Dental Film and Processing Radiographs Chapter 39 Copyright © 2009, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved

Dental Film and Dental Film and Processing RadiographsProcessing Radiographs

Chapter 39Chapter 39

Copyright © 2009, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.


Lesson 39.1Lesson 39.1


Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Pronounce, define, and spell the Key Terms.Pronounce, define, and spell the Key Terms. Identify the types of dental x-ray film holders Identify the types of dental x-ray film holders

and devices.and devices. Describe the composition of a dental x-ray Describe the composition of a dental x-ray

film.film. Name the three types of dental radiographs Name the three types of dental radiographs

and give indications for each.and give indications for each.(Cont’d)(Cont’d)



(Cont’d)(Cont’d)

Identify the five basic sizes of intraoral Identify the five basic sizes of intraoral dental film.dental film.

Explain the purpose of an intensifying screen.Explain the purpose of an intensifying screen. Describe the process used for duplicating Describe the process used for duplicating

radiographs.radiographs.


Introduction Introduction

Film-processing procedures have a direct Film-processing procedures have a direct

effect on the quality of a radiograph.effect on the quality of a radiograph.

The dental assistant must be knowledgeable The dental assistant must be knowledgeable

about the types of dental film and film-holding about the types of dental film and film-holding

devices and must also thoroughly understand devices and must also thoroughly understand

the processing procedures to produce high-the processing procedures to produce high-

quality diagnostic dental radiographs.quality diagnostic dental radiographs.


TerminologyTerminology

““Film” is the correct term to use before it has Film” is the correct term to use before it has been processed: The film is in the packet, the been processed: The film is in the packet, the film is placed in the bite-block, and the film is film is placed in the bite-block, and the film is exposed and processed. exposed and processed.

After the film has been processed, it becomes After the film has been processed, it becomes

a radiograph.a radiograph.


Types of Film Holders and Types of Film Holders and Beam Alignment DevicesBeam Alignment Devices

A wide variety of types of intraoral film holders are A wide variety of types of intraoral film holders are available on the market today. available on the market today.

One basic film holder is a disposable Styrofoam bite One basic film holder is a disposable Styrofoam bite block with a backing plate and a slot for film retention.block with a backing plate and a slot for film retention.

The Snap-A-Ray (formerly the Eezee-Grip) is a The Snap-A-Ray (formerly the Eezee-Grip) is a double-ended instrument that holds the film between double-ended instrument that holds the film between two serrated plastic grips that can be locked into place. two serrated plastic grips that can be locked into place.

The Endoray device is used to take radiographs when The Endoray device is used to take radiographs when instruments are in the canal.instruments are in the canal.

Uni-bite devices are made by the Rinn Corp.Uni-bite devices are made by the Rinn Corp.


Fig. 39-1 Plastic and Styrofoam disposable Fig. 39-1 Plastic and Styrofoam disposable bite-block film holders.bite-block film holders.


Fig. 39-2 The Snap-A-Ray film holder Fig. 39-2 The Snap-A-Ray film holder (formerly the Eezee-Grip).(formerly the Eezee-Grip).


Fig. 39-3 The Endoray is designed for use in radiographs of Fig. 39-3 The Endoray is designed for use in radiographs of teeth involving endodontic instruments in the canal.teeth involving endodontic instruments in the canal.


Fig. 39-4 Rinn XCP instruments are color-coded for easier assembly. Fig. 39-4 Rinn XCP instruments are color-coded for easier assembly. Red instruments are for bite-wing placement, yellow for posterior Red instruments are for bite-wing placement, yellow for posterior

placement, and blue for anterior placement.placement, and blue for anterior placement.


Dental X-Ray FilmDental X-Ray Film

Film used in dental radiography is similar to Film used in dental radiography is similar to photographic film, with some adaptations. photographic film, with some adaptations.

A photographic image is produced on dental A photographic image is produced on dental x-ray film when it is exposed to x-rays that x-ray film when it is exposed to x-rays that have passed through teeth and adjacent have passed through teeth and adjacent tissues. tissues.

The dental assistant must understand the The dental assistant must understand the composition of x-ray film and latent image composition of x-ray film and latent image formation that result in increased patient formation that result in increased patient exposure to x-rays. exposure to x-rays.


