DESIGN FOR MOBILE LIVING Art from Eastern Africa · Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern Africa ... Maasai, Samburu, Somali, and ... Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern

Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern AfricaThe Baltimore Museum of Art, African Focus GalleryJune 1 – November 27, 2016Intro text panel ARCHIVES, page 1 of 1

Across the lush highlands, dry savannas, and sparse deserts of eastern Africa, nomadic

herders traversed vast expanses of territory in search of food and water for their livestock. Over

the course of their travels, Maasai, Samburu, Somali, and Turkana pastoralists created a body

of artwork that is as unique as it is beautiful. Lightweight, portable, and engineered for life

on the move, these objects were usually worn or carried on the body, reflecting the near-

constant mobility of their makers. They embrace geometric

form, celebrate two-dimensional design, and reject almost

all figural representation. Yet, the artistic impulse that drove

the creation of these objects was rooted in practicality. None

of the works presented were created for purely aesthetic

purposes. Rather, each played an integral role

in the functioning of east Africa’s pastoralist cultures.

This exhibition highlights the marriage of form and

function across the diverse landscapes of eastern Africa—

from the southern Great Rift Valley, where Kenya meets

Tanzania, all the way to the horn of the continent. While

we attempt to unravel the ways in which mobility shapes

creativity and artistic form, we also seek to situate these

objects within the broader histories of the region. Their

stories are deeply rooted in the land, but are also inextricably

intertwined with histories of European colonialism

and capitalist expansion. Indeed, many of the artworks

presented in this gallery owe their existence to modern

networks of trade and intercultural exchange. Each case in the gallery highlights a different

formal element of pastoralist art. We invite you to look closely at these objects from the 19th,

20th, and 21st centuries and consider how artistic creativity, societal structure, and functional

necessity combine to create the colors, shapes, and patterns before you.

MOBILE LIVING Art from Eastern Africa

DESIGN FOR

ethiopia

kenya

somalia

tanzania

uganda

djibouti

southsudan

sudan

burundi

rwanda

eritrea

democraticrepublic of the congo

yemenKhartoum

Dodoma

Mogadishu

Djibouti

Addis Ababa

Asmara

Kampala

Kigali

Bujumbura

Juba

LakeTurkana

LakeVictoria

LakeTanganyika

Blue Nile

White N

ile

Red Sea

Gulf of Aden

Indian Ocean

SOMALITURKANA

SAMBURU

Nairobi

MAASAI

The ethnic group boundaries presented here reflect 20th century demographic norms. These borders have shifted throughout history and, today, members of all ethnic groups live throughout the region.

Sanaʼa

area of detail

Selected ethnic groupsDesertUnforested grasslandGrass savannaWoodland savannaTropical/coastal forest

Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern AfricaThe Baltimore Museum of Art, African Focus GalleryJune 1 – November 27, 2016Case and Platform labels/ARCHIVES, page 1 of 15

artist unidentified

Shield, mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaHide, wood

gift of nancy and robert h. nooter, washington, d.c., bma 1994.272

A masterpiece of artistic innovation and geometric creativity, this Turkana shield highlights the aesthetic sensibilities of inland, east Africa. Historically, young men would have used shields such as this in battle with neighboring groups. Sent away from their families to roam the dry savannas with large flocks of cattle, goats, and camels, these warriors frequently raided the herds of fellow pastoralists using shields, spears, wristknives, and other weapons. Rectangular in shape and made from the thick hide of giraffes or hippopotami, shields such as this would have allowed the wearer to block spear thrusts while simultaneously delivering blows to an enemy combatant.

However, as the striking geometric division of space on this work demonstrates, Turkana artists also imbued their weapons with aesthetic qualities that would have made them pleasing to look at and to own. Note how the sculptor skillfully modified the traditional rectilinear form with a series of arcs that catch the eye and draw the viewer’s attention toward the shapes created by the object’s wooden frame. This skillful integration of strongly defined geometric space with subtle curving lines—a creative choice rarely seen in extant Turkana shields—highlights a key feature of pastoralist art: the merging of functional necessity with artistic creativity.

CASE R3 - Center of gallery


GEOMETRYFOCUS ON

Although the introduction of European glass beads in the late 19th century dramatically increased the variety of artistic production in inland, east Africa, it had a more limited effect on the region’s underlying design preferences. Artists remained focused on creating abstract, geometric patterns using complementary colors. Take, for instance, the Maasai shield. Defined by the traditional narok color palette of red, white, and black, the shield is divided into several lozenge-shaped sections by a formal device known as ildung’ot (cuts). Such lines, which interrupt and enclose fields of contrasting color, are the foundational element of east African two-dimensional

design. Prior to European colonial and missionary incursion, shields painted with vegetal and earthen dyes were among the few objects decorated with colored patterns. However, with the introduction of colored, glass beads, the design principles first seen on shields of male warriors began to be incorporated into everything from earrings to belts to capes. The strong diagonal lines that divide the Maasai woman’s cape (enkishopo) into triangular sections highlight this historical transformation. Worn for everyday occasions as well as for important ceremonies, these ornamental objects—known as ikonong’o—easily identified wearers as members of the Maasai ethnic group.

FOCUS ON GEOMETRYCase R4 (south wall, east platform)


artist unidentified

Beaded Ear Ornament (Inkonito Onkiyiaa), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaLeather, aluminum alloy, iron alloy, glass beads, plastic, sinew, pigment

gift of aaron and joanie young, baltimore, bma 1991.133

artist unidentified

Woman’s Cape (Enkishopo), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaHide, glass beads, sinew


artist unidentified

Warrior’s Belt (Enkeene Pus), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaGlass beads, hide, sinew




artist unidentified

Female’s Belt (Enkitati), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaGlass beads, hide, sinew, aluminum alloy


artist unidentified

Shield (Elongo), 1950s

Maasai region, TanzaniaLeather, wood, leopard fur, pigment

gift of robert and jane hellawell, chestertown, maryland, bma 1998.476



Form, rather than vibrant color, takes center stage in the art produced by Samburu, Somali, and Turkana herders. Defined by a stark, monochromatic color palette, art from northern Kenya and western Somalia emphasizes the beauty of clearly delineated space. Take, for instance, the Samburu milk vessel (lkantirr). Carved from wood and dyed a deep brown, the structure is divided into rounded, rectangular sections by bands of light brown animal hide. Although the carrying strap seems to necessitate this geometric division, the symmetry of the sections speaks to an aesthetic attraction toward monochromatic, subdivided space.

Notably different from the multi-colored, complex designs found on Maasai beadwork to the south, this method of highlighting spatial planes through subtle contrasts of similar color represents an older form of pastoralist artmaking, one that pre-dates the arrival of Europeans. While Maasai art was transformed by the import of glass beads and other goods, the northern, more remote areas of inland, east Africa interacted far less frequently with colonizing peoples and their manufactured products. As a result of this mutual avoidance, artists from these areas continued to make art that reflected their hot, dry, and largely monochromatic environment.

MONOCHROMEFOCUS ON

FOCUS ON MONOCHROMECase R5 (south wall, west platform)


artist unidentified

Shield (Gaashaan), mid to late 19th century

Somali region, Issa clan area, Djibouti, Ethiopia, or SomaliaRhinoceros hide, wood

gift of the honorable albert h. blum and mrs. blum, baltimore, bma 1982.44

artist unidentified

Unmarried Woman’s Apron (Nyrach), mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaLeather, ostrich egg shell beads

gift of carolyn barnes, alexandria, virginia, in memory of murvil and katherine barnes, bma 1998.592

artist unidentified

Vessel (Akutam), mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaCamel hide, leather, wood




artist unidentified

Milk Vessel (Lkantirr), mid-20th century

Samburu region, KenyaWood, hide, sinew

collection of george paul meiu, cambridge, massachusetts, r.17729.3

artist unidentified

Pair of Wristknives (Ararait), mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaIron alloy, leather

collection of george paul meiu, cambridge, massachusetts, r.17729.1 and r.17729.2

artist unidentified

Spear (Ngerani), mid-20th century

Samburu or Turkana region, KenyaIron alloy, wood, leather




The introduction of colored glass beads in the late 19th century sparked an artistic revolution across inland, east Africa. No longer hindered by the narrow color palette of local materials such as animal hide and smelted iron, artists from the region used imported Venetian and Czechoslovakian beads to create a wide array of jewelry. Over the course of the 20th century, as the use of beads spread throughout the region and designs became more complex, it became possible to identify the ethnic group identity of individuals based solely on the colors and patterns found on his or her ornamental jewelry.

Turkana, for instance, became known for their love of solid blocks of red, white, and blue beads while Maasai were immediately recognizable by the complex, linear designs created in red, orange, green, white, and blue. In this highly mobile landscape, decorative jewelry worn on the arms, necks, legs, and face also helped individuals and groups identify the age, marital status, and social position of those with whom they came into contact. For example, married Samburu women traditionally wore necklaces (mporo) featuring a vertical row of red, glass beads strung with hair from a giraffe’s tail.

COLORFOCUS ON

FOCUS ON COLORCase R2 (east wall, case)


artist unidentified

Armband (Olkatarr Enkaina), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaGlass beads, hide, sinew


artist unidentified

Bracelet (Esaa), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaGlass and plastic beads, hide, sinew




artist unidentified

Married Woman’s Necklace (Mporo), early to mid-20th century

Samburu region, KenyaFiber, hide, glass beads


artist unidentified

Unmarried Girl’s Necklace, mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaHide, glass beads


artist unidentified

Warrior’s Belt (Enkeene Pus), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Loita section, TanzaniaGlass beads, hide, sinew




In an ecosystem hostile to permanent agriculture, a family’s survival revolved primarily around the formation and maintenance of a large and healthy herd of cattle, goats, and camels. These animals, and the milk and meat they provided, were among the only consistent sources of nutrition throughout much of inland, east Africa, and movement between watering holes and grazing fields was frequent. Unsurprisingly, containers for storing and consuming water, milk, and meat are among the most common objects produced by this region’s nomadic populations.

Engineered for life on the move, the shape of these lightweight objects was designed to enhance their portability. Note the gentle curve on the incised Maasai vessel. It is easy to imagine how this object, displayed here with its animal hide strap still intact, would have fit over the shoulder of a man or woman traveling across the highlands of Kenya or Tanzania. However, the beads and careful geometric designs indicate that these objects were created with an eye toward beauty. Even the negative space of the humble Turkana bowl echoes the shape of the Turkana shield displayed behind you. Taken together, these works demonstrate that even the most functional objects were created with an eye toward aesthetics.

SHAPEFOCUS ON

FOCUS ON SHAPECase R1 (north wall, case)


artist unidentified

Vessel (Enkukuri), mid-20th century

Maasai region, Kenya or TanzaniaGourd, hide, glass beads, iron alloy


artist unidentified

Vessel with Cup (Akarum), mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaWood, leather, cowrie shells, metal, pigment

gift of carolyn barnes, alexandria, virginia, in memory of murvil and katherine barnes, bma 1998.588.1-2

artist unidentified

Bowl (Atubwa), mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaWood, leather, metal


FOCUS ON SHAPECase R1 (north wall, case)


Absent from the artistic work of east African pastoralists is almost any representation of humans or animals. Most artwork from the region is abstract and geometric, characterized either by detailed two-dimensional design in vibrant color or by stark monochromatic forms. The exceptions to this rule are objects made by or associated with children. Indeed, this array of non-naturalistic Turkana dolls represents the extent of the region’s figural representation. Fertility dolls, such as those displayed on your right, would have been carried by young women as a way

to stimulate fertility and prompt conception while the contemporary clay dolls on your left represent a long-standing tradition of children’s artistic creativity. Taken together, these figures speak to the abstract impulse that characterizes art from this region. While scholars are still seeking to tease out the connections between abstraction and mobility, it is worth noting that children, who in their young lives have moved far fewer times than their elders, were more likely to create artworks that approach naturalistic figuration.

FIGUREFOCUS ON

FOCUS ON FIGURECase R6 (west wall, case)


artist unidentified

Fertility Doll (Ekoku), early to mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaSeed pods, hide, glass and plastic beads, sinew, iron alloy


artist unidentified

Fertility Doll, mid-20th century

Turkana region, KenyaWood, hide, glass and plastic beads, fiber

gift of sandra r. leichtman, baltimore, bma 1999.172

artist unidentified

Children’s Doll, 2010s

Turkana region, KenyaClay, fiber, glass beads, iron alloy




artist unidentified


Turkana region, KenyaClay, fiber


artist unidentified


Turkana region, KenyaClay, fiber, glasss and plastic beads


artist unidentified


Turkana region, KenyaClay



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DESIGN FOR MOBILE LIVING Art from Eastern Africa · Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern Africa ... Maasai, Samburu, Somali, and ... Design for Mobile Living: Art from Eastern