, production

capabilities, financial/economical, environmental and company reputation. Safety of personnel and

the environment is the primary concern for companies operating on the Norwegian continental shelf.

Risk based methodology is fundamental in the organization of maintenance and development of

maintenance concepts, and the overall maintenance strategy is reliability‐centered (RCM).

Maintenance is defined as "combination of all technical, administrative and managerial actions

during the life cycle of an item intended to retain it in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform

the required function" (see EN 13306).

There are a number of regulations that apply to Gassco concerning maintenance. The Management

regulation, Activities regulation, and Facilities regulation all apply indirectly and directly to

maintenance. §§ 45‐51 in the Activity regulation applies directly to maintenance management

(Petroleum Safety Authority Norway, no date, Øien and Schjølberg, 2008).

3.2 ORGANISATION OF MAINTENANCE

Maintenance activities in Gassco are organized by the unit "Asset management". In addition to

maintenance management, the unit plays a central role in continuous development of the transport


system. As part of Gassco's role as special operator of the gas transport and the gas transport

infrastructure, the company also plays crucial role in coordinating maintenance activities on the

various gas fields on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, in addition to maintenance activities on the

processing plants and receiving terminals. Operation and Maintenance are where relevant

performed by the various TSPs according to the TSPs own internal work processes.

Maintenance that affects fields' capabilities to produce and deliver gas in accordance to plan must be

balanced in the transportation infrastructure. Reductions in gas production from a field may be

compensated for by increased production from other fields, although gas quality varies and mixing

may be necessary to obtain gas with correct quality.

The terms and conditions for transport of gas in Gassled states:

"The Operator shall each calendar year during the period between May and December discuss with

the Shipper the maintenance plan for the following calendar year. The decision on the duration of and

the reduction in Transportation Services during the Maintenance Period(s) shall be made solely by the

Operator. However, when deciding upon the Maintenance Period(s) the Operator shall inter alia take

into account;

a) that the Maintenance Period(s) shall be determined with the objective to minimize disruption

to the Transportation Services to the extent possible,

b) the need for maintenance of the Fields,

c) the need for maintenance of the Transportation System, any downstream receiving

terminal(s) and/or other adjacent transportation systems,

d) the need for maintenance of facilities used for onshore transportation of Gas.

The Operator shall before 16 December in each calendar year submit a notice to the Shipper stating

the Maintenance Period(s), any possible quality implications and the transportation capacity

available to the Shipper on each Day of the Maintenance Period(s) in the following calendar year."

"Planned maintenance" is planned at least the year prior to the projects are carried through. Detailed

planning is necessary to give the various actors time to adjust their plans accordingly. Conflicting

interests as to when maintenance work is carried out are normally settled by consensus. The

maintenance plan will go through several revisions over the course of being developed and carried

out. Information concerning planned maintenance is made public on the company's web pages and is


available for everyone who takes an interest. Maintenance projects limiting the systems capabilities

to deliver gas to European customers may influence the market price of gas, and is therefore of great

interest to the public. Gassco's systems communicate with up‐ and downstream actors and send

detailed information about maintenance work to the shipper that has the license for the block where

the maintenance will be carried out. The company strives to obtain the maximum transport capacity

available at all times. It is essential that maintenance activities do not introduce avoidable limitations

(e.g. bottlenecks) to the system, thereby reducing the capabilities to deliver specified volumes of gas.

The Terms and conditions states the following concerning the duration of planned maintenance:

"Gassled shall each Year for reasons of planned maintenance of the Transportation System have the

right to reduce (if necessary down to 0) the Transportation Services (the “Maintenance Period”).

The Maintenance Period shall be within the Months of April through September. The Maintenance

Period shall be determined by the Operator in accordance with the Operations Manual article 2.7. The

Operator shall use all reasonable efforts to minimize the duration of the Maintenance Period and to

coordinate the Maintenance Period for each Area in order to minimize the disruption to the

Transportation Services. The Maintenance Period shall for26:

• Area D be limited to 20 consecutive Days on each Exit Point, provided, however, that the total

reduction in the Transportation Commitment on each Exit Point during the Maintenance

Period 1 July 2011 Terms and Conditions for Transportation of Gas in Gassled Page 13 of 30

shall not exceed the sum of the Booked Exit Capacity at such Exit Point for the 12 Days during

the Maintenance Period that the Shipper has its largest Booked Exit Capacity at such Exit

Point;

Information concerning un‐planned maintenance and shut‐downs is also made public as they occur.

Gassco receives weekly updated plans for production of natural gas from the various gas fields,

specifying production for each day of the following week, providing the information necessary for

short term capacity management.

26 Areas A‐C and E‐I are not part of the case study, and is hence not included in the text. The format of the specification on limitations on the extent of consecutive days with maintenance is of the same format as for Area D.


In case of shut downs on parts of the system, Gassco will inform affected parties of expected time‐

span in which actors can carry out opportunistic (or shadow) maintenance, thereby avoiding the

need to shut down the system at some later stage to carry out maintenance activities.

Companies serving as technical service providers (TSPs) on Gassco’s behalf are responsible for daily

operation and maintenance of plants and installations in the transport system (Gassco, 2012f).

3.3 FRAMEWORK AND OVERALL THINKING

The oil and gas industry has generally adopted Reliability Centered Maintenance and Risk‐based

maintenance concepts. The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway (PSA) is the regulatory authority for

technical and operational safety and have an important role in the work of updating the status of

maintenance management and maintenance routines in the petroleum industry on the Norwegian

Continental Shelf (Øien and Schjølberg, 2008).

3.3.1 RELIABILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE AND GENERIC MAINTENANCE CONCEPTS

The classical way of establishing a maintenance program is using Reliability centered maintenance,

RCM. However, the NORSOK standard calls for using generic maintenance concept (GMC) in

combination with more detailed RCM methods.

According to the NORSOk standard, GMC is "a set of maintenance actions, strategies and

maintenance details, which demonstrates a cost efficient maintenance method for a defined generic

group of equipment functioning under similar frame and operating conditions" (NORSOK, 2011).

When developing GMC's one may perform a RCM‐analysis or an FMECA (Failure Mode, Effects and

Criticality Analysis)for the GMC, and hence spare the effort going through the RCM/FMECA for every

item. The GMC must abide by all defined HSE‐regulations, production, cost and other operating

requirements. The concept shall include relevant design and operating. A generic concept should be

seen as a collection of best practices for maintenance of a category of items, and as such should be

maintained and updated as new experience and technology becomes available.


In cases where GMC is applicable or the purpose of the study requires more in‐depth evaluations,

NORSOK recommend that an RCM, Risk Based Inspection (RBI), or Safety integrity level (SIL) analysis

is carried out according to IEC 60300‐3‐11 and DNV RP‐ G‐101 (NORSOK, 2011). Identification of

relevant failure modes and estimation of failure probability should primarily be based on operational

experience of the actual equipment, and alternatively on generic failure data from similar operations.

Risk assessment, in the form of the consequence classification, shall be used as the guiding principles

for all maintenance decisions according to the NORSOK standard. Depending on the outcome of the

consequence classification, one may either use applicable GMCs, or in case when more in‐depth

evalutations are required, explicit analysis should be carried out in form of an FMECA, RCM or RBI

analysis.

Consequenceclassification

Explicit analysis (FMECA/RCM/RBI Use of GMC

FIGURE 5: RELATION BETWEEN CONSEQUENCE CLASSIFICATION, GMCS AND EXPLICIT ANALYSIS

NORSOK states that goals should be established that commit the organization to a realizable level of

performance. It further states a range of elements and activities that shall be carried out when

conducting maintenance planning and carrying out maintenance work. This elements and activities

include:

Developing a maintenance program with written procedures for maintenance, testing and

preparing the various components within the plant.

The plant shall do planning of activities, procedures, resources and the time required to carry

out maintenance.

Systems and equipment conditions shall be reported before and after repair for continuous

improvement.

Maintenance data shall be collected, quality assured and presented to maintenance

departments, and management in form of maintenance indicators. Risk level can be measured


as Health, safety and environmental (HSE) performance, barrier reliability status or related

indicators.

Analysis of historical maintenance data, and unwanted incidents related to maintenance shall be

carried out. E.g. trend analysis, root cause failure analysis.

The organization shall have an organized management team taking responsibilities in

implementing the principles and verifying the results.

3.3.2 RISK BASED MAINTENANCE APPROACH FOR OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS

Risk‐based Inspection (RBI) can be defined as "A decision making technique for inspection planning

based on risk‐comprising the probability of failure and consequence of failure"(NORSOK, 2011). It

comprises the consequence of failure27 (CoF) and probability of failure28 (PoF). RBI is a formal

approach designed to aid the development of optimized inspection, and provides recommendations

for monitoring and testing plans for items, equipment and production systems (DNV, 2010).

The DNV RP‐G‐101 standard describes a method for establishing and maintaining a RBI plan for

offshore pressure systems. Moreover, it provides guidelines and recommendations which can be

used to customize methods and working procedures that support the inspection planning process.

Figure 6 shows the deliverables of an RBI assessment to the inspection program.

FIGURE 6: DELIVERABLES OF AN RBI ASSESSMENT (DNV, 2010)

27 DNV (2010) notes that consequence of failure (CoF) is evaluated as the outcome of a failure given that such a failure will occur. CoF is defined for the three consequence types: Safety consequence, economic consequence and environmental consequence. 28 DNV (2010) defines probability of failure (PoF) as the probability of an event occurring per unit time (e.g. annual probability.


The intention of using a risk‐based approach is that the activities (inspection, monitoring and testing)

are selected and scheduled on the basis of their ability to explicitly measure and manage threats to

the system being studied, and ensure that associated risks are managed to be within acceptable

limits (Det Norske Veritas et al., 2009). The inspection intervals developed will depend on a range of

prediction models, such as models for; Corrosion rate, Erosion rate, Crack growth, and estimation of

probability of incidents.

The probability of failure and the consequence of failure can be combined in a risk, or qualitative

assessment matrix, as presented in Figure 7 (DNV 2010).

FIGURE 7 EXAMPLE OF RISK MATRIX (DNV, 2010)


The matrix has probability of failure on the vertical axis, and the consequence of failure on the

horizontal axis. The risk level at the intersections between a given probability and consequence of

failure is classified as:

Low (green, action only necessary to ensure that the risk level remains low )

Medium (yellow, functional tests or condition monitoring should be taken to ensure the risk

remains at the current level)

High (red, unacceptable risk level and action must be taken to reduce the risk).

3.3.3 INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT OF THE SUBMARINE PIPELINE SYSTEM

Integrity management of high pressure oil and gas pipelines is recognized world‐wide as the primary

means of ensuring that the pipelines are operated safely (Francis et al., 2009). The IM‐process is a

continuous process applied throughout design, construction, installation, operation and

decommissioning phase to ensure that the system is operated safely DNV et al. (2009) present a set

of recommended practices for integrity management of submarine pipeline systems applicable to the

Norwegian Continental Shelf. The full report is available on:

http://exchange.dnv.com/publishing/Codes/ToC_edition.asp#Recommended_Practices. The

recommendations state that the Integrity Management System consists of at least a minimum of the

following elements:

TABLE 11: ELEMENTS IN THE INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Integrity Management Process: The core of the IMS and consist of;

a) Risk assessment and IM planning

b) Detailed planning and performance of Inspection, Monitoring and Testing activities

c) Integrity assessment

d) Performance of needed Mitigation, Intervention and Repairs activities.

Company policy: The company has an overall policy for pipeline integrity management, setting the values and beliefs that

the company holds.

Organisation and personnel: The roles and responsibilities of personnel involved with integrity management of the pipeline

system is clearly defined.

Reporting and communication: A plan for reporting and communication to employees, management, authorities,

customers, public and others has been established and is maintained. This covers both regular reporting and

communication, and reporting in connection with changes, special findings, emergencies etc.

Operation controls and procedures: Operational controls and procedures are made by the company and covers:

‐ start‐up, operations and shutdown procedures

‐ procedures for treatment of non‐conformances


‐ instructions for cleaning and other maintenance activities

‐ corrosion control activities

‐ monitoring activities

‐ procedures for operation of safety equipment and pressure control systems.

All safety equipment in the pipeline system, including pressure control and over‐pressure protection devices, emergency

shutdown systems and automatic shutdown valves, are periodically tested and inspected. The purpose of the inspection is

to verify that the integrity of the safety equipment is intact and that the equipment can perform the safety function as

specified.

Management of change: Management of change addresses the continuing safe operation of the pipeline system. When the

operating conditions are changed, a re‐qualification of the pipeline system is carried out.

Contingency plans: Plans and procedures for emergency situations are established and maintained based on a systematic

evaluation of possible scenarios.

Audits and review: Audits and reviews of the pipeline integrity management system is conducted regularly. The frequency

shall be defined by the responsible for the operation of the pipeline system. The focus in reviews should be on:

‐ effectiveness and suitability of the system

‐ improvements to be implemented.

Information management: A system for collection of historical data is established and maintained for the whole service

life, including documents, data files and databases.

3.3.4 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT AT GASSCO

Maintenance management at Gassco is based on regulations from the Petroleum Safety Authority

(PSA), and abide by the PSA guidelines and the standards based on these regulations and guidelines,

of which the NORSOK standards are the most important.

In addition to providing regulations and guidelines, PSA are also conducting monitoring activities in

which they state what they find as aberration from the regulations, and improvement areas within

maintenance management (Dørum, 2009). The companies themselves are also required to monitor

their own maintenance systems and performances (Øien and Schjølberg, 2008).

The maintenance management of Gassco is risk based according to the prinsiples described in

section 3.3 and is supported by utilizing SAP software.

The software provides maintenance programs for equipment and systems. The maintenance

programs is based on risk based principles, use of GMC, experience, venders' recommendations, etc

as described in section 3.3. The software incorporates incident reporting in addition to maintenance

management. Incidents are hence logged and serve as input to reporting and follow‐up and the


identification of need for improvements of maintenance programs. To simplify the development of

maintenance concepts for familiar equipment and components, Gassco uses generic maintenance

concepts.

The consequence classification is fundamental in every aspect of the Gassco's maintenance

management. Consequence classification expresses what effect loss of function can have on HSE,

production and cost. The classification is done according to a consequence scale which is a part of

the risk model (Standard Norway, 2011). The NORSOK standard provide provisions for how the

classification is carried out, how to apply risk analysis to establish and update PM programmes and

spare part evaluations.

In corrective maintenance, Gassco operates with a classification scheme for failures. The

classification is based on failure impact. The failure impact and consequence classification is used to

prioritise the corrective maintenance.

TABLE 12 FAILURE IMPACT SCALE (NORSOK, 2011)

3.3.5 TECHNICAL/ECONOMICAL ANALYSES OF MAINTENANCE PROJECTS

Gassco is a non‐profit organization financed through transport tariffs collected from the shippers.

The tariffs are set by Government regulations. As operator of the gas transportation network, the


company is responsible to present recommendations and investment proposals based on an overall

assessment of development needs and resource management.

The annual transport plan forms the foundation which the feasibility studies, conceptual design and

development plans are based on. To ensure the participation of and objectivity in treating the

various stakeholders, Gassco has defined a work process for the development of the annual

transport plan. The work process ensure the availability of relevant information for continuous

improvement of the gas transport network. The work process is intended to secure economically and

efficient and commercial infrastructure development, and ensure neutrality and confidentiality in all

phases of such activities (Gassco, 2012d).

The investment costs in new services or increased capacity are normally covered by investor groups

formed by interested shippers, and later merged into Gassled. Thorough cost‐benefit analyses form

the basis for decisions concerning further development of the network.

3.4 EXAMPLES OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Gassco has a number of running projects related to maintenance and upgrading of the infrastructure.

The following projects and desciptions are presented on the company's web pages:

Compressor upgrade Project (CUP): Involves upgrading compressors at the Kårstø and Kollsnes

processing plants in western Norway in order to safeguard their technical integrity. The expected

total cost is just over NOK 400 million, with the work scheduled for completion during 2013 (Gassco,

2012a).

Kårstø expansión Project (KEP): is a collective designation for a number of programmes designed to

upgrade the plant to meet future standards of safety and reliability. “Control systems with cabling

and other components are approaching the end of their useful lives. Therefore, Gassco aim to

modernising the whole plant by exchanging and converting parts of the technical installations,

instead of replacing them bit by bit." In this Project; The sensors in the fire and gas alarm system will

be replaced. The process management and the process shutdown facility will be split into two

separate systems. Emergency generators will be moved to a new housing in a more secure área.

The fire and gas detection system, as well as the rebuilding of T100 Statpipe and T300 Sleipner, will


be completed. The facilities used for fiscal metering of liquid products exported from Kårstø are also

being upgraded (Gassco, 2012d).

In regard to the Kårstø expansion project (KEP), a number of major contracts have been awarded in

connection with KEP, including civil works, road construction and concrete work. In addition come

the electrical and instrumentation contract, mechanical installation, scaffolding, and engineering

design and management. Projects covered by KEP are due to be executed in 2008‐12, and 700 people

was employed on the upgrading programme at peak. The total investment is estimated at NOK 7.7

billion, including NGL and the cross‐over between Åsgard and Statpipe (Gassco, 2012e).(Gassco,

2012e).

Boiler Upgrade Project (BUP): shall upgrade the Foster Wheeler A and C‐boilers, and associated

instrument safety systems at Kårstø. The upgrade will extend the boilers life with 10 years, and will

help to maintain regularity in the future. The upgrade will also have a positive effect on maintenance

work, which will be performed safer and more efficient. Almost all pipelines in the boilers are to be

replaced with new ones. The entire upgrade should be completed by the end of 2014.Estimated total

cost is NOK 760 million (Gassco, 2012a).


4. CONDITION MONITORING

Condition monitoring is defined as "continuous or periodic measurement and interpretation of data

to indicate the degraded condition (potential failure) of an item and the need for maintenance"

(NORSOK, 2011). NORSOK states further: "Condition monitoring is normally carried out with the item

in operation, in an operating state or removed, but not subject to dismantling". DNV (2009) states:

"Inspection and monitoring is defined as condition monitoring activities carried out to collect

operational data and other type of information indicating the condition of a component".

By introducing condition monitoring where it is suitable and as new monitoring techniques become

available, maintenance turn may turn more efficient. Successful condition monitoring may dispose of

unnecessary preventive maintenance and production shut‐downs due to failure and to conduct

"unnecessary" inspection.

Inspection generally refers to physically monitoring the state of a component directly (e.g. wall

thickness, damage to the pipeline). Monitoring describes the collection of relevant process

parameters which indirectly can give information upon the condition of a component (DNV 2009).

Monitoring is further classified as being intrusive (demanding direct access to the medium being

measured by e.g. a whole in the pipe wall) or non‐intrusive. Some factors monitored in Gassco's

infrastructure are presented in Table 13:

TABLE 13: CONDITION MONITORING EXECUTED BY GASSCO

Monitoring of the infrastructure External factors monitored

Chemical composition of medium in the system

Process parameters (pressure, temperature, flow)

External and internal corrosion

Internal erosion (due to sand)

Leak detection

Current and vibrations

Ship traffic and fishing activity

Land movement

Corrosion monitoring is of special interest on Gassco's infrastructure, as corrosion may be

problematic on submarine pipelines. Pipes are normally protected from external corrosion by the use

of coating (passive protection) and by cathodic protection (active protection). Internal corrosion

must be monitored by the use of corrosion probes (e.g. electrical resistance probes, weight loss


coupons, and linear polarisation resistance probes). In addition, intelligent inspection pigs will

provide a range of data depending on the pig. DNV (2009) describe a range of pigs in use:

Magnetic Flux Leakage ‐ A MFL‐pig measures changes in wall thickness from the inside of a pipeline

made of a ferro‐ magnetic material. The method detects metal losses caused by e.g. pitting or gen‐

eralised corrosion. An MFL pig detects the change in magnetic response from the pipe in connection

with metal loss. The MFL inspection pig can detect both external and internal metal loss defects. MFL

pigs are available in HR (high resolu‐ tion) and XHR (extra high resolution) versions

Ultrasound Technology ‐ Ultrasound Technology (UT) is used as a pigging tool to measure the

absolute thickness of the wall. The technique can differentiate between external and internal metal

loss. An UT‐pig can be run for all types of pipeline materials (i.e. both ferrous and non‐ferrous). The

method also detects cracks.

Laser‐optical inspection tool ‐ The laser‐optic instrument records a visual image of the inner wall of

pipelines carrying transparent fluids. Features are visualised giving valuable information for

evaluating and interpretations of the features. The image can be processed and animated adding a

3D grid and the feature can be positioned and sized, for defects the clock and KP‐position, width,

length and depth can be provided.

Geopig ‐ Geopig is a pig that measures the global curvature based upon gyro‐technology. A geopig

can measure the global curvature with a high accuracy. The distance is measured by a tracking

odometer. The tool cannot measure a radius above its threshold value.

Calliper ‐ A calliper pig measures the pipe out‐of roundness. Simple calliper tools indicate pipeline

damage (e.g. a dent, a buckle) without giving information regarding its location. More advanced

callipers can scan the cross section along the route and report the shape of the pipe.


5. DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE VS RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE

There are quite a few obvious parallels between the Gassled gas transport network and the rail

network. Both the gas industry and railways are tightly regulated, both use a distributed

infrastructure and the systems have a common purpose; transport. The two industries also share a

common attitude regarding safety; safety concerns will trump production and delivery of transport

services in case of conflict between the two.

The intention in establishing Gassco was to introduce a neutral party in the management and

development of the transportation network and to manage the allocation of capacity in the system,

much like the idea behind the organization in the railway sector in Europe. Investments in the

infrastructure are not financed by the infrastructure operator, but the operator play a central part in

planning and leading further development of the infrastructure, as well as being responsible for its

condition.

Some basic differences stand out as well though, a case in point being that as long as the agreed

volumes of gas with correct quality is delivered at an exit point from Gassco's receiving terminals the

shippers are satisfied. The same flexibility does not apply to rail infrastructure. In Gassco's case, the

maintenance intensive parts of the infrastructure is concentrated at the various facilities rather then

spread evenly across the network.

The most important finding in the case study (in the case study authors' view) does not deal with the

overall maintenance strategy or tools and models used in the industry. Instead it deals with

coordination of maintenance and transparency in the planning process. There seem to be a well‐

functioning manner of dealing with opportunistic (or shadow) maintenance, e.g. in case of temporary

and un‐planned shutdowns, both upstream and downstream actors are informed early, and are able

to carry out maintenance when the opportunities occur, and hence possibly saving the system from

future shut‐downs. It is not, however, based on formalized guidelines or regulations. This kind of

short term maintenance is possible due to continuously focus on optimization in the network by

closely monitoring and dialog between Gassco and the field/terminals.


6. CONCLUSION

Gassco's management of the gas transportation network has contributed to Norway's position as has

a stable supplier of gas to the European market since its founding in 2001. Successful maintenance

management and cross‐organizational, cross border coordination of maintenance activities

contribute to the company achieving regularity measure of 99.17 % and quality measure of 99.99 %.

Communication with up‐ and downstream actors, by meetings and integration of systems is essential

to achieve efficient use of the network.

The infrastructure of which Gassco is operator, is an integrated network, connected to the producers

of natural gas and to the European distribution network. In addition, the network comprises six

processing plants, three offshore platforms and six receiving terminals. There are a range of

stakeholders in the gas value chain, and regulations from the Norwegian Government, European

Governments and the EU affect the company. The company adapts to the regulations by adapting to

industry practises proposed in the Industry standards, such as NORSOK and recommended practices

(DNV).

The maintenance strategy applied is Reliability Centred and risk‐based. Every item (or "tag") in the








industry. Amongst these are the coordination of maintenance activities, attitude to opportunistic



7. REFERENCES

DET NORSKE VERITAS, CNOOC, DONG ENERGY, ENI GROUP, GASSCO, FRANCE, G. D., NORSKE

SHELL, STATOILHYDRO & SINTEF 2009. Integrity Management of Submarine Pipeline systems.

Recommended Practice. Det Norske Veritas,.

DNV 2010. Risk based inspection of offshore topsides static mechanical equipment.

Recommended practice. Oslo: DNV.

DØRUM, K.‐G. 2009. Tilsynsrapport ‐ Tilsyn med styring av vedlikehold i Gassco. Stavanger:

Petroleum Safety Authority Norway.

FRANCIS, A., MCCALLUM, M. & JANDU, C. 2009. Pipeline life extension and integrity

management ‐ Based on optimized use of above ground survey data and inline inspection

results. Strength of Materials, 41, 1‐492.

GASSCO 2011. Terms and Conditions for Transport of Gas in Gassled.

GASSCO. 2012a. Compressor Upgrade Project (CUP) [Online]. Gassco. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/gassco‐en/gassco/home/var‐

virksomhet/projects/cup/compressor+upgrade+project [Accessed December 2012].

GASSCO. 2012b. CONTROL ROOM AND SYSTEM OPERATIONS [Online]. Kopervik. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/Gassco‐EN/Gassco/Home/var‐

virksomhet/kontrollromogsystemdrift/ [Accessed December 2012].

GASSCO. 2012c. Gas transport system [Online]. Gassco. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/Gassco‐EN/Gassco/Home/norsk‐gass/gas‐transport‐

system/ [Accessed December 2012].

GASSCO. 2012d. Infrastructure development [Online]. Gassco. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/Gassco‐EN/Gassco/Home/var‐

virksomhet/utviklingavinfrastruktur/ [Accessed December 2012].

GASSCO. 2012e. Kårstø Expansion Project [Online]. Gassco. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/gassco‐en/gassco/home/var‐

virksomhet/projects/kep/13032012 [Accessed December 2012].

GASSCO. 2012f. Partners [Online]. Gassco. Available:

http://www.gassco.no/wps/wcm/connect/Gassco‐

EN/Gassco/Home/teknologi/partners/partners [Accessed December 2012].

HENDRIKS, P. 2011. Gas transport from Norway to Europe. In: GASSCO (ed.).


NORSOK, T. N. O. I. A. O. A. T. F. O. N. I. 2011. NORSOK Z‐008: Risk based maintenance and

consequence classification. Standards Norway.

NORWEGIAN PETROLEUM DIRECTORATE. 2012. Pipelines and onshore facilities [Online]. Harstad:

Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, . Available: http://www.npd.no/en/publications/facts/facts‐

2012/chapter‐14/ [Accessed December 2012].

PETROLEUM SAFETY AUTHORITY NORWAY. no date. Guidelines [Online]. Petroleum Safety

Authority Norway,. Available: http://www.ptil.no/guidelines/category218.html?lang=en_US

[Accessed December 2012].

STANDARD NORWAY 2011. NORSOK STANDARD. Risk based maintenance and concequence

classification. Lysaker, Norway: Standard Norway.

STANDARD.NO. 2013. NORSOK Procedures and Templates [Online]. Available:

http://www.standard.no/en/sectors/petroleum/norsok‐procedures‐and‐templates/ [Accessed

07.02.2013 2013].

ØIEN, K. & SCHJØLBERG, P. 2008. Vedlikehold som virkemiddel for å forebygge storulykker; ‐

Vedlikeholdsstatus og utfordringer i den forbindelse. Trondheim: SINTEF.

CASE STUDY 3: INFRASTRUCTURE FOR WATER

DISTRIBUTION




D2.1.3. CASE STUDY 3/4 ‐ INFRASTRUCTURE FOR WATER DISTRIBUTION Page 2

Work Package: WP2.1

Type of document: Case‐study report

Date: 22.02.2012


Partners: SINTEF Technology and Society

Responsible: SINTEF Technology and Society

Title: D2.1.2 Version: 1 Page: 2 / 48



0 22.02.2012 First final version Stian Bruaset et al

Document Authors


SINTEF Technology and

Society

Stian Bruaset, Andreas Økland and Siri Bø Halvorsen


Executive Summary The purpose of the water infrastructure is to provide safe drinking water at a satisfactory pressure to

the end‐customers. The system is composed of a drinking water source, intake, treatment and

transmission/distribution system. The infrastructure considered in the case study either governed

and owned by private companies, or by local municipalities (and then managed by public utilities),

depending on the country. Focus is on the infrastructure of European countries, and interviews have

been conducted with Swedish and Norwegian water public utilities. This case study focuses on water

transmission and distribution systems from the treatment facilities to the customer.


however, some treats that are typical for maintenance management of water infrastructure:


renewal of the infrastructure.

Traditionally, maintenance management of water infrastructure has been reactive (or corrective).

The water infrastructure is for the most part invisible during operation under normal operating

conditions. New technologies have, however, made it possible to investigate the condition of the

water infrastructure without digging, by the use of inserting "intelligent" probes in the infrastructure,

or by increased use of censoring. The extent of use of such methods is still limited though, and

failures like leaks or ruptures can still go undiscovered unless the costumers report a problem like

discolored water or lack of pressure.



making in maintenance management. The data includes operational data of incidents (leaks,

ruptures), map data, and pipe properties. Some municipalities are experimenting with model‐ and

data driven maintenance management, although mostly when dealing with prioritizing renewal of

pipe sections with high risk of failure.


TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM PURPOSE AND CRITICAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................. 7

1.1 PURPOSE(S) .................................................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 CRITICAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 DEFINING AN ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF SERVICE – CRITICAL LEVELS OF WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY .... 8

1.3.1 WATER QUALITY..................................................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.2 WATER QUANTITY .................................................................................................................................................. 9

2. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES ................................................................. 11 2.1 TOPOLOGY AND SYSTEM HIERARCHY ........................................................................................................ 11 2.2 THRESHOLDS AND OPERATIONAL LIMITS................................................................................................... 13

3. MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES AND MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION ........................................................... 15 3.1 FRAMEWORK AND OVERALL THINKING ..................................................................................................... 15 3.2 DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME ........................................................................................................................ 16 3.3 STATE OF THE ART ROUTINES FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRINKING WATER NETWORKS 17

3.3.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF O&M ROUTINES ........................................................................................................... 17 3.3.2 REHABILITATION OF PIPES ................................................................................................................................... 19 3.3.3 REHABILITATION/RENEWAL PLANNING PROCESS ............................................................................................... 21 3.3.4 FLUSHING AND CLEANING OF WATER NETWORKS .............................................................................................. 22

3.4 EXAMPLES OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULING .................................................................... 26 3.4.1 NORRVATTEN ....................................................................................................................................................... 26 3.4.2 TRONDHEIM BYDRIFT........................................................................................................................................... 28

3.5 TECHNICAL ECONOMICAL ANALYSES OF MAINTENANCE PROJECTS .......................................................... 31 4. CONDITION MONITORING ....................................................................................................................... 34

4.1 USE OF CONDITION MONITORING DATA FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT .................................................. 34 4.1.1 THE RESUSPENSION POTENTIAL METHOD AS CONDITION MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY .......................... 36 4.1.2 CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS – CONDITION MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY ...................................................... 37

5. DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE VS RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE ................................................................................ 38 6. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 40 7. References .............................................................................................................................................. 41 8. APPENDIX 1: FURTHER DETAILS ON WATER FLUSHING ............................................................................. 43


Acronyms O&M Operations and maintenance

RP Resuspension potential

RPM The resuspension potential method


1. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM PURPOSE AND CRITICAL FUNCTIONS

1.1 PURPOSE(S)

The purpose of the drinking water distribution network and system is to provide the customers with

a sufficient amount of clean and safe tap water at a satisfactory pressure level. The distribution

network is an intricate system of pipes in the ground which task is to transport the drinking water

safely from the treatment plants to the customers. The water is transported from the treatment

plants to the distribution pipes (which delivers the water to the houses/customers) through

transmission lines/pipes.

1.2 CRITICAL FUNCTIONS

In order for the distribution system to fulfill its task, it must be able to execute its critical functions.

The distribution systems further depend on the rest of the water supply system to be intact and be

able to execute their critical functions. The water supply infrastructure is in the following split in

several parts, presented below with a short description of their critical functions:

Water source: the water source must have high enough capacity to deliver the necessary

amounts of water and it must be protected against contamination and pollution.

Water treatment: The treatment plant(s) will include the last hygienic barrier(s) before the water

is delivered into the transmission and distribution system.

Transmission lines: transmission lines are large‐diameter water pipes which are responsible for

the transmission of water. The pipes must be able to contain large amounts of flowing water (i.e.

withstand considerable pressure) with minimal leaks and serve as a barrier from pollution and

unhygienic penetrants from the external environment (contamination from ingress).

Pumps: areas downstream of pumps are dependent upon the continual running of pumps to

uphold necessary positive pressure in the distribution area (i.e. pumps must be able to provide

sufficient downstream pressure). In addition, the pumps must serve as a barrier from pollution

from the environment.

Water storage tanks: in some distribution systems storage tanks for water are installed in order

to increase the security of supply and to provide emergency water supply. Storage tanks are

often located in the middle of the distribution pipe system or on the opposite side of the


distribution system as opposed to the transmission line from the treatment facility. If the

transmission line should break and the water supply thus be interrupted, water can be supplied

from the water storage tank. In such instances the storage tanks are vital to the security of the

water supply.

Valves: Different types of valves are part of every distribution system and serve several purposes

such as closing off pipes, reduce pressure and control the flow of water. Valves are essential to

the operation of the distribution network.

Distribution pipes: The pipes must be able to contain flowing water with minimal leaks and serve

as barrier to pollution from the surrounding environment (contamination from ingress). The

pipes must further be able to withstand mechanical stress and tension. These pipes are essential

in distributing and delivering safe and clean drinking water to the customers.

Manholes and fire valves: Manholes are used as an entry point to the drinking water pipes in the

ground and are therefore an important part in operation of the network. Fire valves are access

point for the fire department to extract water for fire extinguishing.

1.3 DEFINING AN ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF SERVICE – CRITICAL LEVELS OF WATER QUALITY AND

QUANTITY

1.3.1 WATER QUALITY

Treated water must be wholesome and clean at the time of supply to all consumers. Wholesomeness

can be defined broadly as being of sufficient quality that does not cause any adverse effects on public

health or have any undesirable tastes and odours. Traditionally, this has been achieved by complying

to regulations governing drinking water quality. In member states of the European Union, the quality

of drinking water is currently governed by Council Directive 98/83/EC of 3 November 1998 on the

quality of water intended for human consumption (European Drinking Water Directive). This

Directive sets standards that apply in all member states. The requirements laid down in the Directive

are transposed into national regulations by each state. The Directive allows an individual member

state to adopt additional or more stringent regulations depending on the particular circumstances in

their country. The Directive is currently undergoing revision and it is likely that a new regime for

safeguarding water quality will be adopted which incorporates a risk‐based approach to operating

and managing drinking water supply systems in line with WHO’s Water Safety Plan concept.


Other requirements are placed on water utilities within the overall framework of the Drinking Water

Directive. For example, materials used in contact with water intended for human consumption must

be approved before use. Member states have tended to develop their own national requirements

which specify the method of testing for a particular purpose and define acceptable performance

criteria. A European Acceptance Scheme (EAS) was proposed for construction products used with

water intended for human consumption. It was originally envisaged that this scheme would replace

existing national regulatory schemes and harmonize standards across member states.

Customer perceptions of an acceptable water quality also need to be taken into account when

setting an acceptable level of service. These relate largely to aesthetic rather than health aspects,

and are associated mainly with undesirable changes in color, clarity, taste and odour of the water.

They tend to fall into the following categories:

Discolored water, with or without particulate matter.

Particulate matter, such as particles of rust, grit or sediment.

Staining of laundry or bathroom fittings.

Tastes and odours.

Cloudy, milky or chalky water.

Presence of small animals such as worms, insects, etc.

Scale deposits within domestic plumbing.

Unsuitability for specific industrial purposes.

Alleged illness due to contamination of water.

1.3.2 WATER QUANTITY

Water is essential for maintaining hygiene in households and safeguarding public health. Until this

decade, there was no guidance on the quantity of water that should be provided to individuals to

meet their sanitary requirements. A review by WHO (Howard and Bartram, 2003) established a value

for an acceptable minimum to meet the needs for consumption (hydration and food preparation)

and basic hygiene. A minimum of 7.5 litres per capita per day was seen as necessary to meet the

needs of most people under most conditions, and assumes that its quality does not compromise

public health. This figure was based on estimates of requirements of lactating women engaging in

moderate physical activity in above‐average temperatures. This quantity did not take into account

provision for health and well‐being‐related demands outside normal domestic use such as water use


in health care facilities, food production, economic activity, amenity use or fire‐fighting. Developed

countries tend to use a much larger volume per capita per day (between 150‐200 liters) due to high

use of water in the homes for food production, toilet flushing, washing of clothes, dishwasher etc.


2. DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES

The following chapter will introduce the water supply system and provide some background

information intended for readers not already familiar with the system.

2.1 TOPOLOGY AND SYSTEM HIERARCHY

Figure 1 illustrates the water supply system from water source to the water tap. In this report the

elements of distribution and elements within are investigated with regards to operation and

maintenance. Tanks, manholes, valves and pumps are elements in the distribution system. However,

the transmission and distribution pipes will be the main group for discussion in this report.

FIGURE 1: ILLUSTRATION OF WATER SUPPLY FROM SOURCE TO TAP WITH EMPHASIS ON DISTRIBUTION

Catchment: The catchment is the area around the drinking water source in which the rainwater

falls. From where the rain falls it drains from the catchment and into the source.

Source/reservoir: The most common drinking water source is surface water (lakes, rivers etc) or

ground water. A reservoir is a man‐made drinking water source, made possible by the

construction of a dam.

Treatment: The water treatment plant is the principal entity establishing hygienic barriers in the

water supply. In the treatment plant the water is treated according to its characteristics so that

clean water can be delivered to the pipe network.

Transmission system: The transmission pipes are large diameter pipelines that transport the

water from treatment plant to the "city gates" of the distribution system (and in some cases

from the source to the treatment plant).


Distribution/Tanks: The distribution network is compiled of distribution pipes (with large and

small diameters), pumps, valves, pressure reducing valves, manholes, storage tanks and service

connections. Its task is to transport the drinking water safely from the treatment plant to the

customer/tap.