Film CompositionFilm Composition

Intraoral dental film is made up of a clear, Intraoral dental film is made up of a clear, semiflexible, cellulose acetate film base that semiflexible, cellulose acetate film base that is coated on both sides with an emulsion of is coated on both sides with an emulsion of silver bromide, silver halide, and silver iodide silver bromide, silver halide, and silver iodide that is sensitive to radiation.that is sensitive to radiation.


Latent Image Formation Latent Image Formation

When the radiation interacts with the silver When the radiation interacts with the silver halide crystals in the film emulsion, the image halide crystals in the film emulsion, the image on the film is produced. on the film is produced.

The image, which is not visible before The image, which is not visible before processing, is called the latent image. processing, is called the latent image.

An example of another type of latent image is An example of another type of latent image is fingerprints. If you touch an item, you leave fingerprints. If you touch an item, you leave your fingerprints even though you cannot see your fingerprints even though you cannot see them on that item. When that item is treated, them on that item. When that item is treated, your fingerprints become visible. your fingerprints become visible.


Film SpeedFilm Speed

““Film speed” refers to the amount of radiation Film speed” refers to the amount of radiation required to produce a radiograph of standard required to produce a radiograph of standard density (darkness). density (darkness).

Film speed is determined by the following Film speed is determined by the following factors: factors: The size of the silver halide crystals The size of the silver halide crystals The thickness of the emulsionThe thickness of the emulsion The presence of special radiosensitive dyesThe presence of special radiosensitive dyes



Film SpeedFilm Speed


The film speed determines how much exposure time is The film speed determines how much exposure time is required to produce the image on the film. required to produce the image on the film.

A fast film requires less radiation; the film responds more A fast film requires less radiation; the film responds more quickly because the silver halide crystals in the emulsion quickly because the silver halide crystals in the emulsion are larger. are larger.

The larger the crystals, the faster the film speed. This is The larger the crystals, the faster the film speed. This is the same principle as film speed on photographic film. the same principle as film speed on photographic film.

F-speed film, the newest and fastest film on the market F-speed film, the newest and fastest film on the market today, reduces radiation exposure to the patient by 20% today, reduces radiation exposure to the patient by 20% to 60% compared with E-speed and D-speed film. to 60% compared with E-speed and D-speed film.


Fig. 39-5 Cross-sectional diagram of film base and emulsion. Fig. 39-5 Cross-sectional diagram of film base and emulsion. (From Frommer H, Stabalus-Savage JJ: (From Frommer H, Stabalus-Savage JJ: Radiology for the dental professionalRadiology for the dental professional, ed 8, St Louis, 2005, Mosby.), ed 8, St Louis, 2005, Mosby.)


Fig. 39-6 Scanning electron micrograph of unprocessed emulsion Fig. 39-6 Scanning electron micrograph of unprocessed emulsion of Kodak Ultra Speed dental film (5000of Kodak Ultra Speed dental film (5000 magnification). magnification). Note white-appearing unexposed silver bromide grains. Note white-appearing unexposed silver bromide grains.

(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)


Fig. 39-7 Insight is an F-speed film available from Kodak. Fig. 39-7 Insight is an F-speed film available from Kodak. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak Co, Rochester, N.Y.)


Types of Dental FilmTypes of Dental Film

Three types of x-ray film are used in dental Three types of x-ray film are used in dental radiography: radiography: IntraoralIntraoral ExtraoralExtraoral DuplicatingDuplicating


Intraoral Film Intraoral Film

Intraoral film is so named because it is placed Intraoral film is so named because it is placed inside the mouth during x-ray exposure.inside the mouth during x-ray exposure.

The intraoral x-ray film has emulsion on both The intraoral x-ray film has emulsion on both sides of the film instead of just one because it sides of the film instead of just one because it requires less radiation to produce an image. requires less radiation to produce an image.

The film is packaged in what is referred to as The film is packaged in what is referred to as the film packet to protect it from light and the film packet to protect it from light and moisture.moisture.


Contents of the Film Packet Contents of the Film Packet

Intraoral film packets are typically available in Intraoral film packets are typically available in boxes of 25, 100, or 150 films. boxes of 25, 100, or 150 films.

The film packet may contain one film (one-The film packet may contain one film (one-film packet) or two films (two-film packet).film packet) or two films (two-film packet).

Boxes of film are labeled with the following Boxes of film are labeled with the following information: type of film, film speed, number information: type of film, film speed, number of films per individual packet, total number of of films per individual packet, total number of films in the box, and the expiration date. films in the box, and the expiration date.

