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Design of Appropriate Tax Systems Jay K. Rosengard Kennedy School of Government Harvard University 1

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Page 1: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Design of Appropriate Tax Systems

Jay K. Rosengard Kennedy School of Government

Harvard University 1

Page 2: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

သငေလာသည အခြနစနစမား ဒဇငး

Jay K. Rosengard Kennedy School of Government

Harvard University

Please note: this is an unofficial translation 2

Page 3: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Terminology (1) Tax • Compulsory contribution to government without reference to a

particular benefit • Goes to treasury/general funds for allocation via expenditure

policies/budgetary processes • Diverts control of economic resources from taxpayers to state

for own use/transfer to others • Usually paid in money, sometimes in kind • Not user fee

– Voluntary payment for a specific good or service – Benefits received directly related to amount paid – Consumption based (usage or permission) – Best for private goods and services (rival and excludable) – Characterized by user pays principle 3

Page 4: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

အသးအႏႈနးမား (ဿ)

အခြန

• တကေသခာေသာ အကးခစားခြင မပါဘ အစးရအား မျဖစမေန ေပးေဆာငရသညက ဆလသည။

• အခြနမားသည အစးရ၏ ေငြတကဌာန၊ အေထြေထြရနပေငြမား အတြငးသ ေရာကရကာ၊ အသးစရတဆငရာ မါဒမား၊ ဘတဂကလပငနးစဥမားမ တစဆင ျပနလည ခြေသတမတေပးသည။

• အခြနထမးျပညသမားထမ စးပြားေရးဆငရာရငးျမစမားက ႏငငေတာအေနျဖင သးစြရနျဖစေစ၊ အျခား (က႑မား၊ အပစမား၊ အလႊာမား စသညတ႔) သ လႊေျပာငးေပးရနျဖစေစ၊ ေျပာငးလထနးခပျခငးျဖစသည။

• မားေသာအားျဖင ေငြေၾကးျဖင ေပးေဆာငရျပး၊ တစခါတစရတြင ေငြေၾကးမပာတသည ပစမားျဖငလညး ေပးေဆာငရသည။

• သးစြသမားက ေပးေဆာငရေသာ သးစြခေၾကးမးမပာတပါ။

– သတမတထားေသာ ကနပစၥညးမား သ မပာတ နေဆာငမႈမားအတြက (ဆႏၵအေလာက ယယျခငး /သးစြျခငးအတြက) ေပးရျခငး မးျဖစသည။

– ေပးရသညေပးေငြပမာဏႏင ျပနရသညအကးရလဒမာ တကရကဆကစပပါသည။

– စားသးမႈအေျခချဖစသည။ (အသးျပျခငး သ႔မပာတ အသးျပရန ခြငျပျခငး)

– ပဂၢလကဆငရာ ကနပစၥညးမား ႏင နေဆာငမႈမားအတြက အေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ (အၿပငသးစြမႈမား ႏင ဖယထတထားမႈမား)

– သးစြသေပးပစမးျဖစသည 4

Page 5: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Terminology (2) Appropriate • There is no single perfect or ideal tax system • The theory of optimal taxation is more of a metric against

which to evaluate relative strengths and weaknesses of tax policy alternatives: – Will the tax system be more economically efficient? – Will the tax system be more socially equitable? – Will the tax system generate more net revenue?

• While evaluation criteria remain constant, what is best will change over time depending on a country’s fiscal architecture - tax systems are dynamic, not static

• The objectives of this session are to: – Review the most important factors determining the design of an

appropriate tax system – Develop a conceptual framework with which to evaluate specific tax

alternatives 5

Page 6: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

အသးအႏႈနးမား (၀) သငေလာေသာ • ျပးျပညစ၍ အေကာငးဆးပာ သတမတႏငေသာ အခြနစနစပာ၍ ရမေနပါ။

• Theory of optimal taxation ဆသညမာ အခြနမါဒ အမးမးတ တြင ပါငလကရသည အားနညးခက၊ အားသာခကမားက ႏႈငးယဥတငးတာမည စနစပငျဖစသည။

– အခြနစနစသည စးပြားေရးအရ ေရရညစြမးေဆာင ႏငမႈရပါသလား။

– အခြနစနစသည လမႈေရးအရ ပ၍ သာတညမမႈ ရပါသလား။

– အခြနစနစသည အသားတင အခြနဘ႑ာေငြက ရရေစပါသလား။

• အခြနစနစအား အကျဖတသးသပေသာ စသတမတခကမားသည တသတမတတညးျဖစေနတတေသာလညး၊ အေကာငးဆးစနစ ပာသညမာ ႏငင၏ ဘ႑ာေရးစနစ တညေဆာကမႈအေပၚတြင မတည၍ အခနႏငအမ ေျပာငးလေနမညျဖစသည။ အခြန စနစမားသည အစဥအျမ တညတေနသည မပာတဘ ေျပာငးလေနေသာသေဘာရပါသည။

• ဤ သငခနးစာ၏ ရညရြယခကမားမာ-

– ႏငင၏ အေျခအေန အဆကအစပ ႏင ေလာကနသငျမတမႈရသည အခြနစနစ ပစတစခက တြကခက သတမတရာတြငပါငေသာ အေရးအၾကးဆးျဖစသည အေၾကာငးရငးမားက ျပနလညသးသပရန။

– အခြနစနစ အမးမးတ အား အကျဖတသးသပရာတြင အသးျပႏငသည ေတြးေခၚသးသပမႈဆငရာ မေဘာငတစခ အား ေရးဆြေဖာထတရန။ 6

Page 7: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Fiscal Architecture • Structure of the economy

– Rural (subsistence) or urban (disposable income) – Formal (salaried) or non-formal (self-employed) – Complexity of transactions (barter, cash, or electronic) – Open (significant trade) or closed (protected) – Resource endowment (curse of natural resources)

• Capacity of tax administration – Hard (physical) and soft (institutional) infrastructure – Quality of tax legislation and tax design (policy formulation) – Operational autonomy and integrity (implementation)

• Sophistication of tax payers – Literacy rate (text and numeric) – IT usage (recordkeeping and reporting, tax filing) – Supporting services (tax accountants, lawyers, & advisors)

• Social compact (political and cultural expectations) 7

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ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ တညေဆာကပ (Fiscal Architecture) • စးပြားေရး စနစ တညေဆာကပ

– ေကးလက (တစပငတစႏင) သ မပာတ ျမ ျပ (သးစြႏငေသာ ငေငြ) – သမရးက နညးလမး (လပခလစာ) သ မပာတ သမရးကမပာတေသာနညးလမး (ကယပငအလပအကင)

– ေငြေၾကးဆငရာ ေပးေခမႈမားတြင ပါငေနသည ရႈပေထြးမႈမား (ကနပစၥညးခငးဖလယျခငး၊ ေငြသား၊ သ မပာတ အလကထေရာနစနညးလမးျဖင ေပးေခမႈမား)

– တခါးဖြငစးပြားေရး (ကနသြယမႈအခနးက႑ႀကးမား) သ မပာတ တခါးပတစးပြားေရး (ကာကြယမႈ အသားေပး) – သဘာသယဇာတမား ၾကြယျခငး (သဘာရငးျမစ ကနစာ)

• အခြန စမခန ခြျခငးဆငရာ အရညအေသြး – အမာထည (ရပပငးဆငရာ) ႏင အေပာထည (စညးမဥးမေဘာင ဖြစညးတညေဆာကမႈဆငရာ)

အေျခခအေဆာကအအမား – အခြန ဥပေဒမား၏ အရညအေသြး ႏင အခြနစနစ ဒဇငးေရးဆြျခငး (မါဒ ေရးဆြျခငး) – လပငနးလညပတေဆာငရြကရာလြတလပမႈ ႏင တညတၿမၿမစြာအေကာငအထညေဖာေရး

• အခြနထမးျပညသမား၏ ရႈပေထြးသညသေဘာသဘာဝ (ေခတႏငအည လကလ ေဆာငရြကႏငမႈ) – စာတတေျမာကမႈႏႈနး (စာသား ႏင ကနးဂဏနး) – သတငးအခကအလကႏင နညးပညာ အသးျပမႈ (အခကအလကမား သမးဆညးထားရမႈ၊ အစရငခတငျပမႈ၊