Buildings: In the buildings we have internal pipes and the taps. The pipe systems within buildings

are normally not accounted for as part of the municipal drinking water system.

For operations and maintenance (O&M) of the distribution system the integrity of the system is

important. The integrity of the distribution system can briefly be divided into the following three

groups according to:

1) Physical integrity,

2) Hydraulic integrity and

3) Water quality integrity

Physical integrity (1) refers to the distribution system as a physical barrier preventing external

contamination to occur. Examples of physical barriers in the distribution system are water tanks and

pipes. These barriers should be operated and maintained for safeguarding the condition of the

barrier. E.g. the barrier is maintained by action aimed at minimizing external and internal corrosion.

Internal corrosion might be reduced by introducing efficient flushing and cleaning of the network. If

the physical barrier is compromised the drinking water supply will become exposed to

contamination. This means that it is very important to have good practices for installation, repair and

rehabilitation.

Hydraulic integrity (2) refers to maintaining adequate water pressure in the network. Low or no

pressure might result from large withdrawals of water, pipe breaks, large leakages, pressure

surge/water hammer, pump or valve failures etc. These events might increase the risk of

contamination from ingress. An important factor related to hydraulic integrity is flow velocity since

this influence the level of sedimentation in the network which again later might influence the

potential for discoloration.

Water quality integrity (3) refers to maintaining treated water delivered into the network by

preventing internal deterioration of water quality due to biofilm growth and internal corrosion.


2.2 THRESHOLDS AND OPERATIONAL LIMITS

The task of the of the distribution system, as described in chapter 1, is to provide the customers with

a sufficient amount of clean and safe tap water at a satisfactory level of pressure. Whenever these

fundamental requirements are not fulfilled, one may assume that some of the systems' thresholds

and/or operational limits have been breached. For each of the quality factors of the drinking water

system, the following factors may introduce limitations to the systems' ability to deliver satisfactory

quality:

TABLE 1. QUALITY FACTORS AND LIMITING FACTORS TO SYSTEMS CAPABILITIES TO DELIVER SATISFACTORY

Quality factor Limiting factors (introducing limiting factors and operational

thresholds – the actual thresholds will be site specific)

Sufficient amount

of drinking water

Insufficient capacity of drinking water sources (for example in times

of drought)

Distribution pipe breaks (only local influence)

Transmission line break and storage tanks out of operation

Pumps out of operation

Leakage levels too high

Clean and safe

drinking water

Treatment plant or steps in the treatment process are out of

operation or operate with reduced capacity

Drinking water network has insufficient pressure (increased risk of

ingress into system)


Pipe breaks lead to negative pressure in the network.

Satisfactory level of

pressure


Distribution pipe breaks

Transmission line breaks

Storage tanks out of operation

Higher water consumption than estimated in areas with low

pressure


Apart from this, the drinking water system is expected not to disturb or create dangerous situations

for its surroundings. Yet another threshold is when pipe breaks lead to visible water on the ground,

gushing water up from ground or erosion of earth below the ground surface to create pits.


3. MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES AND MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATION

The following chapter deals with the predominant strategies and overall thinking concerning

maintenance of water distribution networks. The distinction between renewal of pipes and general

maintenance of the pipes is presented, as is the planning process of renewal action, and some

techniques for preventive maintenance of the pipes by flushing.

3.1 FRAMEWORK AND OVERALL THINKING

The norm in Europe is that each municipality or private company is responsible for their drinking

water system infrastructure. The conditions of which the utilities responsible for the infrastructure

operate under vary significantly, and a common industry framework regarding maintenance has not

been developed. Some utilities are experimenting with model‐driven management of maintenance,

as the CARE‐W EU‐project, and increasing amounts of data about the infrastructure (including water

quality and statistics on leaks/failures) may further contribute to the development. In most cases

though, focus is on efficient handling of corrective maintenance, and prioritizing the right sections

(with highest risk of failure or rupture) for renewal work.

Generally, the motivation for renewal planning maintenance of the water infrastructure is to:

Improve or maintain water quality

Reduce water losses

Increase or maintain security of supply

Reduce the vulnerability/risk of the system.

Maintain or increase the value of the system

State of the art operation and maintenance strategies related to these topics are based on mainly

preventive O&M and renewal planning and action (the exchange of old pipes for new ones). In the

last decade the focus of operation and maintenance has changed from reactive to proactive

planning, where the goal is to rehabilitate the right pipe at the right time for the lowest possible

overall cost, thus also minimizing the risk of the system.

Operation and maintenance is defined differently from country to country and even between

utilities. In the UK, maintenance is defined as a general term and the distinction is made between


operational and capital maintenance. In general, operation can be regarded as the daily routine

efforts to secure the water supply, while maintenance is the intermittent efforts to maintain the

performance and serviceability, as seen in Table 2.

TABLE 2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE ACTIVIES

3.2 DEVELOPMENT OVER TIME

Modern drinking water systems where the pipes are laid in the ground in order to supply customers

with drinking water have been applied for over 150 years. However, the large problems occurring in

the pipes and with the pipes in the ground have not been in focus until the last couple of decades.

Also, in the last decades, the quality and the precision of operation and maintenance planning and

execution have been improved.

In the first two decades after the Second World War the focus in several European countries was to

build fast, ignoring the quality of the construction. Such is often the case with the drinking water

pipes. They were laid fast and often in not suitable ground conditions, thus affecting the lifetime of

the pipe material and break rates in a negative way.

In later decades focus throughout the European Union has shifted more and more towards

establishing good service levels and securing clean and safe water. Through EU projects like

TECHNEAU and PREPARED work has been done on risk analysis, operation and maintenance and


water quality, which are all contributing to optimizing the operation and maintenance of the drinking

water networks. As part of this it has become very important that the quality of the water is intact

from treatment to tap. A significant step in keeping the water clean and safe has been the

improvement of condition monitoring of the water infrastructure and the assessment methods,

cleaning techniques and tools for rehabilitation planning.

The EU projects CARE‐W and CARE‐W (see Saegrov, 2005 and Saegrov, 2006 for further information)

had the slogan "from re‐active to pro‐active". Before the 2000s, a lot of operation and maintenance

had largely been done on a reactive basis, meaning that leaks, bursts and failures in the network had

been repaired and pipes had been rehabilitated when the damage had occurred. This is, off course,

also the case today, but with the introduction of the tools designed in the CARE projects, the

rehabilitation part of operation and maintenance was focused on the pro‐active approach. The CARE

project resulted in a box of tools which aids the network owners in a pro‐active way to choose the

pipes with the highest probability for failures, or with the highest consequence on the distribution of

water, for rehabilitation. This way, these pipes can be rehabilitated before an unwanted incident is

likely to occur (like failure, water leak, distribution shutdown etc.).

3.3 STATE OF THE ART ROUTINES FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRINKING WATER

NETWORKS

3.3.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF O&M ROUTINES

Operation and maintenance (O&M) of drinking water distribution networks are considered to involve

the daily routines to manage the networks. It includes operational planning and the year on year

maintenance to ensure the quality of the pipes, such as rehabilitation (including renovation of pipes

with trenchless technologies).

The O&M routines are directed to counteract different factors contributing to the degradation of

water quality during the transportation in the water distribution pipelines. Thus they will include

actions to prevent ingress of contaminated water and to handle ingress if it should occur. They will

also include actions to prevent in‐pipe processes, such as corrosion, biofilm growth and particle flow.


INGRESS OF CONTAMINATED WATER

Ingress may occur when in‐pipe pressure is very low or absent or during pressure transitions

(negative pressures, i.e. water flowing in the opposite direction of what is intended). This may

happen during major failures (bursts) in pipeline, major tapping, (e.g. fire fighting) or during periods

with especially large consumption (e.g. garden watering). Apparent actions are minimization of

bursts by systematic rehabilitation planning and execution of corresponding projects, plus assuring

sufficient flow capacity for extreme consumption situations.

Ingress is likely to occur at joint water and sewer manholes and by backflow from service pipes.

Those critical points should be identified and actions taken to minimize or rather eliminate

probability of interaction between polluted water and drinking water for supply. Additionally

precautions should be taken by pipe repair. If possible by minor repairs a certain pressure should be

kept in pipeline.

Obviously a reliable and stable pressure is very important. Continuous monitoring, documenting and

rapid fixing of leakages is a common priority. Control of pipe condition (e.g. pipe scanner or similar)

can be applied to further facilitate the gathering of information on the condition of the system.

In spite of any preventive action, incidents that may cause hazard to drinking water cannot be totally

avoided. When situations occur, good communication with customers is important to ensure minimal

risk of loss of life or injuries to people.

IN‐PIPE PROCESSES

The in‐pipe processes corrosion, biofilm growth and particle flow needs to be counteracted by water

treatment to avoid particle inflow to water and to avoid corrosion of the pipes.

The in‐pipe processes lead to production of biofilm layers and sediments. The biofilm may release

from pipe wall and sediments may be re‐suspended. To avoid this, cleaning of pipes may be

necessary. Cleaning procedures are discussed in the following chapter.

Most water utilities have routines for pipe cleaning, but lack the knowledge concerning which

frequency and at which locations it is sensible to take action. In general the capacity (water available)

for flushing and the consequence of flushing with respect to flow and pressure in nearby network can


be analysed by hydraulic models. The re‐suspension potential can be analysed by a special designed

method (Resuspension Potential Method, RPM, see later chapter) that shows where particles build

up (and thus identifies potential for discoloured water) and how a flushing programme can be

designed.

Clean water flushing needs to be organised with a “clear water front” upstream that will not bring

particles to the section being analysed. When flow capacity is limited, more sophisticated methods

based on a body pressed through the pipeline (pigging) may be applicable.

The network may be redesigned by permanently opening/closing valves to obtain a better flow

regime (higher flow rates) and thereby avoid sedimentation/re‐ suspension of particles. This may

reduce the capacity for water supply under extreme events (may reduce flow capacity), and needs to

be analysed carefully before being introduced.

Routines for disinfection need to be considered as a part of water network cleaning procedures.

3.3.2 REHABILITATION OF PIPES

The term rehabilitation includes all methods to improve the performance of an existing pipe, both

structurally and hydraulic, including regular operation and maintenance measures and routines.

Renovation includes all methods which employ the existing pipe in order to improve the

performance through installation type of measures, but does not include daily operation and

maintenance routines

In general, rehabilitation options provide higher performance over longer time than O&M. The water

industry has been very innovative in developing new methods, and there is not necessarily a clear

distinction between methods that fall into the category ‘Operation and Maintenance’ and

‘Rehabilitation’. ¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia. shows in principle how an asset

performs with no maintenance (upper, left), with one essential maintenance or rehabilitation (upper

right), basic maintenance only (lower, left) and one essential maintenance in addition to basic

maintenance (lower, right).


FIGURE 2: ILLUSTRATION ASSET PERFORMANCE FOR DIFFERENT MAINTENANCE SCENARIOS (KONG, 2003)

The mix of maintenance and rehabilitation should be selected in order to meet the targeted

performance of an asset. Examples of O&M problems for drinking water pipes which can be reduced

by rehabilitation options are:

Internal corrosion

Leakages from the network, with positive effects on:

Reduction of the production costs for water (treatment and supplying water)

Safeguarding water pressure in the system,

Use of less water resources

Ingress of water during low pressure situations can be reduced because of possible points of

entrance into the network via holes in the pipes are being reduced

Reduction of pipe breaks leading to:

Fewer repairs and thereby fewer events where the pipeline is at risk of contamination.

Fewer pipe breaks will also reduce the cost of repair and will also improve the quality of the

customer service.


3.3.3 REHABILITATION/RENEWAL PLANNING PROCESS

A systematic approach to renewal planning is of high importance, as Europe's water infrastructure is

aging. Several EU‐projects have been dealing with renewal of water infrastructure, including AWARE

and CARE‐W.

The EU project CARE‐W developed the model LTP (Long Term Planning) (also called KANEW) to

provide support in renewal planning. The program helps analyze the rehabilitation needs for pipes

(Sægrov, 2005). The model calculates the residual life and the expected future annual renewal

requirements for pipelines, based on input data consisting of pipe material, year of construction and

section lengths. Data on the diameter of pipes will further enhance the analysis. The program will

adapt to the data available and the preferred renewal methods used by the utility.

Renewal planning is a never‐ending process. The condition of the water infrastructure will change

over time, depending on different factors influencing the network. Regulatory requirements may

change and set higher standards than those previously accepted. This explains the importance of

continuously monitor the condition of the systems (see chapter 4), implement measures and assess

the impact of the measures. Renewal planning will normally be conducted with different planning

horizons for strategic, tactical and operative planning. These are characterized by:

Strategic level – long term planning: Is an integrated part of the overall planning of the

development of the municipality. The long term planning typically aims at keeping renewal rates

equal or higher than the rate of decay. It is useful to operate with two horizons when dealing

with strategic planning of renewal of the water infrastructure: One being the very long

perspective (20‐100 years), which reflects useful life of the water pipes, and one shorter (yet

long) perspective of (10‐20 years).

Tactical level – medium term planning: Is based on decisions made on the strategic level. On the

tactical level detailed plans are developed including which pipes, manholes or other to be

prioritized for maintenance or renewal for the coming years. Projects are identified and

prioritized. These plans will normally have a time horizon of 3‐5 years. The tactical planning uses

methods and models (or a combination of several of these) to create a list of lines that should be

prioritized for renewal in a given year. The plans are normally updated annually or semi‐

annually.


Operational or technical level: Is based on decisions made on the tactical level, and it is on this

level the plans are put into action. On the operational level yearly plans are developed, and

revised several times during the year. On this level detailed assessments concerning the

methods and technologies for rehabilitation or renewal of the pipess are carried out and the

final choices are made.

3.3.4 FLUSHING AND CLEANING OF WATER NETWORKS

Reprint of sections of chapter 5 of (Vreeburg, 2007), with the permission of the author. The second

part of chapter 5 of (Vreeburg) provides further details on flushing, and is included in Appendix 1.

The chapter introduces the water quality measure "turbidity" which is a measure of the amount of

solid particles dispersed in the water. Flushing and cleaning of the pipes are part of operations and

maintenance activities directed at achieving sufficient water quality (reducing the amount of solid

particles in the drinking water that may lead to discoloration and customer complaints), and to

ensure that the effective pipe diameter is kept at its original level.

Aesthetic water quality problems, such as discoloured water, occur when loose sediments in the

drinking water distribution system resuspend and reach the customer in concentrations that can be

visually observed with the naked eye and subsequently may lead to complaints. One of the actions to

prevent complaints is to limit the amount of resuspendable sediment in the network. This is done by

regularly removing the layer of loose sediments in the pipes. Usually these problems are dealt with by

cleaning the networks using such techniques as unidirectional flushing, pigging or water/air scouring

aimed at removing the accumulated sediments from the pipes (Antoun, Dyksenet al., 1999).


FIGURE 3: EFFECTS OF CLEANING AND IMPROVED TREATMENT ON THE DISCOLORATION RISK OF DRINKING

WATER

If the sediment layer is removed, but other particle‐related processes in the network are left

unchanged, the build up will start again and cleaning will be necessary within a certain period of

time. This is shown graphically in Figure 3, in which the vertical axis is the discolouration risk that can

be determined with the RPM (Resuspension potential Method) and the horizontal axis, the time. The

effect of cleaning is such that the layer of sediment is removed and no or much less loose sediment is

available for resuspension. The (re)charging of the system with particles continues, however, and

after a while cleaning is necessary again. Limiting the recharging of the system by improved

treatment, for instance, will result in a lower cleaning frequency (dotted line in Figure 3).

Though cleaning the network is a good method to manage the sediment layer in the network, it has a

bad operational image. The reasons for this could well be the problems that are associated with

conventional flushing as a customer inconvenience, seemingly a waste of water and sometimes

adverse effects resulting in increased customer complaints. Without proper pre‐ and post‐assessment

of the need for cleaning and the effect of cleaning, it is easy to misinterpret the recurrence of

complaints. This recurrence may be caused by insufficient cleaning leaving the discolouration risk at

the same or only slightly lower level. It can also be caused by a rapid recharging due to insufficient

treatment.


In this chapter the operational requirements and possible effects of several cleaning methods are

described and discussed. The efficiency of the methods and the relevance of the operational

requirements are illustrated by some experiments. For analysis of the discolouration risk, the RPM

was applied. In the earlier experiments only continuous turbidity measurements were used because at

that time the RPM was not yet developed.

CLEANING METHODS

To clean pipes, several techniques are used that share the same historical development based on

practical experience and a subjective appreciation of the results. Three methods are most commonly

used in pressurised drinking water distribution systems:

Flushing with water: Water is flushed through a pipe with a certain high velocity. The increased

sheer stress resuspend the loose sediments and removes them with the flushed water;

Water/air scouring (flushing with water and injected air) Pressurised air is injected into the water

flow causing extra turbulence and thus extra sheer stress to resuspend the loose material that is

removed with the water;

Pigging: Soft or hard pigs with a diameter equal to or slightly larger than the diameter of the pipe

to be cleaned are introduced into the pipe and pushed through the pipe with water pressure. The

pig scrapes the loose sediment off the wall and carries it to the outlet. Often more than one pig is

used.

Other methods, like high pressure jetting or mechanical scraping, are used in pipes that are taken out

of service and are not pressurised. These methods are not widely applied to remove sediments on a

regular base and thus fall out of the scope of this study that concentrates on practical methods.

The cleaning of networks involves skilled labour rather than scientific analysis. Despite this, however,

there is little awareness of common operational conditions under which the methods are most

effective. Extensive research incorporating a water company enquiry in the UK and USA (Friedman et

al., 2002) learned that not all companies had a regularly scheduled flushing program: 20 out of 23

responses in the USA and 9 out of 15 responses in the UK responding in having one. Of those

companies responding, 17 in the US and 5 in the UK evaluated the results of the flushing. There was

also a wide range in how the cleaning programs were conducted. This confirms that there is little

shared knowledge about the optimal operational conditions to get efficient removal of sediments.


Also in evaluating the removed deposits, as is done by various researchers (Gauthier, Barbeau et al.,

2001; Zacheus, Lehtola et al., 2001; Torvinen, Suomalainen et al., 2004; Barbeau, Gauthier et al.,

2005; Carriere) there is no uniformity in sampling methods with respect to velocity and volume flow

to obtain the deposits. The lack of insight in the operational requirements led to an underestimation

of the complexity of flushing and a negative image of flushing, because of problems that resulted

from what is called‘conventional flushing’ (Antoun et al., 1997). The problems are the increased

number of customer complaints during and immediately after the flushing and a minimal short‐lived

water quality benefit, but also a potential for increased coliform occurrences. WATER FLUSHING

Water flushing is the most common and longest applied method for cleaning networks (Antoun,

Dyksen et al., 1999; Friedman, Martle et al., 2003). The principle of the method is that an increased

water flow causes an increased velocity in the pipe which leads to an additional sheer stress on the

loose deposits in the pipes. These loose deposits are whirled up and removed by the flushed water.

The extra flow is most commonly induced by opening a hydrant and blowing off the extra water.

Despite the long history, there is little known about the operational requirements for effective

flushing. Conventional flushing is the approach used by most utilities in the UK and USA (Friedman,

Martle et al., 2003). This was also the method mostly applied in the Netherlands until 1990.

Conventional flushing isdefined as opening hydrants in a specific area of the distribution system until

pre‐selected water quality criteria are met, mostly by a visual assessment of the turbidity. Though this

seems to be a clear definition, in practice there is little uniformity in the application of conventional

flushing. This makes that it hardly can be seen as a standard method. There are even examples that

the end point of a flushing, expressed as a certain turbidity of the water, is reached by slowly

decreasing the velocity of flushing by gradually closing the hydrant, even compromising the little

operational criteria. This makes conventional flushing an ineffective method resulting in the problems

mentioned in the previous section.

In the 1990s at several locations the conventional flushing was refined to unidirectional flushing

(Oberoi, 1994; Slaats, Rosenthal et al., 2002). Advantage of the unidirectional flushing is that a more

clear operational guideline is applied that leaves less room for ambiguity. The basic characteristic of

unidirectional flushing is that the flush flow is directed in one direction through manipulation of

valves aimed at reaching a maximal velocity. Sometimes dedicated flushing points are applied instead


the hydrants flows pipes. The unidirectional flushing is that it requires careful planning to meet the

operational parameter of unidirectional flow.

The intended effect of flushing is the increase in flow resulting in increased sheer stress that

resuspends the sediments. Effective flushing requirements must be linked to the velocity and the

amount of water flushed. Next to that also requirements should be set on the planning of the order of

flushing to prevent recontamination of cleaned pipes. In other words: Water used for flushing should

be conveyed of clean pipes. These requirements are described in appendix 1.

3.4 EXAMPLES OF MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

The following chapters will present the state‐of‐the‐art of planning and scheduling maintenance in

the two case partners, the Swedish Norrvatten and the Norwegian Trondheim Bydrift.

3.4.1 NORRVATTEN

Norrvatten is a water company with about 50 employees north of Stockholm in Sweden. The

company produces and distributes drinking water to 14 municipalities (about 500 000 people). These

municipalities are all members of the Norrvatten Company. The drinking water network is about 300

km long while the water supply is based upon 4 ground water sources.

As examples of successful operation routines the representatives of Norrvatten mention that all

valves in the entire network are visited and tested with an interval of two years. This reduces the

vulnerability of the network and increases the readiness for example in case of needing to shut down

parts of the network or in case fire valves need to be used. They also point out that the company

routinely control and test the watertightness of entire pipe stretches in order reduce leakages and

reduce vulnerability of the system. Norrvatten states that one of the most positive effects of the

operation and maintenance work in the company is increased knowledge about the network and

knowledge on the actual condition of the network (which can be used in further planning of

operation and maintenance).

The companies are doing strategic planning with the KANEW/CARE‐W LTP tool on a time horizon of

10 years. The time horizon of tactical planning in the company is 3‐10 years, while it for operational


planning is 1‐3 years. Normally, in a municipality, the tactical planning is on a shorter time horizon (2‐

5 years), so Norrvatten is looking very far ahead when they are pinpointing and planning tactical

operations in the drinking water network. Every year, as part of the operational planning, they have a

detailed plan for the operation, maintenance and rehabilitation of the network for the next year.

Norrvatten have some proactive strategies, like the control of the watertightness of the network to

see if pipes are intact. They are also in the process of testing methods and equipment for internal

inspection of water pipes, as a condition monitoring tool. Norrvatten approaches the problems in the

network by gradually becoming more and more proactive and implementing proactive actions and

strategies in their company. Another part of their strategy is to prepare principal plans (master plans)

which normally have a time span of about ten years. The work with a principal plan started in 2012

and will be completed in 2013. It will be updated every year during the spring so a budget can be

determined in August. The main topics in the principal plan are related to inquiries into problems and

defects within the areas of hydraulics, materials, health and operation. Results from the tool CARE‐W

LTP will also be used in the principal planning stage, where the estimation of necessary renewal of

specific pipe groups is a proactive way of handling deterioration in the pipe network.

The necessary scope and size of annual rehabilitation is partly decided through the results of CARE‐W

Long Term Plan. Norrvatten has an internal group/commission of personnel from operation and

inquiry which carries out investigations and suggests scope and localization of operation and

maintenance for the operation and maintenance planning. Some principles from reliability centered

maintenance (RCM) are used in the sense that they base their decisions on inquiries in the network,

like the testing of the current leak‐level of pipes. Their planned future use of internal condition

assessment will also be used in this regard. They are thus expanding the use of methods which will

help them make decisions which are part of reliability centered maintenance. Norrvatten does to

some extent perform condition assessment today and plan to do so on all individual pipes before any

decisions on actions are taken in the future.

Operational data like failures on the drinking‐ and wastewater pipes are registered daily in database.

The network hydraulics is also calculated and monitored by applying a hydraulic model. The

operational data and the hydraulic model data are used to plan actions and interventions in the

network, for example based on failure rates for pipes.


The company focuses on improving single pipe‐ and the network performance, for example within

water quality, security of water supply and vulnerability. Pro‐active operation and maintenance

activities are essential in this regard, for example through focus on reducing humic substances in the

water and their problems, increasing the redundancy of supply for all parts of the network. The

company is also carrying out analyses to complete the search for a backup water supply. Both

condition‐ and frequency‐based operation‐ and maintenance actions are applied. Operational data

are for example used to identify problema areas, which are followed up more closely along with

projects operated on an interval basis. Norrvatten does not apply models in a comprehensive way,

but do apply the CARE‐W LTP model and hydraulic modelling of their network. The CARE‐W LTP

model is the basis for which groups of pipes they should focus operation, maintenance and renewal

on in the coming decade. Knowledge obtained through operation and maintenance are not fully

exploited as input to optimizing the next steps of the operation and maintenance yet.

Risk and consequence analyses are performed to some extent. Hydraulic simulations are used to

analyze and increase the hydraulic reliability of the network. Norrvatten plans to do a risk analysis in

the near future for their water pipe network. The analysis will first and foremost be based on

grouping of pipes in classes based on the pipe‐material. Critical functions in the network, risk and

security are important factors for planning and executing operation and maintenance strategies and

actions. Part of this work is practices and exercises on different levels in the company and in the

network system related to risk. Part of the risk analysis includes the customer perspective of

delivering drinking water. They work both proactively and reactively to uphold customer service and

customer satisfaction levels. Contact with the customers is managed by the member municipalities,

which have direct contact with the end users.

Norrvatten owns, maintains and renews the pipe network, and cooperates with local entrepreneurs

to carry though the renewal of pipes (construction on the network). The work with operation and

maintenance, and especially routines concerning proactive maintenance have been expanded and

evolved since 2011.

3.4.2 TRONDHEIM BYDRIFT

The utility in Trondheim (Norway), called Trondheim Bydrift, is municipality‐based and supplies about

176 000 inhabitants with drinking water. The water section of the municipality is split into two

departments, one responsible for the principal and long term planning, management and


administration, and a second department responsible for the operation and maintenance of the

water network.

One of the most successful operation and maintenance projects the municipality has carried out on

the water network is on the reduction of leakages. The work is still ongoing. Since they started the

strategic work to reduce the leakages in the 80's, the leakage percent in the network has dropped

from 50 % to 20 %. Focus has been, and still is, on Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) corroding pipes

which causes leakages through corrosion holes. There is a strategic goal to get rid of all these pipes

over the coming years, as they form what is regarded as "the worst pipes in the network". They

rehabilitate about 6 km pipes every year (about 7 % of the network). Of the rehabilitated pipes, 1‐2

km are SRB corroding pipes. While working on the leak reduction there has been close cooperation

between planners and operating personnel. The most positive effects of this strategic maintenance

work is less need for shutoff of individual pipes or sections of the system, thus providing less risk of

health hazard, higher service levels, and increased socio‐economic influence.

Trondheim Bydrift is relatively free to prioritize the different aspects of operations and maintenance

of the water network, as long as they stay within their budgetary frames. Planning is conducted on

the strategic, tactical and operational level. They have started to implement strategic planning with

the KANEW/CARE‐W LTP tool with a planning horizon of 10‐20 years. The planning horizon of tactical

planning in the company is normally 1 year. This admittedly is short, but they are in the stage of

making more comprehensive planning in the tactical stage where models will be used to assess the

need for operation and maintenance within the next 1‐5 years. Operational planning is done every

year along with the tactical planning and is often outsourced to external entrepreneurs who carry

out the work. The company has a general agreement with an entrepreneur in order to reduce

overhead in operations.

Trondheim Bydrift have worked and is still working with proactive leakage reduction through

establishment of leakage zones in the entire city and constant surveillance of water flow in and out

of each zone. They are also working on implementing results from models like CARE‐W LTP, failure

forecasting and hydraulic reliability models of the drinking water network. The planning department

of the municipality outlines and makes master plans which are strategic and normally have a time

horizon of about 10 years. The operational department makes and carries out the tactical and

operational actions. These are based on the master plan.


The scope of maintenance and rehabilitation is set in the master plan and is based on a combination

of the CARE‐W LTP results, general experience and other data sources (demographic change, climate,

and city development etc). The prioritization is mostly done by the operational department as they

are the ones who are close on the network and best knows the actual state of the infrastructure.

They prioritize the projects and develop annual plans (tactical and operational). The plans lay out

details on maintenance intervals, state the amounts of certain items (e.g. manholes) that are to be

renewed over the coming year, and specify testing of other components in the system (e.g. flow

meters are tested each year).

The strategic planning and the development of the master plan ensures a holistic approach to

maintenance with emphasis on water quality, security of supply, risk vulnerability etc. In the annual

plans (tactical and operational) focus is to improve the performance of individual pipes, or sections of

the network that are known to be potential trouble spots at the current time or in the near future

(e.g. with high failure rates, high leakage rates etc.). When pipes are to be renewed, the company

cooperates with the sewer‐ and road authorities (other departments in Trondheim Bydrift). The

communication is mainly via informal routines, as the involved personnel in each department know

the personnel at the other actors. Coordination is hence mainly by information sharing though direct

communication, but also via informative websites operated by each department. Coordination and

cooperation may reduce the involved costs for each participant. A website is being introduced to

communicate and coordinate actions between different infrastructures.

Trondheim Bydrift continuously updates a list of the worst pipes with regards to failure rates which

serves to prioritize them for rehabilitation. The list also puts the company in a position carry out

opportunistic maintenance. They are also planning on implementing results from failure forecasting‐

and hydraulic reliability models in the future in an attempt to become more proactive with

maintenance activities. The company has developed routines for registering operational data from

the network on a daily basis, using pen and paper. The administration of the operational department

converts the data from paper onto a digital format. The experience with this routine is positive. They

also apply the knowledge gained from the data a collection and operation and maintenance in the

next steps for operation and maintenance as part of prioritizing their routines and actions. For

example will experience on pipe materials, failure rates, problem areas etc. be used to plan further

operation and maintenance actions.


The municipality does not yet perform extensive risk analyses but use consequence assessments

before certain actions are decided. Critical functions and security of supply is taken into account,

especially in the principal plans as they look at the overall performance of the drinking water system.

The operating department says that they would like to have more exchange of experience with other

municipalities in order to make use of experience that is obtained and methods that are developed in

other water facilities across the country.

Maintaining good customer service is part of their daily duty, and the company strives to keep the

negative consequences of maintenance activities minimal. Examples are by maintaining water

pressure in homes even during repairs (by rerouting), and by avoiding digging in the same area

several times during a short period. The company has had good experiences with carrying out

extensive renewal projects changing the pipe network in a complete district, instead of only changing

individual pipes, and point out that this may become more the norm in the future.

Operation and maintenance strategies have improved significantly over the past 20‐30 years. As an

example of the development is the reduction of leakage rates from 50 to 20 % after a comprehensive

leakage reduction plan was implemented in the municipality in the 80s. Other effects of the leakage

reduction project were increased digitalization of data both for pipe network maps and for

operational data, facilitating future planning of operations and maintenance of the network.

3.5 TECHNICAL ECONOMICAL ANALYSES OF MAINTENANCE PROJECTS

A primary element of uncertainty in decision making concerning the water infrastructure is the

balancing of rehabilitating (repairing) the system and the renewal of the infrastructure by replacing

old components with new. Good data is fundamental in identifying the need for intervention.

Decisions on what action to take and when to carry them through can have a large impact on the

costs and the function of the system.

Making the right decision on whether to replace or maintain an asset can be extremely difficult. It is

commonly stated that good asset management is rehabilitating the right pipe at the right time, with

the right technique at the lowest possible cost. This is the essence of rehabilitation optimization.

Finding the right pipe may be manageable, but finding the right time and technique is by many


regarded as an art. Obviously rehabilitating an asset too early is bad economy; rehabilitating it too

late on the other hand, can be even worse. The task is finding the best balance point between

reactive and a preventive maintenance. The core of asset management deals with identifying this

balance point by evaluating a range of factors including the condition of the asset, maintenance

costs, environmental costs, cost of not delivering expected quality and quantity.

The decision whether to replace or repair a pipe should take into account the balance between three

interlink levers: expected level of service, the investment costs and the total budget over the asset's

life (life‐cycle cost, LCC). If maintaining the pipe is less expensive than replacing the pipe, the

infrastructure owner may decide to maintain it to extend the life of the pipe. This must be balanced

in relation to other concerns, as it may decrease the level of service or the quality of the service due

to frequent leaks, odors, or repetitive service interruptions to perform O&M works.

A point of consensus in the discussion is that all water utilities should put in place a process which

minimizes life cycle costs for main assets while delivering according to (or exceeding) customer

service levels. The life‐cycle cost (LCC) is the total cost of owning, operating, maintaining, and

(eventually) disposing of an asset over a given period of time (usually related to the life of the

project) with all cost discounted to reflect todays value of future income and costs. But the LCC of

one asset has little value by itself. It is most useful when it can be compared to the LCC of other

design alternatives which can perform the same function, in order to determine which alternative is

the most cost effective for this purpose.

In later years the focus in rehabilitation planning has shifted form focusing on stretches of pipes

(from manhole to manhole) to focusing on single pipe lengths. With the use of a pipe scanner

(condition assessment equipment), the focus on each single pipe can be made easier in that it gives

meter by meter information of the pipe located underground. Pipe scanners may provide

information of both internal and external condition of the pipe wall. Detailed information can thus be

gained on single pipe level and rehabilitation and maintenance decisions can therefore be made on

the single pipe level instead of the level of pipe stretches.

Hathi (2012) states that the unit cost (in Oslo, Norway) for using a pipe scanner is over 90 % lower

than replacing a pipe and about 90 % lower than fully structural No‐dig methods. Costs for coating

the inside of the pipe is about 30 – 50 % lower than replacing the pipe or carry out renewal by no‐dig.

In order to use inside coating one needs to know whether the pipe has external corrosion or not. If a


pipe has external corrosion it is not advised to use coating on the inside of the pipe as a renovation

method because it is not a structural or semi‐structural method and does therefore hold no strength

by its own. If a pipe perforates the pipe thus holds no structural strength at that point. If the pipe is

found to be suitable for applying coating, the cost savings can be extensive. The total unit cost for a

pipe scanner and coating is about 45 % cheaper than No‐dig and about 60 % cheaper than replacing

the pipe (These are estimate numbers for Oslo, but the site‐specific numbers for different areas

within Oslo is of the same magnitude).

Since the pipe scanner can separate between internal and external corrosion, it can be used to

decide whether to rehabilitate the pipes, renovate the pipes with coating, or repair the pipes. In

order to use coating, the existing pipe must not have external corrosion. As the pipe scanner can

identify exactly where in a pipe stretch (from manhole to manhole) problems with corrosion and

pitting occur, problem sections along the entire stretch can be identified. When planning

rehabilitation, this information is used to decide what part of the pipe stretch will be rehabilitated

(with no‐dig or replacing of pipe) and what part will be renovated with lining or coating. The pipe

scanner, and the data collected be its use, has significantly enhanced the possibilities to optimize

rehabilitation decisions.


4. CONDITION MONITORING

Condition monitoring of critical assets has been adopted by a range of industries to ensure the

proper functioning of equipment and to enhance the precision of maintenance activities. Traditional

interval‐based maintenance activities risk sub‐optimal use of maintenance resources (as

maintenance activities on items and equipment take place before they actually are needed), and

increased probability of failures (as improperly executed maintenance may introduce additional

failures).

Ugarelli (2009) states that "Condition assessment is performed to identify assets that are under‐

performing, determine the reason for the deficiency, predict when failure is likely to occur, identify

failures mode and determine what corrective action is needed and when." Ugarelli further present

three reasons for adopting a program of condition monitoring of water infrastructure:

1. Verify and confirm supposed condition of the asset since the decision makers do not really

know where to start rehabilitation actions.

2. Provide information and data necessary to develop a rational cost effective strategy for asset

management.

3. Determine the most appropriate form of renovation or replacement of a pipeline; more

specifically to allow selection of the maintenance / repair / rehabilitation strategy that will be

most capital cost – effective, least disruptive and have the minimum externality costs.

4.1 USE OF CONDITION MONITORING DATA FOR CONDITION ASSESSMENT

The following paragraphs are taken from Ugarelli (2009) with the permission of the author:

The purpose of a preventive maintenance inspection program is to identify operational and structural

defects. The condition assessment component of the inspection ranks observed defects in a way that

allows a numeric comparison of assets. Assigning defect numbers enables priority ranking of O&M

activities, as well as rehabilitation and replacement.

The use of this information will be crucial for making repair, replacement, and rehabilitation

decisions. These decisions are predicated on the knowledge of the condition of the assets and how the


condition affects performance. Correlation of attribute information with system performance is used

to establish maintenance schedules that optimize field crews and equipment usage.

The expected outcomes of the establishment of a preventive inspection program with condition

assessment and monitoring are a ranking of assets/pipes in condition classes reflecting the structural

and operational performance of the assets, with the additional opportunity to;

predict the probability of transition from one class to another in the future

spread the information collected from the inspected pipes to the not inspected pipes with

opportune criteria.

The results of the inspection have to be objective, e.g. not depend on the operator's interpretation. It

must hence be standardized, e.g. a coding system for monitored information has to be developed in

order to use a unique terminology to address defects, and to compare results from different pipes or

inspections. Finally, the reporting of the detected information has to be readily available.

For a thorough presentation of various tools, techniques and methods for condition monitoring of

water infrastructure, see (EPA, 2012). The tools, techniques and methods can be categorized as

follows:

1. Visual inspection (e.g. manual entry, CCTV, 3D optical scanning etc)

2. Electromagnetic Inspection (e.g. Magnetic flux leakage, Eddy current, ground penetrating

radar etc)

3. Acoustic Inspection for structural Condition (e.g. Sonar, acoustic emission etc)

4. Acoustic inspection for leak detection

5. Ultrasonic testing

6. Radiographic/thermographic testing

7. Sensor technologies (e.g. corrosion rate sensor, stress sensoring etc)

Methods for continuous monitoring of the state of pipes are normally limited to surveying the

volumes passing measuring points along the network. Although the integration of wireless sensor

devices in water pipes to monitor condition is possible, it is not yet regarded as cost effective.

Instead, detected changes in leakage levels or customer tips or complaints will trigger inspection

action.