On one corner of the film packet is a small On one corner of the film packet is a small raised bump known as the identification dot. raised bump known as the identification dot.


Fig. 39-8 Contents of a dental film packet: Fig. 39-8 Contents of a dental film packet: lead foil, x-ray film, and black paper.lead foil, x-ray film, and black paper.


The Film PacketThe Film Packet

The black paper film wrapper inside the film The black paper film wrapper inside the film packet is a protective sheet that covers the film and shields it packet is a protective sheet that covers the film and shields it from light. from light.

The thin lead-foil sheet is positioned behind the film to shield The thin lead-foil sheet is positioned behind the film to shield the film from back-scattered (secondary) radiation that results the film from back-scattered (secondary) radiation that results in film fog. in film fog.

The outer packet wrapping is a soft vinyl or paper wrapper The outer packet wrapping is a soft vinyl or paper wrapper that seals the film packet, protective black paper, and lead-foil that seals the film packet, protective black paper, and lead-foil sheet.sheet.

The tube side is solid white and has the raised bump on one The tube side is solid white and has the raised bump on one corner. When placed in the mouth, the white side (tube side) corner. When placed in the mouth, the white side (tube side) of the film must face the teeth and tubehead, and the raised of the film must face the teeth and tubehead, and the raised dot must be toward the incisal/occlusal surface.dot must be toward the incisal/occlusal surface.


Fig. 39-9 The lead-foil insert in this package has a raised diamond Fig. 39-9 The lead-foil insert in this package has a raised diamond pattern across both ends.pattern across both ends.


Fig. 39-11 The white side of the film packet faces the tube.Fig. 39-11 The white side of the film packet faces the tube. A, Size 4 occlusal film. B, Size 2 film. C, Size 1 film. A, Size 4 occlusal film. B, Size 2 film. C, Size 1 film.


Sizes of Film Sizes of Film

Intraoral film packets come in five basic sizes:Intraoral film packets come in five basic sizes: Child (size 0)Child (size 0) Narrow anterior (size 1) Narrow anterior (size 1) Adult size (size 2)Adult size (size 2) Preformed bite-wing (size 3)Preformed bite-wing (size 3) Occlusal (size 4)Occlusal (size 4)


Extraoral FilmExtraoral Film

An extraoral film is one that is placed outside the An extraoral film is one that is placed outside the mouth during x-ray exposure. mouth during x-ray exposure.

Extraoral films are used to examine large areas of Extraoral films are used to examine large areas of the head or jaws. the head or jaws.

Examples of common extraoral films include Examples of common extraoral films include panoramic and cephalometric films.panoramic and cephalometric films.

A panoramic film shows a panoramic (wide) view of A panoramic film shows a panoramic (wide) view of the upper and lower jaws on a single radiograph.the upper and lower jaws on a single radiograph.

A cephalometric film shows the bony and soft-A cephalometric film shows the bony and soft-tissue areas of the facial profile.tissue areas of the facial profile.


Fig. 39-12 Panoramic x-ray. Fig. 39-12 Panoramic x-ray. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)


Fig. 39-13 Cephalometric radiograph.Fig. 39-13 Cephalometric radiograph.(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)


Extraoral Film Packaging Extraoral Film Packaging

Extraoral radiography uses a film-screen system. This means Extraoral radiography uses a film-screen system. This means that the film is used in combination with intensifying screens.that the film is used in combination with intensifying screens.

Extraoral film is supplied in boxes of 50 or Extraoral film is supplied in boxes of 50 or 100 films. 100 films.

Extraoral film used in dental radiography is available in 5 × 7-Extraoral film used in dental radiography is available in 5 × 7-inch and 8 × 10-inch sizes.inch and 8 × 10-inch sizes.

Extraoral film is not supplied in film packets. Extraoral film is not supplied in film packets. The film is stacked, much like a deck of cards, in the box. The film is stacked, much like a deck of cards, in the box. Because there is no wrapper to protect the film from Because there is no wrapper to protect the film from

exposure to light, the film must be loaded into a cassette in exposure to light, the film must be loaded into a cassette in the darkroom. The film will be ruined if the box is opened in the darkroom. The film will be ruined if the box is opened in the light.the light.


