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DestructionoftheNorthChinaCraton

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Progress of Projects Supported by NSFC October 2012 Vol.55 No.10: 1565–1587

• REVIEW • doi: 10.1007/s11430-012-4516-y

Destruction of the North China Craton

ZHU RiXiang1*, XU YiGang2, ZHU Guang3, ZHANG HongFu1, XIA QunKe4 & ZHENG TianYu1

1 State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China; 2 State Key Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences,

Guangzhou 510640, China; 3 School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China; 4 School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

Received March 27, 2012; accepted June 18, 2012

A National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) major research project, Destruction of the North China Craton (NCC), has been carried out in the past few years by Chinese scientists through an in-depth and systematic observations, experiments and theoretical analyses, with an emphasis on the spatio-temporal distribution of the NCC destruction, the structure of deep earth and shallow geological records of the craton evolution, the mechanism and dynamics of the craton destruction. From this work the following conclusions can be drawn: (1) Significant spatial heterogeneity exists in the NCC lithospheric thickness and crustal structure, which constrains the scope of the NCC destruction. (2) The nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic sub-continental lithospheric mantle (CLM) underneath the NCC is characterized in detail. In terms of water content, the late Mesozoic CLM was rich in water, but Cenozoic CLM was highly water deficient. (3) The correlation between magmatism and surface geological response confirms that the geological and tectonic evolution is governed by cratonic destruction processes. (4) Pacific subduction is the main dynamic factor that triggered the destruction of the NCC, which highlights the role of cra-tonic destruction in plate tectonics.

NSFC major research project, research progress, craton destruction, North China Craton

Citation: Zhu R X, Xu Y G, Zhu G, et al. Destruction of the North China Craton. Sci China Earth Sci, 2012, 55: 1565–1587, doi: 10.1007/s11430-012-4516-y

The Earth is a dynamic subsystem in the solar system and has gone through numerous changes since its formation about 4.6 billion years ago. Throughout the history of sci-ence, the Earth has been extensively studied in terms of material, movement, chemical change, physical field and geologic structure. Plate tectonics, a theory proposed in the 1960s, described the dynamic movements of the geological plates of the Earth on a global scale. This theory opened a new chapter in Earth sciences, which view the Earth as dy-namically evolving system.

The theory of plate tectonics was founded on the hy-

pothesis of continental drift and seafloor spreading. The striped pattern of sea-floor magnetic anomalies provided the most powerful observational evidence for the theory of plate tectonics. However, the several-hundred-million-year period of the seafloor cycle from seafloor spreading to oceanic plate subduction is only a fragment of the long history of Earth’s evolution. During the past several few billion years, how did continents grow and what caused their demise? Is the past or the future controlled by the evolution of conti-nents? The basic idea behind the theory of plate tectonics are still thought to hold true, but many geoscientist have been expanding on the basic theory and have put forward many new ideas such as crustal growth, crust-mantle recy-

1566 Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10

cling, continental subduction/exhumation, continental re-working, among many others in the study of continental dynamics.

The tectonic evolution of North China Craton (NCC) has been a subject of interest to geoscientists. Chinese geolo-gists have extensively explored the tectonic development of the NCC in the last hundred years and have put forward various theories of the NCC evolution. For example, Prof. Wenhao Wong proposed the “Yanshanian Movement” in 1927 [1], which was used to express the strong tectonic movement of eastern China in the latter part of the Meso- zoic, or the “Platform Reactivation” theory founded by pro-fessor Guoda Chen during the period of 1956–1960 [2]. Since the 1980s, several important ideas, such as continental deep subduction [3] (the Qinling-Dabie Mountains on the southern margin of the NCC) and lithospheric thinning [4] (the eastern part of the NCC), stand out on the basis of geo-logical observations and experimental studies. For example, the inference that the Early Paleozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC had the attributes of a typical cra-ton was proposed based on the studies of mantle xenoliths in the Ordovician diamondiferous kimberlites from the NCC (Mengyin County in Shandong Province and Fuxian County in Liaoning Province). The lithosphere of the NCC was about 200 km thick when the kimberlites erupted at about 470 Ma. However, the Cenozoic basalts sampled a thin lithosphere of only 80–120 km, which suggests litho-spheric thinning of more than 100 km since the Early Paleozoic. Petrological and geochemical studies have dis-cussed possible physical and chemical processes that could change the nature of lithospheric mantle, and proposed a variety of mechanisms for lithospheric destruction, such as delamination, thermo-chemical/mechanical erosion, perido-tite-melt interaction, mechanical extension, and water weakening model of the lithosphere [5–11].

The NCC has experienced not only the lithospheric thin-ning, but also the transformation of lithospheric properties and thermal state. Large-scale ductile deformation and magmatic-metallogenic activities occurred in the crust of the NCC, which originally would have been cratonic in character. The presence of such deformation suggests that the NCC has been partially destroyed and the original prop-erties of the craton no longer exist. We call the geological phenomenon by which a craton loses stability as craton de-struction. Lithospheric thinning is only a superficial phe-nomenon and it is cratonic destruction that controls the evolution of cratons [12]. There can be multiple mecha-nisms of cratonic destruction, such as delamination, thermal erosion, or peridotite-melt reactions, which might be a mani-festation of slab-mantle interaction or embody the interac-tions of different mantle rocks. Different pre-existing tec-tonic settings will likely correspond to differences in the type of destruction experienced by a craton. In the view of geodynamic mechanisms, the destruction of NCC is mainly controlled by the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate

[11]. In the past few years, Chinese scientists have carried out

a comprehensive study of geology, geophysics and geo-chemistry on the NCC using a “natural laboratory research” scientific model with a global perspective. The major re-search project, Destruction of the NCC, funded by the Na-tional Natural Science Foundation of China since 2007, has mainly encompassed the following 5 key scientific issues: (1) spatio-temporal distribution of the NCC destruction, (2) the structure of deep Earth and thermal-structural-fluid pro-cesses of the craton destruction, (3) correlation of superfi-cial environment, mineral accumulation, and seismic activi-ties with the destruction of NCC, (4) mechanisms, processes, and dynamics of the NCC destruction, and (5) significance of the NCC destruction in global geological and continental evolution. Using mobile seismic stations and in-situ isotope tracer technology, high-precision, high-resolution, large- scale and multi-attribute observations have been obtained and huge amounts of data analyzed. Interdisciplinary ap-proaches, built on the observations and experimental data, have enabled us to obtain fresh evidence and new under-standing of the destruction of the NCC and its implications for near-surface resources and the global evolution of the Earth’s continents. This article briefly reviews the new pro-gress achieved so far in the research area of the destruction of NCC.

1 Structure of the crust and the upper mantle beneath the NCC

Understanding the role of craton destruction in the evolution of the global tectonics is crucial for the study of continental dynamics. To achieve this it is necessary to understand, not only the lithospheric nature and modification processes, but also the dynamic tectonic system, which caused the craton destruction. In view of extensional tectonics and magma-tism, the materials and energy of modifying the lithosphere could come from several tectonic activities, including man-tle plumes, the uprising of asthenospheric mantle derived from the lithospheric delamination, or the special mantle flow system associated with the subduction. The crust- mantle structures are key constraints for differentiating these tectonic effects.

Since 2000, a total of 975 temporal stations equipped with portable broadband seismometers have been deployed in the NCC with an average spacing of about 10–15 km. Three wide-angle reflection/refraction profiles were per-formed with a total length of 3400 km. The combined ocean-bottom-seismometer (OBS) and land portable seis-mometer survey was carried out in the Bohai region for two profiles with a total length of ~930 km. The data obtained from the large-scale temporary seismic observations (Figure 1) in the NCC have enabled the study of crust and mantle structures in unprecedented detail.

Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10 1567

Figure 1 Map of the seismic stations and seismic observation profiles in the NCC and adjacent region. Red triangles represent temporary seismic stations, green triangles represent Chinese National Digital Seismic Network stations, purple triangles represent ocean-bottom-seismometer (OBS), and blue lines represent wide-angle reflection/refraction profiles. The names of the observation profiles used in the text and in Figures 2 and 4 are marked.