အခြနဆငရာ အခကအလက ျဖညသြငးျခငး။) – ေထာကပမႈေပးေသာ နေဆာငမႈမား (အခြနစာရငးကငမား၊ ေရ ႔ေနမား ႏင အၾကေပးမား)

• လမႈပဋဥာဏ (ႏငငေရး ႏင ထးထမးျဖစသည ေမာလငခကမား)

8

Page 9: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Economics of Taxation

• Economic Efficiency

How much distortion does the tax cause?

• Social Equity

How fair is the tax?

• Administrative Feasibility

How much net revenue does the tax generate?

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Page 10: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

အခြနေကာကချခငး၏ ေဘာဂေဗဒသေဘာတရား

• စးပြားေရးအရ အျမငဆးစြမးေဆာငနငမႈ

– အခြနေကာကခမႈေၾကာင႔ ထခကမႈ ဘယေလာကရပါသနညး။

• လမႈေရးဆငရာ သာတညမမႈ

– အခြနသည မညမ မတပါသနညး။

• စမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာ လပကငႏငမႈ

– အခြနေကာကခမႈေၾကာင႔ အသားတင ရေငြဘယေလာကရပါသနညး။

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Page 11: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Economic Efficiency

• Marginal Social Benefit = Marginal Social Cost

• Behavioral Change Excess Burden/Deadweight Loss

• Price Elasticity of Demand

• Income and Price (Substitution) Effects 11

Page 12: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

စးပြားေရးအရ အျမငဆးစြမးေဆာငႏငမႈ

• အစြနးထြက (လမႈ) အကးအျမတ = အစြနးထြက (လမႈ) စရတ

• အျပအမဆငရာ ေျပာငးလမႈ ဝနထပဝနပး / အခြနေၾကာင စးပြားေရးအရ အျမငဆးစြမးေဆာငႏငမႈ (လေနမႈအဆငအတနး) က ထခကေစမႈ

• ေစးႏႈနးေျပာငးလမႈေၾကာငျဖစသည ယလအားအေလာအတငး

• ငေငြ ႏင ေစးႏႈနးအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈမား (အစားထးကနစညအေပၚသကေရာကမႈ)

12

Page 13: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Social Equity

• Horizontal and Vertical Equity

• Policy Objective vs. Administrative Feasibility

• Tax Policy vs. Expenditure Policy

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Page 14: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Social Equity လမႈေရးဆငရာ သာတညမမႈ

• ေဘးတကပသ႑ာနရ သာတညမမႈ ႏင အထကေအာက ပသ႑ာနရ သာတညမမႈ

• မါဆငရာ ရညမနးခကမား Vs စမခန ခြမႈဆငရာ ျဖစႏငေခရမႈမား

• အခြနမါဒ ႏင အသးစရတမါဒ

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Page 15: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Tax Incidence

• Ultimate Bearer of Tax Burden

• Net Changes in Income/Wealth

• Statutory vs. Economic Incidence

• Progressive/Proportional/Regressive

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Page 16: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

အခြနဆငရာ နထပနပး

• အခြနဆငရာ နထပနပးက အျမငဆး ထမးေဆာငရသ

• ငေငြ/ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယမႈတြင ျဖစေပၚေသာ အသားတင ေျပာငးလမႈမား

• ဥပေဒအရ စညးၾကပမႈ ႏင စးပြားေရးအရ စညးၾကပမႈ

• ႏႈနးတးခြန၊ အခးတခြန၊ ႏႈနးေလာခြန

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Page 17: Design of Appropriate Tax Systems - fsppm.fulbright.edu.vn

Examples from the United States

Income

• Income tax: increasing % as Y increases

• Progressive: tax burden/Y rises as Y rises

Insurance

• Social security: flat/constant % of Y

• Proportional tax: tax burden/Y constant as Y rises

Consumption

• Sales tax: flat/constant % of sales

• Regressive: tax burden/Y falls as Y rises 17

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အေမရကနျပညေထာငစ၏ အခြနဥပမာမား

ငေငြ • ငေငြခြန: ငေငြတးပါက ငေငြခြနလညး နႈနးတခစတးလာ • နႈနးတးခြန: ငေငြတးပါက အခြနနထတလညး တးျမင

အာမခ • လမႈဖလေရး: ငေငြ၏ တစေျပးညျဖစေသာ ရာခငနႈနးတစခ သတမတ • နႈနးတခြန: ငေငြတးေသာလညး သတမတနႈနးက တခတညးျဖစ အခြနနထတ မာ

ကနးေသ

စားသးမႈ • အေရာငးခြန: ေရာငးခရသညပမာဏ၏ တစေျပးည သတမတနႈနးတစခသာ • နႈနးေလာခြန: ငေငြတးပါက အခြနနထပ ေလာနညး

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Tax Administration Terminology

• Tax Ratio: Level of Taxation

Tax Revenue/GDP (or Tax Revenue/GNP)

• Tax Capacity: Tax Potential

Taxable Income or Wealth

• Tax Effort: Utilized Tax Capacity

Tax Collected/Tax Capacity

• Collection Ratio: Tax Administration Efficiency

Tax Collected/Tax Assessed

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အခြနစမခန ခြမႈဆငရာ အသးအႏႈနးမား

• အခြန အခးအစား - အခြနေကာကခမႈ အဆင – အခြနမ ရရေသာ ဘ႑ာေငြ နင စစေပါငးျပညတြငးထတကနတနဖး

(သ မပာတ အခြနဘ႑ာေငြ/စစေပါငးအမးသားထတကနတနဖး) • အခြနေပးေဆာငႏငမႈ စြမးရည - အခြနရေငြ အလားအလာ

– အခြနစညးၾကပႏငေသာ ငေငြ သ မပာတ ဓနဥစၥာ • အခြနေကာကခရာတြင အားထတမႈ - အခြနေပးေဆာငႏငစြမးက အသးခႏငမႈ

– ေကာကခရရေသာ အခြန ႏင အခြနေပးေဆာငႏငမႈ စြမးရည • အခြနေကာကချခငးဆငရာအခး - အခြနစမခန ခြႏငစြမး

– ေကာကခရရေသာ အခြန/ေကာကခႏငလမမညဟ ေမာမနးထားေသာ အခြန

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Features of a Sound Tax Regime

• Low Tax Rates

• Large Tax Bases

• Design Simplicity

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ေကာငးမြနေသာ အခြနစနစတစခ၏ အသြငအျပငမား

• နမေသာ အခြနႏႈနး • ကယျပန႔ေသာ အခြနအေျခ

• ရးရငးေသာ အခြနဒဇငး

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Taxation of Income

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ငေငြခြန ေကာကချခငး

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Income Tax: Basic Concepts

• The income tax is usually at the national level, but sometimes it is also at the state of local level

• It is a direct tax on personal and corporate income

• It is based on ability to pay > benefits received

• Income is used as a proxy for ability to pay

• Income should be defined as broadly as possible: Haig-Simons Income = Consumption (cash & in-kind) + Change in Net Wealth

• Exclusion of Income from Tax Base = Tax Expenditure

• Administration is very difficult because it is easy to move and hide income

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ငေငြခြန - အေျခခသေဘာတရားမား • ငေငြခြနအား မားေသာအားျဖင ျပညေထာငစအဆငတြင ေကာကခေလရသည။ သ႔ေသာ

တစခါတစရ၌ ေဒသအဆငတြင ေကာကခသညလညးရသည။

• ငေငြခြနသည ပဂၢလက ဆငရာ ငေငြႏင စးပြားေရးလပငနးစမား၏ ငေငြတ အေပၚတြင တကရကေကာကခေသာ အခြနျဖစသည။

• အခြနေပးေဆာငႏငမႈအေပၚတြင မတညၿပးေကာကချခငးျဖစသည ။

• အခြနေပးေဆာငႏငစြမးက ၾကညရာတြင ငေငြအား ၾကားခအျဖစ အသးျပသည။

• ငေငြအား တတႏငသမ ကယကယျပန ျပန အဓပၸါယဖြငဆရန လအပသည။

(Haig-Simons Income) ဝငေငြ = စားသးမႈ (ေငြအားျဖင + ပစၥညးအားျဖင) + ဓနဥစၥာ အသားတင ေျပာငးလမႈ

• အခြနအေျခခမ ငေငြအား ဖယထတထားျခငး = အခြနအသးစရတ

• စမခန ခြမႈ ျပလပရာတြင လြနစြာခကခပါသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ငေငြသည ေရႊ ေျပာငးရလြယကျပး၊ ဖးကြယထားရနလညး လြယကေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။

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Income Tax: Key Issues

• Economic efficiency: Cost of behavioral responses to tax (income and substitution effects) – Costs of compliance and distortions caused by tax avoidance and tax

evasion – Disincentives to work, save, and invest

• Social equity: Fairness in allocation of tax burden – Definition of tax base (who and what) – Determination of tax rate(s) (how much) – Horizontal and vertical equity (equal treatment of equals and unequal

treatment of unequals)

• Administrative feasibility: Potential to generate revenue – Targeting for precision and fairness – Simplicity for efficiency and fairness

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ဝငေငြခြန - အဓကကေသာ အေၾကာငးအခကမား

• စးပြားေရးအရ ေရရညစြမးေဆာငႏငမႈ - အခြနေကာကခမႈအား ျပနလညတန ျပနေဆာငရြကသည အျပအမပငးဆငရာစရတမား (ဝငေငြႏင အစားထးကနစညမားဆငရာ သကေရာကမႈမား) – အခြနေရာငျခငး ႏင အခြနေဆာငရမည ပမာဏ ေလာချခငးတ႔ေၾကာင ျဖစေပၚလာေသာ

ပသ႑ာနပကယြငးျခငးမား ႏင အခြနစနစက ေလးစားလကနာမႈမရသည ထခကျခငးမား။ – အခြနဝနထပဝနပးေၾကာင အလပလပရန၊ ရငးႏးျမပႏရန ႏင ေငြစေဆာငးရန စတအားထကသနမႈ မရေတာျခငး။

• လမႈေရးဆငရာ သာတညမမႈ- အခြနနထပနပအား ထမးေဆာငေစရာတြင မတမႈ – အခြနအေျခခ၏ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခက (မညသ ႏင မညသညအရာ) – အခြနႏႈနထား(မား) သတမတျခငး (မညမေကာကခမည) – အလားလက ႏင အထကေအာက ပသ႑ာနရ သာတညမမႈ (equal treatment of equals and unequal

treatment of unequals - တနးတရညတရသမားအတြက သာတညမျဖစမႈ ႏင တနးတရညတမျဖစသမားအတြက မကနာသာေပးခ သာတညမ ျဖစမႈ)

• အခြနစမခန ခြမႈဆငရာတြင ျဖစႏငေျခရမႈ - ဘ႑ာေငြရရႏငမႈ အလားအလာ – တကမႈ ႏင မတမႈတ အတြက ဥးတညထားျခငး – ထေရာကမႈ ႏင မတမႈတ အတြက ရးရငးရန လအပျခငး

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Income Tax: Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths

• Easy to administer for the formal non-service sector (salaried employees)

• Payroll withholding is a good tax handle • Progressivity addresses political and social pressures to appear to

tax the rich • Relatively high buoyancy

Weaknesses

• Difficult to administer for the informal sector and professional services

• High transaction costs for both tax administrators and tax payers • Paid in relatively large, visible increments • Tax base eroded by income adjustment (exclusions, exemptions,

deductions, credits) 29

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ဝငေငြခြန - အားသာခကမား ႏင အားနညးခကမား အားသာခကမား • နေဆာငမႈက႑မပာတသည သမရးက (လစာျဖင ဝငေငြရရသည ဝနထမးမား) က႑အတြက စမခနခြရာတြင

လြယကျခငး။ • လစာအေပၚ အခြနေပးေဆာငရမညပမာဏအား ျဖတယထားသည ဝငေငြခြနမးမာ ေကာငးမြနသည နညးလမးမးျဖစ • ငေငြအဆငအေပၚတြင မတည၍ ေကာကချခငးမးက ခမးသာၾကြယဝသမားက အခြနပေကာကရန ႏငငေရး ႏင

လမႈေရးဆငရာ ဖအားမားက တနျပနႏင။ • ႏႈငးရ သေဘာျဖငၾကညလင စစေပါငး ျပညတြငး ထတကနတနဖး ႏင အမးသားငေငြ (တစဥးက ဝငေငြအဆင)

တးတကလာပါက လကပါျမငတကလာႏငေသာ အခြနမးျဖစသည။ အားနညးခကမား • သမာရးကမပာတသညက႑ ႏင ကၽြမးကငမႈအေျချပ နေဆာငမႈက႑မားအတြက စမခန႔ခြရာတြင ခကခႏငသည။ • အခြနစမခန ခြသမားအတြကေရာ အခြနထမးမားအတြကပါ transaction ကနကစရတမား ျမငမား • ၾကးမားေသာ ပမာဏျဖင ေပးေဆာငရျပး၊ တးတကလာသညပမာဏအတြကလညး ထငသာျမငသာ ရသည။ • ငေငြဆငရာ ျပငဆငညႈႏႈငးခကမားေၾကာင အခြနေျခခသည ေလာပါးလာႏင (ရေငြတြကခကမႈမား exclusions, exemptions, deductions, credits တ႔ေၾကာငျဖစ)

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အခြနကသငေငြ တြကခကျခငး

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Tax Rates

ITEM

STATUTORY MARGINAL TAX RATE

STATUTORY AVERAGE TAX RATE

EFFECTIVE MARGINAL TAX RATE

EFFECTIVE AVERAGE TAX RATE

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အခြနႏႈနးထားမား

အမးအစား

ျပဌာနးထားခကအရ ထပတးလာသညဝငေငြအေပၚ အခြနႏႈနး Statutory Marginal Tax rate

ျပဌာနးထားခကအရ စစေပါငးဝငေငြအေပၚေပးေဆာငရသည အခြနႏႈနး Statutory Average Tax rate

အမနတကယ ထပတးလာသညဝငေငြအေပၚ အခြနႏႈနး Effective Marginal Tax rate

အမနတကယ စေပါငးဝငေငြအေပၚေပးေဆာငရသည အခြနႏႈနး Effective Average Tax rate

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Table 22.2 Federal Tax Rates, 2011

R A T E

S I N G L E F R O M S I N G L E T O M A R R I E D F I L I N G

J O I N T L Y F R O M

M A R R I E D F I L I N G

J O I N T L Y T O

H E A D O F H O US E H O L D

F R O M

H E A D O F H O US E H O L D

T O

10% 0 8,500 0 17,000 0 12,150

15% 8,500 34,500 17,000 69,000 12,150 46,250

25% 34,500 83,600 69,000 139,350 46,250 119,400

28% 83,600 174,400 139,350 212,300 119,400 193,350

33% 174,400 379,150 212,300 379,150 193,350 379,150

35% over 379,150 over 379,150 over 379,150

35

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Table 22.2 Federal Tax Rates, 2011

အေမရကနျပညေထာငစ၏ (ဝငေငြခြန) ႏႈနးထားမား - ၀ဿဿ

လလြတ အမေထာငသည ပးတြတငျပ အမေထာငဥးစး

36

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Table 22.3 Average Effective Individual Income Tax Rates by Income Class and Tax Year (Income Class in Quintiles plus Top 1 percent; Rate in Percent)

INCOME TAX QUINTILES 1985 1987 1996 1998 2000 2004

2011

(ESTIMATE)

Lowest 0.5 -0.6 -5.1 -5.4 -4.6 -6.2 -5.8

Second 4.0 3.2 1.8 1.5 1.5 -0.9 -2.9

Third 6.6 5.8 5.4 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.2

Fourth 8.8 8.1 7.9 7.9 8.1 5.9 7.0

Highest 14.0 14.9 16.1 16.5 17.5 13.9 14.9

All families 10.2 10.3 10.7 11.0 11.8 8.7 9.3

Top 1% 18.9 21.5 24.2 23.4 24.2 19.7 20.3

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Table 22.3 Average Effective Individual Income Tax Rates by Income Class and Tax Year (Income Class in Quintiles plus Top 1 percent; Rate in Percent)