Fig. 39-14 Boxes of extraoral x-ray film. Fig. 39-14 Boxes of extraoral x-ray film. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)


Film Cassette Film Cassette

A cassette is a plastic or metal case used in A cassette is a plastic or metal case used in extraoral radiography to hold the film and protect extraoral radiography to hold the film and protect it from exposure to light. Cassettes it from exposure to light. Cassettes are available in rigid or flexible styles. are available in rigid or flexible styles.

To tell the patient’s left side from the right as on To tell the patient’s left side from the right as on intraoral films, the front of the cassettes must be intraoral films, the front of the cassettes must be marked with lead letters L (left side) and R (right marked with lead letters L (left side) and R (right side).This is because there is no raised dot on side).This is because there is no raised dot on extraoral film.extraoral film.

The front side of the cassette must always face The front side of the cassette must always face the patient during exposure. the patient during exposure.


Fig. 39-15 The dental assistant removes Fig. 39-15 The dental assistant removes a film from a flexible film cassette.a film from a flexible film cassette.


Intensifying Screen Intensifying Screen

An intensifying screen intensifies or increases the An intensifying screen intensifies or increases the effect of the radiation and thus decreases the amount effect of the radiation and thus decreases the amount of exposure time needed. of exposure time needed.

The intensifying screen is coated with a material called The intensifying screen is coated with a material called phosphor that gives off light when struck by x-radiation.phosphor that gives off light when struck by x-radiation.

The film inside the cassette is sandwiched between the The film inside the cassette is sandwiched between the intensifying screens and is affected by both the light intensifying screens and is affected by both the light produced by the phosphor and the x-radiation. produced by the phosphor and the x-radiation.

However, there is a slight loss of image detail as a However, there is a slight loss of image detail as a result of the intensified x-ray beam because the light result of the intensified x-ray beam because the light produces a halo effect at the edge of the image field.produces a halo effect at the edge of the image field.


Types of Screen Film Used Types of Screen Film Used in Extraoral Radiographyin Extraoral Radiography

Green-sensitive: This type of film is used with Green-sensitive: This type of film is used with cassettes that have rare earth intensifying cassettes that have rare earth intensifying screens. screens.

Blue-sensitive: This type of film is used with Blue-sensitive: This type of film is used with cassettes that have calcium tungstate cassettes that have calcium tungstate intensifying screens. intensifying screens.


Fig. 39-16 Rigid film cassette with an intensifying screen.Fig. 39-16 Rigid film cassette with an intensifying screen.


Duplicating Radiographs Duplicating Radiographs

Special duplicating film and a duplicating machine are Special duplicating film and a duplicating machine are necessary to duplicate radiographs. necessary to duplicate radiographs.

Duplicating film is used only in a darkroom setting Duplicating film is used only in a darkroom setting and is never exposed to x-rays. and is never exposed to x-rays.

The duplicating machine produces white light The duplicating machine produces white light to expose the film. Because the film is light-sensitive, to expose the film. Because the film is light-sensitive, the duplication process is performed in the darkroom, the duplication process is performed in the darkroom, under the safelight. under the safelight.

The longer the duplicating film is exposed to light, the The longer the duplicating film is exposed to light, the lighter it will become. This is the opposite of x-ray lighter it will become. This is the opposite of x-ray film, which becomes darker when exposed to light. film, which becomes darker when exposed to light.


Fig. 39-17 Example of a film duplicator.Fig. 39-17 Example of a film duplicator.



Lesson 39.2Lesson 39.2



Describe the care and maintenance of the Describe the care and maintenance of the processing solutions, equipment, and equipment processing solutions, equipment, and equipment accessories used in manual and automatic film accessories used in manual and automatic film processing.processing.

Discuss the requirements necessary for the Discuss the requirements necessary for the darkroom.darkroom.

List and identify the component parts of an List and identify the component parts of an automatic film processor.automatic film processor.

Describe common time and temperature errors Describe common time and temperature errors during film processing.during film processing.





Describe chemical-contamination errors Describe chemical-contamination errors made during film processing.made during film processing.

Describe film-handling errors that can occur Describe film-handling errors that can occur during film processing.during film processing.

Describe some common lighting errors made Describe some common lighting errors made during film processing.during film processing.


Dental X-Ray Film ProcessingDental X-Ray Film Processing

Processing is a series of steps that changes the latent Processing is a series of steps that changes the latent image on the exposed film into a radiograph image on the exposed film into a radiograph by producing a visible image on the film. by producing a visible image on the film.