4.1.1 THE RESUSPENSION POTENTIAL METHOD AS CONDITION MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY

Measurements of the resuspension potential can be used as condition monitoring of the water

infrastructure. By repeatedly performing measurements at certain locations in the network, the

measurements will reveal the rate of sediment buildup in the system. Sediments may be introduced

by the flow of water from the source, but will also be the result of in‐pipe processes or ingress.

Operations and maintenance activities like flushing and cleaning of pipes are aimed at keeping the

turbidity level of the water in the network below certain thresholds (these thresholds vary between

areas and countries). Increases in measured turbidity levels may be the result of normal fluctuations,

but may also indicate that the adopted operations and maintenance programs are not sufficient to

keep up with sediment buildup in the pipes. Turbidity is measured by a turbidity meter inserted in

the water pipeline. The resuspension potential method is further explained in the following

paragraphs taken from Vreeburg, 2007 (with the permission of the author).

The principle of the resuspension potential method (RPM) is based on the phenomenon of

resuspension of particles caused by a hydraulic disturbance. The method is primarily a relative

method that is in origin used to compare the presence and mobility of sediment pre and post an

intervention in the network. An intervention is for instance a cleaning action. The method is

developed to be applied in distribution networks with typical small diameter pipes in the range from

50 to 200 mm. The majority of the pipes tested in practice is in the range of 100 to 125 mm.

The RPM consists of a controlled and reproducible increase in the velocity within a pipe. The reaction

of the turbidity on this hydraulic disturbance is measured and translated to a value for the

Resuspension Potential. An increase of 0.35m/s, in addition to the actual velocity at the time of

measuring, was determined empirically (Vreeburg et al., 2004). Main reasoning is that this increase in

velocity is mild compared to the increase of velocity as result of a pipe failure or the full use of a fire

hydrant. The full use of a fire hydrant with a two sided supply on a 100 mm pipe would increase the

velocity with at least 0,6 m/s. The hydraulic shear stress as a result of the increase in velocity of 0,35

m/s causes particles to mobilise, affecting the turbidity of the water. The method is mainly applied in

100‐150 mm pipes; hence the absolute difference in shear stress caused by the uniform velocity

increase is not very large. The turbidity effect is monitored and translated into a ranking for the

Resuspension Potential. This Resuspension Potential has an obvious relation with the actual

discolouration risk, but not necessarily with actual discolouration events. For a discolouration event,

next to the presence of mobile sediment (as measured with the RPM) also a hydraulic disturbance is


necessary. In hydraulically quiet networks, meaning networks without large disturbances caused by

failures and other unusual high demands, a high RPM can stay without complaints. On the other hand

a moderate RPM in a network with a few disturbances can lead to customer complaints.

4.1.2 CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS – CONDITION MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY

Water utilities are in the lucky position of having their performance continuously monitored by every

inhabitant connected to their network. The importance of water in peoples' everyday life results in a

stream of complaints when water quality negatively deviates from expectations.

Normally, customer complaints are either related to a loss of water pressure (which may indicate

large leaks or pipe bursts) or discolored water. The levels of deviation from expected performance

levels at which customers register a complaint vary among the population. The activity involving

water use will also influence the likelihood of registering a complaint. Discoloration events will for

example be harder to detect when a customer uses running water (e.g. washing hands or watering

garden plants) than in the case of filling a glass of water to drink or filling a bathtub to take a bath.

The most serious type of complaint is from customers who claim to have been exposed to illness due

to contaminated drinking water. A well‐designed water hygiene test scheme will provide the utilities

with the ability to warn the public before risk‐levels become significant.

Vreeburg (2007) states that the manner of registering and dealing with customer complaints often is

insufficient. The following paragraph describes the challenges in handling complaints concerning

discoloration:

The recording of water quality complaints done by copanies are not always reliable and

consequential. The following paragraph describes the challenge: "A classic example is a large pipe

burst with a lot of complaints; after a while the customer service centre releases the message that the

cause of the problems is known and that everything is being done to solve the problem as quickly as

possible; at that point the complaints are usually not recorded any more. Relatively small companies,

especially, record the complaints around large incidents insufficiently. A good customer complaints

registration records every complaint and passes it on to the relevant department in the company.


5. DISCUSSION: RELEVANCE VS RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE

Both rail infrastructure and water infrastructure provide transport of a high criticality commodity by

means of a distributed network. The planning horizon for development of the transport systems are

long, as is the useful life of properly constructed and maintained infrastructure. The investment costs

are considerable in case of renewal of existing, and in constructing new infrastructure. In exchange,

the effective life of the infrastructure may be over 100 years in both cases.

Rail and water infrastructure represent significant value invested over the last centuries, and the

replacement value of either is enormous. Still, both have suffered from a lag of investment in

maintenance for long periods. This may be caused by the infrastructures being regarded as "basic" by

the public and as it has been around for such a long time. As the networks develop and grow, so does

the need for maintenance. Yearly expenditure on maintenance may hence gradually increase as a

result of (at least) two factors; aging of the infrastructure and the addition of new sections of the

networks. On the other hand, new techniques being developed contribute to maintenance being

more efficient in both sectors.

Some differences between the two types of infrastructures stand out as well, though. Whereas rail

infrastructures have been nationalized in most European countries, water has in most cases been a

municipal or private issue. The state of the water infrastructure, and the challenges faced in

maintenance management, therefore differ significantly within countries. It further implies that the

cross‐border aspects of OptiRail to a small degree apply to water infrastructure. Another significant

difference is the fact that infrastructure delivering water, under normal circumstances, is to a large

extent invisible to the end‐customers. The transmission and distribution pipes are buried

underground and are hard to access for inspection purposes. The infrastructure may appear to

function well, even in case of significant leaks from the system, given that no contamination enters

the system and no water is visible on the surface.

The development in maintenance management of both rail and water infrastructure is towards more

"intelligent" infrastructure, and data supported maintenance management. The primary findings in

the case study as to where the rail infrastructure domain may learn from water are in the authors'

point of view: The long perspective taken on investment (100 years), deciding the rate of renewal of


the existing infrastructure, and the cross‐European approach to developing tools to support the long

term planning of renewal.


6. CONCLUSION

The purpose of the water infrastructure is to provide safe drinking water at a satisfactory pressure to

the end‐customers. It is composed of a gathering system, treatment and transmission/distribution

system. Traditionally, maintenance management of water infrastructure has been reactive (or

corrective); as the infrastructure is for the most part invisible under normal operating conditions.

Failures, like leaks or ruptures may go undiscovered unless the costumers report a problem like

discolored water or lack of pressure.


however, some treats that are typical for maintenance management of water infrastructure:


renewal of the infrastructure. Some municipalities are experimenting with model‐ and data driven

maintenance management, although mostly when dealing with prioritizing renewal of pipe sections

with high risk of failure.

The case studies have not revealed any obvious tools or methods being applied in maintenance of

water infrastructure that may be directly transferred to maintenance of rail infrastructure. Both

industries are however moving in a similar direction when it comes to dealing with maintenance.

Tools like pipe scanners contribute to more detailed information on the state of the infrastructure,

facilitating the planning and execution of rehabilitation and renewal actions. The input from tools like

pipe scanners may further provide input to optimization models of renewal and rehabilitation of the

water system. Hydraulic models and degradation models are commonly used in the industry,

although the case studies reveal that in practice, employees' tacit knowledge concerning the network

plays a more significant role.



making in maintenance management. The data includes incidents (leaks, ruptures), map data, and

pipe properties. Aspects of RCM are being introduced where sufficient data is available, and may

become the norm in the future.


7. REFERENCES

Antoun, E. N., T. Tyson and D. Hiltebrand (1997). Unidirectional flushing: a remedy to water

quality problems such as biologically mediated corrosion. AWWA Annual Conference 1997,

Denver, CO.

Antoun, E. N., J. E. Dyksen and D. Hiltebrand (1999). Unidirectional flushing: A powerful tool.

Journal American Water Works Association 91(7): 62‐71

Barbeau, B., V. Gauthier, K. Julienne and A. Carriere (2005). Dead‐end flushing of a distribution

system: Short and long‐term effects on water quality. Journal of Water Supply: Research and

Technology ‐ Aqua 54(6): 371‐383

Blokker, E. J. M., J. H. G. Vreeburg and A. J. Vogelaar (2006). Combining the probabilistic demand

model SIMDEUM with a network model. 8th annual water distribution system analysis

symposium, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.

Boxall, J. B., P. J. Skipworth and A. J. Saul (2003). Aggressive flushing for discolouration event

mitigation in water distribution networks. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 3(1‐2):

179‐186

Brashear, K. (1998). Distribution water quality problems created by upgraded water treatment

plants. 1998 AWWA WQTC, San Diego, USA.

Carriere, A., V. Gauthier, R. Desjardins and B. Barbeau (2005). Evaluation of loose deposits in

distribution systems through unidirectional flushing. J Am Water Works Assoc 97(9): 82‐92

EPA 2012. Condition Assessment Technologies for Water Transmission and Distribution Systems.

United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Friedman, M., G. J. Kirmeyer and E. N. Antoun (2002). Developing and implementing a

distribution system flushing program. Journal AWWA 94 (7(july 2002)): 48‐56

Friedman, M. J., K. Martle, A. Hill, D. Holt, S. Smith, T. Ta, C. Sherwin, D. Hiltebrand, P.

Pommenrenk, Z. Hinedi and A. Camper (2003) Establishing site‐specific flushing velocities, Report

number, 6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO,

Gauthier, V., B. Barbeau, R. Milette, J.‐C. Block and M. Prevost (2001). Suspended particles in the

drinking water of two distribution systems. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 1(4):

237‐245

Geudens, P. J. J. G. (2006) Water Supply Statistics 2005, Report number, Rijswijk, The

Netherlands


Hathi, C. Condition monitoring of the water network in Oslo. Lecture at the Norwegian University

of Science and Technology (NTNU), 08.11. 2012.

Howard G, Bartram J. Domestic water quantity, service level and health. Geneva, World Health

Organization, 2003 (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02).

http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2003/WHO_SDE_WSH_03.02.pdf

Kong JS, Frangopol DM. Life‐cycle reliability‐based maintenance cost optimization of

deteriorating structures with emphasis on bridges. J Struct Engng 2003;129(6):818–28.

Oberoi, K. (1994). Distribution flushing program: Benefits and results. AWWA Annual

Conference, New York, AwwaRF

Slaats, N., L. P. M. Rosenthal, W. G. Siegers, M. v. d. Boomen, R. H. S. Beuken and J. H. G.

Vreeburg (2002) Processes involved in generation of discolored water, Report number: KOA

02.058, American Water Works Association Research Foundation / Kiwa, The Netherlands.,

Saegrov, S. (editor), 2005. CARE‐W – Computer Aided Rehabilitation of Water Networks. IWA

Publishing.

Saegrov, S. (editor), 2006. CARE‐S – Computer Aided Rehabilitation of Sewer and Storm Water

Networks. IWA Publishing.

Torvinen, E., S. Suomalainen, M. Lehtola, I. Miettinen, O. Zacheus, L. Paulin, M. Katila and P.

Martikainen (2004). Mycobacteria in water and loose deposits of drinking water distribution

systems in Finland. Applied And Environmental Microbiology 70(4): 1973‐1981

Ugarelli, R. 2009. Theoretical background of pipes condition assessment (Importance and

limitations for the application of the PipeScanner in the asset management set of procedures).

SINTEF report.

Vreeburg, J. H. G., P. Schaap and J. C. van Dijk (2004). Measuring discolouration risk:

Resuspension potential method. IWA Leading Edge Conference, Prague, IWA.

Vreeburg, J. H. G. (2007), "Discolouration in drinking water systems: a particular approach",ISBN:

Delft University of Technology

Vreeburg, J. H. G., Q. Wang and J. C. van Dijk (2007b). Composition and hydraulic behaviour of

drinking water distribution systems sediments. Journal of AWWA Submitted 2007

Zacheus, O. M., M. J. Lehtola, L. K. Korhonen and P. J. Martikainen (2001). Soft deposits, the key

site for microbial growth in drinking water distribution networks Water Research 35(7): 1757‐

1765


8. APPENDIX 1: FURTHER DETAILS ON WATER FLUSHING

Reprint of the second half of chapter 5 of (Vreeburg, 2007), with the permission of the author. This

part of the chapter provides further details on flushing. The information is presented to complement

the sections presented in chapter 3.3.4 "Flushing and cleaning of water networks", although the

information is of limited use for railway infrastructure.

Minimum velocity

The value set as minimum velocity in several studies is 1,5 – 1,8 m/s (Brashear, 1998; Slaats,

Rosenthal et al., 2002). The reasoning behind this is partly the theoretical approach based on Shields’

and Stokes’ equations, though this leads to lower velocities than 1,5 m/s e.g. (Boxall, Skipworth et al.,

2003). For the other part, the value of 1,5 m/s is based on practical experience that these velocities

are significantly above the normal daily maximum velocities. With 1,5 m/s all the sediment that could

cause discolouration would then be removed. Finally the velocity of 1,5 m/s is well attainable, taking

into account a number of valve manipulations. The flow resistance of a hydrant‐standpipe‐hose combination often limits the maximum capacity to

60 to 90 m3/h. At this flow the resistance approaches the available head in the network. Typically, the

hydrants are installed on 100 mm pipes and a 60 m3/h flow pushes 2,1 m/s through those pipes.

Normally the velocity in those pipes are in the order of a few centimetres per second (Blokker,

Vreeburg et al.,2006).

Apart from the theoretical approach looking at the possibilities of obtaining a velocity of 1.5 m/s, a

practical approach is to see what happens if the velocity is not reached. The adverse effects of low

velocity are best demonstrated by the negative effects of conventional flushing (with velocities lower

than 1.5 m/s) as mentioned by (Antoun, Tyson et al., 1997): the increase of complaints after flushing.

This effect can be explained with the results of turbidity measurements during an experiment with

two flushing velocities (Figure 4). In this experiment in a 3 inch cast iron pipe first a

flushing/disturbance was applied with a velocity of 0,4 m/s. The pipe was isolated by closing a valve

near the hydrant that was located in such a way that a unidirectional flushing was caused. Turbidity

was monitored with the Sigrist KT65, earlier described with a measuring frequency of 10 minutes. The

experiment was performed in 1998.


FIGURE 4: INFLUENCE OF FLUSHING VELOCITY ON SEDIMENT MOBILITY; FIRST FLUSHING ON 21/9 WAS WITH

VELOCITY LESS THAN 1,5 M/S (AT LEAST 0,4 M/S), SECOND FLUSHING WITH AT LEAST 1,5 M/S.

The monitoring started on 20 September and there was a distinct difference between the turbidity at

the treatment plant and at the research location in the network. This difference indicated that the

network was being loaded with particles (settling of particles between the two measuring points). The

turbidity at the monitoring location was stable until the disturbance/flushing on 21 September. The

stability in turbidity indicated that the layer of sediment was not mobile under normal flow

circumstances. In the early afternoon of 21 September, a disturbance/flushing took place with a flow

of 6,5 m3/h. Because the pipe was an old 3” unprotected cast iron pipe the velocity is at least 0,4 m/s,

but presumably higher because the effective flow area can be decreased by corrosion products.

The turbidity following the disturbance is higher than the turbidity prior to the disturbance. It took

almost 24 hours before the turbidity resided again, though not to the starting level. After that, the

turbidity pattern had more variation than the pattern before the disturbance. In the afternoon of 24

September the hydrant was opened again, but now intentionally causing a unidirectional flushing

with a velocity of at least 1,5 m/s (flow is 27 m3/h) under the same unidirectional conditions as the

original flushing. The total amount flushed during the second flushing was three times the pipe

content and the water was conveyed through clean pipes (a clear water front was used). The turbidity

during the opening of the hydrant was high, but only for a short period. Directly after closing the


hydrant, the turbidity dropped again to the initial level and stayed stable. This indicates that the

flushing/disturbance with a lower velocity mobilised the sediment without actually removing it

completely. During the disturbance, though, a part of the sediment was removed. The flushing with

high velocity removed the sediment instantaneously and limited the customer inconvenience resulting

from the flushing to the actual flushing time.

These results lead to the conclusion that the velocity of 1,5 m/s is sufficient to remove the drinking

water sediments in this case, while the lower velocity had an adverse effect. Though this is only one

experiment, the results make the adverse effects of conventional flushing understandable: Too low

velocity disturbs and mobilises the sediment without actually removing it. The operational

requirement for velocity in water flushing is set on 1,5 m/s amongst others based on this experiment.

It must be noted that lower velocities could also effectively remove sediment, but with the experience

gained over the years it can be said that it is universally applicable for many network and treatment

combinations. Moreover, the awareness those too low velocities can have adverse effects because of

the mobilisation of the sediment, attributed to the acceptance of this requirement for minimum

velocity for flushing.

Flushed volume

The materials that must be removed from the pipe are the loose particles. With a sufficient increase in

velocity, the relevant particles will resuspend and be flushed out with the water flow. In principle all

particles will be resuspended immediately after the sheer stress from the increased velocity is

exercised. The depth of the particle layers is in the order of some micrometers or millimeters

(Vreeburg, Wang et al., 2007) that would indicate that a scouring effect is only necessary during a

short period. The velocity profile over the cross‐section of a pipe with a turbulent flow is not linear.

These two effects make that if just a bit more than the volume of the pipe is flushed no additional

sediment would be removed and that the minimal flushed volume should be more than one time the

volume of the pipe to be cleaned

An example of many experiments in pipes in the Netherlands is presented in Figure 5. It shows that

the nature of the sediment removed was actually loose deposits that resuspended immediately and

completely when the sheer stress was increased. Figure 5 shows the measurements of the turbidity of

the flushed water during a flushing of a 400 mm AC pipe with a velocity of 1,5 m/s. The distance

between the flushing point and the clear water front is 3600 meter and the flushing is unidirectional

from the clear water front to the flushing point. Turbidity is measured with a Dr Lange Ultraturb


described earlier with a measuring frequency of 1 minute. The theoretical first turnover was around

40 minutes, which was confirmed during the experiment with the sharp decay of turbidity. The

exponential further decay can be explained by the non‐linear velocity distribution: the lower turbidity

is the mixing of the fluid layers closer to the wall that move slower than the bulk of the fluid.

The drop in turbidity after ten minutes of flushing and gradual increase again after 25 minutes of

flushing are probably caused by the irregular nature of the deposits in the pipe. The layer of sediment

is not distributed evenly over the complete pipe. What causes this irregularity cannot be explained by

the experimental results. It is speculated that this could be caused by the horizontal level profile of the

pipe that can have a slight ‘top’ half way the pipe. The pipe is laid in a flat terrain, but underground

level differences of a few tens of centimetres could have caused this.

FIGURE 5: TURBIDITY MEASUREMENTS AT THE FLUSHING POINT OF A 300 MM AC PIPE, LENGTH 3600

METERS, VOLUME FLOW 680 M3/H (1,5 M/S). HORIZONTAL AXIS IS THE TIME ELAPSED AFTER THE START OF

THE EXPERIMENT.

As said these kind of observations (a sharp drop in turbidity after one turnover of the pipe) is observed

in many experiments of which this is one example. It leads to the second operational condition for

water flushing to remove the sediment effectively that the flushed volume should be at least two

times the content of the pipe to overcome the velocity dispersion. In the Netherlands the first set of

operational requirements stated a refreshment rate of 3, but in practice it was sufficiently proven


with measurements as presented in Figure 5 that two turnovers are enough as the water clears fairly

well after two refreshments.

Clear water front

The turbidity trace in Figure 5 shows the effect when the water used for flushing itself is not clear

enough. First, this clouds the effective end point of a flushing when this is defined in the form of a

turbidity threshold. Carriere et al. (2005) explicitly reports a stop criterion for flushing of 1 FTU, but

that on several locations, values below 5 FTU could not be reached. Probably the effective removal of

sediment from the pipe has stopped, but the water used for flushing has a turbidity of 5 FTU. The

second effect is that with the flushing ‘up‐stream‐sediment’ is carried to the flushing location, already

partly loading the pipe with velocities lower than the threshold velocity of 1,5 m/s, with effects as

shown in Figure 4. This sets the third operational requirement to effective water flushing: the water

used to flush the pipes should come from pipes with no resuspendable sediment. This concept is called

“Working from a clear water front.”

Discussion of water flushing

The effect of water flushing has long been underestimated because of the negative effects of the so‐

called conventional flushing. Much of the negative effects mentioned by (Antoun, Tyson et al., 1997),

such as an increased number of customer complaints during and immediately after implementation

of flushing and a minimal, short‐lived water quality benefit, can be explained when the operational

requirements are considered, or rather the lack of operational requirements. The complaints during

and immediately after the actual flushing could be caused by the low velocities that are the result of

randomly opening fire hydrants. The effects of the increased velocity can be felt in the vicinity of the

flushed hydrant, but also in more remote areas where the sediment is disturbed. The mobilisation of

sediment, as shown in Figure 4, explains the complaints that are seemingly delayed. Unidirectional

flushing is recognised as a good technique, but guidelines are mainly driven by “good management

practices” (Friedman et al., 2002) to minimise the costs of a flushing program rather than to

maximise the effect.

The operational requirements should all three be met for an effective cleaning of the network.

Moreover, it forces the operators to make minute plans for the flushing involving valve exercising.

Implementation of the three requirements gives a relatively simple framework to make flushing plans.


A widespread misunderstanding is that water flushing uses large amounts of water. However, a good

flushing plan uses only at maximum three times the volume of the network. For example, in the

Netherlands this volume can roughly be related to the yearly demand in a network. The total length

of the network in the Netherlands is 110.000 km (Geudens, 2006). There are no sufficient data on the

diameter distribution in the network, but a fair estimation would be an average diameter of 150 to

200 mm. The average daily consumption in the Netherlands is 3,0*106 m3. This gives an average

residence time of 15 to 27 hours. Three times the volume of the network is equal to 45 hours of

average demand or 0,53 to 0,94% of the total yearly demand. A complete flushing program once

every 3 years would add 0,18 to 0,31% to the Unaccounted For Water on a yearly basis.

CASE

Deliv

E STUDY

erable n

Y 4 ‐ AI

nº: D2.1

RPORT

1.4

EC‐GAProjec

T MAIN

A Numberct full title:

TENAN

r: 31403DeveloFrameKnowlInfrastDecisio

NCE

31opment owork Bedge totructure ons in Railw

of a SmaBased o SuppoMaintenan

way Corrido

art on ort nce rs

Transpo

Partner

Respon

Title:

ort; Grant Ag

rs: LT

sible: LT

D

M

greement No

TU

TU

D2.1.4 CASE

MAINTENANC

o 314031

E STUDY 4

CE

W

Ty

D

4 ‐ AIRPO

Work Package

ype of docum

ate:

ORT Version

e: W

ment: Ca

18

n: 1 Page:

WP2.1

ase study rep

8/03/2013

: 0 / 89

port

D2.1.4 CAS

Docu

Vers.

1

Docu

Partner

LTU

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ument H

Issue Date

18/03/2013

ument A

rs

AIRPORT MAINTE

History

C

3 Fi

Authors

ENANCE

ontent and c

irst version

Contributo

Diego Gala

Ghodrati

changes

ors

r, Roberto V

Author

Villarejo, Carll Anders Johansson, Beh

Page 1

zad

D2.1.4 CAS

1. AIRCR

1.1 Ge

1.2 Op

1.3 Ai

1.3.

2. Maint

2.1 Du

and IM

2.1.

2.1.

2.1.

2.2 Av

2.3 Av

2.3.

2.3.

2.3.

2.3.

2.3.

2.3.

2.3.

3. Descri

3.1 An

4. Condit

4.1 Co

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

RAFT TRANSP

eneral overv

perators and

rport Admin

1 Airport Ad

tenance strat

uality of airp

M relation ....

1 Airport Op

2 Airport Ru

3 Airport Mi

viation Aircra

viation Airpo

1 Paved and

2 Runway Pa

3 Runway Lig

4 Runway Ed

5 Fence mai

6 Maintenan

7 Maintenan

iption of syst

n Overview o

tion monitor

ondition mon

AIRPORT MAINTE

PORTATION .

iew of aeron

d Infrastructu

istration .....

ministrative

tegies and m

port mainten

....................

perational Pr

les and Regu

nimum Stan

aft Maintena

ort Maintena

non‐paved

avement Ma

ghting .........

dge Markers

ntenance ....

nce in the dr

nce of signbo

tem characte

of Airport Sta

ring and NDT

nitoring of el

ENANCE

TABLE

....................

nautics .........

ure manager

....................

Structure ....

maintenance

nance and air

....................

ocedures an

ulations ........

dards ..........

ance .............

nce ..............

Runways .....

rkings ..........

....................

....................

....................

ainage syste

oards ............

eristics and p

andard Proce

T techniques

lectric parts:

E OF CONT

....................

....................

rs: ................

....................

....................

organization

rcraft mainte

....................

d Schedules

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

em ................

....................

properties ...

edures .........

s as an altern

Thermograp

TENTS

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

n ...................

enance: issu

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

native to cor

phy ..............

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

es and challe

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

rective and r

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

enges of an

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

reactive met

....................

Page 2

............ 4

............ 4

............ 5

............ 6

............ 6

............ 8

operator

.......... 10

.......... 10

.......... 10

.......... 11

.......... 13

.......... 16

.......... 18

.......... 18

.......... 19

.......... 22

.......... 22

.......... 23

.......... 24

.......... 25

.......... 25

thods . 27

.......... 27

D2.1.4 CAS

4.2 Co

4.3 Or

4.3.

5. State

5.1 Int

5.2 Sn

5.3 M

5.4 Ch

5.5 Th

5.6 Ru

5.7 Ai

6. Descri

6.1 Ch

6.2 Cli

6.3 Se

6.4 sp

6.4.

6.4.

6.4.

6.4.

6.4.

7. Discus

7.1 SU

7.2 Re

8. Conclu

9. REFER

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ondition mon

rganization a

1 Database o

of the art air

troduction ...

now plan ......

echanical eq

hemicals for

hermal de‐ici

unway surfac

rcraft de‐icin

iption of sele

haracteristic

imate ...........

ervices provid

pecial mainte

1 WINTER ER

2 CONDITIO

3 The runwa

4 WILD LIFE

5 Environme

ssion ............

UMMARY OF

elevance of B

usion ...........

RENCES ........

AIRPORT MAINTE

nitoring of ci

and planning

organization

rport mainte

....................

....................

quipment for

runway de‐i

ing ...............

ce monitorin

ng ................

ected case st

of the Kirun

....................

ded and desc

enance action

RGONOMICS

NS FOR AIRP

ay conditions

PROTECTION

ental care tec

....................

BEST PRACT

BP versus rai

....................

....................

ENANCE

vil infrastruc

g ...................

: CMMS and

enance in ext

....................

....................

r snow remo

cing .............

....................

ng .................

....................

tudy .............

a Airport .....

....................

cription of fa

ns performe

S FOR OPERA

PORT VEHICL

s at Kiruna ai

N ..................

chnologies fo

....................

TICES (BP) IN

l infrastructu

....................

....................

cture: Runwa

....................

d CM data, di

treme weath

....................

....................

oval and ice c

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

acilities ........

d in kiruna ..

ATORS ..........

LES ...............

irport ..........

....................

or de‐icing ..

....................

N AIRPORT AN

ure ..............

....................

....................

ay friction m

....................

isparate mai

her condition

....................

....................

control .........

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

ND AIRCRAFT

....................

....................

....................

onitoring ....

....................

ntenance inf

ns .................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

T MAINTENA

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

formation so

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

....................

ANCE ...........

....................

....................

....................

Page 3

.......... 30

.......... 33

ources 33

.......... 35

.......... 35

.......... 36

.......... 40

.......... 47

.......... 52

.......... 53

.......... 55

.......... 62

.......... 62

.......... 64

.......... 65

.......... 67

.......... 67

.......... 71

.......... 73

.......... 76

.......... 77

.......... 78

.......... 78

.......... 79

.......... 81

.......... 82

D2.1.4 CAS

1. AIRC

1.1 GEN

The airli

and best

requirem

improve

expect a

Punctua

with an

maintain

continuo

one of th

led to a c

Changing

between

and the

include

Unreliab

that can

a compa

reputatio

high stan

To this e

operator

for both

capabilit

owner m

passenge

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

CRAFT TRA

ERAL OVERV

ne business

t‐in‐class se

ments and g

ements in air

an affordable

lity has beco

airline. This

ning the sati

ously under

he requests

change in de

g attitudes

n stakeholde

extensive c

a high cost

ble services m

create serio

any can rapid

on for reliab

ndards of saf

end, aircraft o

rs. Therefor

h aircraft and

ties, and pre

money every

ers. Therefo

AIRPORT MAINTE

ANSPORT

VIEW OF AER

is large, inte

rvice has be

gaining a g

rline and air

e service whi

ome one of

s has made

isfaction of

pressure to

of the passe

emand.

and behavio

ers. When d

competition,

t of operati

may also lead

ous problem

dly be brand

ble services

fety and relia

operability a

re, the ident

d airports w

event the det

minute of e

re, it is expe

ENANCE

TATION

RONAUTICS

egrated, aut

ecome a stra

global comp

port safety a

ch is on sche

f the most s

the on‐tim

current cust

improve the

engers but ne

ours imply n

ealing with t

the conseq

on, a loss

d to annoyan

s regarding t

ed as unrelia

takes a long

able services

and airport m

tification and

ill reduce pr

terioration o

every day, bu

ected that th

tomated and

ategic issue

etitive adva

and services

edule.

significant fa

e performan

tomers and

eir punctuali

ew generatio

new services

the complex

quences of u

of productiv

nce, inconve

the company

able after pr

g time. Ther

s, while optim

management

d implement

remature rep

of a system a

ut makes mo

he aircraft w

d complex, in

for air carr

antage. Ove

have taken

actors for de

nce of an a

attracting n

ity and prov

ons of trave

s with new

x technical s

unreliable se

vity, inciden

enience and a

y’s marketpl

roviding poo

refore, it is c

mizing their

t are conside

tation of an

placement c

and its items

oney only wh

will have to b

n which prov

iers, in orde

r the past

place. How

efining a pas

irline’s sche

ew ones. Th

ide on‐time

llers and cha

and more c

systems invo

ervices beco

nts, and exp

a lasting cus

ace position

or services, w

critical for ai

profits.

ered as majo

appropriate

osts, mainta

s. In addition

hen it is flyin

e in service

viding a safe

er to meet c

decades, s

ever, passen

ssenger’s sat

edule a key

herefore, air

performanc

anging attitu

complex int

olved in air t

ome critical

posure to a

stomer dissat

n. This is cruc

whereas build

ir carriers to

r requireme

e maintenan

ain stable pr

n, an aircraft

g with freigh

as much as

Page 4

e, reliable

customer

ignificant

ngers still

tisfaction

factor in

rlines are

ce. This is

udes have

eractions

transport

and may

accidents.

tisfaction

cial, since

ding up a

o achieve

nts by air

ce policy

roduction

t costs its

ht and/or

possible.

D2.1.4 CAS

Hence, w

safety, r

mainten

the worl

This repo

infrastru

will be c

In summ

Looking

In many

approac

relation.

with the

direct co

In Europ

sector (m

network

a radica

different

develope

1.2 OPER

There a

passenge

infrastru

provide

mainten

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

with increas

reliability, an

ance of air a

d.

ort focuses o

ucture manag

onsidered a

mary, one c

at previous

y other coun

hes. It is es

. Indeed, mu

e other com

ontrol of airp

pe and USA,

manufacture

k was not con

al new techn

t cultures an

ed differentl

RATORS AND

re two mai

ers or freigh

ucture mana

the logistic

ance (preve

AIRPORT MAINTE

sing awarene

nd availabili

assets has b

on best pract

gers suitable

key factor p

could say th

statement, i

ntries, this

sential to u

uch of the d

ponents of

port manage

, these comp

ers and airw

nsciously pla

nology that

nd different

ly.

D INFRASTR

n stakehold

ht traffic. The

gers (airport

c support f

ntive or corr

ENANCE

ess of the f

ty of the sy

ecome a foc

tices for airp

e to be transf

art of an air

hat airports+

t's apparent

harmony is

nderstand t

ay to day w

the air trans

rs.

ponents of t

ways) and (2

nned; rather

grew rapid

forms of go

UCTURE MA

ers in the a

ey own or re

t managers)

for operatio

rective action

fact that ma

ystem, but

cus of the st

port mainten

ferred. For t

transportati

+ planes (o

that these c

achieved b

he operatio

work of airpo

sportation n

the network

) the nation

r, it represen

ly in the pa

overnment;

ANAGERS:

aviation. On

ent the aircra

. On other h

on (landing,

ns).

aintenance n

also creates

trategic thin

nance in orde

his purpose,

on network.

perators an

components

y governme

n of airport

ort professio

network, com

k are owned

nal governm

nts the uniqu

ast century.

consequent

n one hand,

afts and buy

hand, airport

take off,

not only ens

s value in th

king of man

er to find sim

airports as l

d manufact

must work t

ental owners

s and their

nals is orien

mponents w

and operate

ent (airports

ue response

Other parts

ly, their avia

operators

time slots a

ts that own

taxi and gr

sures a high

he business

y companies

milarities wit

logistic infra

urers)= air

together in h

ship or mon

role in this

nted toward

which are ou

ed by (1) th

s). This air t

of western s

s of the wo

ation indust

(i.e. air car

and services

the infrastru

round servi

Page 5

h level of

process,

s all over

h railway

structure

network.

harmony.

nopolistic

complex

relations

tside the

e private

transport

society to

orld have

ries have

riers) for

from the

ucture to

ces) and

D2.1.4 CAS

The Airp

servicea

occasion

fulfil its p

Managin

number

with his

stakehol

airport. O

1.3 AIRP

The term

perform

airports

A hallm

competi

airports.

sizes mu

manner;

degrade

and ope

ensure f

have litt

effective

1.3.1 AIRP

The Airp

person r

Airports

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

port manag

ble conditio

nally solicited

primary func

ng airport is a

of stakehold

s/her own

lders’ positio

Operating a

PORT ADMIN

m “airport a

ance measu

should be op

ark of the

tion in effic

. Subject to

ust be able

; an inappro

d market sh

erated as a b

flexibility in r

le activity, a

e business un

PORT ADMIN

port Manage

reports dire

on an as‐ne

AIRPORT MAINTE

gement has

on for air tr

d at airports

ction.

an importan

ders, ranging

interests an

ons and to

successful a

NISTRATION

administratio

res and ope

perated like

aviation ind

ciency and

local, region

to respond

opriate delay

are, and a lo

business. It

responding t

and are remo

nit.

ISTRATIVE ST

er has the da

ectly to the

eded basis.

ENANCE

thee mand

ravellers and

, they shoul

t and compl

g from local

nd agendas.

effectively b

irport is muc

on” can enc

rational requ

a business.

dustry is co

profitability

nal, national,

to market

y in respond

ower level o

is critical th

to market de

ote, they mu

RUCTURE

ay‐to‐day res

Aviation Di

date to mai

d operators

d not conflic

ex responsib

pilots and n

A critical

balance thes

ch like mana

compass a w

uirements co

ompetition.

drives all

, and interna

conditions

ing to evolv

f service. Giv

hat airport m

emands. Whi

ust still be op

sponsibility o

rector and

ntain and o

. While oth

ct with or ha

bility. The Air

eighbours to

challenge is

se interests

ging a succe

wide range o

ommon to a

In both co

aspects of

ational mark

and demand

ving conditio

ven this real

management

ile local/regi

perated and

of operating

is supported

operate airp

her activities

amper the ab

rport Manag

o state and f

s to recogn

in the long‐

ssful busines

of organizat

ny type of o

mmercial an

the aviation

ket considera

ds in a dec

ons could res

lity, an airpo

t be designe

onal airports

administere

g and manag

d by various

ports in a

s are permi

bility of an a

ger is respon

federal offic

nize and un

‐term intere

ss.

tional design

organization.

nd general

n industry,

ations, airpo

isive and im

sult in ineffi

ort must be

ed and posit

s are genera

ed as an effic

ging the syst

s other mem

Page 6

safe and

tted and

airport to

sible to a

ials, each

derstand

st of the

n factors,

In short,

aviation,

including

orts of all

mmediate

iciency, a

managed

tioned to

ally small,

cient and

em. That

mbers of

D2.1.4 CAS

Good re

makes p

requiring

organiza

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ecord keepin

possible the

g prompt c

ation problem

AIRPORT MAINTE

ng is essentia

detection of

correction.

ms.

ENANCE

al to contro

f employee f

It may als

lling operati

fraud, mate

so pinpoint

ing results. I

rial waste, e

employee

nternally, a

errors, spoila

skill deficie

good recor

age, and oth

encies and

Page 7

d system

her losses

internal

D2.1.4 CAS

2. MAI

Mainten

during t

perform

vital to i

that can

preventi

predeter

of failur

preventi

in advan

which re

determin

The iden

affects t

the dem

stems f

developm

which h

perform

The occ

problem

plans an

contains

growth s

congeste

is obvio

consequ

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

INTENANC

nance is the

he life cycle

the require

dentify the m

n cause fun

ive, and pr

rmined inter

re or the de

ive maintena

nce. Mainten

estores an it

nation of con

ntification of

he operation

mands as pla

rom the co

ment. There

ighly influen

only the pre

urrence of u

m cannot be r

nd leads to l

s four scena

scenario, the

ed, the top 2

ous that a

uences in futu

AIRPORT MAINTE

CE STRAT

combinatio

of an item

ed function (

maintenance

nctional fail

roactive ma

rvals or acco

egradation o

ance tasks is

nance tasks

tem to or m

ndition.

f an effective

nal regularity

nned. In fac

onsequences

efore, the pr

nce both the

eventive mai

unscheduled

rectified in a

ess effective

rio‐based fo

e annual dem

20 airports b

n operation

ure than tod

ENANCE

EGIES AND

on of techni

and intende

(SS‐EN 13306

e strategies t

ure. There

aintenance.

rding to pre

of the funct

termed “sch

are actions o

maintain an

e maintenan

y and the ca

ct, a large p

s of decisio

reventive an

e system dep

intenance ac

d maintenan

timely mann

e maintenan

orecasts of a

mand rises u

eing saturate

nal disrupti

ay.

D MAINTE

cal, adminis

ed to retain

6). In order

that are nee

are differen

Preventive

escribed crite

tioning of a

heduled mai

or set of act

item in serv

nce program

pability of th

ortion of th

ons made d

nd corrective

pendability a

ctions which

nce can intro

ner. The occ

nce policies.

air traffic de

up to 21 mill

ed at least e

ion would

ENANCE O

strative, and

it in, or rest

to preserve

eded to man

nt maintena

maintenan

eria and is in

an item . Th

intenance pr

tions require

viceable con

me is a critic

he aircraft fl

e maintenan

during the i

e maintenan

and the LCC

are absolute

oduce costly

urrence of a

A report re

emand for th

ion flights a

ight to ten h

have deep

ORGANIZA

managerial

tore it to, a

the function

age the asso

ance strateg

ce strategy

tended to re

he complete

rogramme”,

ed to achiev

ndition, inclu

cal issue in a

eet and airp

nce‐related

initial maint

ce and inspe

, have to be

ely necessary

y delays and

ny unexpect

leased by EU

he next 20 y

year with m

hours a day. G

per operatio

ATION

l actions ca

state in whi

n of the sys

ociated failur

gies, e.g. co

y is carried

educe the pr

e collection

which are s

ve a desired

uding inspec

aviation, as i

port facilities

Life Cycle C

tenance pro

ection requi

e defined in

y and cost‐ef

d cancellatio

ted events u

UROCONTRO

years. In the

more than 60

Given this fo

onal and e

Page 8

rried out

ich it can

tem, it is

re modes

orrective,

out at

robability

of these

cheduled

outcome

ction and

t directly

s to meet

ost (LCC)

ogramme

rements,

order to

ffective.

ons if the

psets the

OL (2004)

e highest

0 airports

orecast, it

economic

D2.1.4 CAS

Moreove

focus th

decrease

ambitiou

The maj

maintain

availabil

mainten

serves a

many m

developm

On the

may affe

disasters

been the

which an

jack scre

Since th

affect ai

reductio

the fact

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

er, the dow

eir attention

e maintenan

us and very c

jority of avi

nability and

ity performa

ance should

and supports

anufacturers

ment of effic

other hand,

ect the safe

s. There hav

e major cont

n intuitive de

ew, which res

e decisions

rcraft safety

on, in order t

t that deci

AIRPORT MAINTE

wnward press

n on controll

nce costs is

challenging o

ation stakeh

maintenanc

ance, safety

d be conside

s flight prod

s, air operato

cient and eff

improper m

ety of the s

ve been a n

tributing fact

ecision on po

sulted in a lo

FIGU

made for de

y, it is crucia

to fulfil the s

sions on m

ENANCE

sure on reve

ling mainten

to improve

objectives.

holders are

ce can provi

y requiremen

ered as an im

duction. The

ors and airpo

fective aircra

maintenance

ystem nega

umber of ac

tor. One exa

ostponing lu

oss of aircraf

RE 1: ILLUSTR

eveloping or

l to consider

safety requir

maintenance

enues has l

nance and pe

e the sched

showing co

ide to a com

nts, and tot

mportant pa

erefore, in t

ort manager

aft/airport sc

e decisions o

tively, and

ccidents in w

ample is the

ubrication tas

ft longitudina

RATION OF AC

adjusting sc

r the effectiv

rements and

e task deve

ed many ca

ersonnel cos

duled mainte

ncern over

mpany, due

tal cost‐effe

rt of the air

the move to

rs are realizin

cheduled ma

or incorrectl

thereby con

which incorr

accident tha

sks led to da

al control an

CCIDENT IN A

cheduled ma

veness of m

d assure safe

elopment or

rriers and a

sts. However

enance prog

the compet

to their role

ctiveness at

r transport b

owards worl

ng that there

intenance pr

y performed

ntribute to e

rect mainten

at hit Alaska

amage to the

d finally a cr

LASKA

aintenance p

aintenance t

operation.

r adjustmen

airport autho

r, an effectiv

gramme and

titive advant

e in keeping

t high levels

business pro

d–class com

e is a critical

rogramme.

d maintenan

extensive lo

nance decisio

Airlines Fligh

e horizontal

rash.

programmes

tasks in term

Moreover, in

nts to main

Page 9

orities to

ve way to

d setting

tage that

g aircraft

s. Hence,

cess that

mpetition,

need for

nce tasks

osses and

ons have

ht 261, in

stabilizer

s strongly

ms of risk

n view of

ntenance

D2.1.4 CAS

program

optimal

interacti

taken int

2.1 DUA

OF AN O

2.1.1 AIRP

The Airp

system.

ensure t

managed

informat

• Airp

• Airp

2.1.2 AIRP

An airpo

of the ai

any activ

Any such

docume

worker,

While an

an indivi

TABLE 1P

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

mmes may a

maintenanc

ion between

to considera

ALITY OF AIR

OPERATOR A

PORT OPERAT

port Manage

Additionally

that the airp

d airport, w

tion on the f

ort Rules an

ort Minimum

PORT RULES A

ort rules and

irport for th

vity that mig

h document

nt is geared

it should be

ny rules and

idual airport

1. QUALITY FAPartial Listing

AIRPORT MAINTE

affect the ai

ce programm

n operators

ation.

PORT MAIN

AND IM RELA

TIONAL PROC

r is expected

y, the Airpor

port is opera

while meeting

following:

d Regulation

m Standards

AND REGULAT

regulations

e benefit of

ht interfere

will include

to the ever

easy to read

regulations

, several are

ACTORS AND g of Focus Po

ENANCE

rcraft availa

mes. Howev

and airport

TENANCE AN

ATION

CEDURES AND

d to apply, u

t Manager s

ated and ma

g certain ne

ns

TIONS

document is

its users, bo

with safe an

administrat

ryday airport

d and referen

document sh

as should alw

LIMITING FACoints for Airp

ability perfo

ver, the des

managers a

ND AIRCRAF

D SCHEDULES

use, and enfo

should emplo

aintained to

eeds specific

s designed to

oth tenants

nd orderly us

tive, operatio

t user, such

nce.

hould be dev

ways be incl

CTORS TO SYSport Rules an

rmance and

sign of mai

as a part of

FT MAINTEN

orce all polic

oy appropria

a level cons

to that airp

o facilitate th

and custome

e.

onal and saf

as an aircra

veloped to m

uded. Some

STEMS CAPABnd Regulation

d the LCC, i

ntenance is

more comp

ANCE: ISSUE

cies of the st

ate airport m

sistent with t

port. This se

he safe, orde

ers. It is also

fety rules an

ft owner or

meet the uniq

are listed in

BILITIES TO DEns

it is crucial

s complex s

plex system

ES AND CHA

tate‐manage

management

the policies

ection provid

erly, and effi

o intended t

d regulation

airport main

que circums

the followin

ELIVER SATISF

Page 10

to apply

since the

must be

ALLENGES

ed airport

t tools to

of state‐

des more

cient use

o restrict

ns. As the

ntenance

tances of

ng table.

FACTORY

D2.1.4 CAS

P

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

At a min

where t

interfere

unrestric

2.1.3 AIRP

State‐ma

minimum

minimum

By defin

owner/o

aeronau

without

available

airport.”

standard

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

Partial Listing

A Airport

and accB Descrip

informa

behavioC Descrip

traffic

D Descrip

(includiE Descrip

forest

F Airport

G Descrip

paveme

nimum, the

the general

ence with a

cted rights a

PORT MINIMU

anaged airpo

m standards

ms.

nition, minim

operator as t

tical activity

unlawful d

e airport lan

” In essence

ds level the

AIRPORT MAINTE

g of Focus Po

manageme

countability)ption of st

ation and p

our; insuranption of airc

patterns, de

ption of grou

ng vehicularption of oth

firefighting

Security Pla

ption of airpo

ent maintena

rules and re

public is n

airport ope

nd access (i.

UM STANDAR

orts do not c

s is provided

mum standa

the minimum

y on the airp

iscrimination

nd and/or im

, by establis

playing field

ENANCE

oints for Airp

nt and asso

.tandard air

periods of

ce and liabicraft operati

etails of the

nd vehicular

r requiremener specific

g operation

n, based on

ort maintena

ance etc )

egulations do

ot allowed

rations. It

e., airport ro

RDS

currently hav

d herein to

rds are the

m requireme

ort.” Their p

n, to all ap

mprovements

shing minim

d. If consiste

port Rules an

ociated roles

rport opera

operation;

lity requiremional areas

e surroundin

r operational

nts).standard ai

ns, emerge

airport temp

ance program

ocument sho

free access

should also

oads, public p

ve any minim

suggest wa

“qualificati

ents to be m

purpose is “t

pplicants to

s and engag

mum entry‐le

ently applied

nd Regulation

s (including a

ations (incl

standards o

ments and wand standa

ng terrain, w

l areas and s

rport opera

ncy medic

plate.

ms (including

ould give a c

s because o

o distinguish

parking area

mum standa

ys to develo

ons that ma

met as a cond

to provide a

qualify, or

ge in authori

evel requirem

d and enfor

ns

authority, re

uding prim

of tenant a

wavers; and rd procedur

weight limit

tandard pro

tions (includ

al operatio

g mowing, sn

clear descrip

of safety co

h areas wh

s, public term

ards. Basic in

op, amend a

ay be estab

dition for the

fair and rea

otherwise c

ized aeronau

ments (or th

ced, these s

esponsibilitie

mary contac

and operato

security anres (includin

tations, nois

cedures

ding fuelling

ons, vertica

now remova

ption of airp

ncerns and

here the pu

minals).

nformation r

and update

blished by a

e right to co

sonable opp

compete, to

utical activit

hresholds), m

standards pe

Page 11

es

ct

or

d ng

se

g,

al

al,

ort areas

possible

ublic has

elated to

adopted

n airport

onduct an

portunity,

o occupy

ties at an

minimum

ermit the

D2.1.4 CAS

airport s

decision

Minimum

provider

individua

current

users see

Where c

• Ensu

• Esta

• Mini

serv

• Addr

• Assu

Minimum

individua

informat

A minim

also an a

P

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

sponsor to m

‐making crit

m standards

rs who wan

al circumsta

and future r

eking to ope

consistently a

ure safe, effic

blish a temp

imize exposu

ices and the

ress environ

ure that pros

m standards

al providers

tion.

mum standard

appropriate p

TABPartial Listing

A Applica

B Genera

C Insuran

D Genera

E Genera

F Aviation

G Tenant

AIRPORT MAINTE

maintain a hig

eria to poten

s establish

nt to operat

nces of an a

roles in the

erate in the a

applied, min

cient, and qu

plate for safe

ure to claim

ir users.

mental liabil

spective tena

s can serve a

. Some airp

ds documen

place for the

LE 2. PARTIALg of Typical M

tion Process

l Contractua

nce

l Operationa

l Airport Bus

n Specialty S

Options

ENANCE

gh level of se

ntial tenants

a set of t

te in a stat

airport, inclu

aviation syst

airport adher

imum standa

uality service

airport ope

s of discrim

lity.

ants are trea

as a deterre

orts charge

t will include

e items listed

L LISTING OF TMinimum Sta

s

al Provisions

al Requireme

siness Activit

Services

ervice to the

s.

threshold re

te‐managed

uding its exis

tem. Once e

re to them.

ards will hel

e.

rations.

ination or u

ted equally.

nt to illegal

a minimal a

e a formal a

d in the follow

TYPICAL MINIandards Inclu

and Permits

ents

ties

e public whil

equirements

airport. Ide

sting and fu

established,

p the airport

nfair treatm

business an

annual fee t

pplication pr

wing table.

IMUM STANDusions

s

e offering co

for activiti

eally, they s

ture develop

minimum st

t achieve the

ent by prov

nd help the a

to update th

rocess for in

DARDS INCLUS

onsistent, pr

ies, tenants

should cons

pment, as w

tandards req

e following:

viders of aer

airport keep

he airport’s

nterested par

SIONS

Page 12

edictable

s, and/or

sider the

well as its

quire that

onautical

p track of

provider

rties. It is

D2.1.4 CAS

Finally,

specifica

2.2 AVIA

A comm

operatio

For mos

the equi

Evidence

ownersh

profitabi

mainten

size, age

operatin

As a com

in Main

schedule

continuo

compon

part wit

Airworth

and indu

for new

basis fo

subject t

MRBR be

In the co

methodo

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

an airport

ally for aeron

ATION AIRCR

mercial aircra

on, maintena

st equipment

pment. A sig

e shows that

hip. In the co

ility. Taking

ance costs r

e, and usag

ng costs has n

mmon practic

tenance Rev

ed maintena

ous airwort

ents of a giv

th the main

hiness. Throu

ustry work t

aircraft and

r each ope

to the appro

ecome a bas

ommercial a

ology to dev

AIRPORT MAINTE

minimum s

nautical use.

RAFT MAINT

aft costs as m

ance, and su

t, 80 to 85%

gnificant part

t maintenan

ompetitive a

into consid

ange typical

ge. In fact, t

not been red

ce in aviatio

view Board

nce and insp

thiness mai

ven aircraft ty

ntenance ins

ugh the MRB

together to d

d/or on wing

rator to de

oval of its re

sis on which

aviation indu

velop an initi

ENANCE

standards do

TENANCE

much as €15

pport throu

% of the tota

t of the LCC

nce costs also

airline indust

deration the

ly from 10 to

the contribu

duced signific

n, the initial

(MRB) Rep

pection requ

ntenance p

ype. The MR

struction re

B process, m

develop the

g power plan

velop its ow

gulatory aut

each air carr

ustry, increa

al scheduled

ocument sh

50 million, a

ghout its ec

al LCC is spe

is spent on m

o make a sig

try, low Dire

e estimation

o 20% of the

ution of the

cantly over t

scheduled m

ports (MRBR

uirements to

programme

RBR is genera

equirements

manufacturer

initial sched

nt. It is inte

wn continuo

thority. Afte

rier develops

sing emphas

d maintenan

hould includ

and an addit

conomic life,

nt during th

maintenance

gnificant con

ect Operatin

ns reported

e aircraft‐rela

e maintenan

the past two

maintenance

R). The MRB

be used in t

for the ai

ated as an ex

for develo

s, regulatory

duled maint

nded that th

ous airworth

r approval, t

s its own ind

sis is now b

ce programm

de applicatio

tional €1.5 b

which is aro

e operation

e alone

ntribution to

ng Costs (DO

by the air

ated DOC, de

nce costs to

decades.

e tasks and in

BR outlines

the developm

rframe, eng

xpeditious m

ping Instruc

y authorities

enance/insp

he MRB repo

hiness maint

the requirem

ividual maint

eing placed

me for the pu

on forms d

billion is req

ound 20 to

and mainte

o an aircraft’

OC) are key t

rline compa

epending on

o the averag

ntervals are

the initial m

ment of an a

gines, syste

means of com

ctions for C

s, vendors, o

pection requ

ort will be u

tenance pro

ments outlin

tenance pro

on using th

urpose of de

Page 13

eveloped

uired for

25 years.

enance of

’s cost of

to airline

nies, the

the fleet

ge direct

specified

minimum

approved

ems and

mplying in

ontinued

perators,

irements

used as a

ogramme

ed in the

gramme.

he MSG‐3

eveloping

D2.1.4 CAS

an MRB

minimum

continue

effort in

incorpor

to justify

criteria t

Reliabilit

the polic

item in

preventi

achieve

mainten

of equip

In fact, R

the best

establish

informat

effects, f

a system

mainten

This tech

develope

preventi

product/

In contr

methodo

• A sy

and

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

report. The

m scheduled

ed airworthin

volving man

rated the pri

y task develo

to audit and

ty‐Centred M

cies needed

a given ope

ive mainten

its inherent

ance progra

ment is a fun

RCM is a me

t overall pr

hment of a

tion derived

frequency, a

matic approa

ance progra

hnique is be

ed, produce

ive mainten

/process imp

ast to earlie

ology is base

ystem level a

bottom‐up a

AIRPORT MAINTE

e reason is t

d maintena

ness promul

nufacturers,

inciples of th

opment, but

substantiate

Maintenance

to manage f

erating cont

ance and in

t reliability

amme. The m

nction of the

ethodology f

rogramme f

a cost‐effec

d from Failu

and criticality

ach to the d

mme and co

est initiated d

ed, and de

nance progr

provement.

er methodol

ed on:

and top‐dow

approach.

ENANCE

that it is a c

nce require

gated by mo

regulatory a

he Reliability

stopped sho

e the initial ta

e (RCM) is a

failure mode

text. The RC

nspection re

where, inhe

methodology

e design and

for evaluatio

or preventiv

ctive preve

re Mode Eff

y of failure, a

developmen

ontrol plan fo

during the e

ployed. How

rammes for

logies suppo

wn approach

common me

ements with

ost of the reg

uthorities, o

y Centred Ma

ort of fully im

asks being d

well‐structu

es that could

CM methodo

equirements

erent reliabi

y is based on

the built qu

on of the sys

ve (schedule

ntive maint

fect and Cri

and compen

nt of a focu

or a system o

early system

wever, the

existing sy

orting maint

for function

eans of com

hin the fram

gulatory aut

operators. Th

aintenance (

mplementing

efined.

red, logical d

d cause the

ology is use

of equipme

ility can be

n the assump

ality.

stem, in term

ed) mainten

tenance pr

ticality Anal

nsation throu

sed, effectiv

or product.

design proc

technique

ystems, wit

tenance prog

n identificatio

mpliance for

mework of

horities. MS

he MSG‐3 m

RCM) philos

g reliability‐c

decision pro

functional fa

ed to develo

ent in its o

achieved b

ption that th

ms of the life

nance. The

ogramme b

ysis; i.e. an

ugh preventi

ve, and cost

cess and evo

can also be

h the obje

gramme dev

on, instead o

the develop

the instruct

SG‐3 was a c

ethodology

sophy (funda

centred main

ocess used to

ailure of any

op and opti

operating co

by using an

he inherent

e cycle, to d

emphasis is

based on

alysis of the

ive maintena

t‐efficient pr

olves as the s

e used to

ctive of co

velopment,

of a compon

Page 14

pment of

tions for

combined

implicitly

amentals)

ntenance

o identify

y physical

mize the

ntext, to

effective

reliability

etermine

s on the

reliability

e modes,

ance. It is

reventive

system is

evaluate

ontinuous

the RCM

nent level

D2.1.4 CAS

• Cons

• Func

avai

• A tas

a ma

The ava

mainten

which th

objective

system.

• Sche

• Sche

item

that

• Sche

befo

• Sche

hidd

failu

perf

MSG‐3

mainten

plants, w

tasks an

requirem

accumul

mainten

• To e

• To re

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

sequence‐dr

ction preser

lability of pro

sk‐oriented

aintenance p

ailable failu

ance tasks s

hey are desig

e of these ta

The four bas

eduled on‐co

eduled resto

m at or befor

provides a t

eduled disca

ore a specifie

eduled failur

den failure ha

ure that has

ormance of

outlines the

ance requir

with the inte

nd intervals

ments, inten

ated, additio

ance. The ob

nsure realiza

estore safety

AIRPORT MAINTE

riven approa

rvation inste

otective dev

approach ins

programme.

re managem

selected on

gned to prot

asks is to pre

sic forms of p

ondition insp

ration (rewo

e a specified

tolerable pro

rd (or hard t

ed age limit r

re finding in

as occurred.

s already o

normal dutie

e general o

ements initi

ent of maint

developed b

nded to go

onal adjustm

bjectives of e

ation of the i

y and reliabil

ENANCE

ch, to assure

ead of failur

ices.

stead of a m

ment strate

the basis o

tect, and the

event deterio

preventive m

pection: a sch

ork or hard t

d interval (ag

obability of s

time discard

regardless of

nspection: a

The objectiv

occurred, bu

es.

rganization

ially projecte

taining the i

become the

overn its in

ments may b

efficient sche

inherent safe

lity to their i

e controls of

re preventio

maintenance

egies offere

of the actual

ey are perfo

oration of th

maintenance

heduled task

time): a sche

ge limit), reg

urvival to th

d): a schedul

f its conditio

scheduled

ve of a failu

ut is not e

and decisio

ed for prese

inherent saf

e basis for t

itial mainte

be made by t

eduled main

ety and relia

nherent leve

the risk of fa

on, to assur

process‐orie

ed by RCM

l reliability c

ormed at fixe

he inherent s

offered by R

k used to det

eduled task t

ardless of its

e end of ano

led task that

n at the time

task used t

re finding in

evident to t

on process

erving the li

fety and reli

he first issu

enance polic

the operato

tenance of a

ability levels

els when det

ailure.

re the syste

ented approa

consist of

characteristic

ed, predeter

safety and re

RCM include

ect a potent

that restores

s condition a

other specifie

t entails disc

e.

o determine

spection is t

the operatin

for determ

fe of the ai

ability levels

e of each a

cy. As oper

r to maintain

aircraft are:

of the aircraf

erioration ha

em function

ach to prepa

f specific s

cs of the eq

rmined inter

eliability leve

:

tial failure.

s the capabi

at the time, t

ed interval.

carding an it

e whether a

to detect a fu

ng crew du

ining the s

ircraft and/o

s of the airc

airline’s main

rating expe

n efficient s

ft.

as occurred.

Page 15

and the

aration of

cheduled

quipment

rvals. The

els of the

lity of an

to a level

tem at or

a specific

unctional

uring the

cheduled

or power

craft. The

ntenance

rience is

cheduled

D2.1.4 CAS

• To o

relia

• To a

resu

The ana

certificat

• Main

• The

failu

• Sele

o

o

The main

• Lubr

• Ope

• Insp

• Rest

• Disc

• Com

• Rede

2.3 AVIA

Airport

accomm

followed

removal

periods

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

obtain the in

ability proves

ccomplish th

lting failures

alysis proce

ted operatin

ntenance‐Sig

MSI analys

ure causes),

ction of mai

o Evaluatio

o Selection

analysis)

ntenance str

rication/Serv

rational/Visu

ection/Funct

toration

ard

mbination of t

esign (for a s

ATION AIRPO

maintenanc

modate aircra

d to provide

procedures

of inclement

AIRPORT MAINTE

nformation

s to be inade

hese goals at

s.

ss identifies

ng capabilitie

gnificant Item

is process (

ntenance act

on of the fai

n of the spe

)

rategies reco

vicing

ual Check (fo

tional Check

tasks (for saf

safety effect)

ORT MAINTE

e refers to

aft operation

e users wit

s allow the

t winter wea

ENANCE

necessary fo

equate.

t a minimum

s all the sc

es. The analy

m (MSI) selec

identificatio

tions using d

lure consequ

ecific type o

ommended b

or hidden fai

k

fety categori

)

ENANCE

all mainten

ns. Proper ru

h the safes

airports tha

ather. Finally,

or design im

m total cost,

cheduled ta

sis steps incl

ction,

on of functio

decision logic

uence (level

of task(s) ac

by MSG‐3 inc

lures)

ies )

nance activ

nway gradin

st possible

t are open

along with p

mprovement

including ma

asks and int

lude:

ons, functio

c, which inclu

1 analysis)

cording to t

clude:

ities directly

ng, marking,

operating e

year‐round

providing run

of those ite

aintenance c

tervals base

nal failures,

udes:

the failure c

y related to

and lighting

environment

to maintain

nway access

ems whose

costs and the

ed on the

failure effe

consequence

o airport ar

guidelines s

t. Additiona

n operations

s, aircraft par

Page 16

inherent

e costs of

aircraft's

ects, and

e (level 2

reas that

should be

lly, snow

through

rking and

D2.1.4 CAS

wind con

and tran

All main

must com

the aircr

Typically

airports

mainten

Mainten

• Start

• Land

• Fenc

bagg

• Build

• Park

• Rada

• Equi

• Equi

icing

• Own

• Own

• docu

out

• Pers

Since m

number

docume

This sect

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ne maintena

nsient custom

ntenance and

mply with al

raft parking a

y maintenan

it can be

ance is perfo

nance is requ

t and runway

ding lights, m

ces, gates, s

gage, access

dings includi

king spaces, p

ars, commun

ipment for fi

ipment for a

g, etc.

n machines fo

n instrument

ument and p

sonnel and a

uch of the m

of national

nted and fol

tion address

AIRPORT MAINTE

ance help to

mers.

d repairs sh

l applicable

areas should

nce work is

performed

ormed by ex

uired by:

ys with asso

markup, wind

surveillance

s control, ala

ng heating, v

parking mete

nication equi

re protectio

ccess to airc

or snow rem

ts and equipm

procedures t

ny subcontra

maintenance

l and intern

lowed up ac

es the follow

ENANCE

maintain a s

ould be not

airport rules

have the ne

assigned in

by the sam

ternal comp

ciated acces

d indicators,

cameras, s

arms, etc.

ventilation, l

ers, lawns, ac

ipment, met

n and fire fig

craft, loading

moval, deicing

ment for use

hat describe

actors skills a

e directly aff

national regu

cording to cu

wing mainten

afe and effe

ted in the a

s and regulat

ecessary light

n different

me personne

panies.

s roads, park

lights etc.

security syst

ighting, com

ccess roads,

teorological m

ghting

g and unload

g, friction me

e in maintena

e how both o

and certifica

fects the saf

ulations, it

urrent regula

nance areas

ctive airfield

irport maint

tions. For ex

ts and warni

areas of re

el. It is not

king areas, la

tems for th

mputers and n

lighting, etc

measuring e

ding of bagga

easurement,

ance

operation an

tion

fety of the a

is essential

ations.

of concern:

that meets

tenance log.

ample, vehicl

ng signals.

sponsibility

t uncommon

awns, etc.

e screening

networks, fir

.

quipment et

age and carg

, etc.

d maintenan

airport and h

that the bu

the demand

. Maintenan

les operating

although at

n that som

g of passeng

re protection

tc.

o, inspection

nce should b

hence gover

usiness is o

Page 17

ds of local

ce crews

g beyond

t smaller

e of the

gers and

n etc.

n and de‐

be carried

ned by a

rganized,

D2.1.4 CAS

• Pave

• Runw

• Runw

• Runw

• Fenc

• Drai

• Main

2.3.1 PAV

Airports

fertilized

mixtures

given to

More th

irrigated

adjusted

harmful

Most of

program

mainten

the mon

yearly in

(includin

2.3.2 RU

Runway

threshol

based on

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ed and non‐p

way Paveme

way Lighting

way Edge Ma

ce

nage system

ntenance of

VED AND NO

can be divid

d to maintain

s containing

longevity of

han one seed

d helps pilot

d to ensure

materials th

f the runwa

m is to prov

ance progra

ney spent. Pa

nspections an

ng crack seal

NWAY PAVEM

pavement m

ds, edges) a

n the require

AIRPORT MAINTE

paved Runwa

ent Markings

g

arkers

ms

signboards

N‐PAVED RUN

ded in two la

n height unif

nitrogen, ph

f plants, resis

ding season

s identify ai

proper turf

hat would inh

ys in comm

vide a safe

am provides

aved runway

nd following

ing, paveme

MENT MARKI

markings are

nd are usual

ements of th

ENANCE

ays

s

NWAYS

arge categor

formity, using

hosphoric ac

stance to tra

may be spe

rports. Give

growth. Th

hibit the grow

mercial airpo

and operab

enough info

ys at state‐m

g the airport’

nt marking, f

NGS

e comprised

ly painted ev

e Pavement

ies: Turf and

g standard co

cid, and wate

affic and ero

ecified, if ap

n the seaso

he water mu

wth of grass

rt are pave

ble paveme

ormation to

managed airp

’s Pavement

fog sealing, s

of anything

very three to

Manageme

d paved. Tu

ommercial fe

er soluble po

sion, and att

propriate. K

nal fluctuati

ust be free o

.

d. The goal

nt at the le

assess how

ports are ins

t Manageme

slurry sealing

painted on a

o five years.

nt Plan and a

urf runways

ertilizers supp

otash. Due co

traction of b

eeping the r

ons, sprinkle

of oil, acid,

of any pav

east possibl

to obtain th

pected annu

nt Plan, prev

g, etc.) is sch

a runway (e.

This schedul

any associate

should be

plied separa

onsideration

birds or large

runway turf

er schedules

alkali, salt,

vement main

e cost. An

he greatest r

ually. Based

ventive main

heduled.

.g., runway n

le can be acc

ed maintena

Page 18

regularly

tely or in

n must be

e animals.

properly

s may be

or other

ntenance

effective

eturn for

on these

ntenance

numbers,

celerated

ance.

D2.1.4 CAS

2.3.3 RU

Runway

Elevated

exposed

Note th

manufac

Manage

noted in

2.3.3.1

Verificat

marking

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

NWAY LIGHT

lighting fixt

d light fixtur

electric wiri

at replacem

cturer’s tech

r or a qualifi

the mainten

MAINTENAN

tion actions

of buoys of

AIRPORT MAINTE

FIGURE 2:

TING

tures wheth

es are more

ing may crea

ment light b

hnical specif

ed person id

nance log.

CE OF ELEVAT

are describe

edge, thresh

ENANCE

: EXAMPLE FO

er elevated

e easily susc

ate a hazard

ulbs at all s

ications. Add

dentified by t

TED LIGHTS

ed next to d

hold and aim

OR RUNWAY

or in‐pavem

ceptible to b

to airport us

state‐manag

ditionally, in

the Airport M

do on the hi

m of track, ap

PAVEMENT M

ment, requi

being run ov

sers.

ged airports

nspections ca

Manager. Fin

igh lights tha

pproach and

MARKINGS

re a high le

ver or damag

must meet

an be condu

ally, repairs

at correspon

edge of taxiw

evel of main

ged. Broken

t the lightin

ucted by the

and replace

nd to the sy

way.

Page 19

ntenance.

n glass or

ng fixture

e Airport

ment are

ystems of

D2.1.4 CAS

Daily ver

• Acco

with

prog

• Chec

Monthly

• Chec

• Align

prev

• Cont

of jo

Semeste

• Cont

• Cont

pain

Annual v

• Test

• Cont

• Clea

• Verif

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

rifications

omplishment

h low intens

gram its mon

cking the sta

y verification

cking of the d

nments, leve

viously.

trol in the cl

oints if it is ne

er verification

trol for the h

trol of the b

ting, etc.

verifications

ing the inten

trol of each a

ning the con

fication of al

AIRPORT MAINTE

FIGU

t of a visual

ity, extingui

nthly correct

ate of the lam

s

direction in a

elling and ali

eaning, suita

ecessary.

ns

height of the

base of the

nsity, beam h

accessory in

ntacts and fix

ll connection

ENANCE

URE 3: ELEVAT

inspection t

shed and w

ion.

mps and clea

all the lamps

gnments of

able working

lights.

upper beaco

hole and dire

the depth lig

xation of the

ns.

TED LIGHT. CO

to the dusk o

with alignmen

aning if it’s ne

s.

problems id

g and humid

ons, humidit

ection of ligh

ght.

e lamp.

OURTESY BY A

or at night. T

nt defects a

ecessary.

entified in t

ity absence

ty, lack of fi

hts.

AENA

The objective

and to realiz

he daily insp

in the conne

xed element

e is to ident

ze the chang

pection and

ections. Rep

ts, corrosion

Page 20

ify lamps

ges or to

not done

lacement

n, lack of

D2.1.4 CAS

• Cont

2.3.3.2

The veri

marking

streets o

Daily ver

• Acco

obje

corre

Weekly v

• Fix t

Monthly

• Verif

Bimonth

• Chec

Semeste

• Test

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

trol of joints

MAINTENAN

ification acti

of buoys of

of fast exit, a

rifications

omplishment

ective is to

ection.

verifications

he elements

y verification

fication of th

hly verificatio

cking of the

er verification

of intensity,

AIRPORT MAINTE

and replace

CE OF EMBED

ions that th

axis, edge, t

xis and edge

FIGUR

t of a visual

identify lam

s identified d

s

he state of th

ons

pair of tighte

ns

, beam hole

ENANCE

e if they are b

DDED LIGHTS

ey are did i

threshold an

e of taxiway a

RE 4. EMBEDD

l inspection

mps with low

during inspec

he lamps and

ens of the su

and directio

bad.

in the embe

nd aim of tra

and lights of

DED LIGHTS. C

during the

w intensity o

ction daily.

d cleaning if

ubjection in t

on of lights.

edded lights,

ack, approach

f shut‐down

COURTESY BY

dusk or at

or extinguis

it is necessa

the beacons.

, correspond

h, taking of c

rods.

Y AENA

night (darkn

hed and to

ry.

ds to the sy

contact, indi

ness conditio

program it

Page 21

ystems of

ication of

ons). The

s weekly

D2.1.4 CAS

• Cont

• Cont

The figur

123

45678911

2.3.4 RU

Runway

along th

should b

markers

markers

replacing

2.3.5 FEN

Procedu

the mov

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

trol of the ba

trol of joints

re below dep

1. Inspe2. Chec3. Perfo

align

4. Reali5. Clean6. Chec7. Chec8. Inspe9. Chec10. Chec11. Remo

NWAY EDGE

edge marke

e edge of a

be used for t

functional

are during

g runway ed

NCE MAINTEN

res must de

vement area.

AIRPORT MAINTE

ases of the e

and replace

picts runway

TABL

ect for outagck cleanlinessorm photom

ment and or

gn lights as nn fixtures anck light elevack for moistuect fixture fock lamp fittinck gaskets. ove snow a

MARKERS

ers differ from

runway, wh

turf runways

and easily v

routine air

ge markers o

NANCE

scribe the ac

.

ENANCE

embedded be

e damaged on

y lighting pre

LE 3: PREVENT

ges; repair ass of lenses. metric testin

rientation.

needed. d sockets. tion. re in lights.or rust and deg and clean

and/or vege

m pavement

ile the latter

s where pav

visible to air

rport inspec

on a case‐by

ctions to do

eacons.

nes.

ventative m

TIVE MAINTEN

s necessary.

ng and che

eterioration.contacts.

etation from

t markings in

r are simply

vement mark

rport users

ctions. The A

y‐case basis.

on the fence

aintenance p

NANCE PROCE

XX

eck light

.

m around

n that the for

paint on pav

kings are no

increases th

Airport Man

e area which

procedures.

EDURE

Daily

Weekly

Mon

thly

X X

X

X

rmer are ind

vement. Not

t possible. K

he level of s

nager determ

h limits the a

Semi Ann

ual

Annu

al

hd

ld

X

X XX X X X X X

ividual units

te that edge

Keeping runw

safety. Thes

mines guide

access to any

Page 22

Unsched

uled

X

X X

X

installed

e markers

way edge

e airfield

elines for

y point in

D2.1.4 CAS

Daily che

• Acco

closi

Monthly

• Verif

• Verif

mov

2.3.6 MA

Several m

area of t

can be f

areas).

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ecking

omplishment

ing of the ac

y verification

fication of th

fication that

vement area,

AINTENANCE

maintenance

traffic. All ac

found in the

FI

AIRPORT MAINTE

t of one visu

cess doors.

s

he correct op

t the differe

, such as grat

IN THE DRAIN

e actions are

tivities that

e standard E

GURE 6 DRAI

ENANCE

FIGURE 5 FE

ual inspectio

peration in th

ent devices

tes or walls m

NAGE SYSTEM

e described b

must be per

EN 1433 (EN

NEGE IN RUN

ENCE BARCELO

on to verify

he doors and

from fence

maintain the

M

below in ord

rformed in o

1433 ‐ Dra

NWAY ACCOR

ONA AIRPORT

the continu

d padlocks.

in canalizat

eir integrity.

er to mainta

rder to main

inage chann

DING TO STA

T

ity of the fe

ions and tu

ain the system

ntain drainag

nels for vehic

NDARD EN14

ence and th

unnels that c

ms of draina

ge systems in

cular and pe

433

Page 23

e correct

cross the

age in the

n airports

edestrian

D2.1.4 CAS

Weekly v

• Chec

zone

• Chec

Monthly

• Chec

• Chec

• Chec

• Cont

2.3.7 MA

The verif

Daily ver

• Acco

with

Monthly

• Verif

• Repa

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

verifications

cking of the

es.

cking of the c

y verification

cking the cap

cking the sta

cking the str

trol of the oi

AINTENANCE

fication actio

rifications

omplishment

h little intens

y verification

fication of th

airs of eleme

AIRPORT MAINTE

capacity for

condition in

s

pacity for the

ate of wells a

eams and dr

il separators

OF SIGNBOAR

ons in the illu

t of a visual

ity or exting

s

he state of th

ents identifie

ENANCE

water evacu

the canals lo

e evacuation

nd chests of

rains waters

.

RDS

uminated sig

FIGU

inspection to

uished to do

he panels an

ed through d

uation of the

ocated in pav

n of roadside

f drainage.

under the ai

gnboards are

URE 7 SIGNBO

o the dusk o

o the exchan

d cleaning if

daily inspecti

e system, ev

ved zones in

e ditches, scu

irport.

e:

ARDS

or at night. T

ge or to sche

f so needed.

on and not p

aluating the

the traffic a

uppers and p

The objectiv

eduled mont

performed ye

existence o

area.

pipes.

ve is to ident

thly correctio

et.

Page 24

f flooded

ify lamps

on.

D2.1.4 CAS

3. DES

3.1 AN O

Safety is

the case

justificat

It is, of

commun

The nee

after W

Organisa

air trans

have bee

Within IC

• AWO

cond

• VAP

• OCP

Other pa

• ARC

• HOP

The conc

the stat

Standard

airports,

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

CRIPTION

OVERVIEW O

s the overrid

e of airports

tion for diffe

course, nec

nity.

ed to agree

World War I

ation (ICAO)

sport. These

en regularly

CAO there ar

OP All Wea

ditions

Visual Aids P

Obstacle Cle

anels have b

P Aerodrom

P Helicopter O

clusions reac

es for comm

ds and Reco

, and amplify

AIRPORT MAINTE

N OF SYSTE

OF AIRPORT

ing requirem

, it is standa

erences is to

cessary for t

common req

I. The most

.It provides

standards co

amended an

re panels tha

ther Operat

Panel–visual

earance Pan

een formed

e Reference

Operations P

ched by the

ments. Each

ommended

ying them as

ENANCE

EM CHARA

STANDARD

ment in aviat

ardization of

match the ty

the standard

quirements

t relevant a

the required

ontain inform

nd suppleme

at have been

tions Panel–

aids of airpo

el

to consider a

Code Panel–

Panel–opera

panels are

of the ICA

Practices re

necessary.

ACTERIST

PROCEDURE

tion. Standar

f facilities, g

ypes of aircr

ds to be app

for airports

authority fo

d set of stan

mation for pl

ented accord

n dedicated t

–issues of o

orts

a specific on

–method for

tion of helico

reported in

O member

egulating the

TICS AND P

ES

rdization is o

ground equip

raft that may

propriate an

used by air

or standards

ndards for ae

lanning, desi

ing to techn

to several sp

operations u

e‐off proble

r interrelatin

opters.

the form of

states is ob

e points in

PROPERTI

one of the m

pment and p

y be expecte

nd to be agr

r carriers be

s is Interna

erodromes u

igning and o

ology evolut

ecific issues

under restri

m, e.g.

g specificatio

working pa

bliged to iss

question fo

IES

means to achi

procedures.

d to use the

reed by the

ecame more

ational Civil

used by inte

perating airp

tion.

for a long ti

icted meteo

ons of airpor

pers that ar

ue a nation

or their inte

Page 25

ieve it. In

The only

airports.

aviation

pressing

Aviation

rnational

ports and

me, e.g.:

orological

rts

e sent to

al set of

rnational

D2.1.4 CAS

If there

Recomm

different

• Stan

perf

ensu

cann

the n

• Reco

conf

as d

mem

natio

reco

cons

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

is a need, th

mended Prac

t levels of ob

ndards conta

ormance, pe

ure safety o

not accept th

national stan

ommendatio

figuration, m

esirable in t

mber states s

onal regulat

ommendatio

sidered helpf

AIRPORT MAINTE

he member s

ctices if it file

bligation and

ain specifica

ersonnel or

r regularity

he standard,

ndard and th

ons include

materials, per

the interest

should ende

tions. The m

ns and the

ful to do so,

ENANCE

state may ad

es the differ

d relevance:

ations for s

procedures.

of internati

, it is compu

he binding pr

e specificat

rformance, p

of safety, re

avour, in co

member stat

e national S

provided suc

dapt some o

rences with

some physic

. Their unifo

ional air nav

lsory to not

rovision.

tions refer

personnel or

egularity or e

ompliance wi

tes are not

Standards a

ch a provisio

f the provisi

ICAO. The p

cal characte

orm accepta

vigation. In

ify the ICAO

rring to o

r procedures

economy of

ith the Conv

obliged to

and recomm

on is importa

ons in its na

rovisions in

ristics, conf

nce is uncon

the event t

Council of a

other phys

s. Their acce

internationa

ention, to in

notify the d

mend practi

ant to the saf

ational Stand

the Annex h

figuration, m

nditional in

that a memb

a difference

sical charac

eptance is co

al air naviga

ncorporate t

differences

ices. Howev

fety of air tra

Page 26

dards and

have two

materials,

order to

ber state

between

cteristics,

onsidered

tion. The

hem into

between

ver it is

ansport.

D2.1.4 CAS

4. CON

CORRE

Airport f

Last one

critical p

• The

bott

• The

oper

oper

Therefor

friction

thermog

which ca

and thei

4.1 CON

The obje

equipme

inspectio

visible at

airport e

• Dete

mea

• Diag

• If th

revis

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

NDITION M

ECTIVE AN

facilities per

e is mainly fo

points which

runway. W

leneck for th

lights and

rate with alm

rations.

re two techn

coefficient

graphy for ill

an produce a

r procedure

NDITION MO

ective of the

ent mainly f

on is its non

t a glance by

electrical syst

ection of th

asures.

gnosis and ne

e correction

sion in order

AIRPORT MAINTE

MONITOR

ND REACTI

rform preven

ocused in con

must be pro

Where the m

he capacity a

electric equ

most no visib

nologies hav

of the pave

umination a

a sudden bla

of applicatio

NITORING O

thermograp

for electrica

n‐intrusivene

y the operato

tems are des

he defect b

ecessary acti

n indicated i

r to observe t

ENANCE

RING AND

IVE METH

ntive, correc

ndition of in

operly monito

mechanical c

and security o

uipment rela

bility but stil

e been ident

ement in o

nd other rela

ckout, and c

on are explai

OF ELECTRIC

phy inspectio

l systems w

ess i.e. can b

ors and tech

scribed in de

y means of

on for its co

n the previo

the obtained

D NDT TEC

HODS

ctive, and sy

frastructure

ored and lat

condition of

of the airpor

ated to the

ll lights are e

tifies as succ

order to gua

ated electric

compromise

ined below.

PARTS: THE

on is to dete

which exhibit

be performe

nicians. Proc

etail below:

f the electr

rrection if al

ous section t

d results.

CHNIQUES

ystematic an

and electric

er on mainta

f the pavem

rt, especially

illumination

essential in m

cessful ones

arantee the

c assets in ord

airport safet

RMOGRAPH

ect and to ev

t abnormal h

ed without s

cedure steps

rical infrared

lowed unde

takes place,

S AS AN A

d condition

c assets. In fa

ained:

ment in term

y in harsh clim

n. Nowadays

many infrast

in airports:

desired sa

der to predic

ty conditions

HY

valuate defec

heating. Ma

hutdown an

s to perform

d thermogra

r existing circ

it is again c

ALTERNAT

based main

act airports

ms of frictio

mate.

s many airp

tructures for

Measureme

afety condit

ct abnormal

s. These tech

ctive elemen

ain advantag

nd shows fai

a thermal re

aphy and n

cumstances,

come to the

Page 27

TIVE TO

ntenance.

have two

on is the

ports can

r airplane

ent of the

ions and

behavior

hnologies

nts in the

ge of this

lures not

evision of

necessary

,

e thermal

D2.1.4 CAS

• In ca

mus

whe

The resu

color ph

a defect

has been

The exist

is grante

place. Th

exist and

Said this

of the re

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ase the oper

t be schedu

n some safe

ult from the t

otograph loc

has been de

n realized.

tence of a “h

ed to him. Th

he criteria fo

d procedures

s, the rules o

eal temperat

AIRPORT MAINTE

rating charac

led and per

ty barriers m

thermograp

cated to the

etected. On t

hot spot” wi

his “hot spot

or correction

s to follow fo

on which the

ure on the “

ENANCE

cteristics or

formed acco

must be take

FIGUR

hy inspectio

left which p

this photogra

th an abnor

” will stay or

n of the defe

or such corre

e qualificatio

hot spot” an

other condit

ording to the

n down or as

RE 8. TERMOG

n is seen in t

purpose is to

aphy those p

mal tempera

r increase if t

ect, is based

ections for th

on of the def

nd the actual

tions do not

e existing pr

sset must sh

GRAPHY

the picture t

help in the l

points are m

ature is inde

the element

on the spec

he element in

fect is based

l load at the

t allow the c

rocedure. Th

utdown.

to the right.

ocation of th

arked in whi

pendent of t

is not correc

cifications an

n which the

depends on

time of the e

corrective ac

his normally

It correspon

he elements

ich the meas

the qualifica

cted in whic

nd special no

hotspot take

n the measur

evaluation.

Page 28

ction, this

happens

ds to the

s in which

surement

ation that

h it takes

orms that

e place.

red value

D2.1.4 CAS

The qual

Tm= Me

•

•

•

•

When it

element

measure

docume

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

lification rule

asured temp

If Tm‐Tn > 10

o Very

cond

com

o Imm

inten

If Tm‐Tn > 65

o Serio

cond

com

o If (Tm

If Tm‐Tn > 30

o Low

If Tm‐Tn < 30

o No r

t is consider

ts, as well as

ement and e

nted in a sep

AIRPORT MAINTE

es can be as

perature, Tn=

00º C:

y serious. It

ditions of th

mprises.

mediate corr

nsity withou

5º C:

ous. It is a s

ditions of th

mprises.

m‐Tn) > 75º

0º C:

w risk. Overhe

If (Tm‐Tn

If (Tm‐T

(30) day

0º C:

risk. Overhea

red that the

s of electrica

evaluation i

parate repor

ENANCE

follows:

= Normal tem

is a risk fo

e element t

ection need

t previous co

small risk fo

e element t

C: Urgent co

eat that, if no

n) > 50º C: C

n) < 50º C:

s.

at that does

heating de

al resistance

s needed to

t.

mperature

r a change

that affects

ded. In no c

orrection of

or a change

that affects

orrection. In

ot correcting

Correction so

Correction i

not affect th

efect is not

of contact,

o determine

in the mate

the operatio

case load th

the defect.

in the mate

the operatio

a maximum

g itself, can b

oon. In a max

n limited ter

he correct op

related to c

or by other

e the cause

erial‐, mecha

on of the eq

he element

erial‐, mecha

on of the eq

term of seve

become serio

ximum term

rm. In a max

peration of th

onditions of

reasons, an

of the hea

anical‐, and

quipment of

with the m

anical‐ and

quipment of

en (7) days.

ous.

of fifteen (1

ximum term

he equipmen

f design of

n additional

ting. This sh

Page 29

electrical

f which it

maximum

electrical

f which it

15) days.

of thirty

nt.

electrical

electrical

hould be

D2.1.4 CAS

Other ty

lighting

Harmon

4.2 CON

The runw

The frict

• Text

• Hum

• Spee

• The

• Pres

• Tem

FIGURE

Measure

of techn

operatio

The tech

the mac

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ypical param

are: Voltage

ic distortion

NDITION MO

way surfaces

tion coefficie

ture of the su

midity.

ed.

type of tire:

ssure of infla

mperature: en

E 9. LTU EQUI

ements of ro

nology is per

ons in frozen

hniques used

hine that it i

AIRPORT MAINTE

meters to be

e (V), Curren

of voltage a

NITORING O

s can be mea

ent depends

urface.

materials, d

tion of the ti

nvironmenta

IPMENT FOR

oad grip are i

rforming rese

surfaces.

d for these m

s used. The t

ENANCE

measured i

nt (A), Powe

nd Harmonic

OF CIVIL INFR

asured, obtai

on:

rawing, diam

ire.

al, of the trac

FRICTION ME

ROAD FR

important fo

earch about

measuremen

types that w

in the electr

r (w, active

c distortion o

RASTRUCTUR

ining indices

meter, width

ck, the tire.

EASUREMENT

ICTION GROU

or the Swedis

t friction in c

nts are descr

we can use ar

rical facilitie

and reactive

of current.

RE: RUNWAY

s of quality fo

, tread.

T IN ROADS AN

UP AT LTU.

sh Transport

cold climate

ribed in the

e:

s to assure

e), Crest fac

Y FRICTION M

or the friction

ND RUNWAYS

t Administrat

due to the

next part. Th

the depend

ctor in curre

MONITORIN

n bearing.

S. COURTESY

tion. Lulea U

criticality of

he result dep

Page 30

ability of

nt signal,

NG

OF THE

University

f airplane

pends on

D2.1.4 CAS

• Dece

• Brak

• Mea

• Mea

• Mea

• Mea

• Desl

• Mea

The Tap

consists

“g”. The

The mea

braking

vertical

automob

The phy

must be

The mea

the meth

giving a

The gras

of which

The valu

one of c

11% less

The roug

of tread

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

elerometer,

ke‐dynanome

asuring of Ta

asuring of the

asuring of fric

asuring of fric

izometer (Sk

asuring of gra

ley measure

in one devic

methodolog

asurer of the

with two w

force, and a

bile, and pro

sical charact

between 0.5

asurers of fri

hodology. Th

continuous r

sping measu

h is of smoot

ues that they

coefficient µ

s, and break

gh character

with bitume

AIRPORT MAINTE

DEC

eter, BRD

pley, APT

e coefficient

ction in track

ction in surfa

kiddometer),

asping or it t

er, it can be e

ce with an o

gy of the me

e coefficient

wheels to 15

a tank dunk

ovides a cont

teristics of t

5 and 0,7.

ction in trac

hey have one

registry.

rer is the lig

h band with

y are given fo

gives less ar

dynamomet

ristics of the

ens modified

ENANCE

µ (mu Mete

k (Runway Fr

ace (Surface

, SKH or SKL

akes hold (G

electronic or

oil shock abs

asurement is

µ consists in

º. One third

ing the surf

tinuous mea

he apparatu

k, surface an

e rolls to eva

htest device

slip of 15% t

or the deslizo

round 7%; th

ter, a lower 1

tracks can b

d, placing cem

er), MUM

riction Teste

Friction Test

Griptester), G

r mechanic.

sorber, that

s like in the p

n a small cart

d allows the

face with a

asurement o

us vary accor

nd deslizome

aluate the fri

e of the men

that is the on

ometer and

he one of fri

18%.

be obtained

ment mortar

r), FRT

ter), SFH or S

GRIP.

Electronic, a

registers the

previous cas

t of 300 kg t

e sensible su

lamina of 1

of the values

rding to mod

eter are simi

ction by mea

ntioned ones

ne that carrie

the measure

iction in trac

by means o

rs of up to 5

SFL

also called “f

e magnetic v

es.

hat measure

upport. A m

mm is thro

of the fricti

dels. The val

lar to previo

ans of the ap

. It consists

es out the m

er in surface,

ck and the Ta

f discontinuo

mm of thick

friction pend

variation in a

es the force

ass of 78 kg

own by mea

ion until 130

lue of the co

ous in dispos

pplied pair o

of three wh

measurement

, they are sim

apley of the

ous mixture

ness or one

Page 31

dulum”, it

a scale in

of lateral

g gives a

ans of an

0 a km/h.

oefficient

sition and

f torsion,

eels, one

t.

milar; the

order of

s in layer

castrates

D2.1.4 CAS

dripped,

with cam

Device

Locked

Side‐fo

Fixed‐

Variab

F

Equipme

Measuri

value

Measuri

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

, using in all

mouflage aim

Te Type

d‐wheel test

orce testers

‐slip testers

ble‐slip teste

FIGURE 10. MA

ent for the te

ing tow of

ing vehicle

AIRPORT MAINTE

the barren

ms.

TABLE 3. TYPESampli

ters Spot M

Contin

Contin

Contin

rs Contin

AINTENANCE

est

the Mu

of

ENANCE

cases heavy

E DEVICES FOng Provided

Measurement

uous record

uous record

uous record

uous record

ACTIVITIES A

TABLE 4. VATire of test

Type (kPa

A 70

A 70

B 210

. In military

OR THE MEASUAvail

t Dece

Traile

Traile

Traile

Fifth

Traile

Instr

ACCORDING T

ALUES FOR THt Speed

oftest

(km/h)a)

65

95

0 65

airfields one

UREMENT OF lable Configu

elerometer m

er with locke

er towed by

er towed by

wheel in veh

er towed by

umented wh

O LEVELS OF T

HE FRICTION.Depth

ice in te

1,O

1,O

1,O

e has been u

THE FRICTIONurations

mounted in a

ed wheel tow

vehicle

vehicle

hicle

vehicle

heel under a

THE FRICTION

of the

est (mm)

A

m

0

0

0

used mortars

N.

vehicle

wed by vehicl

truck body

N COEFFICIEN

Anticipated

maintenance

0,52

0,38

0,60

Page 32

s colored

le

T.

level of

e

D2.1.4 CAS

Equipme

the frict

Superfic

4.3 ORG

4.3.1 DAT

Records

many k

managem

efficient

Airports

mainten

informat

All recor

understo

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ent for the te

ion in the su

ial texture o

TA

Values

Texture

GANIZATION

TABASE ORGA

are the wo

kinds of val

ment is to co

ly and econo

are efficie

ance manag

tion is the ne

rds, including

ood and con

AIRPORT MAINTE

est

urface

f airstrips

ABLE 5. LEVELSMain

Rege

textu

of

e (mm)

Betw

0,760

N AND PLANN

ANIZATION: CM

rking tools o

luable infor

ontrol the re

omically as p

ent organiza

gement in ord

ecessary fou

g those of an

trolled as pa

ENANCE

Tire of test

Type (kPa

B 210

S OF SUPERFICntenance

neration

ure in a year

ween

0 y 0,400

NING

MMS AND CM

of managem

rmation nee

ecords and c

possible.

ations in re

der to take h

ndation.

n airport, fol

art of an act

t Speed

oftest

(km/h)a)

0 95

CIAL TEXTURE

Regener

texture i

months

Between

0,400 y 0

M DATA, DISP

ment, the me

eded to ma

create a syst

ecord manag

have an opti

low a similar

ive records

Depth

ice in te

1,O

E MAINTENAN

ration

in six

n

0,250

PARATE MAIN

emory of an

ake busines

em that serv

gement. RM

mum decisio

r path or cyc

managemen

of the

est (mm)

A

m

0

NCE OBJECTIV

Regeneratio

texture in tw

months

< 0,250

NTENANCE INF

organizatio

ss decisions

ves the need

M is also a

on making pr

cle. Each step

t program. I

Anticipated

maintenance

0,47

VES

on

wo

FORMATION

n, and the s

s. The chal

ds of the com

an essential

rocess since

p in the path

In the course

Page 33

level of

e

SOURCES

source of

lenge to

mpany as

part of

trustable

h must be

e of their

D2.1.4 CAS

life cycle

returned

In the ta

aircraft a

anomalie

related t

is essent

P

A

B

C

D

E

F

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

e, records a

d to storage

able below, c

activity with

es happen. H

to maintena

tial to optimi

Partial Listing

A Land ac

documeB Legal do

C Mainte

volunteD Constru

drawingE Plannin

shouldF Purchas

AIRPORT MAINTE

are (1) creat

or destroyed

common airp

h landings, ta

However ma

nce decision

ize the main

TABLE 6. g of Records

cquisition re

ents.ocuments, in

nance docu

eer documenuction docu

gs, etc. (6 yeng documen

relevant envse orders, ag

ENANCE

ted, (2) clas

d.

port records

ake offs etc.

any of the re

ns where a p

tenance and

PARTIAL LISTto be Maint

ecords shoul

ncluding leas

umentation,

ntation, etc. (umentation,

ars).tation, inclu

vironmentalgreements, p

ssified, (3) s

are enumer

This data a

ecords (C,D, E

proper know

d conservatio

TING OF RECOtained

ld be kept p

ses, agreeme

including

(6 years).including

uding studie

data/permitpayments, et

stored, (4) r

ated. Most o

re preserved

E and F) are

ledge manag

on of airport

ORDS TO BE M

permanently

ents, etc. .

contracts,

contracts,

es should b

tting, etc. (? ytc. (6 years).

retrieved wh

of these reco

d as juridica

information

gement and

facilities.

MAINTAINED

as should r

logs, purch

specificatio

be kept per

years).

hen needed,

ords are the

l records jus

n directly or i

documenta

relevant lega

hase order

ons, as‐bui

rmanently a

Page 34

, and (5)

proofs of

st in case

indirectly

ry access

al

s,

lt

as

D2.1.4 CAS

5. STA

CONDI

5.1 INTR

The cont

the airp

flight sch

with clea

• prov

• prov

When c

environm

A layer o

• resis

dens

spee

• incre

by th

• decr

cont

take

Icing on

flight pe

sensors

Therefor

The effe

on sever

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

TE OF T

ITIONS

RODUCTION

tamination o

ort’s operat

hedules, resu

aring the sno

vide an effec

vide regular f

clearing ice

ment must b

of snow on t

stance acting

sity and thic

ed and weigh

ease of drag

he wheels, p

rease of bra

tamination is

eoff.

the aircraft,

erformance;

can cause

re, before ta

ct of contam

ral factors, in

AIRPORT MAINTE

THE ART

of an airport

ion. Icing on

ulting in lost

ow and ice. T

tive snow pl

flight operat

by chemic

be minimised

he runway s

g on the air

ckness of th

ht of the airc

and decreas

particularly th

aking effec

s ice, increas

particularly

it can block

the pilot t

ake‐off all ice

mination on t

n particular:

ENANCE

AIRPORT

’s movemen

n the aircraf

t revenue for

Therefore, ea

an

ion in the wi

al means,

d.

urface cause

rcraft’s whee

e snow laye

craft

se of lift of th

he nose whe

ct from th

sing the poss

y on the liftin

or impair flig

to receive w

e must be re

the moveme

T MAINT

nt areas with

ft and its dis

r the airport

ach airport m

inter despite

the negativ

es:

els during ta

er, character

he aircraft du

eel

he runway

sibility of exc

ng surfaces, c

ght controls

wrong infor

moved.

ent areas of t

ENANCE

snow and ic

spersal may

ts and airline

must:

e adverse me

ve impact o

ake‐off run;

ristics of the

uring the tak

surface

ceeding the

changes the

and increas

rmation abo

the airport o

IN EXTR

ce may requ

decrease ut

es and increa

eteorological

of chemical

the magnit

e aircraft un

ke‐off run du

friction, pa

available dis

aerodynami

e the weight

out speed o

on the aircraf

REME WE

ire limiting o

tilisation an

ased costs co

l conditions.

substances

ude depend

dercarriage,

ue to snow th

articularly w

stances for la

ic characteri

t of the airc

or engine c

ft operation

Page 35

EATHER

or closing

d disrupt

onnected

s on the

ds on the

and the

hrown up

when the

anding or

istics and

raft. Iced

ondition.

depends

D2.1.4 CAS

• air te

• runw

• spec

The high

been de

crystals.

• Dry

relea

• Wet

Spec

• Com

com

com

• Slus

will b

The easi

weigh it

aircraft’s

perform

cleared.

5.2 SNO

Snow, sl

leaving r

The snow

and nece

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

emperature

way tempera

cific density o

her the air te

efined accor

snow: Snow

ase. Specific

t snow: Snow

cific weight i

mpacted sno

pression an

pacted snow

h: Water‐sat

be displaced

iest way to a

t. The higher

s wheels. A

ance of an a

By way of co

OW PLAN

ush and ice

residue to e

w plan of an

essary chem

AIRPORT MAINTE

ature

of snow.

emperature,

rding to spe

w which can b

c weight of d

w which, if c

s from 350 k

ow: Snow w

d which will

w is above 50

turated snow

d with a splat

ascertain spe

r the specifi

layer of slu

aircraft, and

omparison, t

must be rem

nsure the sa

n airport sho

icals and the

ENANCE

the higher t

cific weight

be blown if l

ry snow is u

compacted b

kg.m‐3 up to

which has b

l hold togeth

00 kg.m‐3.

w which, wit

tter. Specific

ecific weight

c weight of

sh on the r

if the slush

the runway m

moved from

afe operatio

ould specify

e co‐ordinati

he specific w

; slush is no

loose, or if c

p to but not

by hand, will

but not inclu

been compre

her or break

th a heel‐an

c weight of sl

t is by taking

snow or slu

runway of a

h layer is abo

must be clos

the movem

n of aircraft

the organisa

ion of work w

weight of the

ot a snow b

ompacted b

including 35

stick togeth

uding 500 kg

essed into

k into lumps

nd‐toe slapd

ush is from 5

g a sample o

ush, the high

pproximately

ove 13 mm,

ed if a layer

ment areas of

. Economic f

ation and pr

with air traff

e snow. Thre

but a mixtu

y hand, will

50 kg.m‐3.

her and tend

g.m‐3.

a solid mas

s if picked u

own motion

500 kg.m‐3 u

of a certain

her the resis

y 4 mm is e

the runway

of dry snow

f the airport

factors must

ovision of th

fic control.

ee kinds of sn

ure of water

fall apart ag

d to form a s

ss resisting

up. Specific w

n against the

up to 800 kg.

volume of s

stance actin

enough to a

y must be clo

is 5 cm thick

t quickly and

t also be con

he airport eq

Page 36

now have

r and ice

gain upon

snowball.

further

weight of

e ground,

.m‐3.

snow and

ng on the

affect the

osed and

k.

d without

nsidered.

quipment

D2.1.4 CAS

Preparat

equipme

the mov

perfect c

The train

• Radi

radio

• Proc

the r

• Ope

any

• Airp

can o

Many w

coordina

mainten

represen

When pr

climatic

physical

Priorities

the wint

air traffic

• runw

• taxiw

• apro

• hold

• othe

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

tion of the

ent, training

vement area

condition su

ning of work

iotelephonic

o station; the

cedures for r

runways in u

ration of equ

weather by d

ort. The wor

operate at n

workers from

ate their wo

ance will in

ntatives of a

reparing the

conditions,

characterist

s for clearin

ter plan. The

c control. Pr

way(s) in use

ways serving

on

ding bays

er areas.

AIRPORT MAINTE

whole airpo

new worke

as. The bas

ufficiently in

ers who per

c procedures

ey must be f

emoving of s

use.

uipment. Eac

day or night

rkers must k

ight or durin

m various de

rk. The snow

clude airpor

irlines.

e snow plan,

airport loca

tics of airpor

g snow and

ey can be cha

iorities for cl

e

g the runway

ENANCE

ort for winte

rs and retra

ic requireme

advance of

form the win

. The worke

familiar with

snow and ice

ch worker m

without affe

now the layo

ng low visibil

partments p

w co‐ordinat

rt managem

it is necessa

ation, types

rt movement

ice from va

anged, but o

learing move

y(s) in use

er is very im

ining full tim

ent is that

adverse we

nter mainten

rs must hav

the transmi

e. The proce

must control

ecting safety

out of all pa

ity condition

participate in

tion commit

ment, meteor

ary to consid

of aircraft u

t areas.

rious parts o

only after an

ement areas

mportant. It

me personne

the airport

ather condit

nance should

e the necess

tter and kno

dures are dif

properly the

y of operation

rts of the m

ns.

n winter ma

tee controlli

rological ser

der a numbe

using the air

of movemen

agreement b

s are as follow

includes the

el, as well as

and all equ

tions.

d include:

sary qualifica

ow the radio

fferent for ea

e assigned te

n.

ovement are

intenance a

ing individua

rvices, air tra

r of factors,

rport, densit

nt areas mus

between the

ws:

e full prepa

s the mainte

uipment mu

ations to ope

phraseology

ach kind of s

echnical equi

ea so that th

nd it is nece

al activities o

affic control

such as top

ty of operati

st also be en

e airport ope

Page 37

ration of

enance of

ust be in

erate the

y.

snow and

pment in

he airport

essary to

of winter

llers, and

pography,

ions, and

ntered in

rator and

D2.1.4 CAS

FIGURE

In addit

antenna

sensitive

operatio

arises.

Because

When cl

first sno

usually s

the cent

The proc

snow (d

runway

control o

possible

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

11. AB – RUN

ion to the

s, radio nav

e and could

onal possibili

snow is hy

learing is be

ow flakes, th

still possible

re.

cedure for th

ry, wet, com

is cleared is

on the basis

to open the

AIRPORT MAINTE

NWAYS USED

above areas

vigation equ

d be distort

ties, other m

ygroscopic, it

ing planned,

he clearing

to allow a

he first clear

mpacted, or

s usually spe

of the mete

e airport for

ENANCE

BY VERY LAR

VERY

s, attention

ipment, and

ted by a la

movement a

ts weight ca

, it is necess

of snow sho

few more a

ring of the ru

slush) spee

ecified by th

eorological f

r operations

RGE AIRCRAFT

Y LARGE AIRC

has to be

d the glide p

ayer of sno

reas and acc

an grow qui

sary to this i

ould already

aircraft move

unway depe

ed and direc

he airport du

forecast. If c

within a rel

T (SUCH AS –

RAFT)

paid to clea

path ILS ante

w. Dependi

cess roads w

ckly when t

nto account

y be started

ements befo

ends on the

ction of the

uty manage

critical snow

atively short

– RUNWAYS U

aring snow

enna, the sig

ng on weat

will be cleare

the tempera

. Therefore,

in key area

ore the runw

available eq

wind, and o

r in co‐oper

banks are n

t time. If sn

USED BY OTHE

from the v

gnal of whic

ther condit

ed as the opp

ature is arou

, with the fa

as. At this p

way is closed

quipment, th

other factor

ration with a

not formed,

ow continue

Page 38

ER THAN

icinity of

ch is very

ions and

portunity

und zero.

all of the

oint, it is

d to clear

e kind of

s. Which

air traffic

it will be

es to fall,

D2.1.4 CAS

further c

during a

after the

are tired

If two ru

snow fro

enables

use norm

It is not

predicte

aircraft o

Although

that the

and from

agricultu

Mechan

areas.

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

closure and

a snowstorm

e snowstorm

d and the eq

unways are

om the other

the snow to

mal procedu

economicall

d weather.

operators ar

h keeping th

e airside and

m the airpo

ural compani

ical, chemic

AIRPORT MAINTE

clearing of t

; the snow w

m is over, th

quipment ne

available, it

r. If the airpo

o be cleared

res of cleari

y realistic to

Therefore, i

re informed o

e airport mo

d landside r

rt. It is sen

ies or constr

cal, or therm

ENANCE

the runway

will be blow

he airport h

eds replenis

t may be ad

ort has only o

at high spe

ng snow and

o maintain a

n extreme co

of current co

ovement are

roads and p

sible to con

uction comp

mal means c

will become

wn onto the r

has to be op

shing and in

dvantageous

one runway,

eed. For othe

d ice, or less

sufficient q

onditions, th

onditions.

eas open has

arking place

ntract‐out th

panies, since

can be used

e necessary.

runway as fa

pened as qu

spection.

to open on

, it is often n

er areas wit

used areas c

uantity of eq

he airport wi

the highest

es are availa

he clearance

their equipm

d to remove

It is no use

ast as it is re

uickly as pos

ne runway a

ecessary to u

h lower prio

can be temp

quipment to

ill have to be

priority, it is

able to perm

e of such ar

ment is little u

snow and

clearing the

emoved. In

ssible, but p

nd continue

use equipme

ority, it is po

porarily close

o cope with t

e closed. In t

s necessary t

mit transpor

reas, for exa

used in the w

ice from m

Page 39

e runway

addition,

personnel

e to clear

ent which

ossible to

ed.

the worst

this case,

to ensure

rtation to

ample to

winter.

ovement

D2.1.4 CAS

5.3 MEC

The use

chemica

impact.

mechani

action by

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

CHANICAL EQ

of mechanic

l or thermal

Mechanica

ically to trea

y sanding th

AIRPORT MAINTE

QUIPMENT F

cal equipmen

l methods. I

l equipment

at a layer of i

e ice layer.

ENANCE

FIGURE 1

FOR SNOW R

nt for snow a

Its primary a

t is used mo

ice but unde

12 SNOWTAM

REMOVAL AN

and ice clear

advantages a

ostly for sno

er certain con

M FORMAT

ND ICE CONT

ring from the

are lower co

ow clearing.

nditions, it is

TROL

e runway su

sts and negl

There is litt

s possible to

rface is pref

ligible enviro

tle that can

o improve the

Page 40

erable to

onmental

be done

e braking

D2.1.4 CAS

The spe

extent o

operator

• scop

• capit

• dime

• avai

• clim

At small

day, it m

possible

Airport m

equipme

is flat an

terrain b

snow lay

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ed and qua

on the numb

r must consi

pe of operati

tal and oper

ensions of ai

lability of sp

atic conditio

airports wit

may be best

to close the

manoeuvring

ent, which en

nd the runwa

behind the r

yer on the a

AIRPORT MAINTE

lity of snow

ber and capa

der a numbe

on

ating cost of

rport areas

are parts and

ons.

th general av

t to outsour

e airport for a

FIGURE 13

g areas have

nables faster

ays are wide.

runway edge

irport runwa

ENANCE

w clearing fro

acity of the e

er of factors

f the equipm

d possibility

viation opera

rce snow cle

a few hours o

3 SNOW REM

e different ph

r and higher

. The runway

e lights, whic

ay is usually

om moveme

equipment.

:

ment

of repairs

ations or wit

earing. Alter

or even days

MOVAL IN SPA

hysical chara

quality clea

y usually has

ch is often n

not deep, b

ent areas of

When selec

th only a few

rnatively, if

s.

IN. COURTESY

acteristics fro

ring of the ru

s inset lights

not paved, m

but the time

the airport

cting the eq

w scheduled

it snows on

Y OF AENA

om roads, so

unway surfac

protruding a

must also be

for clearing

t depends to

quipment, th

traffic move

nly occasion

o they requir

ces. The air

above its sur

e cleared. Fin

the runway

Page 41

o a great

e airport

ements a

ally, it is

re special

port area

face. The

nally, the

y must be

D2.1.4 CAS

substant

selecting

The num

height o

surfaces

worthwh

one sno

equipme

The snow

used for

service

tempera

special ty

a plough

taken int

Other w

ploughs,

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

tially shorter

g the mechan

mber of piece

of snow cove

which are t

hile to equip

owfall with a

ent and vehic

w accumula

r this. The

equipment

ate climates

ype of ploug

h has to be

to account.

winter service

, sand/aggre

AIRPORT MAINTE

r than for ro

nical snow re

es of equipm

er, average a

to be cleare

p airports ha

a great num

cles.

ted at the e

performance

and vehicle

and only a

gh which rem

considered

e vehicles a

egate trucks,

ENANCE

oads. All thes

emoval equi

ment for win

amount of s

d, and the t

ving a total

mber of exp

edge of the

e of the sno

s; it is also

small layer o

moves snow a

separately f

FIGURE 14

nd equipme

chemical sp

se are chara

pment.

nter service

snow falling

type and int

snowfall be

pensive and

runway mus

ow blower i

o the most

of snow cov

at high speed

for each cas

CASTING TYP

ent used in

preaders, tan

cteristics wh

can be spec

within one

ensity of the

low 40 cm a

high perfor

st be remov

s a critical p

expensive e

ver a year, it

d, rather tha

e, because s

PE PLOUGHS

larger airpo

nkers, and lo

hich have to

ified on the

snowfall, are

e air operati

a year and up

rmance piec

ved. Snow b

parameter in

equipment.

t is sometim

n a snow blo

several othe

rts include a

aders.

be consider

basis of the

ea of the m

ions. It is us

p to 5 cm of

ces of winte

blowers are

n the fleet o

At some ai

mes possible

ower. The us

er factors ha

air blower m

Page 42

red when

e average

ovement

sually not

f snow in

er service

normally

of winter

rports in

to use a

e of such

ave to be

machines,

D2.1.4 CAS

When re

they wil

surface o

brush be

There ar

at 4.5 m

each bei

an inset

material

blades, t

low wei

Howeve

expensiv

An airpo

snow blo

m. At a

removal

the main

25 perce

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

emoving sma

ll clean the

of the runw

eing excessiv

re many type

m and more

ing separate

light, the ap

s, which hav

their friction

ght of the

r, special w

ve and its pu

ort with regu

owers capab

airports with

of a 2.5 cm

n runway w

ent more tim

AIRPORT MAINTE

all layers of s

surface of

ay is electro

vely worn.

es of special

. The blade

ely spring or

ppropriate se

ve three mai

coefficient

blade and l

winter maint

urchase at s

ular air trans

ble of throwin

h regular com

snowfall fro

ith the apro

e than clearin

F

ENANCE

snow, it is b

the runway

onically contr

ploughs for

e portion of

hydraulically

ection will lift

in advantage

with the sur

ow friction

tenance equ

maller airpo

sportation sh

ng snow with

mmercial tra

m the main r

on. It has bee

ng a runway

FIGURE 15 PLO

est to use a

y properly.

rolled so as

airport use.

f some airpo

y loaded. If

t. Modern b

es. They are

rface of the r

coefficient

uipment de

orts with mo

hould be eq

h a specific w

ansport, ther

runway and

en shown th

of comparab

OUGHING COS

ir blower ma

The height

to clean the

The widest

ort ploughs

the blade co

blades are pr

substantially

runway is low

contribute t

spite its hig

oderate traffi

quipped with

weight of 400

re should be

from the tw

hat clearing a

ble area.

STS/DISTANC

achines to sw

of the rota

e runway tho

are wider th

is divided in

ontacts an o

oduced of lig

y lighter tha

w, and they

to decrease

gher produc

ic must be ca

h one or mo

0 kg.m‐3 a d

e sufficient e

o most used

a taxiway re

E

weep the sno

ary brush ab

oroughly wit

han any road

nto several

obstacle, for

ght composit

an the comm

do not corro

d fuel cons

ctivity is al

arefully cons

re high perf

distance of at

equipment t

d taxiways co

quires appro

Page 43

ow, since

bove the

thout the

d plough,

sections,

example,

te carbon

mon steel

ode. The

umption.

so more

sidered.

formance

t least 30

to ensure

onnecting

oximately

D2.1.4 CAS

Pavemen

the main

of air tra

• 40 0

• 10 0

• 6 00

• 6 00

Two plo

should c

Similarly

include v

from on

apron. T

weight 4

• 40 0

• 6 00

• 6 00

poss

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

nt surface co

n runway an

ansport mov

000 and more

000 to 40 000

00 to 10 000

00 and less at

ughs should

orrespond to

y, the equipm

vehicles and

e runway, t

The airport s

400 kg.m‐3 a

000 and more

00 to 40 000

00 and less m

sible.

AIRPORT MAINTE

onditions are

d from the t

ements (atm

e atm, the sn

0 atm, the sn

atm, the sno

tm, the snow

be included

o the perform

FIG

ment for a g

d equipment

he taxiway

should be eq

t least 15 m

e movement

movements:

movements:

ENANCE

e also a conce

two taxiways

m):

now should b

now should b

ow should be

w should be r

d in the work

mance of the

GURE 16 SNO

general aviat

for winter o

connecting

quipped with

. The snow

ts a year: the

: a year the s

a year the

ern. A 2.5 cm

s within the

be removed

be removed w

e removed w

removed wit

k group in fr

e snow blowe

W BLOWER S

tion airport,

operations th

the runway

h one snow b

layer 2.5 cm

e snow shoul

snow should

snow should

m thick layer

following tim

within 30 m

within one h

within two ho

thin two hou

ront of each

er.

SELECTION CA

which serve

hat ensure t

with the ap

blower capa

thick must b

ld be remove

be removed

d be remove

of snow sho

me limits wit

inutes

hour

ours

urs, where po

snow blowe

ARD

es aircraft up

he removal o

pron, and fro

ble of throw

be removed

ed within tw

d within four

ed within fo

uld be remo

th the stated

ossible.

er; their perf

p to 5 700 kg

of 2.5 cm sn

om 20 perce

wing snow of

as follows:

wo hours

r hours

our hours, w

Page 44

ved from

d number

formance

g, should

now layer

nt of the

a specific

here it is

D2.1.4 CAS

The airp

value tha

The perf

which m

the snow

relations

For the

The perf

and in m

real con

capacity

The perf

affected

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ort should h

an 2.5 cm m

FIGURE 1

formance of

must be remo

w is to be re

ship is linear

example giv

formance da

most cases th

nditions unle

of the snow

formance of

by the same

AIRPORT MAINTE

ave at least

ust be used

17 SNOW BLO

f winter serv

oved from th

emoved dete

r.

en in table 6

ata of snow

hey are opti

ess referenc

w blower can

other equip

e factors.

ENANCE

one plough

at airports w

OWER IS USUA

vice vehicles

he movemen

ermines the

6, the snow

blowers give

mistic. The

es can be o

be 40 to 50

pment must

with a perfo

with extreme

ALLY THE MO

s and equipm

t areas. The

capacity of w

blower mus

en by the pr

performanc

obtained fro

percent low

be higher th

ormance equ

e weather co

ST EXPENSIVE

ment must m

e location of

winter servic

st remove at

roducers mu

ce must be v

om other air

wer than the g

hat of the sn

al to that of

onditions.

E WINTER EQ

match the to

the moveme

ce vehicles a

t least 4,400

st be consid

verified by a

rport operat

given capaci

ow blower,

f the blower.

QUIPMENT

otal volume

ent areas fro

and equipme

0 t of snow p

dered as app

a practical te

tors. In prac

ity.

but their se

Page 45

A higher

of snow

om which

ent. The

per hour.

proximate

est under

ctice, the

lection is

D2.1.4 CAS

1M

P

T

T

In some

small gra

resort w

Sand is

kind of s

does not

material

and the

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

1Main runway

Parallel taxiw

Two connect

Total area to

Snow

group o

Tempera

Snow de

3Snow vol

Snow ma

Snow blo

countries, th

ain of sand

when it is not

used primar

sand must be

t guarantee

, which doe

leading edge

AIRPORT MAINTE

TABLE 7

P ty

way with con

tor taxiway

o be cleared

removal

of airports)

ature

ensity

Determlume

ass

ower capacit

he use of san

can damage

possible to

rily at very

e carefully ch

braking, and

s not get th

es of propell

ENANCE

. DETERMINA

t t b

nnectors

time (

mination of s

y per hr

nd is permitt

e an engine

use other ch

low tempera

hecked. Fine

d it can be e

rough a siev

er blades.

ATION OF SNO

l d3 000 x

3 000 x

400 x 2

1st 30 min.

‐ 4 ° C

400 k

snow blowe222 00

5 500 x

ted to impro

blade if suck

hemical or m

atures, whe

sand which

easily blown

ve with 4.76

OW BLOWER

x 45 m

x 23 m

23 m

kg.m‐3

r capacity0 x 0.025

x 400

ove braking a

ked into it, s

mechanical m

n the use o

can fall thro

off the runw

mm mesh c

CAPACITY

135 000

69 000

9 200 m

4 800 m

4 000 m

222 000

5 550 m3

2 200 000

4 400 000

ction on the

so sand shou

means to rem

f chemicals

ough a sieve

way surface

an damage t

0 m2

m2

m2

m2

m2

0 m2

0 kg

0 kg

e runway. Ho

uld be used

move the ice.

is not effec

with 0.297 m

by the wind

the jet engin

Page 46

owever, a

as a last

ctive. The

mm mesh

d. Coarse

ne blades

D2.1.4 CAS

Individua

enough

contain

crushed

To incre

individua

the temp

• heat

• melt

• spra

After the

and vacu

5.4 CHEM

Chemica

number

neither t

environm

over the

action is

only on

thermal

Chloride

effective

countrie

damages

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

al sand part

to minimise

small rocks,

limestone w

ease braking

al grains of s

peratures ar

ting the sand

ting the ice s

ying water o

e grains of s

uumed. The

MICALS FOR

als used for

of often co

the aircraft s

ment must b

e remaining

s practically

the kind a

condition of

es cannot be

e. Sodium c

es. But if it i

s the pavem

AIRPORT MAINTE

icles must b

e the damag

impurities,

with knife‐ed

g action and

sand must b

e well below

d before dist

sprinkled wit

on ice sprinkl

sand have be

runway has

R RUNWAY D

removing ic

nflicting req

structure nor

be minimal.

sheet of ic

zero. Finally

nd concentr

f the runway

e used for

chloride may

s applied in

ent surface.

ENANCE

be sufficientl

e of the me

salts and ot

dges.

d at minimis

be embedded

w zero and ca

ributing it

h sand by bu

led with sand

een embedd

to be cleane

DE‐ICING

ce or to pre

quirements.

r the runway

After de‐icin

ce. Such a

y, the time n

ration of the

y and the thi

de‐icing be

y be used

its solid sta

ly hard to re

etal surface o

ther corrosiv

se the possi

d into the su

an be done b

urners

d.

ded into the

ed in the sam

event icing o

They must

y. They must

ng chemicals

surface is t

necessary fo

e chemical

ckness of th

cause of co

mixed with

ate and part

esist the she

of the aircra

ve substance

bility of suc

urface of the

by:

ice, free gra

me way after

on the surfa

be cheap a

t not be toxic

s are applied

the most sl

or completely

but also on

e ice layer.

orrosion, eve

crushed gr

ticularly if a

ear forces up

aft structure

es. The mos

cking the sa

e runway. T

ains of sand

a thaw.

ace of the r

nd effective

c and their h

, a thin laye

ippery possi

y dissolving

n the meteo

en though t

ravel for acc

pplied libera

pon braking,

e. The sand m

st suitable m

and into the

This is possib

must be swe

unway must

e. They must

harmful effec

er of water i

ible and the

the ice dep

orological co

they are ch

cess roads

ally, sodium

Page 47

, but soft

must not

material is

e engine,

ble only if

ept away

t meet a

t damage

cts on the

s formed

e braking

ends not

onditions,

heap and

in some

chloride

D2.1.4 CAS

One of t

carbonic

an unlim

The theo

concentr

applied

solution,

can be m

clean th

about 30

cleaning

Ure

Pre

De‐

It is bet

recrysta

lower. T

discusse

Higher d

for conc

compon

formed.

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

he most use

c acid – carb

mited shelf lif

oretical effic

ration of the

as a de‐icin

, preferably

mixed with w

he runway a

0 to 60 minu

g of the runw

ea applicatio

eventive

‐icing

tter to use u

llizing up to

This results

d later.

doses of ure

crete surface

ents – k (CO

AIRPORT MAINTE

d chemicals

bamid with c

fe.

ciency of ure

e solution, bu

g or as a pr

warm, or by

water and spr

as much as

utes after ap

way mechani

TABLE 8

on

urea as a p

o – 8 °C. W

not only in

ea for de‐icin

es. After the

O(NH2)2 an

ENANCE

at airports is

hemical com

ea is high up

ut it is possib

reventive an

y sprinkling g

rayed. Befor

possible by

pplication. Af

cally.

8: RECOMME

Urea so

[l m‐2]

0.05 –

0.15 –

reventive ch

When used i

n lower cost

ng pose a g

ice layer ha

nd H2O) in t

s urea. The t

mposition CO

p to –11.5 °C

ble to use ur

nti‐icing chem

granules. Spr

re applicatio

y mechanica

fter the ice h

NDED CONCE

olution

0.1

0.35

hemical in a

n this way

ts but also

reater threa

as been sprin

three phase

technical term

O(NH2)2. Ur

C, the eutect

ea up to –5 °

mical. Urea

rinkling can b

n of urea as

al equipmen

has softened

ENTRATIONS

U

[

1

3

a 35 percent

for anti‐icin

in smaller

at to the sur

nkled with u

es – f (urea,

m urea is use

rea is a non‐

tic temperat

°C. Its advan

can be appl

be performe

a de‐icing flu

nt. The spra

d, it is necess

OF UREA

Urea granule

g.m‐2]

15 – 20

30 ‐ 70

t solution, w

ng, the urea

impact on t

rface of the

urea granules

ice and wa

ed for the am

‐toxic substa

ture, at 24.5

ntage is that

lied in the f

ed dry or the

uid, it is nec

ying will ta

sary to com

es

which is safe

a concentrat

the environ

runway, pa

s, a system

ater solution

Page 48

mid of the

ance with

5 percent

it can be

orm of a

granules

essary to

ke effect

plete the

e against

tions are

ment, as

articularly

with two

n) will be

D2.1.4 CAS

Accordin

dimensio

is a mon

v = k + 2

v

k

f nu

The mag

means th

thawing,

result of

tempera

the runw

slab. Th

runway.

This pee

tempera

The rapi

freeze a

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ng to Gibb’s

ons determi

novariant sys

– f where:

numb

numb

umber of ph

gnitude of th

hat under a

, but its temp

f the consu

ature of the

way surface

is results in

eling occurs

atures slightl

id cool‐dow

nd this caus

AIRPORT MAINTE

phase rule, w

ning the con

stem, expres

ber of degree

ber of compo

hases.

he degree of

certain press

perature as w

mption of t

mix decrease

and to large

high interna

particularly

ly below zer

n as a resu

ses a furthe

ENANCE

which determ

ndition of th

sed as the fo

es of freedom

onents

FIGURE 18 IC

freedom is t

sure and tem

well as the te

the latent h

es to the eut

e differences

l tensions, w

y with new

ro, the wate

lt of applica

er increase o

mines the de

he system (te

ollowing:

m

CE ‐ UREA DE‐

the same as

mperature, t

emperature

eat of thaw

tectic tempe

s in tempera

which cause

rigid runwa

er in capillary

ation of the

of stress in t

egree of free

emperature,

‐ICING SYSTEM

the degree o

his system is

of the runwa

wing. This w

erature. This

ature inside

peeling of th

ays, the sur

y pores of th

urea causes

the surface

edom of syst

pressure an

M

of freedom o

s not in balan

ay surface w

ill continue

process lead

the upper l

he top 3 to 5

face of whi

he runway s

s the water

layer of the

tem v, i.e. nu

nd composit

of a eutectic

nce. The ice

will suddenly

to happen

ds to rapid c

ayer of the

5 mm of the

ich is absor

surface is no

in the capi

e runway. Th

Page 49

umber of

tion), this

mix. This

will start

drop as a

until the

cooling of

concrete

concrete

ptive. At

ot frozen.

llaries to

herefore,

D2.1.4 CAS

before w

penetrat

If urea is

solution

Urea wa

urea. A

There is

particula

discharg

nitrates

waterco

Limiting

dissolved

of de‐ici

In order

retentio

then gr

treatme

The volu

consider

melted.

m3 and

water tr

treated

The use

is possib

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

winter, new

tion of wate

s applied in

and the surf

s originally u

Application o

s then signif

arly where

ged. Therefo

is often mon

urses.

values of co

d materials

ng chemicals

r not to avo

n pools hav

adually and

nt plant or t

ume of wa

rable capacit

Therefore tw

the surface

reatment pla

together wit

of urea must

ble to use mo

AIRPORT MAINTE

runways ha

r into the su

a warm solu

face of the r

used as a fer

of urea incre

ficant growt

it is not po

ore, the use o

nitored in se

ntamination

300 mg 1‐1

s on the airp

id exceeding

ve been built

d slowly dis

the combina

ste waters

ty of a wate

wo retention

pool has a vo

ant in precis

th municipal

t always be c

ore expensiv

ENANCE

ve to be im

rface.

ution, the ne

runway is les

rtiliser. Nitro

eases the co

th of algae

ossible to a

of urea is for

everal parts

of waste wa

should be

port.

g the appro

t at some a

scharged. A

tion of both

from two r

er treatment

n pools have

olume of 20

sely specified

l sewage.

considered a

e but enviro

pregnated w

ecessary the

ss stressed.

ogen accoun

oncentration

in the wate

chieve suffi

rbidden or lim

of the drain

aters of NH4

met when c

priate limits

irports, in w

lternative s

h solutions.

runways at

t plant is ins

been built. T

000 m3. W

d volumes d

according to

onmentally fr

with a protec

ermal energy

ts for about

n of nitrates

ercourses an

cient dilutio

mited in som

age system

max. 3.5 mg

checked thre

s of nitrate c

which contam

olutions are

Munich air

sufficient in

The undergro

Water from re

depending o

the local con

riendly aceta

ctive coating

y will partial

45 percent o

s in ground

nd this disru

on when th

me airports.

of the airpo

g.1‐1, NO3 m

ee to five ho

concentratio

minated wat

e the const

rport is so

the periods

ound tank ha

etention poo

n the conce

nditions. If it

ate‐based ch

g, which red

ly be taken

of the total w

and surface

upts the ec

e waste wa

The concent

rt and in ou

max. 15.0 mg

ours after ap

on in surface

ters are trap

truction of

large that e

s when the i

as a volume

ols is admitt

entration, w

ts use is unsu

hemicals.

Page 50

duces the

from the

weight of

e waters.

osystem,

aters are

tration of

tlets into

g.1‐1 and

pplication

e waters,

pped and

a water

even the

ice is not

of 60 000

ed into a

here it is

uitable, it

D2.1.4 CAS

In fact,

acetates

slippery

Potassiu

disadvan

Acetate‐

and seve

of free o

As noted

already

advantag

Because

which m

In short,

specific s

Potassiu

better to

granules

holes in

the hole

Glycol‐b

glycol ar

glycol‐ba

used on

low price

The disa

volume

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

airport ope

s. They are

surface, the

um acetate‐

ntage is their

‐based chem

eral Western

oxygen in wa

d, however,

built expen

geous to ca

acetates ha

eans anothe

, each airpor

situation.

m acetate‐b

o use a com

s of sodium

the ice. At

s to the surfa

ased de‐icin

re toxic. Sec

ased chemic

its own or

e.

advantage of

of oxygen,

AIRPORT MAINTE

erators are

more effec

eir storage is

based de‐ic

r high price.

icals are reco

n European c

ter. When t

they are mo

sive facilitie

arry on usin

ave lower visc

er investmen

rt must cons

based chemi

bination of g

acetate are

the momen

ace of the ru

ng chemicals

cond, ethyle

cals, which a

in combinat

f all kinds o

and this ser

ENANCE

now rejecti

ctive at low

easier, they

ing fluids a

ommended

countries. T

they decomp

ore expensiv

s for waste

ng urea or g

cosity, they r

t for many a

sider the adv

icals are use

granules of s

e applied firs

t the solutio

nway, where

s have two

ne glycol is

are consider

tion with ure

f glycol is th

riously enda

ng tradition

wer tempera

y are non‐tox

are theoreti

by the enviro

They are eas

pose, carbon

ve than trad

water trea

glycol, espe

require diffe

irports.

vantages and

ed in solutio

sodium aceta

st. As the g

on of potassi

e it acts from

disadvanta

carcinogenic

ed non‐toxic

ea because

hat upon de

ngers life in

nal chemical

atures, they

xic and they d

cally effecti

onmental au

sily biodegra

n dioxide and

itional de‐ice

tment or re

ecially as the

rent spraying

d disadvanta

on for anti‐i

ate and a so

granules dis

ium acetate

m below and r

ges. First, e

c. This can b

c in many c

of its easy m

ecomposition

n the waterc

s in favour

y act longer

do not dama

ive up to –

uthorities in S

dable with a

d water are g

ers. For tho

etention poo

ese are che

g devices tha

ges of indivi

cing. For r

olution of po

solve, heat

is applied, it

releases the

ethylene gly

be overcome

ountries. Ne

manipulation

n in water, t

course. Ther

r of those b

r, they leav

age the envir

–60 °C. Th

Scandinavia,

a small cons

generated.

ose airports t

ols, it may

eaper than

an for examp

idual chemic

runway de‐ic

otassium ace

is released,

t penetrates

ice.

ycol and di‐

e by using p

evertheless,

n and storag

they consum

refore, wast

Page 51

based on

ve a less

ronment.

heir only

the USA,

sumption

that have

be more

acetates.

ple glycol,

cals in its

cing, it is

tate. The

creating

s through

‐ethylene

propylene

glycol is

ge and its

me a high

te waters

D2.1.4 CAS

must be

icing che

perform

through

glycol in

Ice can a

this tec

penetrat

runway.

another

5.5 THER

Thermal

and chem

some ty

using wa

The tech

snow fro

FIGUR

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

treated bef

emicals are

ed directly

which the w

to water and

also be remo

hnology. W

tes the layer

Then the r

de‐icing che

RMAL DE‐ICI

procedures

micals, large

pes of facilit

aste heat or g

hnical feasibi

om pavemen

RE19 ELECTRICA

AIRPORT MAINTE

fore being d

used for tax

in special b

waste waters

d carbon dio

oved from a r

ater is spra

r of compact

runway is m

emical to pre

ING

s for removin

ely because o

ties. Noneth

geothermal e

ility of using

nt surfaces ha

ALLY HEATED

ENANCE

ischarged in

xiway de‐icin

eds made o

s seep. Bacte

oxide.

runway with

ayed under

ted snow or

mechanically

event further

ng of snow a

of the growin

heless, in so

energy to rem

earth heat i

as already be

D PAVEMENT

HOSP

to the wate

ng. Treatme

of bentonite

eria are inoc

h high pressu

high press

r ice, disturb

cleaned an

r icing.

and ice are n

ng price of e

me airports,

move snow

n combinati

een demons

‐ EMERGENCY

PITAL AT SALZ

rcourse. At

nt of waste

powder an

culated into

ure water. Th

sure through

bs it and sep

d treated w

not so widel

nergy and pr

, the local co

and ice from

on with heat

trated.

Y HELIPORT O

ZBURG,

Munich airp

waters and

d sand built

the beds, an

he Küppel‐W

h nozzles o

arates it fro

with a small

y used as ar

roblems with

onditions m

m runways.

t pipes for d

ON THE ROOF

port, glycol‐b

disposal of

t along the

nd these de

Weisel compa

onto the ru

m the surfa

volume of

re mechanic

h the mainte

ay be favou

e‐icing and r

F OF THE REGI

Page 52

based de‐

glycol is

taxiways

compose

any offers

unway. It

ce of the

glycol or

al means

enance of

urable for

removing

IONAL

D2.1.4 CAS

In the ca

electrica

dependi

usage is,

small are

The melt

de‐icing

At most

forbidde

they da

this caus

combina

layer of

5.6 RUN

The surf

of view

volume o

The app

affected

operatio

pavemen

An optim

monitors

conditio

the requ

this inve

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ase of aspha

ally heated s

ng on the sy

, depending

eas like helip

ting of snow

can only b

t airports, th

en. They are

amage the r

ses high inte

ation of high

asphalt runw

NWAY SURFA

face of runw

of protectin

of chemicals

plication pro

by a numbe

onal experien

nt after a su

mum decisi

s meteorolo

n of the run

uirements fo

estment usua

AIRPORT MAINTE

lt pavement

surface laye

stem, it can

on the weat

ports or othe

w is seldom u

e effective i

he use of je

e expensive

unway. The

ernal stress i

h temperatur

ways.

ACE MONITO

ways must be

g the enviro

s used for rem

cedure, the

er of factors

nce. For exa

nny day so t

on can be

gical conditi

nway surface

r winter mai

ally has a hig

ENANCE

s, a special c

r. The syste

melt approx

ther conditio

r places whe

sed because

f the ice is m

et blowers, j

because of t

use of a jet

n the concre

re and kinet

ORING

e kept clean

onment and

moving ice.

application

, the effect o

ample, a suff

that the pave

made on t

ons and the

e. Because

intenance an

gh rate of ret

conductive a

em can prev

imately 2.5 c

ons, between

ere snow or i

e of high ene

melted and t

jet engines

the price of

t blower cau

ete slab and

tic effects of

to ensure go

for the sake

time, and t

of which can

ficient amou

ement does

the basis of

e condition o

the monito

nd in the vol

turn.

asphalt‐graph

vent ice and

cm of falling

n 200 and 50

ce clearing w

rgy consump

he surface o

fixed on th

fuel, they ca

uses an incre

leads to the

f jet exhaust

ood braking

e of economy

the necessa

n be difficult

nt of heat ca

not freeze e

f data from

of the runwa

oring system

ume of chem

hite mixture

d/or snow su

snow per ho

00 W.m2. Ty

would be pro

ption and low

f the runway

e undercarr

ause noise a

ease in the r

e later appea

t gases can d

action. How

y, it is neces

ry volume o

to assess ex

an be accum

ven during a

m the monit

ay and enab

allows a su

micals used

could be us

urface build

our. Operati

pical installa

oblematic.

w efficiency.

y is complete

riage of the

nd air pollut

runway temp

arance of cra

destroy the

wever, from t

ssary to mini

of the chem

xcept on the

mulated in th

a wet and co

toring system

les a foreca

bstantial de

by up to 70

Page 53

ed for an

d‐up and,

ng power

ations are

. Thermal

ely dried.

truck, is

tion, and

perature;

acks. The

covering

the point

imise the

micals are

e basis of

e runway

old night.

m, which

st of the

crease in

percent,

D2.1.4 CAS

The mon

surface b

the com

air temp

tempera

residues

runway

thus obt

The fore

• whe

• whe

• whe

• how

• whe

will p

On the b

more of

same tim

each sur

The runw

a cloudle

“warm”

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

nitoring syst

but also of fo

pany use as

perature, dew

ature of the

s of the de‐

condition fo

taining variou

ecast can esti

ther the tem

n the tempe

ther the surf

w long the tem

ther the res

prevent the

basis of the e

a burden tha

me, optimise

rface there a

FIGURE 20 L

way surface

ess and win

places on th

AIRPORT MAINTE

em must be

orecasting co

input data t

w point tem

surface of th

icing fluid o

r 24 hours.

us alternativ

imate the fo

mperature of

erature of the

face of the r

mperature o

idues of de‐

formation o

experience o

an a useful a

es their locat

re critical “co

LOCATION OF

is scanned b

dless night,

he runway (F

ENANCE

capable not

onditions lea

the output fr

perature, am

he pavement

on the runw

It is possible

ve forecasts.

ollowing:

f the runway

e runway su

unway will b

f the runway

icing materia

f ice.

f a number o

id. The syste

tion by mapp

old” places, w

SENSORS IN

by the therm

it is possible

Figure 18‐9).

t only of ind

ading to icin

rom the sens

mount and ce

t, temperatu

way surface.

e to enter the

y surface will

rface will fal

be wet when

y surface wil

al from the l

of airports, a

em decrease

ping the runw

which freeze

THE “COLD” A

movisual cam

e to see the

Average co

dicating the a

g. Modern s

sors of autom

eiling of clou

ure under th

The syste

e weather fo

fall below 0

l below 0 °C

the temper

l remain belo

last applicat

monitoring

s the necess

way surface

e before othe

AND THE “WA

mera under t

e maximum c

onditions are

appearance

systems such

matic station

uds, speed o

e surface of

m is capabl

orecast into t

°C

ature is belo

ow 0 °C

ion on the su

system that

ary number o

with a therm

er surfaces o

ARM” POINT

hree differen

contrast bet

5/8 cloud c

of ice on the

h as that pro

ns; these mo

of wind, prec

f the runway

e of foreca

the system m

ow 0 °C

urface of the

t is too comp

of sensors an

movisual cam

n the runwa

OF THE RWY

nt condition

tween the “c

cover and a

Page 54

e runway

duced by

onitor the

cipitation,

y, and the

sting the

manually,

e runway

plicated is

nd, at the

mera. On

y.

s. During

cold” and

2.5 to 10

D2.1.4 CAS

m.s‐1 w

gives th

mapping

which, fr

In this w

the cons

5.7 AIRC

It is dan

sufficien

flying th

roughen

surface

critical d

Research

decrease

percent

many pla

critical s

The Ass

aircraft

aircraft

protectio

surfaces

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ind speed. A

e smallest t

g is evaluate

rom the poin

way, it is poss

struction cos

CRAFT DE‐ICI

ngerous for

nt lift require

e airplane at

ning of the

and from t

during and sh

h has show

e the maxim

to 7 percen

aces, de‐icin

urface of an

ociation of

surfaces. De

to provide

on against t

of the aircra

AIRPORT MAINTE

A wet night w

temperature

ed, the sens

nt of view of

sible to simp

sts.

ING

r an aircraft

es high value

t high angles

airfoil surfa

the increase

hortly after t

n that even

mum lift coef

nt. This mea

g must be ca

airplane.

European A

e‐icing is a

clean surfac

the formatio

aft for a limit

ENANCE

with more th

e differences

sors are pla

temperature

plify the mon

t to take o

es for the lift

s of attack. S

ce, from th

e of aerodyn

ake‐off at lo

a 0.5 mm

fficient by up

ns that even

arried out be

Airlines reco

procedure b

ces, while a

on of frost

ted period o

han 6/8 clou

s between

ced into “co

e, are the m

nitoring syste

ff while it

t coefficient.

Snow and co

e prematur

namic resist

w speeds.

layer cover

p to 33 perc

n a small lay

efore take‐of

ommends de

by which fro

anti‐icing is

or ice and

of time (hold

d cover with

individual p

old” places

ost stable.

em, to increa

is contamin

This is achie

ontamination

e separation

tance and a

ring the who

cent and the

yer of ice is

ff if there is f

e‐icing and

ost, ice, slus

a precautio

accumulatio

over time).

h a cloud bas

laces on th

and for com

ase its reliab

nated by sn

eved by usin

n reduces the

n of the air

aircraft weig

ole upper a

e stalling ang

not “insignif

frost, ice or s

anti‐icing fo

sh or snow

onary proced

on of snow

se of less tha

e runway. A

mparison int

bility, and to

now or ice.

ng flaps and

e available l

rflow from t

ght. The sit

rea of the w

gle of attack

ficant.” Ther

snow adheri

or the treat

is removed

dure which

or slush on

Page 55

an 600 m

After the

to places

decrease

Creating

slots and

ift due to

the wing

uation is

wing can

k from 13

refore, in

ng to any

tment of

from an

provides

n treated

D2.1.4 CAS

FIGURE

DIAGRA

DE‐ICIN

• TYPE

long

the

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

E 21COMPARI

AMS FOR AQU

NG FLUIDS) AG

FIGU

I – DE‐ICING FL

g term prote

remainder c

AIRPORT MAINTE

SON OF THE

UEOUS SOLUT

GAINST TYPE

FLUIDS

URE 22 AIRCRA

LUIDS are use

ction agains

consists of w

ENANCE

FREEZING PO

TIONS OF TYP

II ‐ PROTECT

AFT DE‐ICING

ed for remov

t re‐icing of

water, corros

OINT

PE I ‐

IVE

For d

comm

cove

some

and

simp

redu

A ne

the e

De‐ic

numb

corro

aircra

flamm

G AT VIENNA A

ving ice from

the surface

ion inhibitor

de‐icing proc

monly used

red with th

e airline com

cheap “me

ly brushed a

ction in the

w infra‐red

end of this se

cing and a

ber of requ

osive, they m

aft coating

mable. Four

AIRPORT, TYP

m the aircraft

. They conta

rs, wetting a

cedures, glyc

. However,

hick layers o

mpanies are

echanical” m

away. This le

use of de‐ici

de‐icing met

ction.

nti‐icing flu

uirements. T

must not da

s, and the

types of fluid

PE I FLUID IS U

surface, but

ain more tha

agents and d

col‐based fl

, if an air

of snow, slu

e using an e

method – s

eads to cons

ing /anti‐icin

thod is discu

uids must

They must

mage mater

ey must b

ds are used.

USED

t they do no

an 90 perce

dye. Inhibitor

Page 56

uids are

rcraft is

ush etc.

effective

snow is

iderable

ng fluids.

ussed at

meet a

not be

rials and

be non‐

t provide

nt glycol;

rs ensure

D2.1.4 CAS

prot

Befo

corre

kind

wate

colo

• TYPE

are m

anti‐

the

wate

The

surfa

prot

They

eme

• TYPE

fluid

They

VR le

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

tection of th

ore using the

esponding t

of glycol a

er and 60 pe

ured, they m

II – PROTECTIV

mainly used t

‐icing fluids

cleaned sur

er, inhibitors

thickener in

ace and do

tective fluids

y are norm

erald green a

III – PROTECT

ds. They can

y are designe

ess than 100

AIRPORT MAINTE

e airframe,

e de‐icing flu

o the conce

nd the prod

ercent glycol

must be oran

VE FLUIDS (an

to protect th

are more ex

rface of the

s wetting ag

ncreases the

es not flow

s correspond

mally transpa

and blue gree

TIVE FLUIDS (

provide lon

ed especially

0 knots.

ENANCE

and wetting

uid, it must

entration and

ducer, this c

; it also dep

nge.

ti‐icing) can

he aircraft fro

xpensive tha

aircraft. A

ents, and dy

e viscosity o

w away. The

ds to minim

arent or lig

en.

anti‐icing) h

nger holdove

y for turbopr

g agents ensu

be diluted w

d temperatu

concentratio

pends on the

also be used

om re‐freezi

n Type I flui

As with the

ye. In additi

of the protec

e thickener

mum freezing

ght yellow;

have charact

er time than

rop aircraft p

ure the even

with water t

ure of the e

n correspon

e meteorolog

d to remove

ing during ta

ids. Protectiv

Type I fluid

ion, they con

ctive fluid so

is dissolved

g point. Mos

all colours

teristics that

a Type I flu

performance

n coverage o

o ensure its

utectic poin

nds approxim

gical conditio

e ice from the

xiing and wa

ve fluids are

ds, Type II f

ntain a polym

o that it ad

d in water.

st Type II flu

are a l low

t fall betwee

id but less t

e with lower

of the whole

s maximum e

t. Dependin

mately to 40

ons. If the f

e aircraft su

aiting for tak

e normally a

fluids contai

mer‐based t

heres to the

The compo

uids are not

wed except

en Types I

han Type II/

rotation spe

Page 57

e surface.

efficiency

g on the

0 percent

fluids are

rface but

ke‐off. All

pplied to

in glycol,

hickener.

e aircraft

osition of

t diluted.

t orange,

and II/IV

/IV fluids.

eeds with

D2.1.4 CAS

FIGURE

• TYPE

long

Protectiv

changes

at small

very imp

high and

higher a

aircraft.

point, it

clean.

The pro

may rem

to blow

formed.

It can fo

aircraft.

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

E 23 VISCOSIT

IV – PROTECT

ger holdover

ve fluids are

depending

values of sh

portant for p

d the fluid ad

and higher s

Ideally the

should be

blem, howe

main on the a

it off. Afte

The thicke

orm gel‐like

The thicker

AIRPORT MAINTE

TY AGAINST S

TIVE FLUIDS (A

time. type i

e classed as

on the shear

hear and low

protective flu

dheres to the

shear, its vis

fluid viscosi

reduced rap

ver, is that

aircraft, part

er the glycol

ning substan

deposits wh

the fluid (i.e

ENANCE

SHEAR RATE P

ANTI‐ICING) ar

v fluids are e

s Non‐Newt

r on the fluid

w viscosity if

uids. When

e surface of t

scosity is su

ity should b

pidly, so that

not all of th

ticularly in t

evaporates

nce has prac

hich could re

e. Type IV liq

PROFILES FOR

re very simi

emerald gree

tonian fluids

d surface, as

f the shear o

the aircraft

the aircraft. D

uddenly red

e high up to

t at the nos

he fluid is a

he areas wh

s and only th

ctically no a

esult in bloc

uids), the m

R NEWTONIAN

lar to type

en.

s. The visco

s shown in Fi

on the fluid

is stationary

During the ta

uced, and it

o a speed o

se‐wheel lifti

lways shorn

here the spee

he thickenin

nti‐freeze pr

ckages of fli

ore deposits

N AND NON‐N

ii fluids but

sity of a No

igure. The flu

surface grow

y or is taxiing

ake‐off run,

t flows from

of about 110

ing speed, t

‐off complet

ed of the air

ng agent is l

roperties and

ght controls

s are formed

NEWTONIAN

t have a sig

on‐ Newton

uid has high

ws. This pr

g, the fluid v

the fluid exp

m the surfac

0 km.h‐1 an

he aircraft s

tely; a smal

rflow is not

left, residue

d is very hyg

s of certain

d.

Page 58

FLUIDS

nificantly

nian fluid

viscosity

roperty is

iscosity is

periences

ce of the

d at that

surface is

l amount

sufficient

s can be

groscopic.

types of

D2.1.4 CAS

Dependi

step pro

During a

the aircr

In a two

surface i

fluid is a

pressuris

exposed

polymer

common

The one

IV fluid.

scale. In

Some ty

invisible

method

De‐icing

mobile v

located a

In the ca

during ta

the apro

addition

slippery,

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ing on the m

ocedures are

a one‐step p

raft’s surface

o‐step proce

is treated by

applied hot

sed water to

to higher t

rising fluid a

n types of ro

‐step proced

Operators

n contrast, op

ypes of wing

and a hand

to verify if t

of aircraft c

vehicles on

as close as p

ase of decen

axiing to tak

on; they pen

n, the residu

, and this e

AIRPORT MAINTE

meteorologic

used for air

procedure on

es and to pro

dure the air

y the Type II

and under

o clean the

temperature

and reducing

otary or pisto

dure necessa

from Scand

perators from

g contamina

ds‐on check

he treated s

can be perfo

the apron

possible to th

ntralised de‐

e‐off, the air

netrate into

als of the Ty

endangers sa

ENANCE

cal condition

craft de‐icing

nly thickened

ovide protect

rcraft is first

I or IV fluid.

high pressu

aircraft. Bec

es, they are

g the fluid v

on pumps. I

arily means “

inavia and B

m the rest of

ation are ve

is required t

urface is clea

rmed in eith

and the for

he take‐off ru

icing (at the

rcraft does n

the substrat

ype II or IV f

afety on the

ns and on a

g and anti‐ic

d (Type II/III

tion for thos

cleaned by

To make th

re. At temp

cause protec

applied col

viscosity, the

Instead, mem

“double” ap

Baltic countr

f Europe see

ery difficult

to feel the b

an of ice.

her centralise

rmer uses o

unway thres

apron) both

not freeze ag

tum, where

fluids, togeth

e apron. Th

airport and s

cing.

/IV) fluid is

se surfaces.

the Type I f

e cleaning o

eratures up

ctive fluids a

d. To avoid

e protective

mbrane or sc

plication of

ries are usin

em to prefer

to detect. F

build‐up. The

ed or decent

one or seve

shold.

h Type I and

gain. The res

they contam

her with the

his cannot b

state practic

used for sno

luid; then, w

of the aircraf

to –7°C, so

are less stab

d disrupting

fluid must

crew pumps

the thicker T

g Type I flui

Type II/IV liq

For example

e tactile che

tralised ways

ral specially

II/IV fluids m

idues of de‐i

minate soil a

remaining s

be avoided

ces, one‐ste

ow/ice remo

within 3 min

ft easier, the

ome airports

ble and mus

g the functio

not be pum

s must be use

Type II, or e

ids on a mu

quids.

e, clear ice

ck is the on

s. The latter

y constructe

must be use

icing fluids re

and ground

snow or ice,

completely,

Page 59

p or two

oval from

utes, the

e de‐icing

s use hot

st not be

on of the

mped by

ed.

ven Type

ch larger

is nearly

ly known

r requires

ed stands

d so that

emain on

water. In

are very

even at

D2.1.4 CAS

airports

de‐iced o

To prote

de‐icing

design o

and recy

have the

de‐icing,

facilities

An adva

so that i

co‐ordin

icing. O

the air‐t

after de‐

De‐icing

transpor

the prop

workers,

glycol is

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

where de‐ici

on the apron

ect the enviro

and take‐of

of the surfac

ycled. Recycl

e same prop

, it is possib

have been c

ntage of cen

n most case

nation betwe

therwise, th

raffic contro

‐icing.

aircraft is a

rt. The worke

perties of th

, because du

harmful to t

AIRPORT MAINTE

ing is perform

n stands.

onment and

ff, areas for

ces prevents

ing is often

erties as a n

le to use mo

constructed

ntralised de‐

s it is not ne

een air traffi

e de‐iced air

ol is equally

a profession

ers who perf

he fluids use

uring adverse

the health.

ENANCE

med centrally

increase the

central de‐ic

the escape

performed i

new fluid, bu

obile de‐icing

at Luleå (Sw

‐icing is that

ecessary to p

c control an

rcraft might

important w

al and spec

form de‐icin

ed. Increase

e weather co

y, because p

e safety of a

cing are bein

of the de‐ic

in fluid prod

ut in some ca

g facilities o

weden) and M

t de‐icing can

protect the p

nd airport ad

have to wai

when de‐icin

cialised activ

g must be fa

ed attention

onditions de‐

ropellers and

air operation

ng built on t

cing substan

uction plant

ases, recyclin

r a special p

Munich airpo

n be perform

plane with Ty

dministration

t too long be

g aircraft on

vity with a d

amiliar with t

has to be

‐icing is freq

d the inlets o

by shorteni

the apron at

ce. I n s t e a

s because th

ng is done at

ortal de‐icin

orts.

med immedi

ype II/IV fluid

n or the age

efore take‐o

n the apron

direct effect

the equipme

paid to the

uent and ne

of jet engines

ng the time

t larger airp

a d , glycol is

he recycled f

t airports. Fo

g facility. Po

ately before

d. This requi

ent providing

off. Coordina

to avoid lon

on the safe

ent and und

e protection

ecessary and

Page 60

s must be

between

orts. The

s trapped

luid must

or central

ortal type

e take‐off

ires close

g the de‐

tion with

ng delays

ety of air

derstand

of these

because

D2.1.4 CAS

A new d

Airport

infra‐red

system

surfaces

individua

surfaces

The first

technolo

protectiv

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

FIGU

de‐icing tech

by Process T

d energy wo

is effective

. F i r s t , s

al flakes ma

, but affects

t InfraTek fa

ogy is not c

ve, anti‐icing

AIRPORT MAINTE

URE 24 INFRA

hnology was

Technologie

orking on 3 t

for ice dep

now crystal

kes snow an

composite m

acility in Euro

completely g

g fluid. Howe

ENANCE

ATEK DE‐ICING

developed a

s (now Radi

to 6 microm

posits, but le

s reflect the

n effective i

materials.

ope was ope

glycol free a

ever, glycol co

G FACILITY OF

and tested d

iant Aviation

etre‐long w

ess effect i

e “heat wav

nsulator. Th

ened at Oslo

as a de‐iced

onsumption

F RADIANT AV

during the fi

n Services –

waves is used

ve when sn

ves,” and se

e radiated e

o Gardermo

aircraft sur

is reduced co

VIATION SERV

irst half of t

– RAS). In th

d to melt ice

now is pres

econd, the a

energy does

en Airport i

rface must

onsiderably.

VICES

the 1990s at

heir InfraTek

e, frost or sn

ent on the

air located

not heat al

in January 2

be treated

Page 61

t Newark

k system,

now. The

aircraft’s

between

luminium

006. The

by some

D2.1.4 CAS

6. DES

In railwa

how the

railway a

and prev

A cold c

on cold

Union of

stemme

winter c

switches

Research

that the

increase

Winter w

Therefor

good pra

issues of

selected

another,

unique c

extreme

6.1 CHA

Kiruna A

perhaps

town tha

services

visitors.

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

CRIPTION

ay and aviatio

ey are linked

and aviation

ventive main

limate is kno

climate influ

f Railways (U

d from: trai

challenges in

s and crossin

h Institute) s

e number of

e was 130 %

was consider

re, cold clim

actices, so in

f a cold clim

as a case st

, this airport

conditions a

ely low tempe

RACTERISTIC

Airport, situa

best known

an the mine

in space an

AIRPORT MAINTE

N OF SELEC

on it is neces

d to the effe

n companies

ntenance can

own to have

uence on tra

UIC), 11 Eur

n design (58

n the infrast

ngs (27 %) an

studied data

f failures cau

in switches

red as startin

mate is a cap

n this case st

ate and its e

tudy for two

t is widely us

and availabil

eratures.

C OF THE KIR

ated far nor

n for its min

e. For examp

nd atmosphe

ENANCE

CTED CASE

ssary to und

ects of both

can plan the

n be optimise

e effect on in

ansportation

opean count

8 %) and infr

tructure as:

nd rails and w

from two Sw

using train d

and crossing

ng 1 October

pacity killer f

udy, the goa

effect on airp

reasons. Fo

sed by many

ity for expe

RUNA AIRPO

rth of the p

ne, which lie

ple, Kiruna is

eric research

E STUDY

erstand the

h operation

eir maintena

ed.

nfrastructure

n are sparse.

tries said th

rastructure

performanc

welding (20 %

wedish railw

delays was 4

gs, and 24 %

r and ending

for both rai

al is to identi

port´s infras

or one thing,

y internation

eriments. Th

ORT

olar circle, i

s underneat

s home to th

h, and the I

deterioratio

and the env

ance in a mo

e and its com

In a survey

at their mai

(34 %). Seve

e of equipm

%). VTI (Swed

way sections

41 % higher

% in the othe

30 April, i.e.

lway and av

ify successfu

structure fail

Sweden is k

nal institutio

his is possibl

is Sweden’s

th the town,

he Esrange s

cehotel in n

n processes

vironment. W

ore proactive

mponents. S

carried out

n winter rol

enteen respo

ment for sno

dish Nationa

in the period

in winter t

er railway inf

. 58 % of the

viation with

l practices e

ures. Kiruna

known to hav

ns for many

e thanks to

northernmo

, but there i

pace rocket

nearby Jukka

of infrastruc

With this kn

e way, e.g. c

Scientific pub

t by the Inte

lling stock ch

onses cited

ow clearance

al Road and T

d 2001‐03 a

than in sum

frastructure

e year.

room for tr

examining th

a airport in S

ve harsh win

purposes du

o the low tr

ost airport.

is much mo

base which

asjärvi attrac

Page 62

cture and

nowledge

corrective

blications

rnational

hallenges

the main

e (29 %),

Transport

nd found

mer. The

systems.

ansfer of

e various

weden is

nters. For

ue to the

affic and

Kiruna is

re to the

provides

cts many

D2.1.4 CAS

The airp

the airp

conduct

agency,

their airc

Kiruna A

are depe

airport h

research

the nort

reasons.

Facts ab

Inaugura

Number

Number

Termina

Size of ru

Total nu

Number

Travel ti

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

port’s locatio

port, someth

research a

has conduct

craft, and th

Airport was b

endent on go

has become

h facilities in

thern lights,

.

out the airpo

ated in 1960

of passenge

of landings:

l floor space

unway: 2,500

mber of emp

of companie

me to the ce

AIRPORT MAINTE

FIGUR

on in Kiruna,

hing greatly

nd test pro

ted ozone re

e Met Office

built in 1960

ood transpo

increasingly

the area. M

and the Ice

Tort

ers 2009: 186

1,325

e: 2,500 squa

0 metres x 4

ployees at th

es at the airp

entre: 10 min

ENANCE

RE 25. LOCATI

northern Sw

appreciated

ducts in the

esearch man

e, the UK’s na

. Kiruna’s ge

rt, which is w

important, g

Mining opera

hotel attrac

TABLE 9. FACT

6,069 (dome

are metres

45 metres

he airport: 60

port: 8

nutes

ON OF KIRUN

weden, mea

d by compa

e extreme c

y times in th

ational weat

eographical l

where the ai

given the inc

ations, space

ct people fro

TS ABOUT KIR

estic: 182,65

0

NA WITHIN SW

ans that ther

anies and re

climate. Fo

he town. Boe

ther service,

ocation mea

irport enters

crease in bus

e research, t

om all around

UNA’S AIRPO

54, internatio

WEDEN

re is ample f

esearchers c

r instance, N

eing and Air

has conduct

ans that resid

s the picture

siness develo

he magnifice

d the world

ORT

onal: 3,415)

free airspac

coming to K

NASA, the U

rbus have co

ted research

dents and bu

e. In recent y

opment, tou

ent nature,

for a wide v

Page 63

e around

Kiruna to

US space

old‐tested

there.

usinesses

years, the

urism and

including

variety of

D2.1.4 CAS

At 19,44

inhabite

As noted

in sharp

airspace

As of no

morning

test fligh

area also

2002.

This reg

weather

research

Arena A

commun

those th

having a

Kiruna A

environm

to reduc

related c

emission

6.2 CLIM

Kiruna is

summer

May.

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

47 square kil

d by slightly

d above, Kiru

contrast to

. There it is d

ow, Kiruna Ai

g, around noo

hts over a lar

o suitable fo

ion has very

r conditions.

h and test ca

rctica is only

nity´s wide s

hinking of re

good time.

Airport is o

mental impa

ce its carbon

charges app

ns pay a high

MATE

s located 145

rs and long,

AIRPORT MAINTE

ometers, Kir

more than 2

una Airport c

airports else

difficult to fin

irport has an

on and in th

rge surround

or testing UA

y few hazy d

. This mean

mpaigns bei

y 10 minute

election of u

locating the

owned and

act under the

dioxide emi

ly at Kiruna

her charge

5 kilometers

cold winters

ENANCE

runa is a larg

23,000 peop

can offer som

ewhere in E

nd room for

n average of

e evening. T

ding area tha

AVs, Unmann

days and it i

s shorter w

ng carried ou

es from Kirun

unique exper

re, the botto

operated b

e ISO 14001

ssions and h

Airport; airc

north of the

s. Snow cove

ge municipa

le, the majo

mething ver

urope, wher

test flights.

f eight arriva

he remainin

at is mostly u

ned Aerial V

is extremely

waiting times

ut faster and

na on munic

riences and

om line is v

by Swedavia

1 environmen

as the vision

craft making

e Arctic Circl

er generally

lity ‐ half the

rity living in t

y attractive

re scheduled

ls/departure

g time offers

uninhabited.

ehicles; the

y rare that f

s and more

d more efficie

cipal service

adventures

aluable savin

a, which co

ntal manage

n of zero emi

g too much

e and has a s

lasts from m

e size of Swi

the city of Ki

– almost em

d and charte

es daily conc

s great oppo

. This latter a

first such te

lights are ca

test oppor

ently.

and short t

make it easy

ngs in time

ntinuously s

ement system

issions by 20

noise or em

subarctic clim

mid‐October

itzerland. Th

iruna.

mpty airspac

er flights com

centrated in

ortunities to

advantage m

est was carri

ancelled due

rtunities, res

transport rou

y to fill free

and resourc

seeks to re

m. The airpo

020. Environm

mitting a high

mate with sh

r to the beg

Page 64

he area is

ce. This is

mpete for

the early

carry out

makes the

ed out in

e to poor

sulting in

utes. The

time. For

ces, while

educe its

ort works

mentally‐

h level of

hort, cool

inning of

D2.1.4 CAS

The sun

rise from

mountai

being so

tempera

20 kilom

degrees

The clim

climates

principle

what it is

6.3 SERV

Kiruna´s

region’s

campaig

unique c

Kiruna in

Administ

The airp

practical

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

FIGURE 26. S

doesn't set

m mid‐Decem

in region, in

o far north,

atures feel co

metres from

below those

mate in Kirun

s can only be

es of winter f

s like to fly in

VICES PROVI

geographic

high‐tech

gns. The lon

competence

nclude the fo

tration and S

port can rec

lly every type

AIRPORT MAINTE

SCREENSHOTS

between Ma

mber to the b

ncluding Keb

, winter is

omfortable.

Kiruna, is in

e of central K

na is perfect

e obtained un

flying can be

n severe cold

IDED AND DE

al advantag

industry off

g‐establishe

to offer serv

ollowing: NA

SSC (Swedish

ceive, load

e of aircraft,

ENANCE

S OF AIRPLAN

ay 30 and Ju

beginning of

bnekaise wh

not particul

That being s

n a river val

Kiruna.

for test flig

nder real con

e taught in a

d, snow and

ESCRIPTION

es, including

fers unique

d space and

vices and su

ASA,Airbus In

h Space Corp

and unload

including he

NE AND RAILW

ly 15; this is

f January. Kir

ich at 2 117

larly cold. T

said, there a

ley and this

ghts; the fina

nditions. It is

simulator at

ice.

OF FACILITI

g a stable,

conditions

d research

pport for ma

ndustries, Bo

poration) am

large wide

elicopters. N

WAY IN HARSH

counterbala

runa municip

7 metres is

The dry mo

re local varia

s causes win

al proof of h

s also ideal fo

t home – but

ES

subarctic wi

to carry ou

activities ha

any differen

oeing, Euroc

ong others.

ebody aircra

ASA has exe

H WEATHER C

anced by the

pality is situa

Sweden’s h

untain air m

ations. Jukka

ter tempera

how aircraft

or winter cer

t in Kiruna th

inter climate

ut advanced

ave built a b

t projects. C

opter, Swed

ft and supp

cuted two re

CONDITIONS.

e fact that it

ated in the h

ighest peak

makes even

asjärvi, locat

atures to dr

function in

rtifications. T

he flight crew

e, together

d research

broad, solid

Companies w

ish Defence

ply ramp se

esearch cam

Page 65

does not

heart of a

. Despite

freezing

ed about

op 10‐15

extreme

The basic

w can feel

with the

and test

base of

working in

Materiel

ervice for

mpaigns in

D2.1.4 CAS

Kiruna. I

the ozon

service‐m

meets an

The facil

The airp

Runway

Instrume

lengths:

TORA 25

TODA 26

ASDA 25

Runway

Instrume

lengths:

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

n fact, the A

ne layer. The

minded airp

nd even exce

ities provide

ort’s runway

03:

ent runway

502 m,

652 m (includ

502 m and LD

21:

ent runway

AIRPORT MAINTE

American Spa

e customers

port, easily a

eeds the nee

ed by the airp

y system is cl

with referen

ding CWY 15

DA 2502 m.

with referen

ENANCE

ace Administ

of Kiruna ai

accessible a

eds of the co

port are as fo

FIGURE

lassified in re

nce code 4 D

50 m)

nce code 4D

tration has c

irport have

airspace and

ompanies’ tes

ollows:

27. RUNWAY

eference cod

D with a wid

D with a wid

hosen Kirun

discovered

d large well‐

sting activitie

Y SYSTEM

des as follow

dth of 45 me

dth of 45 me

a for vital pa

and taken a

‐equipped h

es

ws:

etres and th

etres and th

arts of its res

advantage of

hangars. The

he following

e following

Page 66

search on

f Kiruna’s

e Airport

available

available

D2.1.4 CAS

TORA 25

TODA 25

ASDA 25

LDA 250

Instrume

The airp

assistanc

Runway

• Non

Runway

• Prec

Airport L

• The

Runway

• High

PAPI

Runway

• High

6.4 SPEC

6.4.1 WIN

A cold c

particula

surfaces

perform

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

502 m,

502 m,

502 m

2 m.

ent Runways

port’s runwa

ce accordanc

03:

‐precision fly

21:

cision flying C

Lights:

airport’s ligh

03:

h intensive la

I.

21:

h intensive la

CIAL MAINTE

NTER ERGONO

climate puts

ar, their kno

, and heavy

ance. Maint

AIRPORT MAINTE

s:

ays are appr

ce with the p

ying with VO

Category I w

hting system

anding light

anding lightin

ENANCE ACT

OMICS FOR OP

higher dem

owledge of

y and vibra

tenance peo

ENANCE

roved as ins

procedures p

OR and DME.

ith ILS, VOR,

is approved

ning system

ng system, ty

TIONS PERFO

PERATORS

mands on the

how environ

ting tools a

ople perform

strument run

published by

NDB and DM

d according t

m, type Calve

ype Calvert 9

ORMED IN KI

e competen

nmental fac

affect the a

ming tasks in

nways with

LFV (Luftfar

ME.

o the follow

ert 900 m, h

900 m, high i

IRUNA

ce and expe

tors such as

assets/vehicle

n the airpor

the followin

tsverket):

ing:

high intensiv

ntensive run

erience of th

s harsh clim

es, the logi

ts are expo

ng electronic

ve runway li

nway light an

he personne

mate conditio

istics and th

sed to thes

Page 67

c landing

ghts and

nd PAPI.

el and, in

ons, cold

heir own

e factors

D2.1.4 CAS

during m

function

climate a

• Body

• Cont

one

hand

• The

risk o

• Wor

• Grea

focu

and

• Cold

• Main

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

many hours

al capacity

are exposed

y cooling due

tact with col

can see how

d, if the hand

wind chill ef

of hypotherm

rk wear/prot

ater psycholo

us on their o

decision ma

d, ice and sno

ntenance wo

AIRPORT MAINTE

since most

of the techn

to:

e to low tem

ld surfaces o

w the cold s

dle is insulat

ffect; i.e. the

mia.

tective clothi

ogical stress

wn persona

king are sha

ow can result

ork in a cold

ENANCE

of the task

nical system

mperatures, w

of assets, veh

urface of a m

ed with a sp

FIGURE 28. T

e cooling effe

ng can be he

. In addition

l thermal pr

red by these

t in poor per

climate coin

ks are neces

ms is reduced

wind, snow, r

hicles and to

metallic saw

ecial tape, th

TERMOGRAPH

ect of wind

eavy, bulky a

to the actua

rotection. Th

e tasks.

rformance an

cides largely

ssarily perfo

d. In summa

rain and hum

ools. For inst

w handle abs

he heat rema

HY OF HANDS

at low air te

and thick and

al maintenan

his means th

nd safety for

y with short d

ormed outsid

ary, personn

midity.

ance in the t

orbs the ski

ains on the h

S

mperatures,

d therefore,

nce task, the

at their con

r vehicles.

dark days.

de. Due to

nel working

thermograp

n heat. On t

hand.

, which incre

difficult to m

e personnel m

centration, a

Page 68

this, the

in a cold

hy below

the other

eases the

move in.

must also

attention

D2.1.4 CAS

For thes

issues in

vests,glo

Safety a

times.

When a

modifica

facility in

hangar f

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

se reasons o

n order to p

oves and hat

uthorities bu

additional a

ations in the

n order to m

for maintena

AIRPORT MAINTE

perators and

perform the

ts are requi

ut also the c

actions mus

plane to pe

mitigate temp

ance and mo

ENANCE

d techicians

taks with c

red in orde

concept of w

st be perfo

erform any e

perature issu

dification pu

in Kiruna ai

confort but

r to fulfill b

winter ergono

ormed on t

experiement

ues. This insid

urposed whic

irport use w

also keeping

oth safety a

omics since

the plane

or special m

de facility is

ch can not be

winter clothe

g the heatin

aspects reglu

they must w

(both main

mission), Kiru

called Arena

e performed

es prepared f

ng. Therefor

utaed by He

work below ‐

ntenance ac

una airport h

a Actica and

d outside in t

Page 69

for these

re special

ealth and

‐30 many

ctions or

has inside

is a huge

he cold.

D2.1.4 CAS

The Aren

aircrafts

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

na Arctica ha

inolved in d

AIRPORT MAINTE

angar at the

different typ

ENANCE

FIGURE 29

FIGURE 30. A

Kiruna airpo

pe of enviro

9. ARENA ARC

ARENA ARCTI

ort was built

nmental or

CTICA PLAN

CA HANGAR.

in 1992 as a

militar miss

facility for a

ions where

accommodat

instrumenta

Page 70

ting large

ation and

D2.1.4 CAS

tasks to

has simu

feasible

improvin

6.4.2 CON

Vehicles

types of

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

be done on

ultaneously

solution fo

ng the maint

NDITIONS FOR

in Scandivia

f vehicles in

AIRPORT MAINTE

the plane di

accommoda

or maintena

tainability an

R AIRPORT VE

a must survi

order to gu

ENANCE

d require ind

ated the NAS

nce of aircr

nd ergonomy

FIGURE 31. A

FIGURE 32. A

EHICLES

ve in hostile

uarantee the

door facilitie

SA ER‐2, NA

rafts in har

y of the work

ARENA ARCT

ARENA ARCTI

e weather co

e services fo

es. Size of thi

ASA DC‐8, an

rsh climate

ks.

ICA HANGAR

CA HANGAR.

onditions. Ai

r maintenan

s hangar is r

nd DLR Falco

mitigating t

irports facilit

nce of faciliti

rather impre

on. It seems

the icing ef

ties require

ies, aircraft

Page 71

ssive and

s to be a

ffect and

different

and take

D2.1.4 CAS

care of

prepared

conditio

These ve

weather

power ca

warm oi

warmer,

engine;

monoxid

Second a

with sno

function

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

the passeng

d to work in

ns last longe

ehicles comm

r envornmen

able often ro

l can quickly

, less viscou

thus a bloc

de; also heat

aspect must

ow and ice.

ality of the d

AIRPORT MAINTE

gers. Most

such climate

er than anyw

FIGURE 33.

monly use a b

nts. The mos

outed throug

y circulate th

us engine oi

ck heater re

t is available

be taken in

Winter tyre

de vehicles in

ENANCE

of these ve

es. Especially

where else in

. SNOW MAC

block heater

st common t

gh the vehicl

hroughout th

l and less c

duces a veh

more quickly

to consider

es with met

n slipery surf

ehicles are c

y Kiruna airp

Scandinvia.

HINES IN KIRU

r to warm up

type is an el

le's grille. He

he engine du

condensation

hicle's emiss

y for the pas

ration is the

talic or rubb

faces.

combustion

port is locate

UNA AIRPORT

p the engineT

ectric heatin

eaters are al

ring start up

n of fuel on

sion of unbu

ssenger com

gripen of w

ber spikes ar

driven vehi

d relaly up in

T FACILITIES

These device

ng element c

so available

p. The easier

n cold metal

urned hydro

partment an

heels used b

re needed i

icles which

n the north s

es are popula

connected t

for engine o

r starting res

l surfaces in

ocarbons and

nd glass defo

by the cars in

n order to

Page 72

must be

so winter

ar in cold

hrough a

oil so that

ults from

nside the

d carbon

gging.

n sufaces

keep the

D2.1.4 CAS

Several t

in order

procedu

function

minimizi

an unde

FI

6.4.3 THE

Snow re

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

tests are per

to evaluate

res, which p

of the surfa

ing the destr

sired effect s

GURE 35. VEH

RUNWAY CO

moval and m

AIRPORT MAINTE

F

rformed with

the road gr

produce diff

ace and weat

roying effect

since spikes

HICLES AND T

ONDITIONS AT

measuremen

ENANCE

FIGURE 34.MA

h different br

rip. This fact

erent patter

ther differen

t of spikes in

produce goo

TIRES WITH SP

T KIRUNA AIR

t of braking

ACHINES FOR

rands of tire

or depends

rns of smoo

nt tires are se

n the asphalt

od road grip

PECIAL SPECIF

RPORT

coefficient

TEST OF TIRE

s and vehicle

on the asph

th or rough

elected to as

t, especially

but require

FICATIONS FO

ES

es in the test

alt, snow, ic

surfaces, di

ssure the ma

in the runw

more asphal

R THE WINTE

t facilities of

ce and snow

ifferent road

aximum road

way. This side

lt maintenan

ER CONDITION

Page 73

f Arjeplog

w removal

d grip. In

d grip but

e effect is

nce.

NS.

D2.1.4 CAS

The runw

aspects.

covered

Under th

and blow

with ice

In order

meters,

back and

around 1

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

way conditio

It is especi

runway and

hese circums

w machine,

then the fiel

to sand the

has to first

d forth alon

15 minutes.

AIRPORT MAINTE

ons at Kirun

ally significa

d varying tem

stances, sno

a so‐called “

ld master us

F

entire runw

drive up an

ng the outer

ENANCE

a airport ha

ant slippery

mperature aro

w removal o

“PSB”. After

ually decides

FIGURE 36. SN

ay, the sand

d down the

edges of th

ave always b

conditions

ound 0°C.

on the runw

the snow re

s that the ru

NOW MACHIN

ding truck, w

runway on

he runway.

been trouble

when rain a

way is initiate

emoval the

nway should

NES WORKING

hich has a sa

either side

The sanding

esome due t

and wet sno

ed with a com

runway if ru

d be sanded

G.

anding width

of the cente

g of the com

o variety of

ow falling on

mbined plow

unway is still

with warm s

h of approxim

erline and th

mplete runw

Page 74

weather

n the ice

w‐sweep‐

l covered

sand.

mately 15

hen once

way takes

D2.1.4 CAS

Subsequ

Skiddom

respectiv

This coe

subsecti

Measure

• FAA

• ICAO

In case f

again. A

show th

discontin

is not ho

In this p

It is also

and repo

measure

centerlin

believe t

0.05 unit

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

uent to the s

meter Frictio

vely.

efficient is co

on 8.1. This

ement, const

AC 150/532

O CIRCULAR ‐

friction value

A spot test o

hat the ave

nued after th

omogenous i

rocedure the

o up to the f

orting of run

ements shall

ne. Further

that the cur

ts or more.

AIRPORT MAINTE

sanding the

n Tester/BV

TABL

ompared wi

information

truction, and

0‐12C, 1997

‐ FRICTION IS

e is low then

of the runwa

rage increas

he round tri

n the whole

e whole runw

field master

way coeffici

l be accomp

it is stated t

rent reading

ENANCE

braking coe

V11, which g

LE 10. SKIDDO

th the thres

is also conta

d maintenanc

.

SSUES ‐ IATA

n the field ma

ay friction co

sed up to 0

p up and do

area.

way must be

the decision

ents in the B

plished in bo

that a new m

gs on any of

efficient is m

gives the coe

OMETER FRICT

sholds agree

ained in :

ce of skid‐re

A

aster can de

oefficient th

0.40 at leas

own the runw

e checked to

n if the runw

BCL, (BCL‐F F

oth runway d

measuremen

the runway

measured wit

efficients fo

TION TESTER/

ed by Civil A

sistant airpo

ecide that th

at was done

st. Second s

way centerli

o verify the f

way can be o

3.2) it is pres

directions 5‐

nt shall be do

y’s three sect

th measuring

r runway se

/BV11

Aviation Adm

ort pavement

e runway sh

e after the s

sanding hav

ne, and achi

riction cond

operated. Ac

scribed, amo

‐10 meters o

one as soon

tors have ch

g equipmen

egments A,

ministration

t surfaces,

hould be sand

second sand

ve the risk

ieved runwa

itions or at l

ctually, meas

ong other th

on either sid

as there is r

hanged by m

Page 75

t of type

B, and C

BCL‐F3.2

ded once

ing must

of being

y friction

least 4/5.

surement

ings, that

de of the

reason to

more than

D2.1.4 CAS

The mea

runway

and repo

6.4.4 WIL

Despite

aviation

manage

ACI polic

real tim

hazard p

wildlife o

birds, alt

Kiruna i

dangero

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

asured value

is covered w

orting of run

D LIFE PROTE

dissuasive e

are likely to

these hazar

cy stated tha

e and take

prevention a

on the aerod

though the r

s located u

us for the ru

FI

AIRPORT MAINTE

es shall be g

with wet snow

way braking

ECTION

environment

o remain. Ae

ds in a huma

at “Aerodrom

the necessa

nd wildlife m

drome.” In g

risks related

p in the no

unways and p

IGURE 37. EXA

ENANCE

given as unr

w or the tes

action has b

tal measure

erodrome op

ane and resp

me operator

ary measure

management

eneral, the g

to mammals

orth where

pavement ar

AMPLES OF W

reliable whe

st vehicle’s s

been treated

es some ele

perators will

ponsible man

rs must rem

es immediate

t unit, or spe

greatest thre

s should not

many reind

reas.

WILDLIFE CLOS

n the result

peed was les

d specially in

ments of w

therefore n

nner.

ain permane

ely. It is cru

ecially traine

eat to aviatio

be underest

eers and ot

SE TO THE KIR

s are unsure

ss than 95 km

SHK’s report

wildlife hazar

eed to take

ently vigilant

ucial either t

ed and equip

on related to

timated.

ther animals

RUNA AIRPOR

e, for examp

m/hr. (Meas

rt C 1997:36)

rds to the

operational

t to assess th

to impleme

pped staff to

o wildlife is c

s can be po

RT.

Page 76

ple if the

surement

.

safety of

l steps to

he risk in

nt a bird

o manage

caused by

otentially

D2.1.4 CAS

Most co

close by

runway.

colliding

permane

potentia

6.4.5 ENV

Kiruna A

airport in

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

mmon mam

farms. How

On top of t

g with them

ently watche

al danger for

VIRONMENTA

Airport has t

n Luleå.

AIRPORT MAINTE

mmals in Kiru

ever they ca

that, moose

can be cat

ed in order t

the vehicles

AL CARE TECHN

two mobile

FIGURE 3

ENANCE

na are reind

an suddenly s

are heavy a

tastrophic. D

o identify an

s and planes.

NOLOGIES FO

de‐icing syst

38. DEICING S

eers and mo

show up in t

animals whic

Due to thes

ny mammal

.

OR DE‐ICING

tems. The li

SYSTEMS USED

oose. These

the middle o

ch can weig

e reasons, a

coming in to

quid is recyc

D IN KIRUNA

animals are

f the road or

h up to 600

all areas nea

o the paved a

cled and pro

AIRPORT.

living in the

r in the midd

0 kilos so an

arby the air

areas which

ocessed at S

Page 77

forest or

dle of the

y vehicle

rport are

can be a

Svedavias

D2.1.4 CAS

7. DISC

7.1 SUM

Airport a

process

robustne

This inte

which p

different

success t

Increase

advance

enablers

On top o

where m

prognost

aviation

consider

operabil

For that

perform

deploym

must be

the capa

in an ef

perform

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

CUSSION

MMARY OF B

and aircraft

has the uni

ess of the ma

egration is po

perform data

t methodolo

to achieve m

ed airport ca

d maintena

s.

of that, incr

most of the

tics will be o

sector but

red a high

ity, capacity

t purpose, b

ance drivers

ment of these

e performed

ability of Con

ffective way

ance of the s

AIRPORT MAINTE

BEST PRACTIC

maintenanc

que capabili

aintenance d

ossible thank

a integratio

ogies like Pro

maximum ope

apacity and

nce plannin

reased aircra

maintenance

one of the ke

in a harmon

success to

or punctual

better diagn

s to run pro

e technolog

through a ri

ndition‐Base

from a life

system throu

ENANCE

CES (BP) IN A

ce can be co

ity of sensiti

decisions.

k to some en

n, cleaning,

ognostics & H

erability.

security re

ng and prep

aft operabilit

e planning a

ey enablers. T

nized manne

lift up the

ity.

ostic capabi

oper both u

ies cannot b

gorous appli

d Maintenan

cycle persp

ugh the inclu

AIRPORT AN

onsidered a

ivity analysis

nablers in th

fusion and

Health Mana

equires a m

paration bas

ty requires a

and preparat

The introduc

er and not a

whole secto

ility and sm

unscheduled

be arbitrary

ication of ex

nce, which c

pective. This

usion of new

D AIRCRAFT

Multi‐Criteri

s against ab

he industry li

d mining. In

agement (PH

ore proactiv

sed on prog

also a more

tion is carrie

ction of CBM

as an individ

or and its k

marter maint

and schedu

and definitio

xisting agreed

could contrib

would lead

w and innovat

T MAINTENA

ia Decision M

bnormal beh

ike the conce

n fact the m

HM) and MSG

ve maintena

gnostics will

proactive m

ed out durin

M and conditi

ual and isola

key perform

enance have

uled mainte

on of the re

d standards,

bute to main

to an impr

tive technolo

ANCE

Making proc

aviours to c

ept of eMain

mixed applic

G‐3 has bee

ance concep

be one of

maintenance

ng uptime an

ion monitori

ated practic

mance indica

e been iden

nance. How

equirements

i.e MSG‐3 to

ntainability a

roved maint

ogies for PHM

Page 78

cess. This

check the

ntenance

cation of

n a great

pt where

the key

e concept

nd where

ing in the

ce can be

ators like

ntified as

wever the

for PHM

o acquire

allocation

ainability

M.

D2.1.4 CAS

Hence, t

framewo

At the en

they sho

stakehol

analyse t

support.

and ana

incorpor

provision

industry

Mainten

capabilit

support

required

skill leve

transpor

requirem

and airp

achieve

7.2 RELE

The conc

huge am

passenge

sector is

minimum

internati

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

to fulfil KPI

ork of existin

nd of the day

ould be pro

lders due to

the large am

. The informa

lysing opera

ration of e‐

n of decision

where the d

nance in avia

ties. In order

organization

d to support

els, spares an

rtation and h

ments. Follow

ort manager

aircraft oper

EVANCE OF

clusion of th

mount of mo

ers, workers

s strongly h

m sets of m

ional networ

AIRPORT MAINTE

objectives, n

ng agreed me

y, operators

ovided in ag

o the close in

mount of ope

ation gained

tional data a

‐Maintenanc

n alternative

disagreemen

ation has al

r to realize a

n in aviation

the system.

nd repair par

handling req

wing this app

rs can be ful

rability and f

BP VERSUS R

his case study

ney in maint

s and surrou

harmonized

maintenance

rk.

ENANCE

new method

ethodologies

and airport

greed forma

nteraction b

erational dat

from these

are time con

ce solutions

es. This lack

nt is obvious

so the adva

a higher leve

sector has d

. Such resou

rts and assoc

uirements, f

proach, the o

filled due to

fleet perform

RAIL INFRAS

y in summar

tenance of p

nding areas.

with Intern

practices i

dologies like

s like MSG‐3

managers ar

at and time

between faci

ta related to

analyses pro

nsuming, erro

is providin

of data har

even in the s

antage of de

el of achieve

developed a d

urces may in

ciated invent

facilities, tec

operational

o the commo

mance.

STRUCTURE

ry is a parado

planes and in

However, t

national avia

n order to

e PHM have

.

re aiming for

to be und

lities. To thi

o reliability, m

ovides a basi

or‐prone and

ng real‐time

rmonization

signalling sys

etailed descr

ed availability

detailed des

clude mainte

tory requirem

chnical data,

and busines

on language

ox. Aircraft a

nfrastructure

here are no

ation organi

get the pe

been introd

r right maint

erstandable

s end, it is c

maintainabili

s for making

d costly proc

e data colle

is the main

stems.

ription of ne

y performan

cription of th

enance pers

ments, tools

computer so

s requireme

spoken by a

and airport i

e due to the

miracles in t

zations like

rmission to

duced but w

tenance deci

by all inte

crucial to co

ity, and main

g decisions. C

cesses. In thi

ection, analy

obstacle fo

eeded resou

nce, the main

he resources

sonnel quant

s and test eq

oftware, and

nts of the ai

ll of them in

ndustry are

safety const

this process.

ICAO whic

operate w

Page 79

within the

sions but

rnational

ollect and

ntenance

Collecting

is regard,

ysis, and

or railway

urces and

ntenance

s that are

tities and

uipment,

d training

r carriers

order to

investing

trains for

. Aviation

ch define

ithin the

D2.1.4 CAS

Unfortun

like UN

developm

internati

mostly d

somewh

Therefor

thermog

of the se

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

nately this h

IFE or UIC

ment of the

ional author

depend on lo

here else.

re, comparin

graphy or sys

ervice when

AIRPORT MAINTE

harmonizatio

comprise o

e industry a

rities who dic

ocal or natio

ng methodo

stematic ma

deployed in

ENANCE

n does not e

of manufact

and from a

ctate mainte

onal authori

ologies and

intenance ar

a harmonize

exist in the r

turers most

market poi

enance pract

ities who ad

technologie

re not new p

ed and agree

railway secto

tly, being a

int of view.

tices for railw

dapt existing

s, one can

practices at a

ed manner w

or. The inter

good poin

In this sce

way infrastru

standards a

conclude th

all but they g

worldwide.

rnational ass

nt for the

enario, there

ucture and th

already succ

hat technolo

guarantee th

Page 80

ociations

technical

e are no

herefor it

ceeded in

ogies like

he quality

D2.1.4 CAS

8. CON

Mainten

Howeve

countrie

railway

methodo

For exam

friction a

there wa

led by in

the railw

internati

In fact,

needed

same ru

practices

without

along Eu

missing.

needed

infrastru

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

NCLUSION

nance of air

r there is a f

es all over th

industry, i.

ologies and t

mple, there

assessment f

as no harmo

nternational

way industry

ional) to dec

airports alw

since the sam

les. This int

s to optimiz

transnation

urope are h

In order to

and the ado

ucture manag

AIRPORT MAINTE

N

ports in ess

fact. Airports

he world in a

e the lack

technologies

is a major c

for the runw

onized proce

authorities w

y and belong

cide the prac

ways were th

me aircraft s

ernational c

ze the capa

al vocation

aving intero

o get the de

option of air

gers.

ENANCE

sence is not

s are working

a harmonized

of agreed

s.

concern amo

ways. Method

edure to per

who try to a

gs to compet

ctices applied

he platforms

should be ab

ulture has b

city of the

and just ser

operability p

esired capac

rports harmo

t front line

g for long tim

d manner. T

terms and

ong the airp

ds look simil

rform that te

agree in thes

tent authori

d in mainten

s for interna

ble to operat

been very fr

airports. Ho

rving nation

problems be

city a prope

onized expe

research fro

me taking ca

This is the ke

conditions

ports manage

ar, with simi

est. That is w

se practices.

ties (mostly

ance.

ational conn

te in differen

uitful to har

owever, railw

al, regional

cause com

r benchmar

erience can b

om technolo

re of operat

ey factor and

and subse

ers to harm

lar vehicles

why there is

This consen

regional or

nectivity and

nt airports an

rmonize and

ways were s

or local pur

mon mainte

king among

be fruitful fo

ogical point

tors and airc

d existing ga

equently har

onize the p

and technol

a general co

nsus does no

national bu

d harmoniza

nd counties f

d adopt main

seldom inte

rposes. Now

enance prac

existing pra

or rail opera

Page 81

of view.

raft from

p for the

rmonized

rocess of

ogies but

onsensus

ot exist in

ut seldom

ation was

following

ntenance

rnational

railways

ctices are

actices is

ators and

D2.1.4 CAS

9. REF

Referenc

Aczel, J.

Psycholo

AC 121‐2

Departm

Airline H

Akersten

Internat

Alvesson

Kvalitativ

Andrews

Professio

Arunraj,

program

Ascher,

Misconc

ATA MS

D.C.: Air

Aven, T

Chichest

Barabad

Thesis,

ISSN:140

Blanchar

Blanchar

Blanchar

Prentice

Blanchar

and Mai

Blischke,

York: Joh

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

ERENCES

ces

and Saaty, T

ogy, Vol. 27,

22A (l997), A

ment of Trans

Handbook (20

n, P. (2006),

ional Congre

n, M. and Skö

v Metod, Lun

s, J.D. and M

onal Enginee

N.S. and M

mming, Safety

H. and F

ceptions and

SG‐3 (2007),

Transport A

. (2003), Fo

ter: John Wil

y, J. (2007),

Division of

02‐1544.

rd, B.S. (1995

rd, B.S. (2008

rd, B.S. and F

Hall.

rd, B.S., Verm

ntenance M

, W.R. and M

hn Wiley & S

AIRPORT MAINTE

T.L. (1983), P

pp. 93‐102.

Advisory Circ

sportation Fe

000), Washin

Condition m

ess of COMA

öldberg, K. (1

nd: Studentl

Moss, T.R. (20

ering Publish

Maiti, J. (20

y Science, 48

Feingold, H.

their Causes

, Operator/M

Association o

oundations o

ey & Sons.

Production

operation

5), Logistics

8), Systems E

Fabrycky, W

ma D. and P

anagement,

Murthy, D.N

Sons.

ENANCE

Procedures fo

cular, Mainte

ederal Aviati

ngton, D.C.: A

monitoring an

DEM, 12‐15

1994). Tolkn

itteratur (in

002), Reliabil

ing.

10), Risk‐ba

8 (2), pp. 238

. (1984), R

s, New York:

Manufacture

f America.

of Risk Ana

Assurance:

and Maint

Engineering

Engineering

.J. (1998), Sy

ererson, E.L

New York: J

N.P. (2000), R

or synthesizi

enance Revie

ion Administ

Air Transpor

nd risk and re

June, Luleå,

ing och Refle

Swedish).

ity and Risk A

sed mainte

8‐247.

Repairable

Marcel Dek

er Schedule

lysis: a Kno

Concept, Im

enance Eng

and Manage

Managemen

ystem Engine

. (1995), Ma

ohn Wiley a

Reliability: M

ing ratio jud

ew Board Pr

tration.

rt Association

eliability ana

Sweden, pp

ektion: Vete

Assessment,

nance policy

Systems Re

ker.

d Maintena

owledge and

mplementatio

gineering, L

ement, Engle

nt, Hoboken,

eering and A

aintainability

nd Sons.

Modeling, Pr

gments, Jou

ocedures, W

n of America

alysis. In: Pro

. 555‐561.

nskapsfilosof

2nd ed., Lon

y selection

eliability: M

nce Develo

d Decision‐O

on and Imple

ulea Univer

ewood Cliffs,

N.J.: John W

Analysis, Upp

: a Key to Ef

ediction, and

rnal of Math

Washington,

a (ATA).

oceedings of

fi och

ndon:

using AHP

Modeling, In

pment, Was

Oriented Per

ementation,

rsity of Tec

, N.J.: Prentic

Wiley and Son

per Saddle R

ffective Serv

d Optimizat

Page 82

hematical

D.C.: U.S.

the 19th

and goal

nference,

shington,

rspective,

Doctoral

chnology,

ce‐Hall.

ns.

iver, N.J.:

viceability

ion, New

D2.1.4 CAS

Boeing C

Worldwi

www.bo

Campbe

Decision

Candell,

using eM

Mining a

1402‐15

Candell,

In: Proce

Manage

Carey, S.

CCPS (19

for Chem

Chu, M.T

for know

1011‐10

Coetzee,

Mainten

Conache

techniqu

Cooper,

Dahmstr

Studentl

Dane, F.

Defence

Mainten

Vessels,

Denzin,

Dhillon,

Dhillon,

Mainten

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

Commercial A

ide Operatio

oeing.com/ne

ll, J.D. and J

ns, New York

O. (2009),

Maintenance

and Environ

44.

O. and Söde

eedings, 19t

ment (COMA

. (1994), A B

992), Guideli

mical Process

T., Shyu, J.,

wledge comm

24.

, J.L. (1999)

nance Engine

ey, R.M. an

ues to the ma

D.R. and Sch

röm, K. (199

litteratur (in

C. (1990), Re

Standard 0

nance Techni

Issue 2 , Bat

N.K. and Linc

B.S. (2002),

B.S. and Li

nance Engine

AIRPORT MAINTE

Airplane Gro

ons, 1959–20

ews/techissu

Jardine, A.K.

: Marcel Dek

Developmen

e, Doctoral t

mental Engi

erholm, P. (2

th Internatio

ADEM 2006)

eginner’s Gu

ines for Haza

s Safety.

Tzeng, G.H.

munities gro

), A holistic

eering, 5 (3),

d Montgom

arine industr

hindler, P.S. (

96), Från Dat

Swedish).

esearch Met

02‐45 (NES 4

iques to HM

th: UK Minist

coln, Y.S. (19

Engineering

iu, Y. (2006

eering, 12 (1)

ENANCE

oup (2009), S

008, Seattle,

ues/pdf/stats

S. (2001), M

kker.

nt of Inform

thesis, Luleå

neering, Div

006), A custo

onal Congres

, Sweden, pp

uide to Scien

ard Evaluatio

and Khosla,

oup‐decision

c approach

pp. 276‐280

mery, R.L. (2

ry. In: Meeti

(2006), Busin

tainsamling

hod, Pacific G

45) (2000), R

M Ships, Subm

try of Defenc

994), Handbo

Maintenanc

6), Human e

), pp. 21‐36.

Statistical Sum

WA.,

sum.pdf, ava

Maintenance

ation Suppo

å: Luleå Uni

vision of Ope

omer and pr

ss on Condi

p. 243 –252.

tific Method

on Procedure

R. (2007), C

n analysis, Ex

to the mai

0.

2003), Appl

ng of the SN

ness Researc

till Rapport

Grove, Ca.: B

Requirement

marines, Roy

ce.

ook of Qualit

ce: a Modern

error in ma

mmary of Co

ailable online

Excellence:

ort Solutions

versity of T

eration and

roduct suppo

tion Monito

d, Belmont: W

es: with Wor

Comparison

xpert System

ntenance “p

ication of r

AME, Texas

ch Methods,

: att Göra e

Brooks‐Cole

ts for the A

yal Fleet Aux

tative Resear

n Approach,

intenance:

ommercial Je

e, accessed:

Optimizing E

s for Comple

echnology,

Maintenanc

ort perspectiv

oring and Di

Wadsworth P

rked Exampl

among thre

ms with App

problem”, Jo

reliability‐ce

Section, pp.

9th ed., Sing

n Statistisk

Publishing C

pplication of

xiliaries and o

rch, Thousan

Boca Raton,

a review, Jo

et Airplane A

25/4/2010.

Equipment L

ex Technical

Department

ce Engineeri

ve of emaint

agnostic Eng

Publishers.

es, New Yor

e analytical

plications, 33

ournal of Q

ntered main

39‐60.

gapore: McG

Undersöknin

Company.

f Reliability‐

other Naval

nd Oaks, Ca.:

Fl.: CRC Pres

ournal of Q

Page 83

Accidents,

Life‐Cycle

Systems

t of Civil,

ng, ISSN:

tenance.

gineering

k: Center

methods

3 (4), pp.

Quality in

ntenance

Graw‐Hill.

ng, Lund:

‐ Centred

Auxiliary

Sage.

ss.

Quality in

D2.1.4 CAS

Ebeling,

McGraw

Eggenbe

airline re

EUROCO

accessed

Ghodrat

thesis, Lu

Universit

Gits, C. (

(3), pp. 2

Goffin, K

Research

Hassel,

Develop

Universit

Heisey, R

Boeing

4/4/201

Herinckx

Toulouse

Holmgre

Mainten

Homsi,

Enterpris

IEC (200

Guidelin

Electrote

IEC (199

Electrote

IEC (199

Analysis

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

C.E. (1997)

w Hill.

erg, N., Salan

ecovery prob

ONTROL (200

d: 1/4/ 2010

ti, B. (2005),

uleå: Divisio

ty of Techno

(1992), Desig

217‐26.

K. (2000), D

h Technology

H. (2010), R

ing Methods

ty, ISSN: 140

R. (2002), 71

Company,

0.

x, E. and Po

e: Airbus Ind

en, M. (200

nance Engine

P. (2007),

se, VIVACE C

8), 60300 (3‐

e for the Sp

echnical Com

9), 60300 (3

echnical Com

95), 60300 (

of Technolo

AIRPORT MAINTE

), An Introd

ni, M. and B

blems, Comp

04), Challeng

.

, Reliability

n of Operatio

ology, ISSN: 1

gn of mainte

Design for su

y Manageme

Risk and Vul

s and Improv

02‐3504.

17‐200: low

www.boei

ubeau, J.P.

dustries.

05), Mainten

eering, 11 (1)

VIVACE – V

Consortium,

‐16): Depend

pecification o

mmission.

3‐11): Applica

mmission.

3‐9): Depen

ogical System

ENANCE

duction to R

Bierlaire, M.

puters & Ope

ges to Growt

and Operat

on and Main

1402‐1544.

enance conc

upportability

ent, 43 (2), p

lnerability A

ving Practice

maintenance

ing.com/com

(2002), Met

nance‐relate

), pp. 5‐18.

Value Impro

Airbus, Fran

dability Man

of Maintenan

ation Guide

dability Man

ms, Geneva: I

Reliability a

(2010), Con

erations Rese

h Report (CT

ting Environ

ntenance Eng

cepts, Intern

y: essential

pp. 40‐47.

Analysis in So

es, Doctoral t

e costs and

mmercial/aer

thodology fo

ed losses at

ovement thr

ce.

agement ‐ P

nce Support

‐ Reliability

nagement ‐

nternationa

nd Maintain

straint‐spec

earch, 37 (6)

TG04), www.

ment Based

gineering, Lu

national Jour

components

ociety’s Pro

thesis, Lund:

high dispatc

romagazine,

or Analysis o

t the Swed

rough a Vir

Part 3‐16: Ap

t Services (Fi

Centred Ma

Part 3: App

l Electrotech

nability Eng

ific recovery

, pp. 1014– 1

.eurocontrol

Spare Part

uleå

nal of Produ

s of new pr

active Emer

Lund

ch reliability,

available

of Operation

ish Rail, Jo

rtual Aerona

plication Gui

nal Draft), G

intenance, G

plication Gu

hnical Comm

ineering, Ne

y network fo

1026.

l.int, availab

ts Planning,

uction Econo

roduct deve

rgency Mana

, Aero Maga

online, a

nal Interrupt

ournal of Q

autical Colla

ide

Geneva: Inte

Geneva: Inte

ide ‐ Sectio

ission.

Page 84

ew York:

or solving

le online,

Doctoral

omics, 24

lopment,

agement:

zine, The

accessed:

ion Cost,

Quality in

aborative

rnational

rnational

n 9: Risk

D2.1.4 CAS

IEC (200

Logistic S

IEC (200

and Mai

IEV (201

online, a

Institute

Final Rep

Jensen,

October

accessed

Kaplan, S

Karim, R

Doctoral

Environm

Knezevic

Chapma

Klefsjö, B

plot, IEE

Kumar, U

Mining E

Kumar, U

Risk Ana

Kumar,

indicato

Congress

Liang, J.

Proceed

218(G5),

Lienhard

subject t

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

01), 60300 (

Support, Gen

04), 60300 (3

ntenance Su

0), Electrope

accessed: 15/

e of Air Trans

port, Paris: In

D. (2007), S

1, 2007, ww

d: 25/4/2010

S. (1997), Th

R. (2008), A

l thesis, Lu

mental Engin

c, J. (1997),

n & Hall.

B. and Kuma

E Transactio

U. (1990), Re

Equipment E

U. and Akers

alysis and Ass

U. and Elli

rs for the N

s: Euromaint

. and Zuo, H

ings of the

, pp. 347–35

dt, B., Hugue

to hidden fai

AIRPORT MAINTE

3‐12): Depe

neva: Interna

3‐14), Depen

upport, Gene

edia, Interna

/4/2010.

sport (Institu

nstitut du Tr

Special repo

ww.aviation

0.

e words of r

A Service‐Ori

uleå: Luleå

neering, Divis

, Systems M

ar, U. (1992)

ns on Reliab

eliability Ana

ngineering,

sten, P.A. (20

sessment (Ed

ngsen, H.P.

Norwegian oi

tenance, Got

H.F. (2004),

Institution o

51.

es, E., Bes, C.

ilures, Journa

ENANCE

endability M

ational Elect

ndability Ma

eva: Internati

ational Electr

ut du Transpo

ansport Aéri

ort: TATEM:

today.com/a

risk analysis,

ented Appr

University

sion of Oper

Maintainabil

), Goodness‐

bility, 41 (4),

lysis of Load

Luleå Univer

008), Availab

d. Melnik E. a

(2000), De

il and gas in

thenburg, 7‐

The predic

of Mechanic

and Noll, D.

al of Aircraft

anagement

trotechnical C

nagement ‐

ional Electro

rotechnical C

ort Aérien) (

ien.

Europe’s fu

am/categorie

Risk Analysi

roach to eM

of Techno

ation and M

lity: Analysi

‐of‐fit tests f

pp. 593‐598

d‐Haul‐Dump

rsity of Techn

bility and ma

and Everitt B

esign and d

ndustry. In:

‐10 March, p

ctive models

al Engineers

. (2008), Fail

t, Design For

‐ Part 3‐12

Commission

Part 3‐14: A

otechnical Co

Commission,

(2000), Cost

uture view o

es/commerc

s, 17 (4), pp.

Maintenance

ology, Depa

aintenance E

s, engineer

for the powe

.

p Machines,

nology, ISSN

intainability,

B.), Wiley, pp

development

Proceedings

pp. 224‐228.

s of mainten

s, Part G: Jo

ure‐finding f

um, 45 (5), p

: Application

.

Application G

ommission.

www.electr

of Air Transp

of maintenan

cial/16093.ht

407‐417.

of Complex

artment of

Engineering,

ing and ma

er‐law proce

Doctoral the

: 0348‐ 8373

, In: Encyclop

p. 77‐ 84.

t of mainte

of 15th Eur

nance costs

ournal of Aer

frequency fo

pp. 1804‐180

n Guide ‐ In

Guide ‐ Main

ropedia.org,

port Delay in

nce, Aviatio

tml, availabl

x Technical

Civil, Min

, ISSN:1402‐1

anagement,

ess based on

esis, Luleå: D

3.

pedia of Qua

enance perf

ropean Main

for a civil

rospace Eng

or a repairabl

09.

Page 85

ntegrated

ntenance

available

n Europe,

n Today,

e online,

Systems,

ning and

1544.

London:

the TTT‐

ivision of

antitative

formance

ntenance

airplane,

gineering,

le system

D2.1.4 CAS

Liu, M.,

aircraft

1039.

Liyanage

perform

Maple, M

Asset Ma

Markese

thesis, St

Markese

concepts

Marshal

Miles, M

Thousan

MIL‐STD

Weapon

Misra, K

(Ed. K.B.

Modarre

York: Ma

Modarre

Francis.

Mokashi

maritime

Moubray

Murthy,

Quality i

Saab (20

0040 FH

Saab (20

Technolo

Saab (20

Saab (20

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

Zuo, H.F., N

Maintenanc

e, J.P. and K

ance manag

M. (2001), U

anagement,

et, T. (2003)

tavanger: Un

et, T. and Ku

s for industr

l, C. and Ros

M.B. and Hu

nd Oaks, Ca.:

D‐2173(AS) (

ns Systems an

.B. (2008), R

Misra), Lond

es, M. (1993

arcel Dekker

es, M. (2006)

i, A.J., Wan

e operations

y, J. (1997), R

D.N.P., Atre

n Maintenan

007a). Produ

. Saab Aerot

007b). PM

ogies. Linköp

007c). Mainte

008). Gripen

AIRPORT MAINTE

i, X.C. and C

e Review Bo

Kumar, U. (2

gement, Jour

Understandin

(5) 56–62.

, Dimension

niversity of S

umar, U. (20

ial systems, J

sman, G.B. (

uberman, A.

Sage.

(1986), Reli

nd Support E

Reliability en

don: Springe

3), What Eve

.

), Risk Analys

g, J. and V

s, Marine Pol

Reliability Ce

ens, A. and E

nce Engineer

ct Concept a

tech, Linköpi

Possible ap

ping, Sweden

enance Wor

Support Syst

ENANCE

Cai, J. (2006)

oard Report,

003), Towar

nal of Qualit

ng maintena

ing of Produ

Stavanger, IS

003), Design

Journal of Q

1999), Desig

.M. (1994),

ability‐Cente

Equipment, W

gineering: a

er, pp. 253‐28

ery Engineer

sis in Engine

ermar, A.K.

licy, 26 (5), p

entered Main

ccleston, J.A

ring, 8 (4), pp

and Business

ng, Sweden.

plications fo

n.

kstation (FAT

tem Descript

), Research o

, Lecture No

rds a value‐b

ty in Mainten

nce costs fo

uct Support:

SN 1502‐387

and develop

Quality in Mai

gning Qualita

Qualitative

ered Mainte

Washington

perspective

89.

r Should Kno

ering: Techn

(2002), A

pp. 325–35.

ntenance, Ox

A. (2002), Str

p. 287‐305.

s Plan for Ma

or an e‐Ma

T‐2007‐0040

tion. Saab Te

on a case‐ba

otes in Com

based view

nance Engine

or new and e

: Issues, Cha

77.

pment of pr

intenance En

ative Researc

Data Analy

enance: Re

D.C.: Depart

. In: Handbo

ow about R

niques, Tools

study of re

xford: Butter

rategic maint

aintenance W

intenance c

0). Saab Tech

echnologies,

ased decision

puter Scienc

on operatio

eering, 9 (4),

existing aircr

allenges, and

roduct suppo

ngineering, 9

ch, Thousand

ysis: an Expa

quirements

tment of Def

ook of Perfor

eliability and

s, and Trends

liability‐cent

rworth‐Hein

tenance man

Works Statio

concept (FAT

hnologies. Lin

Linköping, S

n support sy

ce, 4113, pp

ons and main

, pp. 333‐350

raft, Airline F

d Opportuni

ort and main

9 (4), pp. 376

d Oaks, Ca.: S

anded Sour

for Naval

fense.

rmability Eng

d Risk Analy

s, New York:

tred mainte

emann.

nagement, J

on – MWS. F

T‐2007‐ 005

nköping, Swe

Sweden. June

Page 86

ystem for

p. 1030 –

ntenance

0.

Fleet and

ties, PhD

ntenance

6‐392.

Sage.

ce Book,

Aircraft,

gineering

ysis, New

Taylor &

nance in

ournal of

AT‐2007‐

52). Saab

eden.

e 2008.

D2.1.4 CAS

Saab (20

Saab (2

Manage

Saab (20

depende

UK Minis

on the In

MOD

<http://w

October,

US Depa

Acquisiti

<https://

20 Janua

Section_

Report C

Sweden.

Visit to K

SE STUDY 4/4 ‐ A

009a). Proces

009b). Main

ment System

009c). Gripe

encies. Reg. N

stry of Defen

ntegrated Lo

Defence

www.aof.mo

, 2009.

artment of D

ion Log

/www.logsa

ary 2005. No

_J/Reference

C 1998:03e

.

Kiruna Airpor

AIRPORT MAINTE

ss F040 ‐ Dev

ntenance Sy

m. Reg. No. F

en NG Infor

No. FAD‐200

nce (MOD).

ogistic Suppo

Acquisitio

od.uk/aofcon

efence (US D

gistics.

.army.mil/le

otice of valid

es/MIL‐HDBK

Accident inv

rt 202‐02‐20

ENANCE

velop Mainte

ystem Gripe

FADI‐2009‐00

rmation Ma

09‐0039. 200

(2008). Integ

rt aspects of

on. Vers

ntent/tactica

DD). (1997). D

MIL‐HDBK‐5

c/downloads

dation, avail

K‐502.pdf>, a

volving aircr

0, Contact pe

enance Syste

en NG. Sub

011. 2009‐09

nagement U

09‐01‐15. Lin

grated Logis

f UK

sion 1

al/ILS/conten

Department

02, 30

s/standards/

lable at: http

accessed: 7 O

raft SE‐DMX

ersons:Gun‐M

em. Linköpin

‐System Co

9‐15. Linköpi

Use‐Cases, i

köping, Swe

tic Support

‐ May

nt/ils_influe

of Defense

May

/milhdbk50

p://www.res

October, 200

, 9 March 1

Marie Töyrä,

g, Sweden. S

ncept/Specif

ng, Sweden.

nput/out‐pu

den.

Policy, inform

y 2008,

ncedesign.

Handbook

1997,

2.pdf. MIL‐H

sponseboatp

9.

1997, Kiruna

Kurt Mäki

September 2

fication, Inf

.

ut requireme

mation and

availabl

.htm>, acce

available

HDBK‐502, N

project.net/

a airport, BD

Page 87

2009.

ormation

ents and

guidance

le at:

essed: 8

e at:

Notice 1,

sections/

D county,

ASSESSMENT MATRIX




Work Package: WP2

Type of document: Assessment Matrix

Date: 27/03/2013


Partners: SINTEF

Responsible: SINTEF

Title: D2.1.5. ASSESSMENT MATRIX Version: 1 Page: 2 / 3

Deliverable D2.1.5 ASSESSMENT MATRIX


D2.1.5. ASSESSMENT MATRIX Page 3

Inform

ation flo

w

to end

‐custom

ers o

f effects o

f shed

uled

or

ongoing

mainten

ance

Organisational

cross‐bo

undary

or cross‐bo

rder

inform

ation flo

w

concerning

tempo

rary

capacity

redu

ctions

Metho

ds to

achieve

transparen

cy in

mainten

ance

planning:

mainten

ance

concep

ts/progra

ms

Metho

ds to

achieve

transparen

cy in

mainten

ance

planning: large

rene

wal projects

Metho

ds to

achieve

transparen

cy in

mainten

ance

planning: small

rene

wal projects

Use of RCM

: Integration in

organisatio

n

Alternative

mainten

ance

strategies

common

ly used

in th

e indu

stry

Use of RCM

: Explicit analysis

of every

compo

nent or

gene

ric

approach?

Use of RCM

: Ad

aptio

n to local

cond

ition

s in

case of gen

eric

approach

Sources for

failu

re

rates/othe

r data

for com

pone

nts

Metho

d(s) fo

r cond

ition

mon

itorin

g of

infrastructure

(dire

ct)

Indirect metho

ds

for con

ditio

n mon

itorin

g:

mon

itorin

g of

external

environm

ent

Indirect metho

ds

for con

ditio

n mon

itorin

g:

infrastructure

usage

Metho

d(s) fo

r criticality or

conseq

uence

classification

(decision

crite

ria)

Metho

ds fo

r risk

assessmen

t

Grou

ping

of

elem

ents/com

pon

ents

Econ

omical

analyses of

mainten

ance

programs

Econ

omical

analyses of

rene

wal projects

Non

‐mon

itized

factors include

d in th

e analysis of

mainten

ance

programs a

nd

rene

wal projects

Optim

ization

crite

ria in

mainten

ance

optim

ization

(includ

ed

factors)

Decision

crite

ria

optim

ization of

inspectio

n/prev

entiv

e mainten

ance

intervals

LCC‐‐based

de

cision

supp

ort

for techn

ical

solutio

n

Metho

ds fo

r hand

ling

"opo

rtun

istic

mainten

ance"

Metho

ds fo

r spare‐parts

optim

ization

Metho

ds fo

r prioritizing use

of ca

pacity in

cases o

f red

uced

capacity

Impo

rtance ratin

g:high

med

ium

med

ium

low

med

ium

low

low

high

high

high

high

high

low

low

med

ium

high

high

high

‐med

ium

high

med

ium

low

low

med

ium

Case 1: Electricity

Private

custom

ers: Via

companies'

web

sites o

r add

in th

e local

newspaper,

some companies

started so se

nd

SMS to th

eir

custom

ers

According to

regulatio

ns (grid

code

s) by EN

TSO‐

E (case stud

y,

section 2.3.2)

Pre‐de

fined

mainten

ance

perio

ds

sche

duled in th

e CM

MS and long

term

plans

‐‐

Depe

nding on

the size of the

company:

Integrated

part

of mainten

ance

planning

in large

companies (e

.g.

transm

ission

system

op

erators), but

not in sm

all

distrib

ution

companies

‐

Gene

ric

approach fo

r same

type

/design/clas

s of com

pone

nt

Yes, if any

nee

d for adjustm

ents

are iden

tified

Mostly

judgmen

t based on

expe

rience. For

large companies:

own

data/experience

. Eventually

literature or

databases like

FASIT (see

section 4.2.2).

many; se

e chapter 5

in th

e case stud

y

Some

parameters

mon

itored/ob

served

, e.g. air

tempe

rature,

weather fo

recast

(storm

s etc.) or

lightning

activ

ity, m

ainly

for o

peratio

nal

purpose to avoid

disturbances

and for

emergency

prep

ared

ness

Mon

itorin

g of

many

parameters

many places in

the electrical

grid (voltage,

freq

uency,

curren

t, …)

mainly for

operational

purpose, not fo

r mainten

ance

purpose. No. of

operations fo

r sw

itchgear is

registered

.

Classification of

prob

ability/freq

uency and

conseq

uences

(criteria: Safety,

environm

ent,

repu

tatio

n,

costs/econ

omy)

Risk and

vulnerability

analysis by check

lists, analysis

sche

mes and

risk

matrices as

describ

ed in

NVE

‐guideline 2‐2010

According to

design

(sam

e type

of m

aterial,

technical

solutio

n, etc.)

Econ

omic

analysis on

cost/ben

efit of

differen

t mainten

ance

concep

ts/progra

ms n

ot usual

Cost‐ben

efit‐

analysis don

e in

larger co

mpanies

(transmission

system

op

erators) to

some de

gree

(often

rather

cost analysis

than

cost‐

bene

fit analysis)

‐

Form

al

optim

ization no

t common

. Factors

includ

ed in

cost‐

bene

fit analysis

are: Cost o

f project (incl.

material,

person

nel, cost

of ene

rgy no

t supp

lied, etc.)

and gains

(red

uced

failu

re

prob

ability,

increased

efficiency,

redu

ced

mainten

ance

costs, etc.), SHE

‐aspe

cts a

nd

repu

tatio

n usually

assessed

separately

Mainten

ance

interval

optim

ization no

t common

Hardly app

lied,

but LCC

or

simplified

similar

approaches fo

r major

investmen

ts or

before investing

in new

techno

logy

No form

al

metho

ds,

respon

sibility of

mainten

ance

planne

r and

mainten

ance

person

nel

(person‐to‐

person

inform

ation

sharing),

sche

duled tasks

in th

e CM

MS will

prob

ably be

checked and

immed

iately be

carried ou

t

Not co

mmon

to

optim

ize spare

parts.

Cost of e

nergy

not sup

plied

(CEN

S, se

e section 4.2.3 in

case stud

y) is an

impo

rtant

measure to

prioritize

custom

ers

Case 2: W

ater

Inform

ation

posted

on the

internet, text ad

voice messages

on mob

ile

phon

es to

affected

custom

ers

Rarely re

levant

in ca

se partners

case

Pre‐de

fined

mainten

ance

perio

ds. D

ecade

long

prin

cipal

plans w

ith main

goals a

nd

strategies.

Sharing of yearly

mainten

ance

plan.

Decade

long

principal plans

often with

main

projects

iden

tified.

Publication of

developm

ent o

n the internet.

Inform

ation

sharing with

affected

partie

s late in

the

process,

publication of

developm

ent o

n the internet

Very dep

ende

nt

upon

mun

icipality

/org

anization. Bigger

organizatio

ns

have

more

available

resources and

thus RCM

are

more often

integrated

in th

e O&M plann

ing.

RCM not widely

used

in th

e case

stud

ies.

‐

Both co

mpo

nent

based RC

M and

gene

ric app

roach

are widely

applied,

depe

nding on

the size of the

company

and

its

resources.

Gene

ric

approach is most

relevant fo

r case

stud

ies.

In ca

se of

gene

ric

approach,

adaptatio

n to

local con

ditio

ns

is app

lied by

grou

ping

the

assets according

to th

eir

attributes and

sometim

es

cond

ition

s. This

is app

lied in

both ca

se

stud

ies.

Each

company/m

unici

pality has a

n individu

al

database. N

o common

database fo

r all

natio

nal

companies

exists. D

ata is

colle

cted

through

inspectio

ns,

strategic w

ork

and through

custom

er

complaints.

Visual

inspectio

n,

electrom

agne

tic

inspectio

n,

acou

stic

inspectio

n,

ultrason

ic

testing,

radiograph

ic/the

rmograph

ic

testing and

vario

us se

nsor

techno

logies

‐

Measuremen

t of

volume of water

passing key

sections in

ne

twork

Describ

ed in

Techne

au re

port

D.4.1.3, Gen

eric

Fram

ework

Describ

ed in

Techneau

rep

ort

D.4.1.3, Gen

eric

Fram

ework

Grou

ping

based

on

material,

diam

eter, failure

rates, age

(produ

ction and

constructio

n pe

riod) ,

geograph

y

Mainten

ance

intervals a

nd

programs a

re

based up

on risk,

operational data

and available

budget. N

o econ

omic

analysis on

cost/ben

efit of

differen

t mainten

ance

concep

ts in

the

case stud

ies,

althou

gh th

is ca

n be

perform

ed.

Mainten

ance

programs

investmen

t based on

expert

analysis mod

el

for lon

g term

planning. This is

applied in both

case stud

ies. LC

C mod

els can

also

be app

lied in

orde

r to fin

d the

right time to

rene

w an asset.

‐

Safety of sup

ply,

secure and

safe

water, life

cycle

cost, red

uce

water losses and

prod

uctio

n costs,

redu

ce th

e risk

of th

e system

Failu

re rates,

expe

rt

expe

rience, data

available abou

t pipe

s,

conseq

uence

classification,

risk

classification.

Optim

ization of

pipe

materials

for u

se in

the

drinking

water

netw

ork can be

based up

on LC

C and

environm

ental

impact analysis

whe

re strength

of th

e material,

transport len

gth

etc. ca

n be

includ

ed.

Whe

n pipe

s are

shut dow

n for

rene

wal, w

ork

can sometim

es

be co

ordinated

with

sewer pipe

rene

wal. W

hen

roads a

re being

rene

wed

, one

often takes the

op

portun

ity to

rene

w water

pipe

s und

er th

e road

at the

same

time.

Compo

nents a

re

mostly

chosen

based on

past

expe

riences. N

o standard or

specific

proced

ure.

Water pipes

have

capacity or

no ca

pacity at all,

no re

duced

capacity in

pe

riods of

mainten

ance.

Use prioritized

for u

se in

such

instances a

re

based on

conseq

uence

analyses.

Case 3: G

as

Inform

ation

posted

on the

internet

(www.flow

.gassc

o.no

), includ

ing

duratio

n and

effects o

n capacity and

supp

ly of gas

Inform

ation

posted

on the

internet, dire

ct

contact w

ith

directly affected

up‐ and

dow

n‐stream

stakeh

olde

rs

(wee

kly

mee

tings with

prod

ucers

concerning

planne

d prod

uctio

n)

Pre‐de

fined

mainten

ance

perio

ds (…

‐…),

sharing of yearly

mainten

ance

plan

with

affected

up‐ and

do

wn‐stream

stakeh

olde

rs,

booking based

on ca

pacity given

planne

d mainten

ance

Inform

ation

sharing with

affected

partie

s from

early

planning,

publication of

developm

ent o

n the internet

Inform

ation

sharing with

affected

partie

s from

early

planning,

publication of

developm

ent o

n the internet

RCM integrated

in th

e curren

t standards for

operations in

the

indu

stry on the

Norwegian

Continen

tal

Shelf. RC

M

integrated

in

company

guidelines

RBM integrated

in th

e curren

t standards for

operations in

the

indu

stry on the

Norwegian

Continen

tal

Shelf.

Combinatio

n based on

conseq

uence

classification.

Less im

portant

compo

nents

(low criticality

for safety and

prod

uctio

n)

based on

gen

eric

approach

Adaptio

n based

on expert

opinion

(internal&extern

al)

OREDA

database/handb

ook and data

from

supp

liers/produ

cers o

f compo

nents

Mon

itorin

g of

chem

ical

compo

sitio

ns

(med

ium being

transported),

vario

us process

parameters,

inspectio

n,

corrosion

prob

es,

ultrason

ic

equipm

ent,

intelligent pigs,‐

for m

ore de

tails

see chapter 4

in

case stud

y

Curren

ts and

vibrations, ship

traffic, land

movem

ent

Mon

itorin

g of

chem

ical

compo

sitio

ns

(med

ium being

transported),

vario

us process

parameters

RCM/RBI‐

analyses

(includ

ing

FMEA

/FMECA

analyses)

RBI‐ analyses,

developm

ent o

f a risk matrix

consistin

g of

prob

ability of

even

t(s) and

conseq

uence of

even

ts

Safety‐critical

compo

nents

have

got given

testing intervals/

mainten

ance

intervals.

Prod

uctio

n‐critical

compo

nents/sys

tems h

ave

pred

efined

mainten

ance

concep

ts based

on

experience

with

similar

compo

nents/sys

tems (some 100‐

140 vario

us)

No econ

omical

analysis on

cost/ben

efit of

differen

t mainten

ance

concep

ts

Cond

ucts co

st‐

bene

fit analyses

for ren

ewal

projects to

presen

t to the

infrastructure

owne

rs

‐

Safety (h

uman

&en

vironm

ent),

cost of lost

capacity, cost o

f carrying

out

project,

potential future

capacity gains

Conseq

uence

classification,

failu

re rates

‐

The actors in

the

gas v

alue

chain

aspire to

be

transparen

t whe

n incide

nts

occur (un

‐planne

d shut

downs) to

perform

opprotun

istic

mainten

ance.

Largely based on

pe

rson

‐to‐

person

inform

ation

sharing.

Tradition

al

inventory

managem

ant to

assess re

‐order

level and

order

sizes, ca

se by

case evaluation

based on

risk

assessmen

t for

capital spare

parts

‐

Case 4: A

erospace

Inform

ation flo

w

to th

e custom

ers

by internet, SMS

in th

e mob

ile

phon

e, web

sites

and in th

e facilities throu

gh

voice.

Inform

ation is

given by

differen

t ways,

giving

the

inform

ation

abou

t the

mod

ificatio

ns in

the capacity of

the airports.

Pre‐de

fined

mainten

ance

perio

ds. Sharin

g principal plans

with

main goals

and strategies

for the

mainten

ance.

Put the

inform

ation of

yearly

mainten

ance

plan.

Sharing main

projects

iden

tified.

Publication of

developm

ent b

y internet,

newspaper...

Sharing main

projects

iden

tified.

Publication of

developm

ent b

y internet,

newspaper...

RCM integrated

in th

e curren

t mainten

ance

operations in

the

airports. RCM

is

integrated

in

every airport o

f Sw

edavia

company

RCM is widely

applied for all of

its re

sources a

nd

airports

The

mainten

ance

concep

t is

adapted to local

cond

ition

s.

Each airp

ort h

as

an individu

al

database due

to

that everyon

e has d

ifferen

t cond

ition

s. Data

is co

llected

through

inspectio

ns,

strategic w

ork

and through

custom

er

complaints. Data

is co

mpared

betw

een

airports.

The direct

cond

ition

mon

itorin

g pe

rformed

on

the

infrastructure is

measuremen

t of

the frictio

n on

the Ru

nway.

Other dire

ct

measuremen

ts

are tempe

rature,

wind and snow

de

pth.

Sche

duled

arriv

als a

nd

departures

control w

hen

and what

measuremen

ts

to be made.

According to th

e relatio

n be

twee

n failu

re

and

conseq

uences

(Safety,

envinron

men

t, repu

tatio

n,

costs/econ

omy)

‐See

mainten

ance

chapter 3

See

mainten

ance

chapter 3

See

mainten

ance

chapter 3

‐

Mainten

ance

interval

optim

ization no

t usual

‐‐

‐‐

Data

Coordinatio

n and inform

ation

RCM ‐ Mainten

ance strategy

Analysis and

metho

dsDe

cision

supp

ort

Update View

Add Case

CASE STUDY INTERVIEW GUIDE




Work Package: WP2

Type of document: Case study

interview guide

Date: 19/03/2013


Partners: SINTEF

Responsible: SINTEF

Title: D2.1.6. CASE STUDY INTERVIEW

GUIDE Version: 1 Page: 2 / 5

Deliverable D2.1.6 CASE STUDY INTERVIEW GUIDE


D2.1.6. CASE STUDY INTERVIEW GUIDE Page 3

1. INTRODUCTION

Present the OptiRail representatives

Short explanation of the background and purpose of the interview

Inform the respondent that he/she may receive the case‐report for control before it is made

public

Ask the respondent if he/she has any questions so far

2. OPENING QUESTIONS

Ask the respondent about his/her:

name and title

his/her role in maintenance planning/work

to give a short introduction of the company in general

Ask the respondent to give examples of successful maintenance projects/maintenance routines

in the company

Why are these successful? (Success factors)

In what ways do special characteristics concerning the industry in which the company operates

influence maintenance?

3. GENERAL MAINTENANCE STRATEGY AND FRAMEWORK

How is maintenance management/planning defined in the company? Exemplified by:

Guidance documents

Industry standards

EU/national policies

3.1 RCM – RELIABILITY CENTERED MAINTENANCE

Does the company employ RCM – Reliability Centered Maintenance?

If not: does the company employ another maintenance strategy/framework?


On which systems does the company employ RCM?

Does the company perform explicit analysis on each component, or are the analyses

generic (similar components are assumed to have identical/similar properties), or a

combination (generic basic analysis with adaptions to include differences in properties)

Does the company have routines when carrying out the analyses that may lay the

foundation for optimization (for instance adaptions when carrying out FMECA)

How does the company/industry obtain/register data like failure rates for components?

(Databases, "expert knowledge"?)

3.2 USE OF MODELS/OPTIMIZATION/OTHER ANALYSES

Does the company employ models in maintenance planning?

E.g. models for degradation/failure probabilities over time

Does the company employ optimization in the maintenance planning?

Maintenance intervals/inspection intervals?

Grouping of components

Spare parts management

Do effects like down‐time and reduced capacity in the overall network influence maintenance

planning/operations/management?

Does the company have routines to coordinate maintenance operations with other parties?

Shippers

Suppliers

Other customers…

Does the company employ other technical or economical analyses in relation to

maintenance planning?

Risk management

LCC/NPV

Does the company have routines to collect and store experience from maintenance projects?

How is maintenance operations organized in the industry (checklist: Some bullet points may be

irrelevant or covered already)

Outsourcing of maintenance

Condition monitoring

Documentation


Follow up/control

What are the effects of "bad" planning of maintenance activities?

Customer relations

Costs

Accident risks

Historical development in maintenance planning/operations in the industry

Follow up‐questions where applicable…

Documents

Deliverable nº: D2 - OPTIRAIL · FOR MAINTENANCE OPTIMIZATION METHODOLOGIES Page 1 Document History Vers. Issue Date Content and changes Author 0 18/03/2013 First final version Økland