INCOME TAX QUINTILES 1985 1987 1996 1998 2000 2004

2011

(ESTIMATE)

Lowest 0.5 -0.6 -5.1 -5.4 -4.6 -6.2 -5.8

Second 4.0 3.2 1.8 1.5 1.5 -0.9 -2.9

Third 6.6 5.8 5.4 5.0 5.0 3.0 3.2

Fourth 8.8 8.1 7.9 7.9 8.1 5.9 7.0

Highest 14.0 14.9 16.1 16.5 17.5 13.9 14.9

All families 10.2 10.3 10.7 11.0 11.8 8.7 9.3

Top 1% 18.9 21.5 24.2 23.4 24.2 19.7 20.3

ပမမ အမနတကယ တစဥးကဝငေငြခြနေပးေဆာငရသညႏႈနးထားမား ဝငေငြအဆငအလက ႏစစဥေပးေဆာငရသညႏႈနးထားမား - % အားျဖင

39

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Distribution of U.S. Income and Payroll Tax Burden in 2003

-20%

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Tax Units Income Y Tax PR Tax Y + PR

>500

200-500

100-200

75-100

50-75

30-50

20-30

10-20

< 10

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Income Tax Reform • Proportional (flat) tax vs. progressive tax • Purest form: threshold (exempt amount) with single rate on all income above it

– Possible economic benefits – Might lower and redistribute tax burden – Potential administrative advantages

• Trend in Eastern Europe – 1994: Estonia (26%) & Lithuania (33%) – 1995: Latvia (25%) – 2001: Russia (13%) – 2003: Serbia (14%) – 2004: Ukraine (13%) & Slovakia (19%) – 2005: Georgia (12%) & Romania (16%)

• Many potential problems – Flat tax ≠ low tax rate – Flat tax ≠ large tax base – Flat tax ≠ simplicity – Correlation vs. causation – Transitional costs

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ငေငြခြန ျပျပငေျပာငးလေရး • ပေသႏႈနးသတမတ၍ ေကာကခေသာ အခြန (ႏႈနးတခြန) Vs ငေငြအဆငေပၚတြင မတည၍ ေကာကခေသာ အခြန

(ႏႈနးတးခြန) • အရငးလငးဆးပစ-- အနမဆးသတမတခက (ကငးလြတခြငရေသာ ပမာဏ)။ ထပမာဏ အထကရ

ငေငြအားလးတ အေပၚတြင ႏႈနးထားတစခသတမတ၍ ေကာကချခငး။ – ျဖစႏငေျခရေသာ စးပြားေရးဆငရာ အကးရလဒမား – အခြနဆငရာ နထပနပး ေလာနညးႏငၿပး သကေရာကမႈက ျပနလညျဖန႔ေဝႏငမညျဖစသည။ – အခြနစမခန႔ခြမႈဆငရာအကးရလဒမား ရရႏငမႈ အလားအလာ

• အေရ ဥေရာပႏငငမားတြင ေရပနးစားကငသးလာသညစနစမား – 1994: Estonia (26%) & Lithuania (33%) , 1995: Latvia (25%) , 2001: Russia (13%) – 2003: Serbia (14%) , 2004: Ukraine (13%) & Slovakia (19%) , 2005: Georgia (12%) & Romania

(16%) • ျဖစႏငေခရေသာ ျပနာမား

– နႈနးတခြန≠ နညးပါးေသာအခြနနႈနး – နႈနးတခြန ≠ ကယျပန ေသာ အခြနအေျခခ – နႈနးတခြန ≠ ရးရငးမႈ – နစခအျကား ဆကႏြယပတသကမႈ Vs. တစခေၾကာင အျခားတစခက သကေရာကမႈ (Correlaton Vs Causation) – စနစအေျပာငးအလအတြက ကနကစရတ