Proper processing is just as important as exposure Proper processing is just as important as exposure technique in producing diagnostic-quality radiographs.technique in producing diagnostic-quality radiographs.

Radiographs that are nondiagnostic because of poor Radiographs that are nondiagnostic because of poor processing techniques must be retaken, exposing the processing techniques must be retaken, exposing the patient to unnecessary radiation.patient to unnecessary radiation.

In many practices intraoral films are processed in an In many practices intraoral films are processed in an automatic processor; however, it is still necessary to automatic processor; however, it is still necessary to know how to process the film manually.know how to process the film manually.


The Five Steps in Processing The Five Steps in Processing Dental Radiographs Dental Radiographs

Development Development Rinsing Rinsing Fixation Fixation Washing Washing Drying Drying


DevelopingDeveloping

Developing is the first step in processing Developing is the first step in processing films. films.

A chemical solution called the developer is A chemical solution called the developer is used. used.

The purpose of the developer is to chemically The purpose of the developer is to chemically reduce the exposed silver halide crystals to reduce the exposed silver halide crystals to black metallic silver.black metallic silver.

The developer solution also softens the film The developer solution also softens the film emulsion during this process. emulsion during this process.


RinsingRinsing

Rinsing of the films is necessary to remove Rinsing of the films is necessary to remove the developer from the film so that the the developer from the film so that the development process stops. development process stops.

Usually, agitating the film rack for 20 seconds Usually, agitating the film rack for 20 seconds is sufficient. is sufficient.

This must be done under safelight conditions. This must be done under safelight conditions.


FixingFixing

The acidic fixing solution removes the unexposed silver The acidic fixing solution removes the unexposed silver halide crystals from the film emulsion. halide crystals from the film emulsion.

The fixer also hardens the film emulsion during this The fixer also hardens the film emulsion during this process. process.

For permanent fixation, the film is kept in the fixer for a For permanent fixation, the film is kept in the fixer for a minimum of 10 minutes. minimum of 10 minutes.

However, films may be removed from the fixing solution However, films may be removed from the fixing solution after 3 minutes for viewing. after 3 minutes for viewing.

Films that are not properly fixed will fade and turn brown Films that are not properly fixed will fade and turn brown in a short time. in a short time.

Leaving films in the fixer for a long time (e.g., over a Leaving films in the fixer for a long time (e.g., over a weekend) can remove the image from the film.weekend) can remove the image from the film.


Washing Washing

After fixation, a water bath is used to wash After fixation, a water bath is used to wash the film.the film.

The washing step requires about 20 minutes The washing step requires about 20 minutes to thoroughly remove all excess chemicals to thoroughly remove all excess chemicals from the emulsion. from the emulsion.


DryingDrying

The final step in film processing is the drying The final step in film processing is the drying of the films. of the films.

Films may be air-dried at room temperature in Films may be air-dried at room temperature in a dust-free area or placed in a heated drying a dust-free area or placed in a heated drying cabinet. cabinet.

Films must be completely dried before they Films must be completely dried before they can be handled for mounting and viewing. can be handled for mounting and viewing.


Film-Processing SolutionsFilm-Processing Solutions

Film-processing solutions are available in the Film-processing solutions are available in the following forms: following forms: Powder Powder Ready-to-use liquid Ready-to-use liquid Liquid concentrate Liquid concentrate


Fig. 39-18 Concentrated solutions of film developer and fixer. Fig. 39-18 Concentrated solutions of film developer and fixer. (Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)(Courtesy of Eastman Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.)


The DarkroomThe Darkroom

The term “light-tight” is often used to describe The term “light-tight” is often used to describe the darkroom.the darkroom.

To be light-tight, no light leaks can be present. To be light-tight, no light leaks can be present. When you are in the darkroom with the light When you are in the darkroom with the light

turned off, no white light should be visible.turned off, no white light should be visible. X-ray film is extremely sensitive to visible white X-ray film is extremely sensitive to visible white

light.light. Any leakage of white light can cause film fog. A Any leakage of white light can cause film fog. A

fogged film appears dull gray, lacks contrast, fogged film appears dull gray, lacks contrast, and is nondiagnostic. and is nondiagnostic.