1.1 Geographical extent of the NCC destruction

The NCC reactivation (deformation/destruction) during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic was proposed based on the evidence of a disappearance of the thick, cold, and refractory ancient lithospheric keel obtained from previous petrological and chemical studies. However, the spatially limited distribution of rock samples has hindered our understanding of the ex-tent and nature of the lithospheric destruction. A wave equation-based poststack depth migration technique was developed [13] to image the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary of the NCC from the seismic observations [14–17]. The map of lithospheric thickness (Figure 2) be-neath the eastern NCC indicates a thinning lithosphere and a general SE-NW deepening of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary, from 60–70 km in the southeast areas to 90–100 km in the northwest. The thick lithosphere (~200 km) is present beneath the Ordos Basin, and the thin lithosphere is found in the Cenozoic Yinchuan-Hetao and Fenwei rifts around the Ordos Basin, with sharp boundaries between these regions. Near the boundary between the eastern and central NCC, a rapid thickness variation of lithosphere is observed and is roughly coincident with the North-South Gravity Lineament. These observed structural changes in the crust [18–22] and lithosphere [14–17] indicate that parts of the NCC, especially at the eastern Taihang Mountains,

have experienced significant destruction of the lithospheric mantle.

1.2 Tectonic evolution information recorded in the crust

Available geochronological data suggest that an age of 4.0 Ga is considered to represent the most primitive continental crust age for the NCC, with the major crustal growth of the NCC taking place from 3.0 to 2.5 Ga. Zheng et al. [18–22] reconstructed crustal structures beneath the seismic obser-vation profiles in the NCC with the teleseismic data using an integrated receiver function imaging technique. The crustal structure of shear wave velocity from the Lijin- Datong-Ertuoke profile (NCISP-2 and NCISP-4) cross the NCC with E-W trending is displayed in Figure 3 [18, 20]. The profile is characterized by a thick sedimentary cover (2–12 km thick), a thin crust with a thickness of ~30 km, and a horizontal inter-layering of low and high velocities in the eastern part of the crust section, which represent crust deformed by extension. In the western part of the crustal section the intra-crustal interfaces and the Moho are rela-tively smooth, with a Moho depth of ~40 km, which may represent a relatively stable tectonic feature in the NCC. The imaging from the centre part of the crust section exhi- bits the flexural intra-crustal interfaces, the dipping and flat

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Figure 2 Lithospheric thickness contour map of the NCC. Numbers on the contour lines denote the values of the lithospheric thickness in km. BBB, Bohai Bay Basin; CAOB, Central Asia Orogenic Belt; NSGL, North-South Gravity Lineament; TM, Taihang Mountains; YC-HT, Yinchuan-Hetao; YM, Yanshan Mountains; YinM, Yinshan Mountains. After ref. [12].

Figure 3 The shear-wave velocity structure of the crust along the seismic observation profiles (NCISP-2 and NCISP-4) with E-W trending (data from refs. [18, 20]). The scale of S velocity is shown on the right.

low-velocity zones, and the crustal root with the depth of 46 km, which was speculated to represent the tectonic remnant of the continental collision during the assembly of the NCC [20]. The significant structural contrast between the eastern and western parts of the crust indicates that the craton de-struction was mainly concentrated in the eastern NCC.

The widespread Mesozoic extrusive volcanic rocks and granites, and the occurrence of metamorphic core comple- xes (indication of large-strain extension in the crust), and the crustal thinning in the eastern NCC document that not only the NCC lithospheric mantle, but also the NCC crust, especially the lower crust, has been modified during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The structures of the crust-mantle boundary provided solid evidence of the magmatism. In the

stacked profiles of the receiver functions a strong PpPs phase can be continuously traced in the Yanshan region, however, the PpPs phase is diffuse and weakened in the Taihangshan region [22]. The distinct characteristics exhib-ited by the PpPs phases of the receiver function profiles are mainly generated by the distinct structures of the crust- mantle boundary based on the forward and inversion analy-sis for the waveforms of the Ps phase and PpPs phase from the Moho [22]. The thick crust-mantle transition zone re-sults in diffuse and weakened PpPs phases in the Taihang-shan region, which could be explained by the underplating of the mantle-derived magma. The sharp crust-mantle boundary yields strong PpPs phases in the Yanshan region, which could be attributed to the direct contact of intruding

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mantle materials with the evolved higher-level crust due to the rapid foundering of the lower crust associated with the NCC destruction. The seismic observations of the crust- mantle boundary structure reveal that there are distinct pro-cesses of crustal modification and magmatism in the NCC destruction.

1.3 Intra-lithospheric mantle structure recorded con-tinental evolution

The receiver function imaging from S-to-P waves, in which the stronger velocity change can be continuously traced, have been successful used to map the depths of the litho-sphere-asthenosphere boundary beneath the NCC (Figure 2). However, the identification of the seismic signatures that correspond to the intra-lithospheric mantle structure is dif-ficult due to the weak signal, and disturbances from crustal reverberations. Zheng et al. [23] performed a series of syn-thetic tests of common conversion point (CCP) stacking images to distinguish between the multiple waves generated by the crustal structure and the velocity discontinuities in

the intra-lithospheric mantle. They then used this approach to identify the velocity discontinuities in the intra-litho- spheric mantle above the 110 km depth. The CCP images of intra-lithospheric mantle structure were obtained for six-profiles spanning different tectonic units in the NCC based on dense seismic array data (Figure 4).

The seismic imaging results indicate a diverse intra- lithospheric mantle structure in different parts of the NCC. The majority of profile NCISP-4 and the northern part of profile NCISP-7 are located at the western NCC, which covers a Paleoproterozoic assembled continent in the NCC. The lithospheric mantle is generally homogeneous in the western MCC. The NCISP-1, NCISP-3, and NCISP-6 pro-files span the eastern NCC, where the lithosphere has been modified. The presence of high-velocity fragments may be related to the slab break-off and/or the delamination of the lower crust and the lithospheric mantle. The profile NCISP-5 and the southern part of profile NCISP-7 are lo-cated at a Phanerozoic continental collision zone, where the Yangtze Plate was subducted northward beneath the NCC. The seismic imaging results suggest intermittent and juxta-

Figure 4 CCP stacked receiver function images of the crust and lithospheric mantle along six profiles. Red and blue denote positive and negative ampli-tude of the receiver functions as annotated in the color bar, which indicate a velocity increase or decrease with depth, respectively. The black dots and blue dots mark the intra-lithospheric mantle velocity discontinuities. The green dash lines mark the stacked amplitude of the PpPs multiples from a shallow crus-tal structure. Data source: ref. [23].

1570 Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10

posed velocity interfaces in the intra-lithospheric mantle. The velocity interface positions closest to the surface are located at the Shangdan suture to the north and at the Mi-anlue suture to the south. The imaged high-velocity vol-umes in the intra-lithospheric mantle beneath the southern NCC were interpreted as a subduction remnant in the up-permost mantle, which suggest a flat subduction channel resulted from the continent-continent collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Plate.

From these observations, we interpret that the tectonic processes of NCC evolution are responsible for the complex intra-lithospheric mantle structures. The tectonic relicts of Phanerozoic continent-continent collision were preserved in the lithospheric mantle, but the tectonic relics of Paleopro-terozoic amalgamation could only be preserved in the crust [20]. In the modified lithospheric mantle of eastern NCC it is difficult to identify the previous tectonic relict by the seismic observations.

1.4 Interaction between continental lithosphere and subduction plate

Since the Late Paleozoic, the NCC settled into the East Asian continent by amalgamating with the surrounding con-tinental blocks. To the north, the amalgamation of the NCC with the accreted terranes of the Central Asian Orogen oc-curred during the Late Permian to Early Triassic, after the Paleo-oceanic lithosphere had subducted beneath the north-ern margin of the NCC. To the south, the Qinling-Dabie Orogen represents a convergent boundary of the conti-nent-continent collision between the NCC and the SCB, where the Qinling Ocean closed and the Yangtze Plate sub-ducted northward beneath the NCC and collided in the Tri-assic. During the Late Mesozoic, the NCC became an im-portant active part of the circum-Pacific tectono-mag- matic zone. All of these tectonic events have been consid-ered as the geodynamic factors in causing the destabiliza-tion of the NCC.

Recent advancements in station coverage and seismic imaging method enable more detailed imaging of the deep structure beneath the NCC, which can provide seismologi-cal constraints on the deep structure of upper mantle to help in the discrimination of the various dynamic regimes re-sponsible for the continental lithosphere modification. Zhao et al. [24, 25] presented new 3-D tomographic models of VP, VS and VP/VS ratio anomalies in the mantle to a depth of 700 km beneath eastern China and adjacent areas (Figure 5). The tomographic images were constructed by inverting body wave travel-times recorded at stations within the up-graded China National Seismic Network and temporary arrays. Jiang et al. [26] constructed the S-velocity model of the upper mantle above 300 km by using the multiple- plane-wave tomography. The multi-scale heterogeneities occupy the upper mantle beneath the NCC. An obvious N–S trending narrow low-velocity region is located at the base of

the lithosphere beneath the central NCC extending to more than 500 km depth, which suggests an upwelling channel of warm mantle material with a source at least as deep as the transition zone. The results of shear wave splitting meas-urements using the SKS phase recorded from the permanent and temporal seismic stations revealed that the anisotropy pattern of the upper mantle in the NCC is substantially var-iable [27–32], and indicate the correlation between the ani-sotropy pattern change and the lithospheric structural change. An inerratic change of the anisotropy pattern in the low-velocity area in central NCC and beneath the Tanlu fault zone was found.

Receiver function imaging provides an effective ap-proach to construct the structure of mantle transition zone. The topographies of the 410 and 660 km discontinuities have been observed beneath the NCC using the seismic data from dense arrays in the NCC [33–37]. The imaging results indicate that the mantle transition zone appears thick in the eastern part, which is consistent with the high-velocity anomaly observed by tomography. The depression of the 660 km discontinuity in the eastern NCC is suggested to arise from the effect of the cooling stagnant remnant of the subducting Pacific slab in the mantle transition zone. Depth anomalies at both discontinuities were detected by using a three-dimensional regional velocity model [37]. The de-pressions of the 410 km discontinuity are mostly located in the eastern NCC associated with the low-velocity zone in the central NCC, which was speculated a dynamic mantle regime derived from the slab stagnating, sinking, and in-duced upwelling at the neighboring slab front.

These observations of the upper mantle structure and an-isotropy pattern provide evidence of the dynamic interac-tions among the subducting slab, cratonic root, and ambient mantle beneath the NCC. These regimes hint that the craton destruction was possibly dominated by interaction between the lithospheric mantle and the asthenosphere mantle con-trolled by the Pacific subduction, which is a problem that needs further investigation.

2 Nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Ceno-zoic lithospheric mantle beneath the NCC and their modification processes

The widespread distribution of Mesozoic igneous rocks in the NCC indicates that the lithospheric thinning of the NCC was associated with the change in physical and chemical properties of the lithospheric mantle. Systematic investiga-tions on the xenoliths/xenocrysts of different ages from the main tectonic blocks (the Eastern Block and the Western Block) and tectonic zones (Tanlu fault zone and Taihang Mountain gravity lineament) across the NCC, in particular, experimental studies using the newly developed tracers of radiogenic isotopes (Hf and Os) and non-traditional stable isotopes (Li, Mg and Fe), have led to many new insights

Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10 1571

Figure 5 Cross-sections from the tomographic VP and VS velocity models. (a)–(d) P wave velocity perturbations at different sections; (e)–(h) S-wave veloc-ity perturbations at different sections. After ref. [25].

into the properties of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Ceno- zoic lithospheric mantle beneath the craton and their modi-fication processes.

2.1 Nature of the Paleozoic lithospheric mantle: Cra-tonic

Age determination of the lithospheric mantle is difficult. Traditionally, the formation age of lithospheric mantle can be approximately estimated by the major element depletion of the lithospheric mantle, that is, the molar percentages of forsterite (Fo) [38]. The Fo content of peridotites is high

(>92 mol.%) in Archean lithospheric mantle, but relatively low (<91 mol.%) in Phanerozoic mantle (Figure 6). The peridotite xenoliths and olivine inclusions in the diamonds from the Ordovician kimberlites of the NCC have high Fo values and fall in the field for Archean mantle peridotites (Figure 6). This suggests that the lithospheric mantle most likely formed in the Archean. Os isotope data of the perido-tite xenoliths in the kimberlites indicate that most of the samples have Archean Re depletion ages (Figure 7), and all of them have Archean depleted mantle model ages [44], which is consistent with the previous observations [47, 48]. Combined with temperature-pressure estimations, these

1572 Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10

Figure 6 The variation of Fo with modal (%) of olivines from the mantle peridotites of the NCC. The Paleozoic represents the peridotite xenoliths in the Paleozoic kimberlites. Mesozoic-Cenozoic high Mg and low Mg rep-resent the Mesozoic and Cenozoic high-Mg# and low-Mg# peridotite xeno-liths from the NCC, respectively. Data sources: refs. [9, 39–43].

Figure 7 Histogram showing the TRD age distribution of the peridotites from the NCC. Data sources: refs. [40, 44–46].

observations further demonstrate that the lithospheric man-tle beneath the eastern NCC was ancient (Archean), had low geothermal gradient, had a thickness up to 200 km, and re-mained refractory before its thinning.

Geochronological and Hf isotopic geochemistry of zir-cons in the lower crustal granulite xenoliths entrained in the basic and alkali rocks of different ages from the NCC sug-gest that the lower crust formed in the Archean (about 2.5–2.7 Ga ago). Most of the zircons have ages of 2.5 Ga [49], which indicates that the Neoarchean of 2.5 Ga was an important period for the formation or reworking of the an-cient lower crust of the NCC.

To sum up, the lower crust and lithospheric mantle of the NCC have a nature of typical craton before its thinning of the lithospheric keel.

2.2 Heterogeneity of Mesozoic lithosphere and its modification

The chemical compositions and physical properties of litho-spheric mantle beneath the NCC have changed greatly since the Mesozoic [9]. In contrast to the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the eastern part of the NCC is composed of lherzolites and pyroxenites, which are rela-tively fertile in major elements, enriched in large-ion litho-phile elements, depleted in high field strength elements, with high 87Sr/86Sr and low 143Nd/144Nd isotopic ratios [50–53]. These characteristics suggest that the ancient lith-ospheric mantle beneath the craton experienced intensive modification by recycled crustal materials, which produced spatio-temporal heterogeneity [9]. However, there is still hot debate on the source of the recycled crustal materials, in particular for the southern margin of the craton. One of the popular viewpoints is that the crustal materials were derived from the deeply subducted Yangtze crust [50–53]. Another suggestion is that the recycled materials were derived from delaminated lower crust of the NCC [54–56]. The zircons from the lower crustal granulite xenoliths in the late Creta-ceous basic rocks of Jiaodong region are Paleoprotero- zoic-Archean in age [57, 58]. This can be explained by two scenarios: (1) Given that the sampling sites are located in the Sulu orogenic belt, these ages may have nothing to do with the old lower crust and the analyzed zircons may be detrital or derived from the continental collision belt; or (2) the old lower crust still existed in the late Cretaceous [57, 58], which precludes lower crust delamination of the NCC. Based on the study of Mesozoic igneous rocks in the south-ern margin of the craton (Bengbu area), Liu et al. [59] pro-posed a new interpretation where by partial melting of pre-existing thickened lower crust in the southern and northern margins of the craton left the residues denser as a result of felsic melt extraction, which resulted in gravita-tional instability and foundering of the lithosphere. Such a lithospheric thinning is similar to the mountain-root col-lapse in the Dabie Orogen of central China, which suggests that this model may have broad significance for foundering of a thickened lower crust in the settings of orogenic belts and cratonic margins.

The mantle peridotite xenoliths in the Mesozoic igneous rocks of the NCC also demonstrate that the Mesozoic litho-spheric mantle beneath the craton was heterogeneous (Fig-ure 6). The lithosphere in the Jiaodong region of the eastern craton has a double-layered structure with ancient residues in the upper layer, represented by high-Mg# peridotites, and newly-accreted lithospheric mantle in lower layer since the Late Cretaceous, represented by low-Mg# peridotites [60]. In-situ Li isotope analysis on peridotite xenoliths gives fur-

Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10 1573

ther support for this conclusion and the modification of high-Mg# peridotite by melt metasomatism [42]. The an-cient residues of lithospheric mantle have also been ob-served in the Central Zone of the NCC and the core Fo of olivine xenocrysts in the gabbros can be as high as 92–94 (Figure 6) [61].

Similarly, zircon geochronology and Hf isotopes of the lower crustal granulite xenoliths in the Mesozoic and Ce-nozoic basic and alkali rocks from the NCC indicate that the ancient lower crust of the craton experienced widespread multi-stage modification of magma underplating, which corresponds to the multiple tectonic events of Early Paleo-zoic, Late Paleozoic, Early Mesozoic, Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic [62–65]. Among them, the Late Paleozoic mag-mas were likely derived from the partial melting of sub-ducted oceanic slab during the closure of Paleo-Asian Ocean [58]. The widespread magma underplating at about 120 Ma could be related with the contemporaneous activity of the South Pacific mantle plume and even the subduction of Pacific Plate [64]. Therefore, the lower crust of the NCC also experienced the modification process similar to that of lithospheric mantle.

In summary, the destruction of the NCC is not only by the modification and destruction of lithospheric mantle, but also the modification and destruction of the lower crust and, in some regions, the whole crust. The destruction achieved the peak in the Late Mesozoic. After destruction, the eastern NCC no longer retained the attributes of a typical craton. The available studies suggest that the melts, which lead to the modification of the Mesozoic lithosphere, were mainly derived from crustal materials, that is, subducted continental crust in the southern margin, but subducted oceanic crust in the northern margin of the craton.

2.3 Refertilization of Cenozoic lithosphere: litho-sphere-asthenosphere interaction

The modification and destruction of the Cenozoic litho-spheric mantle beneath the NCC are mainly characterized by refertilization of the lithosphere (i.e., lithosphere- asthenosphere interaction). For example, the Cenozoic lith-ospheric mantle beneath the Jiaodong region in the south-eastern NCC inherited the double-layer structure with old residues in the upper layer and newly-accreted lithospheric mantle in the lower layer. However, the old lithospheric mantle no longer exists in the Tanlu fault zone, where fur-ther thinning of the lithosphere has occurred, and the litho-spheric mantle beneath this region is composed of relatively young lithosphere. Moreover, the newly-accreted litho-spheric mantle also experienced intensive modification of carbonate-rich silicate melts derived from the asthenosphere, which resulted in the formation of cpx-rich lherzolites and wehrlites with extremely low Fo (Figure 6) [39, 46]. These conclusions are further supported by geophysical observa- tions [17], Paleo-geothermal gradient [66], and Re-Os

isotopes [45]. The Cenozoic lithospheric mantle beneath the Taihang

Mountains and the Western Block of the craton has double- layer structure similar to that of the eastern craton. In the upper layer, the lithospheric mantle is composed of high-Fo harzburgites and lherzolites (Figure 6) and some samples from the Yangyuan (Hebei Province), Fanshi (Shanxi Prov-ince) and Hebi (Henan Province) have Archean Re-Os model ages (Figure 7) [40, 67, 68]. In contrast, the litho-spheric mantle in the lower layer is composed of relatively young (mainly Proterozoic TRD ages, Figure 7), fertile (Fo< 90; Figure 6) and isotopically depleted lherzolites and pyroxenites [45, 67–69] with an isotopic signature similar to oceanic lithospheric mantle. However, this “oceanic” litho-spheric mantle is distinct from the newly-accreted litho-spheric mantle beneath the eastern NCC, and is the product of interaction between peridotites and melts derived from the asthenosphere (i.e., the result of lithosphere-astheno- sphere interactions [45, 67–69]).

The interaction between peridotites and melts derived from different sources is the main cause for inter-mineral Sr-Nd and Li-Fe-Mg isotopic disequilibria (Figure 8) [42, 68–73]. The modification of peridotites by sulfur-unsa- turated melts likely led to the decomposition of sulphides in

Figure 8 Li-Mg-Fe isotopic compositions of the mantle peridotite xeno-liths from the NCC. (a) Variation of Mg and Fe isotopic ratios in the man-tle peridotites [71, 73]; (b) Variation of Li abundances and isotopic com-positions in the peridotites [70]. The systematic variations of isotopic compositions in different rocks from the same area reflect the result of mantle peridotite-melt interaction.

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the peridotites, which could be the most important reason for the low Os contents and high Os isotopic ratios in the mantle peridotites of the NCC [46, 74].

Studies based on multiple isotopes (Sr-Nd-Os-Li-Mg-Fe) suggest that peridotite-melt interactions occurred in multiple stages and that the melts were derived from diverse sources. Periodic and complicated peridotite-melt interactions not only led to the large-scale lithospheric destruction of the eastern NCC, but also resulted in the variable degree of thinning and high geochemical heterogeneity of the litho-sphere in the Central Zone and the margins of the Western Block [42, 69–73]. The spatial variations of lithospheric thickness and compositions of the NCC reflect the im-portant effects of inward subduction of circum-craton plates and subsequent collisions with the craton on the evolution of the NCC [9, 41, 64, 74].

3 High water content in the Mesozoic and low water content in the Cenozoic lithopsheric mantle of the NCC

3.1 High water content in the Mesozoic lithospheric mantle

It has been suggested that the longevity of craton is related to the low water content of its deep mantle root, which gives much higher viscosity to resist asthenosphere erosion [75]. Whatever the mechanism for craton destruction, the low viscosity of the lithospheric mantle, which is expected to be closely related with elevated water content, would be a me-chanical prerequisite. Previous petrological and geochemi-cal studies have demonstrated that the high-magnesium basalts of the Feixian area in the eastern part of the NCC erupted in the early Cretaceous (~120 Ma) were derived from the lithospheric mantle without significant crustal contamination during ascent [55]. Electron microprobe and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy investigations of the clinopyroxene phenocrysts in the Feixian basalts demonstrated that the H2O content of the earliest crystal-lized phenocrysts (Mg# values at ~90) are 210–370 ppm by weight [76]. Based on these values and the partition coeffi-cient between clinopyroxene and melt [77], the calculated H2O content of the primary basaltic magma is 3.4±0.7 wt% [76]. Furthermore, the H2O content of the lithospheric man-tle source of these basalts was estimated to be more than 1000 ppm by weight (Figure 9). This water content is much higher than both the source of mid-ocean-ridge basalts (50–200 ppm by weight) [78–81] and the Kaapvaal craton (~120 ppm) [82, 83]; the latter is still stable after >3 billion years [75]. The calculated viscosity of the Mesozoic litho-spheric mantle of the NCC was close to that of asthenosphere [76]. Because ~120 Ma is the peak time of the destruction, these data therefore confirm that the craton destruction is tightly related to elevated water content of its lithospheric mantle [84].

Figure 9 Water contents in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle of the NCC. The range of the NCC is from refs. [76, 85, 86]; that of the South African craton is from refs. [82, 83]; that of the MORB source is from refs. [78–81].

3.2 Low water content in the Cenozoic lithospheric mantle

The Cenozoic lithospheric mantle of the NCC is characterized by a low water content [85, 86] compared to continental lithospheric mantle worldwide, which is represented by typical cratonic peridotites from South Africa and Colorado Plateau and off-cratonic peridotites from Basin and Range (USA), South Mexico, Massif Central (France), West Kettle (Canada) and Patagonia (Chile) [82, 83, 87–89]. H2O con-tents of clinopyroxenes and orthopyroxenes of the NCC peridotites hosted by <40 Ma alkali basalts from 12 locali-ties are generally less than 200 and 100 ppm by weight, re-spectively, whereas those of typical cratonic and off-cratonic peridotites are generally more than 200 and 100 ppm by weight. For bulk H2O contents, those of the NCC peridotites (Figure 9) and typical cratonic are generally less than 50 ppm by weight, but off-cratonic peridotites typically have more than 50 ppm by weight H2O. Clearly, the present lithospheric mantle of the NCC is much drier than the Meso-zoic counterpart, resulting in its stable status. The charac-teristics of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle of the NCC suggest that hydration was probably related to the Pacific subduction, while dehydration was probably due to reheating and/or partial melting events that acted in con-cert with the NCC lithospheric thinning.

4 Shallow geological records for craton de-struction

4.1 Shallow geological evolution

Continent-continent collision of the western and eastern blocks along the Trans-North China Orogen at ~1.8 Ga re-sulted in the formation of a united craton of the NCC [90]. The NCC was a typical craton from the Mesoproterozoic to the Early Triassic (~1.6 Gyr) and received typical cratonic

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cover deposition of shallow marine sediments during this period. During the Late Ordovician to Early Carboniferous, it experienced uplift and cessation of deposition, probably due to subduction of the paleo-Tethys Ocean in the south. This uplifting was not associated with shortening defor-mation in the NCC. The paleo-Asian oceanic crust sub-ducted beneath the NCC in the Late Paleozoic and eventu-ally the NCC collided with the Mongolian Block at the end of the Permian [91]. Jurassic closure of the Mongolo- Okhotsk Ocean [92] led to collage of the North Chi-na-Mongolian blocks and Siberian Craton. Under this re-gional shortening setting, folding with nearly E-W axes [93] and magmatism of the volcanic arc [94] took place along the Yinshan-Yashan tectonic belts in the northern margin of the NCC during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. Re-gional short-lived extension and resultant magmatism also occurred in these belts in the Early Mesozoic due to post-collisional extension in the north [8, 95]. Continent- continent collision of the NCC and South China Plate as well as northward crust subduction of the South China Plate in the Early Mesozoic caused hinterland deformation and formation of WNW-ESE fold and thrust belts in the south-ern margin of the NCC [96]. The Tan-Lu Fault Zone initi-ated as an intra-continental transform fault zone during the collision and sinistrally offset the Dabie and Sulu orogens on a large scale [96]. In contrast to the intense magmatism along the northern margin of the NCC, Late Mesozoic magmatism along the southern margin is absent. Following the collision of the NCC and South China Plate, the Ordos Basin, a large flexure-type hinterland basin, formed in the western NCC during the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic in contrast to the similar Early to Middle Jurassic Hefei Basin formed only on the southern margin of the eastern NCC, showing a general state of the western depression and east-ern uplifting for the whole NCC [90]. Sinistral faulting along the NNE-striking Tan-Lu Fault Zone and a series of associated faulting events took place in the eastern NCC from the end of the Middle Jurassic to the beginning of the Late Jurassic [98–101] due to high-speed, oblique subduc-tion of the Izanagi Plate beneath the East Asian continent [97]. This event represents the beginning of tectonic evolu-tion controlled by the western Pacific Plate motion in the eastern NCC [98, 101].

The so-called craton destruction means an overall loss of its craton nature [12]. Lithospheric thinning only happens under a regional, extensional setting. It is understood there-fore that a key shallow sign for the NCC destruction is widespread and intense extension. Late Jurassic deposition is rare in the NCC, which indicates uplifting during this period [94, 102]. The exception is the occurrence of large volcanic basins in the Yanshan tectonic belt [103], which are filled with Late Jurassic volcanic rocks such as the Diao- jishan or Lanqiyin Formation and associated with synchro-nous, acid plutons. Late Jurassic plutons, such as the Linglong batholith in the Jiaobei region and the

Jinshan-Tushan granite pluton just to the north of the Hefei Basin, are also present on the southern margin of the eastern NCC. Petrological and geochemical studies of the plutons [104–107] suggest that the Late Jurassic magmatism took place due to lithospheric thinning. Recent structural studies [108, 109] also demonstrate that local extension initiated along the southern and northern margins of the eastern NCC in Late Jurassic. However, the absence of Late Jurassic magmatism and extensional structures in the interior of the eastern NCC implies that Late Jurassic lithospheric rework-ing only happened along the southern and northern margins of the eastern NCC, and its interior remained in a stable uplifting state.

Peak destruction of the eastern NCC took place in Early Cretaceous. This is clearly shown by shallow geological records such as formation of a series of metamorphic core complexes, widespread occurrence of rift basins and normal faults, as well as large-scale volcanic eruption and plu-tonism (Figure 10(a)). Many metamorphic core complexes of Early Cretaceous age, such as Fangshan, Yunmengshan, Chifeng, Wazhiyu, Liaonan and Wanfu metamorphic core complexes [110–116], appear in the Yanshan-Liaonan tec-tonic belts with many supra-detachment basins. A series of Early Cretaceous rift basins, such as Zhoukou, Guzhen, Xinyang-Huanchuang, Hefei and Jiaolai basins [101, 102] developed along the southern margin of the eastern NCC. The interior of the eastern NCC is characterized by the pre-sent of small Early Cretaceous rift basins, such as the southwestern Shandong basins, which include Qufu, Sishui, Pingyi, Dawenkou, Xingtai, Mengyin and Laiwu basins, and the Bohai Bay basins [101, 102].

The Tan-Lu Fault Zone also changed into huge normal faults controlling development of many graben or half-graben basins in the Early Cretaceous [101]. These terrestrial rift basins in the eastern NCC are filled with both clastic and intermediate volcanic rocks. Normal faults con-trolling development of the basins strike NNE (Figure 10(b)). Ductile detachment shear zones of the metamorphic core complexes also show NNE-striking. A detailed analy-sis for the Early Cretaceous extension [101, 102, 117] demonstrates that peak rifting happened between 145 and 115 Ma while the metamorphic core complexes formed during 130–120 Ma [118]. The rifting decreased at the end of Early Cretaceous (115–100 Ma) and remaining basins were localized along large normal faults such as the Tan-Lu Fault Zone, eastern Taihang Fault and Lanliao Fault (Figure 10(b)). The shallow geology of the eastern NCC exhibits an obvious change in the Late Cretaceous. Regional uplifting predominated in the eastern NCC during this period. Late Cretaceous rift basins appeared locally in the eastern NCC, such as the Hefei, Guzhen and Jiaolai basins on the southern margin as well as local small basins in the Bohai Bay basins and Yanshan-Liaonan tectonic belts (Figure 10(c)). Meta-morphic core complexes, volcanic eruption and plutonism of Late Cretaceous age are absent in the eastern NCC.

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Figure 10 Extensional structures in the eastern NCC.

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Normal faults controlling the local basins changed into a generally E-W striking and indicate a weak extensional set-ting. Many Paleogene rift basins were developed again in the eastern NCC (Figure 10(d)) and are often associated with basalt eruption. This period is a main stage for for-mation of hydrocarbon-bearing basins in the eastern NCC. Rift basins of Early Paleogene age, a deposition stage for the Kongdian Formation and lower Shasi beds, are wide-spread in the interior and south of the eastern NCC. Basins of Middle Paleogene age, a deposition stage for the upper Shasi beds and Shayi beds, are localized in the Bohai Bay basins while those of Late Paleogene age, a deposition stage of the Dongying Formation, are concentrated in Bohai Bay around the Tan-Lu Fault Zone [119, 120].

4.2 Relation between shallow geology and deep pro-cesses

The shallow geology of the NCC destruction is characterized by extensional activities whereas the deep processes are represented by lithospheric transformation and thinning, which are mainly evident by magmatism. Correlation be-tween the extensional activities and magmatism can reveal the relation between the shallow geology and deep process-es. The consistency between the magmatism peak period (130–120 Ma) [73–94] and formation times of the meta-morphic core complexes, which represent the most intense extension, suggests that a close linkage between the deep process and shallow geology. Correlation between the shal-low extensional activities and magmatism from the Late Jurassic and the Paleogene also demonstrate a close tem-poral-spatial relationship.

The northern and southern margins of the NCC were ob-viously affected by plate convergence, which led to thick-ening of crust and whole lithosphere due to shortening [93, 96] and changes of both lithospheric composition and nature. This is why the margins experienced the destruction first. Another example of the influence of deep textures and their relation to shallow geology is the Tan-Lu Fault Zone. This major fault zone, which existed before the craton destruc-tion, has lower lithospheric strength and favorable passages for magma transportation. It became an intense extension and magmatic belt during the NCC destruction [99, 117] and has the thinnest lithosphere in the whole eastern NCC and the most remarkable transformation for lithospheric mantle [9, 121].

Following the intense intermediate magmatism of the Early Cretaceous, magmatism in the eastern NCC became rare in the Late Cretaceous. There were tholeiitic basalt eruptions in the Paleogene and local alkaline basalt erup-tions in the Neogene and Quaternary. Mantle xenoliths from basalt of the latest Early Cretaceous in the Liaoxi Basin and that of the Late Cretaceous in the southern Jiaolai Basin indicate that the mantle transformation finished in the Early Cretaceous [9, 121]. It is inferred by some authors [8] that

the NCC destruction ended in the Early Cretaceous and some lithospheric thickening happened during the Cenozoic. The Paleogene rifting in the eastern NCC (Figure 10(d)) implies that some periods of lithospheric thinning could occur after completion of the lithospheric mantle transfor-mation and under the overall setting of lithospheric thick-ening. This inference is also supported by the fact that the Bohai Bay basins experiencing intense Paleogene rifting and have the thinnest lithosphere in the eastern NCC [12]. It is noted that the Liaoxi and Jiaolai basins, which contain with mantle xenoliths that suggest the Early Cretaceous completion of lithospheric mantle transformation, have not experienced Paleogene rifting. It is therefore suggested that the completion times for the lithospheric mantle transfor-mation and thinning are probably not consistent in the east-ern NCC.

5 Pacific subduction as main trigger of destruc-tion of the NCC

The formation and destruction of cratonic lithosphere are closely related to plate tectonics [122]. The geodynamic factors that triggered the destruction of the NCC remain a subject of debate. Several possible triggers have been pro-posed, which include (1) the India-Eurasia collision [123, 124]; (2) mantle plume activity [125, 126]; (3) the Yang-tze-North China collision [47, 127] and (4) the subduction of Pacific Plate underneath the eastern Asian continent [11, 12, 128–136]. A detailed review on these different opinions can be found in Wu et al. [6]. In brief, the first two have been all but ruled out and the current debate focuses on the latter two.

The collision between North China and South China in the Triassic will have undoubtedly exerted an important influence on the evolution of the NCC. For example, pro- venance analyses on the basis of detrital zircons from the Ordos Basin reveal that Jurassic sediments were derived from Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt [137]. Xu et al. [53, 54, 138] found ecologite xenoliths in late Mesozoic igneous rocks in Xuhuai area, southeast of the NCC and determined their metamorphic age as Triassic, identical to that of UHP metamorphism (240–225 Ma). This implies crustal thicken-ing due to the collision between North China and South China and possible subsequent delamination. However, the temporal and spatial pattern of craton destruction is the key to assess whether this model is viable. If the destruction of the NCC took place in the late Mesozoic, it is hard to un-derstand why the thickened crust that formed during 240–225 Ma was delaminated in the early Cretaceous [6]. The source of the middle Jurassic granite from Tongshi (western Shandong) is early Proterozoic lower crust, but these granites have no adakitic composition. This suggests that there was no crustal thickening in the interior of the Craton at that time, or at least suggests that crustal thicken-

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ing as a consequence of the collision between North China and South China was spatially limited. Geochemical studies on Mesozoic mafic rocks suggest that the influence of the northward subduction of the Yangtze plate on the NCC is confined to a 200–400 km wide section on its southern edge [140]. Importantly, if crustal thickening was indeed related to northward subduction of the Yangtze plate beneath the NCC, the EW-oriented Dabie-Sulu belt would imply a NS pattern of craton destruction and is likely confined to Southeastern part of the NCC. This expectation is not con-sistent with the general NNE oriented pattern of lithospheric thinning in the NCC [6].

At present, many researchers regard Pacific subduction as one of principal triggers of the destruction of the NCC, on the basis of the following observations and inferences:

(1) Geophysical investigations and morphological anal-yses indicate that decratonization is largely confined to east of the North-South Gravity Lineament (NSGL), whereas to west of NSGL, in particular the Ordos basin, characteristics typical of a craton are observed [5, 12, 17, 67, 132, 141]. This spatial pattern of craton destruction, together with NE-NNE-oriented extensional basins, main structural align-ments and metamorphic core complexes [117, 142, 143], is consistent with the subduction direction of the Pacific Plate.

(2) Cenozoic basalts from both sides of the NSGL dis-play different evolutionary trends. The upper mantle be-neath these two regions is also different in terms of compo-sition and Os isotopic ages. This led Xu et al. [144] to pro-pose a diachronous extension in the NCC, with initial ex-tension in the eastern part owing to the Late Mesozoic paleo-Pacific subduction and subsequent extension in the western NCC induced by the Early Tertiary Indian-Eurasian collision.

(3) Two main episodes of late Mesozoic magmatism have been identified in the Jurassic and the early Cretaceous. These correspond to the subduction of the Pacific Plate un-derneath the Eurasian content and to subsequent extensions, respectively [145, 146].

(4) Global tomography studies indicate that the subduc-

ted Pacific oceanic slab has become stagnant within the mantle transition zone and extended subhorizontally west-ward beneath the East Asian continent [35, 37, 147–149]. The western end of this stagnant slab does not go beyond the NNE-trending NSGL. Such a configuration outlines an ultimate link between Pacific subduction and cratonic de-struction.

If Pacific subduction is the cause of the destabilization of the cratonic lithosphere under the NCC, the following should be expected. (a) The temporal variation in exten-sional patterns in eastern NCC would be in pace with that of movement of Pacific subduction and its subduction angle. (b) Given the subduction of Pacific Plate underneath eastern Asian continent, the slab-derived material should become sources of Mesozoic-Cenozoic magmas in this region. (c) This subducted slab may have released significant amount of water into the overlying upper mantle so that relatively high water content is expected. These three aspects have been confirmed by multi-disciplinary studies in the past years, which provides strong evidence for Pacific subduc-tion as the main factor controlling the destruction of the NCC.

5.1 Lithospheric extension in eastern NCC and Pacific subduction

Integrated studies in terms of basin analyses, metamorphic core complex, fault kinetics and dyke distribution indicate that the eastern NCC experienced NWW-SEE extension during the early-middle stage of the Early Cretaceous, NW-SE stretching during the late Early Cretaceous and NS extension during the late Cretaceous-Paleogene. This clock-wise change in extensional direction is in pace with the movement direction of Pacific Plate (Figure 11). This suggests that the destruction of the NCC likely took place in a back-arc extensional setting and the movement of Pacific plate was responsible for back-arc extension in the conti-nental margin. In other words, plate margin dynamics con-trolled the direction of surface crustal extension induced

Figure 11 Comparison between direction of lithospheric extension in eastern NCC and movement direction of Pacific Plate. After ref. [117].

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decratonization [117].

5.2 Subducted slab components in Mesozoic-Cenozoic mafic magmas

Although Pacific subduction has long been invoked as the trigger of post-Mesozoic geologic evolution and magmatism in eastern China [150], material evidence for its involve-ment in magma genesis is still lacking. What geochemical criteria can be use to identify subduction-related compo-nents in continental basalts? It is generally accepted that oceanic island basalts (OIB) contain recycled oceanic com-ponents. Therefore, the geochemical characteristics of OIB can be used as criteria to identify subduction-related com-ponents. These include (a) low 18O values in mineral phenocrysts (related to water-rock interaction at high tem-perature), (b) OIB-like trace element distribution pattern, such as depletion of high incompatible elements (Rb, Ba, Th and U) relative to Nb-Ta, negative K and Pb anomalies, and OIB-like Nb/U and Ce/Pb ratios (related to dehydration of oceanic basalts), and (c) HIMU-like isotopic composi-tions (e.g., 206Pb/204Pb>19.5).

Cenozoic basalts from eastern NCC display geochemical characteristics very similar to OIB, which points to the presence of subducted oceanic slab as their sources. For example, the Cenozoic basalts from Shandong, Northern Jiangsu and Northeastern Anhui are depleted in highly in-compatible elements and have a negative Pb anomaly [136, 151, 152]. In particular, 18O values of phenocrysts of oli-vine, clinopyroxene and plagioclase in these lavas are less than mantle values. This implies that subducted oceanic crust contributes to the magma source, which has been sub-jected to metamorphic dehydration and high-temperature water-rock interaction. Studies on Cenozoic basalts further reveal that the lithospheric mantle beneath southeastern part of the NCC is composed of ancient mantle and newly ac-creted mantle in the upper and lower parts of the mantle, respectively. Based on this, together with the spatial varia-tion in lithospheric thickness beneath the NCC, Zhang et al. [136] proposed that east to west lateral lithospheric thinning was induced by westward subduction of the Pacific subduc-tion. They inferred that subduction erosion took place dur-ing the Jurassic, and that slab-mantle interactions were strong in the early Creatceous, which resulted in localized enrichment of newly accreted lithospheric mantle. The latter became source of Cenozoic basalts.

Eocene basalts from Shuangliao, northeast China also show evidence for subducted oceanic crust in their source [153], which implies that Pacific subduction also affected Northeast China. Among the Cenozoic basalts from eastern China the Shuangliao basalts have the highest Fe2O3 content (13.4%–14.6%) and lowest 87Sr/86Sr ratios (<0.703). They have positive Eu, Sr, Nb and Ta anomalies, and are depleted in very incompatible elements (Rb, Ba, Th, U, K), reminis-cent of HIMU-type oceanic island basalts. Xu et al. [153]

postulated that the subducted oceanic components may have been derived from the seismically detected stagnant Pacific slab within the mantle transition zone.

The influence of Pacific subduction on the genesis of Cenozoic basalts in eastern China [36, 151, 152] is further supported by the spatial distribution of mantle components in the source of the Cenozoic basalts. Previous studies sug-gest that Cenozoic basalts from North and Northeast China were derived by melting of DMM-EM1 hybrid sources [154]. However, recent studies indicate that Cenozoic bas-alts from North and Northeast China are characterized by high 206Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb, relatively higher Sr isotopic ratios at given Nd isotopic ratios, similar to back-arc tholeiites recovered from the Japan Sea Basin. This implies that in addition to DMM and EM1 components, EM2 is also present in the source of Cenozoic basalts from North and Northeast China (Figure 12(a)). Importantly, the composi-tion of basalts younger than 20 Ma indicates an EM1-EM2 mixed upper mantle beneath coastal lines of North and Northeast China, and a predominant EM1-type mantle to-wards the interior of the Chinese continent (Figure 12(b)). Since the formation of EM1-type mantle is related to recy-cled old lithosphere and EM2-type mantle may contain

Figure 12 (a) Sr-Pb isotopes of late Cenozoic basalts from North and Northeast China; (b) Distribution of mantle components in the source of late Cenozoic basalts in eastern Asia (after ref. [155]). The compositions of mantle end-members (DM, EM1, EM2 and HIMU) are from ref. [156].

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subducted sediments, the spatial distribution of mantle source in eastern China reflects the influence of Pacific subduction on the evolution of the lithospheric mantle be-neath this region.

The identification of oceanic slab components in Ceno-zoic basalts provides evidence for involvement of Pacific subduction in magma genesis during the Cenozoic, but it does not necessarily demonstrate the causal relationship between Pacific subduction and destruction of the NCC. Obviously, the timing of first occurrence of subducted oce-anic components in mantle-derived magmas is the key. It has been shown that the transition in magma source of Mesozoic-Cenozoic magmas in North China took place at ~100 Ma. The mafic magmas emplaced before 100 Ma were derived from an ancient, enriched lithospheric mantle, whereas magmas younger than 100 Ma were derived from a young, depleted mantle containing recycled oceanic slab components.

Geochemical and isotopic investigations on magmas em-placed during 100–40 Ma were conducted by Xu et al. [158]. Three major components are identified, including depleted component I and II, and an enriched component. The de-pleted component I, which is characterized by relatively low 87Sr/86Sr (<0.7030), moderate 206Pb/204Pb (18.2), moderately high Nd (~4), high Eu/Eu* (>1.1) and HIMU-like trace ele-ment characteristics, is most likely derived from gabbroic cumulate of the oceanic crust. The depleted component II, which distinguishes itself by its high Nd (~8) and moderate 87Sr/86Sr (~0.7038), is probably derived from a sub-litho- spheric ambient mantle. The enriched component has low Nd (2–3), high 87Sr/86Sr (>0.7065), low 206Pb/204Pb (17), excess Sr, Rb, Ba and a deficiency of Zr and Hf relative to the REE. This component is likely from the basaltic portion of oceanic crust, which is variably altered by seawater and contains minor sediments. Comparison with experimental melts and trace element modeling further suggest that these recycled oceanic components may be in the form of garnet pyroxenite/eclogite, which may have been formed either by melt-rock interaction during subduction [136, 151, 152], or by metamorphic reaction of subducted oceanic crust [157].

The fact that Eu/Eu* and 87Sr/86Sr of 100–40 Ma mag-mas increases and decreases, respectively, with decreasing emplacement age (Figure 13) led Xu et al. [158] to suggest a change in magma source from upper to lower parts of subducted oceanic crust. Such secular trends are created by dynamic melting of a heterogeneous mantle containing re-cycled oceanic crust. Due to different melting temperatures of upper and lower ocean crust and progressive thinning of the lithosphere, the more fertile basaltic crustal component is preferentially sampled during the early stage of volcanism to generate alkali basalts characterized by high FeO con-tents, Eu/Eu*~1 and high 87Sr/86Sr. The more depleted gab-broic lower crust and lithospheric mantle components, however, are preferentially sampled during a later stage and form subalkaline basalts, characterized by positive Eu

anomaly and low 87Sr/86Sr. These recycled oceanic components have an Indi-

an-MORB Pb isotopic character (Figure 14) [153]. Given the isotopic affinity by the extinct Izanaghi-Pacific Plate, currently stagnated within the mantle transition zone [146–148], we propose that it ultimately comes from the subducted Pacific slab.

The discovery of subducted oceanic crust components in source of magmas younger than 100 Ma implies that the influence of the Pacific subduction can be traced back to at least the late Cretaceous. Given the time interval required by disintegration of subducted slabs into convective mantle, it can be inferred that the influence of Pacific subduction on

Figure 13 Temporal variation in Eu/Eu* and 87Sr/86Sr in 100–40 Ma basalts (MgO>8 wt%) from NCC and Northeast China (after ref. [158]).

Figure 14 Comparison of Pb isotopic composition of 100–40 Ma basalts (MgO>8 wt%) from NCC and Northeast China and different MORBs. Modified after refs. [153, 158]. Data for MORB are from ref. [159].

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the evolution of the lithospheric beneath eastern China may have been initiated at a time much earlier than late Cretaceous [136].

5.3 Strong hydration of late Mesozoic lithospheric mantle beneath eastern NCC

Water content in magma sources and in the lithospheric mantle at different time is pivotal to verify whether Pacific subduction triggered the destruction of the NCC, because fluids appear to exert significant influence on the rheologi-cal strength of the continental lithosphere. On the basis of water content measurements and H-O isotopes on different aged peridotites by FTIR and SIMS, Xia et al. [76] show that water content in the lithospheric mantle beneath eastern NCC ranges from >500 ppm at ~125 Ma to <50 ppm in the late Cenozoic. Because ~125 Ma represents the climax of destruction of the NCC and the water content in CLM at this time is significantly higher than the MORB source (50–200 ppm), it is reasonable to infer that the destruction of the NCC may have been induced by hydration of the lithosphere, which considerably lowered its strength. It also implies that the strongest influence exerted by Pacific sub-duction on the evolution of the NCC was at ~125 Ma. The water concentration in the present lithospheric mantle be-neath the NCC is significantly lower than in the MORB source. This is consistent with the proposal that the litho-spheric mantle under this region became re-stablized during the Cenozoic, because dehydration can increase the strength of the lithosphere. The temporal decrease in water content in the lithospheric mantle from ~125 to 40 Ma therefore mirrors the transition from craton destruction to lithospheric accretion.

The abundant water in the Mesozoic lithosphere under-neath the NCC may have been released by dehydration of several subducting slabs, as the NCC was surrounded by several subduction belts. If water was mainly derived from northward subduction of oceanic plate between North China and South China Blocks, or from southward subducted paleo-Asian plate, the entire cratonic lithosphere would have been rich in water. Since addition of water would sig-nificantly decrease the strength of the lithosphere [88, 154], the destruction of the NCC would have proceeded either on a whole scale, or in a north-southward differential way. This is contradictory to the observed east-westward pattern of craton destruction. This problem can be solved if the water enrichment in the lithosphere was mainly derived from westward subducted Pacific Plate. The stagnant Pacific slab within the mantle transition zone beneath eastern NCC [146] also suggests that westward subduction of the Pacific Plate only affected the eastern part of the NCC.

To sum up, an integration of multiple disciplinary studies show that Pacific subduction has exerted considerable in-fluence on the evolution of the eastern NCC [12]. Pacific subduction may have been responsible for the distribution

patterns of post-Mesozoic basins, major tectonic configura-tion, temporal change of magmatism, water enrichment in late Mesozoic lithospheric mantle and formation of the North-South gravity lineament. It also explains why de-struction is confined to the eastern part of the NCC.

5.4 Craton destruction and plate tectonic system

The main achievements summarized in this paper yield im-portant implications for the relationship between craton destruction and plate tectonics.

(1) The NCC not only experienced considerable litho-spheric thinning, but also experienced strong crustal defor-mation, seismic activity and magmatism. All of these sug-gest that since the late Mesozoic, it no longer preserved characteristics typical of a craton. Lithospheric thinning may have also taken place in other cratons in the world, but not all were subjected to craton destruction. It seems that craton destruction takes place only when the craton is se-verely affected by the subduction of oceanic plates [12].

(2) Compared with typical cratons in the world, the NCC is relatively small in size. More importantly, it has been affected by the subduction of several plates from different directions (i.e., northward Tethyan subduction, southward subduction of Paleo-Asian oceanic plate and westward subduction of paleo-Pacific Plate). In particular, the dehy-dration of the subducted paleo-Pacific Plate released signif-icant amounts of water into the overriding lithospheric man-tle beneath eastern NCC. As a consequence, the viscosity of the lithosphere is significantly lowered [88, 160, 161] and the continental lithosphere in this region is severely weak-ened, which facilitates its convective removal by underlying asthenosphere and ultimate destruction of the NCC. Such a process is reminiscent of North America where the for-mation of Codillera belt and partial destruction of the North American craton were related to the eastward subduction of Farallon plate [162]. In this sense, the craton destruction results from tectonic activity of plate margins.

6 Summary and conclusions

On the basis of geological, geophysical and geochemical studies on the NCC, the following conclusions can be drawn.

(1) The nature of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic lithospheric mantle under the NCC is characterized in detail. It is revealed that the late Mesozoic CLM was rich in water, but Cenozoic CLM is highly deficient in water.

(2) There is a significant spatial heterogeneity in terms of lithospheric thickness and crustal structure, therefore con-straining the extent of destruction of the NCC.

(3) The correlation between magmatism and surface geo- logy confirms that the geological and tectonic evolution are governed by craton destruction processes.

1582 Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10

(4) Pacific subduction is the main dynamic factor that triggered the destruction of the NCC, which highlights the role of craton destruction in plate tectonics. Specifically, westward subduction of Pacific Plate is the first order geo-dynamics that triggered the destruction of the NCC. During the craton destruction, both top-down crustal delamination and bottom-up thermal erosion, accompanied by melt- peridotite reaction, may have been operative. However, these are only second order dynamic mechanisms, or dif-ferent work way.

The lithospheric architecture, the upper mantle velocity structure, and the nature of the mantle transition zone under the NCC, as constrained by seismic tomography, outline the interaction between plate subduction, lithospheric keel and ambient asthenospheric mantle. The considerable change in lithospheric thickness under continental margin and pene-tration of the stagnant slab into the lower mantle may have induced upwelling of deep mantle material, which resulted in small scale convection and instability of localized mantle flows (see E-W cross-section in Figure 15). The imaged high-velocity volumes in the lithospheric mantle beneath the southern NCC indicate a flat subduction channel result-ed from the continent-continent collision between the NCC and the Yangtze Plate (see S-N cross-section in Figure 15). A better understanding of the interaction between litho-sphere and asthenosphere is pivotal to deciphering the tec-tonic-geodynamic mechanism of the destruction of the NCC. The structural exploration of crust-mantle can provide ma-jor constraints and evidences of the lithospheric structure

responsible for the continental evolution. The destruction of the NCC is characterized by wide-

spread thinning of the lithosphere, but more importantly by significant modification of lithospheric composition, nature and structure, and by widespread tectonic reactivation and magmatism. The temporal change in lithospheric composi-tion may have been related to multiple stage interaction between melt and peridotites. As indicated by comprehen-sive comparisons of mantle peridotites, similar melt-rock interactions were also operative in other cratons [67]. Per-haps the evolution trend exemplified in the NCC has impli-cations for studies of other ancient cratons, a subject that requires further attention in the future study.

7 Perspectives

Although significant achievements have been made in re-cent years under the sponsorship of the NSFC Key Project on the Destruction of the NCC, additional studies should be carried out and new approaches should be employed in the future.

(1) The destruction of the NCC is not a unique geologic phenomenon, but represents the outcome of evolution of continental lithosphere under certain geodynamic circum-stances. A better understanding of craton destruction pro-cess requires cross-checking by different disciplinary stud-ies. It is necessary to place the study of craton destruction in the scheme of global continental evolution and to perform

Figure 15 Deep processes as illustrated by studies on crust-upper mantle structure in the NCC. Red triangles represent stations of temporary seismic array, blue dots denote combined ocean and land observation sites. E-W section depicts interaction between plate subduction and lithosphere and its influence on modification of the NCC. S-N section highlights the tectonic records of the amalgamation between NCC and Yangtze Plate.

Zhu R X, et al. Sci China Earth Sci October (2012) Vol.55 No.10 1583

comparison with other cratons and orogenic belts in the world. The similarity and difference between the NCC and other cratons will be the key to understanding why the con-tinental lithosphere can remain stable for a long period and why it can be destroyed in certain circumstances.

(2) Despite the mounting evidence for Pacific subduction as the principal tectonic factor that triggered the destruction of the NCC, an integration of multiple disciplinary studies is required to further constrain how Pacific subduction affect-ed and promoted the destruction of the NCC. In particular, the following important questions still need to be addressed. What are the origins of water and subducted slab compo-nents in the source of Mesozoic-Cenozoic basalts in eastern China? What is the history of Pacific subduction? How did the subducted oceanic slab react with the lithospheric man-tle? By which means did the lithospheric mantle became enriched in water and subsequently dehydrated? How does the lithospheric mantle transition to asthenospheric mantle, and vise-versa?

The answers to these questions can be obtained only if new observational data are available and novel research methods are applied. For instance, geophysical and numeri-cal modeling are necessary to better understand the evolu-tion of Pacific subduction and how it exerted influence on the evolution of the continental lithosphere under the east-ern Asian margin.

(3) Although lithospheric thinning also occurs in many other cratons in the world, not all are accompanied by cra-ton destruction. It appears that a craton, which lost its litho-spheric keel due to mantle plume (e.g., Indian craton), may preserve its inherent cratonic features. Craton destruction seems only take place in cratons severely affected by oce-anic subduction (e.g., NCC and Wyoming craton). Whether this generalization is valid requires further studies and un-derstanding of physical-chemical processes in the litho-sphere-asthenosphere interface during the craton destruc-tion.

While the study of craton destruction provides a window to dynamic processes in the earth’s interior, continental re-working, which involves deformation, metamorphism and melting, is another important geodynamic process whose ultimate driving forces also come from the interior of the Earth. A typical example of continental reworking is South China, where (semi-) continuous tectonic movements, mul-tiple episodes of magmatism and ore-forming processes occurred since the middle Proterozoic [122]. It represents a distinct way of continental evolution. Therefore a compara-tive study on the similarities and differences in the conti-nental evolution of North China and South China, and their driving forces are of critical importance to understanding continental reworking and its role in continental evolution.

The operation of the NSFC Key Project on “Destruction of the NCC” highlights the importance of global vision in Earth sciences. In addition to cratons, orogenic collision belts are equally important tectonic units on the Earth,

which are key to understanding the formation and evolution of continents. The Tethys orogenic belt, which starts from southern edge of west Europe, extends eastward to Medi-terranean, Iran Plateau, Tibetan Plateau and finally arrives at South-east Asia, is a typical arc-continent collisional orogenic zone which is formed successively by closures of Tethyan oceans of different ages [163]. It is worth noting that this orogenic belt comprises three different sectors in terms of morphology, geology and associated deep proces- ses. To its western end it formed a linear chain of Alps Mountains, the birth place of modern geology. In its middle sector, the famous Iran and Tibetan plateaus can be found. A large area of archipelagos occurs at its eastern end, where the tectonic pattern is dominated by large scale strike-slip movements. In particular, ultra-high pressure metamorphic rocks recovered in the Alps and in the Himalaya suggest where continental crust may have subducted to a mantle depth. Clearly, detailed investigation into the Tethys oro-genic belt can promote Chinese Earth Scientists to play a more active role on the world’s research platform.

We thank Prof. Chen Yong’s invitation to write this article. The manuscript benefited from valuable discussions with Profs. Zhang GuoWei, Li Shu-Guang, Jin ZhenMin, Zhou GuangTian, Fan WeiMing and Zhang XianKang. We are grateful to Greig A. Paterson for his help in editing the manuscript. We thank Profs. Zheng YongFei, Wan TianFeng and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and constructive sugges-tions. This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 90714001, 90714004, 90714008, 90714009, 91014006, 91114206).

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