Types of Darkroom LightingTypes of Darkroom Lighting

Room lighting: An overhead white light Room lighting: An overhead white light provides adequate lighting for tasks such as provides adequate lighting for tasks such as cleaning, restocking of materials, and mixing cleaning, restocking of materials, and mixing of chemicals. of chemicals.

Safelighting: A safelight is a low-intensity light Safelighting: A safelight is a low-intensity light in the red-orange spectrum. Safelighting in the red-orange spectrum. Safelighting provides enough illumination in the darkroom provides enough illumination in the darkroom to process films safely without exposure of or to process films safely without exposure of or damage to the film. damage to the film.



Types of Darkroom LightingTypes of Darkroom Lighting


There must be a a safe distance between the There must be a a safe distance between the light and the working area, and the person light and the working area, and the person developing the film must work quickly to keep developing the film must work quickly to keep the exposure to the safelight as short as the exposure to the safelight as short as possible.possible.

Unwrapped films that are left too close to the Unwrapped films that are left too close to the safelight or exposed to the safelight for more safelight or exposed to the safelight for more than 2 to 3 minutes appear fogged. than 2 to 3 minutes appear fogged.

A safelight must be placed a minimum of 4 feet A safelight must be placed a minimum of 4 feet away from the film and working area. away from the film and working area.


Fig. 39-19 A distance of at least 4 feet must separate the Fig. 39-19 A distance of at least 4 feet must separate the safelight from the working area. safelight from the working area.

(From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques , ed 3, , ed 3, St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)


The Processing Tank The Processing Tank

Manual processing is a method that is used to Manual processing is a method that is used to develop, rinse, fix, and wash dental x-ray develop, rinse, fix, and wash dental x-ray films. films.

The essential piece of equipment required for The essential piece of equipment required for manual processing is a processing tank. manual processing is a processing tank.

The processing tank is divided into The processing tank is divided into compartments to hold the developer solution, compartments to hold the developer solution, water bath, and fixer solution. water bath, and fixer solution.

A processing tank has two insert tanks and A processing tank has two insert tanks and one master tank. one master tank.


Fig. 39-20 Processing tanks showing developing and fixing Fig. 39-20 Processing tanks showing developing and fixing tanks inserts in bath of running water. tanks inserts in bath of running water.

(From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques , ed 3, , ed 3, St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)


Requirements for a Darkroom Requirements for a Darkroom

Cleanliness at all timesCleanliness at all times Infection-control items (e.g., gloves, disinfectant Infection-control items (e.g., gloves, disinfectant

spray, paper towels) spray, paper towels) Container, labeled with a biohazard label, for Container, labeled with a biohazard label, for

contaminated film packets or barrierscontaminated film packets or barriers Recycle container for pieces of lead foil pieces, Recycle container for pieces of lead foil pieces,

which should not be thrown in the trashwhich should not be thrown in the trash Light-tightnessLight-tightness Processing tanks for the developer and fixer solution Processing tanks for the developer and fixer solution

and a circulating-water bath and a circulating-water bath (Cont’d)(Cont’d)


Requirements for a DarkroomRequirements for a Darkroom


Running water with mixing valves to adjust the Running water with mixing valves to adjust the temperature temperature

Both a safelight and a source of white (normal) lightBoth a safelight and a source of white (normal) light Accurate timerAccurate timer Accurate floating thermometerAccurate floating thermometer Stirring rods or paddles to mix the chemicals and Stirring rods or paddles to mix the chemicals and

equalize the temperatures of the solutions equalize the temperatures of the solutions Safe storage space for chemicals Safe storage space for chemicals Film hangersFilm hangers Film-drying rack and film dryerFilm-drying rack and film dryer


The Automatic Processor The Automatic Processor

Automatic film processing is a fast and simple Automatic film processing is a fast and simple method used to process dental x-ray films. method used to process dental x-ray films.

Other than opening the film packet, all steps of Other than opening the film packet, all steps of film processing are handled by the automatic film processing are handled by the automatic processor. processor.

Automatic film processing requires only 4 to 6 Automatic film processing requires only 4 to 6 minutes for the development, fixing, washing, minutes for the development, fixing, washing, and drying of a film, whereas manual and drying of a film, whereas manual processing techniques require approximately 1 processing techniques require approximately 1 hour.hour.



The Automatic ProcessorThe Automatic Processor


The automatic processor maintains the correct The automatic processor maintains the correct temperature of the solutions and adjusts the temperature of the solutions and adjusts the processing time.processing time.

Proper maintenance of the automatic processor Proper maintenance of the automatic processor reduces the chance of errors during film reduces the chance of errors during film processing. processing.

Many dental offices that have automatic Many dental offices that have automatic processors still maintain manual processing processors still maintain manual processing equipment as a standby if the automatic equipment as a standby if the automatic processor malfunctions.processor malfunctions.


Components of the Automatic Components of the Automatic Processor Processor

The processor housing covers all of the component The processor housing covers all of the component parts. parts.

The film feed slot is for the unwrapped films to be The film feed slot is for the unwrapped films to be inserted into the automatic processor. inserted into the automatic processor.

The roller film transporter is a system of rollers that The roller film transporter is a system of rollers that rapidly moves the film through the compartments. rapidly moves the film through the compartments.

The developer and fixer compartments holds the The developer and fixer compartments holds the solutions.The film is transported directly from the solutions.The film is transported directly from the developer into the fixer without a rinsing step.developer into the fixer without a rinsing step.

The water compartment holds circulating water. The water compartment holds circulating water. The drying chamber holds heated air and dries the wet The drying chamber holds heated air and dries the wet

film. film.


Fig. 39-21 A, An automatic film processor. B, An automatic Fig. 39-21 A, An automatic film processor. B, An automatic film processor equipped with a daylight film loader.film processor equipped with a daylight film loader.

A B


Advantages of Automatic Film Advantages of Automatic Film ProcessingProcessing

Less processing time is required. Less processing time is required. Time and temperature are automatically Time and temperature are automatically

controlled. controlled. Less equipment is used. Less equipment is used. Less space is required. Less space is required.


Processing ErrorsProcessing Errors

Processing errors may occur for a variety of Processing errors may occur for a variety of reasons, including: reasons, including: Time and temperature errors (Table 39-4)Time and temperature errors (Table 39-4) Chemical-contamination errors (Table 39-5) Chemical-contamination errors (Table 39-5) Film-handling errors (Table 39-6)Film-handling errors (Table 39-6) Lighting errors (Table 39-7) Lighting errors (Table 39-7)

The dental assistant must be able to The dental assistant must be able to recognize the appearance of common recognize the appearance of common processing errors and know what to do to processing errors and know what to do to prevent such problems from occurring again. prevent such problems from occurring again.


The following photographs illustrate common examples of technical errors that can occur

during film processing.

Such errors result in radiographs that are not diagnostic, thus requiring retakes and

additional exposure to the patient.

Examples of Common Processing ErrorsExamples of Common Processing Errors


Fig. 39-23 A, Overdevelopment. Fig. 39-23 A, Overdevelopment. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,

St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)St Louis, 2006, Saunders.)


Fig. 39-23 B, Developer splash. Fig. 39-23 B, Developer splash. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 C, Scratched film.Fig. 39-23 C, Scratched film. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 D, Water spots.Fig. 39-23 D, Water spots. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 E, Solution too low. Fig. 39-23 E, Solution too low. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 F, Roller marks. Fig. 39-23 F, Roller marks. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 G, Fingerprints. Fig. 39-23 G, Fingerprints. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 H, Overlapped films.Fig. 39-23 H, Overlapped films. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 I, Underdeveloped. Fig. 39-23 I, Underdeveloped. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 J, Reticulation.Fig. 39-23 J, Reticulation. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 K, Fixer Spots. Fig. 39-23 K, Fixer Spots. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 L, Developer cut-off. Fig. 39-23 L, Developer cut-off. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 M, Number of errors. Fig. 39-23 M, Number of errors. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 N, Fixer cut-off. Fig. 39-23 N, Fixer cut-off. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 O, Air bubbles. Fig. 39-23 O, Air bubbles. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 P, Black fingerprint.Fig. 39-23 P, Black fingerprint. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 Q, Static electricity. Fig. 39-23 Q, Static electricity. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 R, Exposure to light. Fig. 39-23 R, Exposure to light. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



Fig. 39-23 S, Fogged film. Fig. 39-23 S, Fogged film. (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: (From Iannucci J, Jansen Howerton L: Dental radiography: principles and techniquesDental radiography: principles and techniques, ed 3, , ed 3,



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Dental Film and Processing Radiographs Chapter 39 Copyright © 2009, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved