Detection of Deception in the Laboratory as a Function of

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Master's Theses Graduate College

12-1986

Detection of Deception in the Laboratory as a Function of Detection of Deception in the Laboratory as a Function of

Motivation and Set Size Motivation and Set Size

Daniel Mark Tuckett

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DETECTION OF DECEPTION IN THE LABORATORY AS A FUNCTION OF MOTIVATION AND SET SIZE

by

D an ie l Mark Tucke t t

A T h es is Submit ted t o th e

F ac u l ty o f The Graduate C o l lege in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e

r e q u i r e m e n ts f o r the Degree o f Master o f Arts Department o f Psychology

Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y Kalamazoo, Michigan

December 1986

i f ..R e p ro d u c e d with p erm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited without perm iss ion .


Danie l Mark T u c k e t t , M.A.

Western Michigan U n i v e r s i t y , 1986

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

v a l i d i t y o f t h e p o l y g r a p h i n a c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y

s e t t i n g . The G u i l t y K n o w ledg e T e s t (GKT) was t h e

p ro c e d u re employed i n c o n ju n c t io n w ith the g a l v a n i c s k in

r e s p o n s e (GSR) m o n i t o r . The e x p e r i m e n t e r t e s t e d 40

s u b j e c t s o v e r two t r i a l each . O v e ra l l th e po lyg raphe r

was c o r r e c t 44 t im e s , o u t of 80 t r i a l s . T h is number of

d e t e c t i o n s e x c e e d e d c h a n c e (p< .0 0 1 ) l e v e l s . The

m an ip u la t io n o f s u b j e c t m o t iv a t io n w i th a monetary reward

i n c r e a s e d d e t e c t i o n r a t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y (p< .05 ) i n

comparison t o those n o t o f f e r e d money. With each s u b j e c t

b e i n g t e s t e d o v e r two t r i a l s , t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a

h a b i t u a t i o n e f f e c t a s i n d i c a t e d b y a d e c r e a s e i n

d e t e c t i o n from t r i a l one to t r i a l two. The r e l a t i o n s h i p

f e l l s l i g h t l y s h o r t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e (p< .05 )

l e v e l . In g e n e r a l t h e l e v e l o f s u b j e c t m o t iv a t io n may

p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f s u b j e c t s who

a t t e m p t d e c e i t .

R e p ro d u c e d with p erm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited without perm iss ion .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Immense g r a t i t u d e g o e s t o Dr. J a c k Asher who as

c h a i r m a n o f my c o m m i t t e e g u i d e d me th r o u g h b o t h t h e

d e v e lo p m e n t and r e f i n e m e n t of t h i s s tu dy ; t o Dr. Brad

Huitema and Dr. D a le B re th o w er f o r t h e i r i n t e r e s t and

f e e d b a c k a t c r i t i c a l t im e s ; and t o my a s s i s t a n t , Vance

Boyer, who gave bo th v a l u a b l e i n p u t and t im e . I am t r u l y

g r a t e f u l t o Dr. F red G a u l t who a i d e d me i n b o t h t h e

b u i ld i n g of the po lygraph a p p a r a tu s and t e a c h in g me how

t o o p e r a t e i t . I w o u ld a l s o l i k e t o e x p r e s s my

a p p r e c i a t i o n to my fam i ly and t h e u n d e rg ra d u a te f a c u l t y

f o r t h e i r su p p o r t and encouragement t o pursue t h i s g o a l .

Dan ie l Mark T ucke t t

i i


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T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . ............ i iLIST OF TABLES............. i vINTRODUCTION ............................. 1

A B r i e f H i s to ry o f P o l y g r a p h y .................... 1The Polygraph in I n d u s t r y ...................................... 2Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f a Po ly g raph er ............................. 5The Meaning o f a Response ................................ 6C u r re n t Polygraph A ppara t i .................................. 8C u r re n t T es t in g Methods .................... 12G u i l ty Person T es t .................................... 12G u i l ty Knowledge T es t .................................... 13L a b o ra to ry Versus F i e l d T e s t in g .................. 16The Role of P o t e n t i a l V a r i a b l e s .................. 18R a t i o n a l e fo r T hes is ........... 20

METHOD ................. 22D e s c r ip t i o n o f S u b j e c t s ...................................... 22Appara tus ............................................... 22Design and Procedure ............................. 23The P o ly g ra p h e r ' s Scoring Method ............................ 27P o ly g rap her T ra in in g .................................. 28

RESULTS ............................. 29D e s c r ip t i o n of S t a t i s t i c a l A na ly s is ............. 29

DISCUSSION ................................. 33Comparison of R e s u l t s t o t h o s e ofP re v io u s Research ......................... 33S u g g e s t io n s f o r F u tu re Research ................................ 37

APPENDICESA. General I n s t r u c t i o n s ..................... 39B. M o t iv a t io n a l I n s t r u c t i o n s ................. 41C. P o ly g ra p h e r ' s I n s t r u c t i o n s ................... 42

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................. 43

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LIST OF TABLES

1. Repeated Measures A n a ly s i s o f V a r i a n c e ................. . 28

2 . Mean Number of C o r r e c t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ............ 29

3 . Number o f S u ccess fu l and Unsuccessfu lD e te c t io n on T r i a l s 1 and 2 ...................... 30

i v


IN T R O D U C T IO N

The p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n ( l i e

d e t e c t i o n ) f i e l d i s o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l

s u b j e c t s i n th e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . The widespread use of

t h e f i e l d l i e d e t e c t o r , accompanied w i th t h e p o t e n t i a l

s e v e r i t y o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s , has b rough t th e f i e l d of

po lygraphy to th e f o r e f r o n t of many c o n t r o v e r s i e s . The

United S t a t e s j u d i c i a l system e p i to m iz e s th e u n c e r t a i n t y

t o w a rd s t h e f i e l d o f polygraphy th rough t h e con t inuous

s h i f t i n g o f p o s i t i o n s a s t o t h e a d m i s s i b i l i t y o f

po lygraph ev idence in c o u r t (Lykken, 1984) . As r e c e n t l y

as 1975 th e h ig h c o u r t s o f 24 s t a t e s had implemented a

s t i p u l a t i o n r u l e , th u s a l low ing t h e t r i a l judge to d e c id e

on a d m i s s i b i l i t y o f p o l y g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e i n c r i m i n a l

c a s e s . The c u r r e n t p o s i t i o n of many c o u r t s i s to exc lude

polygraph r e s u l t s u n l e s s bo th p a r t i e s a g re e t o have th e s e

p r e s e n te d or a l lo w t h e t r i a l judge to d e c id e the i s s u e .

In t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e p a r t y seek in g th e adm iss ion of

p o l y g r a p h r e s u l t s a s e v i d e n c e m ust l a y t h e p r o p e r

f o u n d a t i o n t o g a i n a d m i s s i b i l i t y o f su c h m e a su re s

(Lykken, 1984).


A B r i e f H i s t o r y of Polygraphy

To a p p r e c i a t e t h e c o n t r o v e r s y t h a t su r rounds th e

1

2

f i e l d o f l i e d e t e c t i o n , one need n o t look on ly a t th e

d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u r r e n t c o u r t a d m i s s i b i l i t y b u t a l s o a t

t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f th e i s s u e s su r ro un d in g t h e polygraph

now and over 60 y e a r s ago. In t h e case of Frye V. United

S t a t e s , a f e d e r a l a p p e l l a t e c o u r t ru le d t h a t :

w h i le c o u r t s w i l l go a long way i n a d m i t t i n g e x p e r t te s t im on y deduced from a w e l l - r e c o g n i z e d s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e o r d i s c o v e r y , t h e t h i n g from which th e d e d u c t i o n i s made must be s u f f i c i e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d to have ga ined g e n e ra l accep tance in t h e p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d t o which i t b e lo n g s . We t h in k t h e s y s t o l i c b l o o d p r e s s u r e d e c e p t i o n t e s t h a s n o t y e t ga ined s u c h s t a n d i n g and s c i e n t i f i c r e c o g n i t i o n among p h y s i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l a u t h o r i t i e s as would j u s t i f y t h e c o u r t s i n a d m i t t i n g e x p e r t te s t im ony d e d u c e d f r o m t h e d i s c o v e r y , d e v e l o p m e n t and exper im en ts t h u s f a r made. (Lykken, 1984, p . 75 ) .

W h i l e we may h a v e f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d t h e i s s u e s o f

r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y may have been c l a r i f i e d , i t i s

o b v i o u s from b o th a r e s e a r c h p e r s p e c t i v e a s w e l l a s\

p u b l i c o p in io n t h a t our c u r r e n t methods in t h e d e t e c t i o n

o f d e c e p t io n a r e f a r from p e r f e c t (Waid & Orne, 1982).

The Polygraph in I n d u s t r y

Ferguson (1971) d e c l a r e d th e fo l lo w in g :

The p ree m p lo y m e n t p o l y g r a p h t e s t o f f e r s f o r t h e e m p l o y e r (1) v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a p p l i c a n t ' s background, (2) d e t e c t i o n o f ch ro n ic a l c o h o l i c s , job jumpers , and a c c i d e n t prone p e r s o n s , (3) r e v e l a t i o n o f m a l a d j u s t e d p e o p l e t h a t s h o u l d n ' t be employed, (4) a r e d u c t i o n i n t u r n o v e r by h e lp i n g management p u t t h e r i g h t p e r s o n on t h e r i g h t j o b , (5) a c o n s t a n t d e t e r r e n t t o employee d i s h o n e s t y , and (6) a r e d u c t io n in in v e n to r y and c a se s h o r t a g e s , ( p . 6)

r - '


3

The view o f the p o t e n t i a l u se s of t h e po lygraph such as

those d e sc r ib e d above were n o t uncommon d ur ing th e l a t e

1 9 6 0 s . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s ( A r t h e r , 1967; Holmes , 1968;

S tephens , 1967) p roc la im ed th e b e n e f i t s o f polygraphy in

p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y w i th c la im s s i m i l a r to th o se made above.

W hile s t a t e m e n t s of t h i s n a t u r e were common, p u b l i c

s k e p t i c i s m had n o t y e t begun t o f l o u r i s h a s i t d o e s

to day .

When i s t h e polygraph t e s t used i n i n d u s t r y ? The

p o l y g r a p h t e s t i s u se d i n i n d u s t r y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i v e

p u r p o s e s and preemployment s c r e e n i n g . I t i s used b o th

p e r i o d i c a l l y a n d r o u t i n e l y by some o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

Fergguson, and Gugas (1984) r e p o r t e d a survey conducted

by t h e Research Department of t h e N a t io n a l A s so c ia t io n of

Chain Drug S t o r e s , In c . (NACDS), in 1978, which i n d i c a t e d

t h a t 81% o f the companies t h a t responded to t h e survey

use t h e po lyg raph . I t should a l s o be noted t h a t 60% of

th e po lyg raph u s e r s f e l t t h e i r l o s s e s decreased when th e y

i n i t i a t e d u s e of t h e po lygraph and 97% o f th e companies

f e l t i t was e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e i r company t o c o n t in u e use

o f po lygraph s c re e n in g p ro c e d u re s .

Where i s the polygraph i n d u s t r y now? The f i e l d of

p o lyg raphy h a s expanded from t h e r e s e a r c h l a b o r a to r y t o

th e a p p l i e d s e t t i n g where i t i s now used n o t o n ly in


4

c r i m i n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s but a s an employment sc re e n in g

d e v i c e as w e l l . A su rvey conducted i n 1978 found t h a t

abou t 20% o f the F or tune 500 companies , and 50% o f major

r e t a i l c h a i n s , made some use o f polygraph t e s t i n g (Belt &

H o l d e n , 1978) . The usage o f th e po lygraph in b u s in e s s

h a s changed from t h a t o f a t o o l t o i n v e s t i g a t e a c t s o f

t h e f t and s a b o ta g e , t o t h a t o f a preemployment s c r e e n in g

d e v ic e as w e l l (Lykken, 1984).

According to t h e i d e a s proposed by M i l l s (1972), t h e

po ly g rap h t e s t could be used i n c o n ju n c t io n w i th numerous

o t h e r s e l e c t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n t e s t s a s p a r t o f a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f incom ing p o l i c e o f f i c e r s .

The c u r r e n t job a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r numerous governmental

a g e n c i e s such as s p e c i a l a g e n t , drug enfo rcem ent a g e n t ,

language s p e c i a l i s t , e t c . r e q u i r e po lygraph exam ina t ions

i n t h e p reem p loy m en t s t a g e s . The r e c o r d o f po lygraph

u s a g e i n t h e b u s i n e s s s e t t i n g may b e a g r o s s

u n d e r s t a t e m e n t of t h e a c t u a l number, l a r g e l y due to th e

l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i n r e c o rd -k e e p in g by many organ

i z a t i o n s .

Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f a Po lyg rapher

I n 1984 th e re were 35 American Po lygraph A s s o c ia t io n

(APA) a p p ro v e d s c h o o l s and a p p r o x i m a t e ly 10,000 alumni

(L y k ken , 1984) . T h is number does n o t t a k e i n t o account

t h e unapproved sch o o ls such as those i n F l o r i d a which o u t

¥R e p ro d u c e d with p erm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited without perm iss ion .

5

number th e approved sc h o o ls by a margin o f seven t o one

(Lykken, 1984) . Many o f th e unapproved sch o o ls o f f e r a

s ix-week c o u rse i n m a s te r in g t h e po lygraph a p p a r a tu s whi le

m ost APA s c h o o l s o f f e r a s ix -m onth course (Reid, 1966).

T h i s s u g g e s t s th a t , t r a i n i n g methods may be i n c o n s i s t e n t

a c r o s s sch oo ls and may a f f e c t th e p o l y g r a p h e r ' s a b i l i t y t o

u s e t h e a p p a r a t u s e f f e c t i v e l y . W i th t h e p o s s i b l e

i n c o n s i s t e n c y a c r o s s sch oo ls and th e p o t e n t i a l thousands

o f p o l y g r a p h e r s i n t h e f i e l d c o n d u c t i n g t e s t s , i t i s

u n d e rs t a n d a b le how such i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in r e l i a b i l i t y and

v a l i d i t y have s u r f a c e d .

The Meaning o f a Response

To a s s e s s t h e v a l i d i t y o f th e polygraph a p p a r a t i , as

a t o o l o f t h e p o l y g r a p h e r i n d e t e c t i n g d e c e p t i o n ,

i n v o l v e s numerous i s s u e s . There i s a common myth t h a t

p o l y g r a p h m a c h i n e s a r e a b l e t o d e t e c t " l i e s . " I n

a c t u a l i t y , c u r r e n t p o l y g r a p h a p p a r a t i m e a su re o n l y

p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n se t o c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l s t i m u l i .

According t o P a t t e r s o n (1979) t h i s s t im u lu s r e f e r s t o an

a u d i t o r y s t i m u l a t i o n which i s cause f o r the i n t e r a c t i o n

am ong t h e a u t o n o m i c s e n s o r y o r g a n s . The g r a p h

i n t e r p r e t e r m e re ly i n f e r s t h a t a c e r t a i n b e h a v io r has

o c c u r r e d , w h i c h h a s i n t u r n c a u s e d a p h y s i o l o g i c a l

r e s p o n s e o f a d e t e c t a b l e magni tude . The b e h a v io r t h a t

t h e p o l y g r a p h e r i s t r y i n g t o i n f e r i s a "d ec e p t io n " o r


"concealment o f in fo rm a t io n " on t h e p a r t of t h e s u s p e c t .

T h i s p r o c e d u r e o f r e s p o n s e and i n f e r e n c e , known t o the

p u b l i c as " l i e d e t e c t i o n , " c o n t in u e s t o g a rn e r c r i t i c i s m

and sk e p t ic i s m , l a r g e l y due to t h e e r roneous c o n c lu s io n s

of such a p rocedure . According t o Lykken (1981), " t h e r e

w i l l n e v e r be a t r u t h v e r i f i e r ( l i e d e t e c t o r ) u n t i l a

s p e c i f i c l i e re sp o nse can be i d e n t i f i e d " (p. 18 ) .

T h e re a r e two d e f i n i t e drawbacks t o t h e c u r r e n t l y

employed p rocedu res i n the f i e l d o f l i e d e t e c t i o n . The

f i r s t p ro b lem i s t h a t a p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e o f a

d i s c e r n i b l e magnitude can occur i n a p e rso n w i th o u t a l i e

be ing t o l d or communicated. The second major problem in

t h i s a rea i s mere ly t h e i n v e r s e o f the f i r s t , in t h a t a

l i e can b e com m u n ica te d , p e r h a p s v e r b a l l y , w h i l e no

marked p h y s i o l o g i c a l change tak e s p l a c e . These a r e the

two fundamental drawbacks t o the " l i e d e t e c t o r s " t h a t a re

c u r r e n t l y in u s e . Most o t h e r a rg u m e n ts a g a i n s t t h e

p ro ced u res and t h e o r i e s of l i e d e t e c t i o n stem from th e s e

two m a j o r a r e a s . The c u r r e n t o u t c r y of t h e p u b l i c

a g a i n s t t h e m i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i n n o c e n t p e o p l e as

g u i l t y ( f a l s e p o s i t i v e s ) as well a s the p o t e n t i a l u se of

coun te r -m easu res t o " b e a t " t h e p o ly g raph , a re bo th simply

e x te n s io n s of t h e two major problems. The a r e a of f a l s e

p o s i t i v e s w i l l be expanded upon i n a l a t e r p a r t of t h i s

i n t r o d u c t i o n .

Which p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e should th e polygraph

F .

R e p ro d u c e d with pe rm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner . F u r the r reproduction prohibited w ithout perm iss ion .

e x a m in e r measure? The f i r s t method to be d e sc r ib e d i s

t h e P sy c h o lo g ic a l S t r e s s E v a lu a t io n (PSE), which measures

t remors in t h e voca l muscles from 8 to 14 Hz. This i s

t h e c la im o f Decktor C o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e and S e c u r i t y o f

S p r i n g f i e l d , V i r g in ia which promotes the PSE. The PSE

supposed ly measures d e c e p t io n - in d u c e d s t r e s s in t h e v o ic e

a c c o r d i n g t o r e s e a r c h by P o d le s n e y and Raskin (1977) .

The r e c o r d e d p a t t e r n s o f t h a t a c t i v i t y measured by t h e

PSE a r e i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e s s

( p a t t e r n s d e c r e a s e d u r i n g a t t e m p t e d d e c e p t i o n ) . The

e x a c t m e a s u r e s u s e d i n PSE v o i c e a n a l y s i s a r e n o t

e n t i r e l y c l e a r , as s t a t e d by Pod lesney and Raskin (1977).

An o v e rv ie w o f c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h te n d s to c l a s s i f y

t h e PSE as having very l i m i t e d va lue as a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

t e c h n i q u e i n the f i e l d o f l i e d e t e c t i o n . Kubis (1974)

found t h e accuracy ( h i t r a t e ) o f the PSE to be s i m i l a r t o

c h a n c e l e v e l s i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n . I n

c o m p a r in g t h e PSE t o w h a t i s c u r r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d a

po lyg raph a p p a r a tu s ( r e s p i r a t i o n , g a lv a n ic sk in r e s p o n s e

and pulmonary m easures) , B a r land (1975) found t h a t with a

l a rg e sample o f s u b j e c t s , th e PSE cou ld not s i g n i f i c a n t l y

d i s c r i m i n a t e between the t r u t h f u l and de ce p t iv e c r i m i n a l

s u s p e c t s , w h i l e t h e p o l y g r a p h produced a c c u ra c y r a t e s

above c h a n c e l e v e l s . L a t e r r e s e a r c h by Pod lesny and

Raskin (1977) has i n d i c a t e d t h a t the P s y c h o lo g ica l S t r e s s

E v a l u a t o r i s a p o o r d i s c r i m i n a t o r of d e c e p t i v e a n d


I

8

t r u t h f u l p a r t i c i p a n t s , y i e l d i n g r e s u l t s which i n g e n e ra l

do n o t exceed l e v e l s o f chance .

C u r re n t Polygraph A p p a ra t i

The second measure o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n se r e c o rd s

any combinat ion o f one t o f o u r ch an n e ls o f in f o r m a t io n .

T h i s i s t h e f i e l d l i e d e t e c t o r o r p o l y g r a p h which in

g e n e r a l monitors t h r e e c h a n n e ls of p h y s i o l o g i c a l r esponse

s im u l ta n e o u s ly . The f i r s t channel i s t h e " c a rd io " c y c le

change which measures changes in r e l a t i v e blood p r e s s u r e

(P o s e y , Geddes , W i l l i a m s , & Moore, 1969) . S tu d ie s by

Kugelmass, L i e b l i c h , B e n - I s h a i , Opatowski & Kaplan (1968)

and B a r l a n d and R a s k i n (1975) fo u n d i n c r e a s e s in th e

d i a s t o l i c l e v e l o f t h e c a r d i o t r a c i n g t o be a s s o c i a t e d

w i th d e c e p t io n .

The r a t e o f r e s p i r a t i o n o f a s u b j e c t i s a l s o

m o n i t o r e d w i t h c u r r e n t f i e l d p o l y g r a p h s . T h is i s

measured from an expandable b e l t around t h e c h e s t r e g i o n .

When r e s p i r a t i o n am p l i tu d e i s used a s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r

s c o r i n g " d e c e p t i o n , " num erous s t u d i e s (Cutrow, P a rk s ,

L u cas & Thomas, 1972; E l l s o n , D av is , Sal tzman & Burke,

1952; K u b i s , 1973 ; a n d T h ac k ray & O r n e , 1968a) hav e

i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between d e c e p t io n and a d e c re a se

in t h e ampli tude o f r e s p i r a t i o n . Other r e s e a r c h e r s have

f o c u s e d on r e s p i r a t i o n c y c l e t im e ( B a r l a n d & R ask in ,

1975; Kubis, 1973) as w e l l a s the r e s p i r a t i o n - e x p i r a t i o n


9

r a t i o ( B u r t t , 1921) a l th o u g h t h i s index i s t r o u b le d by

c o n f l i c t i n g r e s e a r c h .

The f i e l d po lygraph a l s o measures a t h i r d channe l of

p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e known a s e l e c t r o d e r m a l change.

The " e l e c t r o d e r m a l " channel r e c o r d s th e c o n d u c t i v i t y or

r e s i s t a n c e re s p o nses of th e s u r f a c e o f th e s k i n . When a

p e r s o n i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s t i m u l a t e d , he t e n d s t o

p e r s p i r e , which i s a r e a c t i o n o f th e sy m p a th e t ic nervous

system. D e te c t io n o f a p e r s o n ' s l e v e l o f p e r s p i r a t i o n i s

t h e n t a k e n as an i n d i c a t i o n o f a h e i g h t e n e d s t a t e of

a r o u s a l . These c h a n g e s i n p a lm e r s k i n r e s i s t a n c e or4

g a l v a n i c sk in r e s i s t a n c e (GSR) a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s id e re d

t o be t h e m o s t v a l i d m e a s u r e s i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f

d e ce p t io n (Barland & Raskin , 1975; Cutrow e t a l . , 1972;

G u s t a f s o n & O r n e , 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 ; K u b i s , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 4 ;

Kugelmass e t a l . , 1968; Lykken, 1959; Thackray & Orne,

1968a, 1968b).

W hile d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e above t h r e e

c h a n n e l s can b e u t i l i z e d , t h e e l e c t r o d e r m a l ch anne l i s

c o n s i d e r e d t h e " b a s e " o f t h e f i e l d p o l y g r a p h . T h is

s t a t e m e n t i s made b a s e d u p o n t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f

l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f th e v a l i d i t y of t h e GSR m on ito r as

t h e " m o s t e f f i c i e n t " i n d i c a t o r o f a t t e m p t e d d e c e i t

( B a l l o u n & H o l m e s , 1 9 7 9 ; B r a d l e y & J a n i s s e , 1981;

Davidson , 1968; G u s ta fso n , & Orne, 1965; Horva th , 1978;

L i e b l i c h , O rn e , Cook & O rn e , 1970; Podlesny & Raskin ,


10

1978; Waid & Orne, 1980; Waid, Orne, Cook, & Orne, 1978).

In the s tudy by Raskin and Hare (1978), an o v e r a l l

c o m p a r i s o n o f GSR, r e s p i r a t i o n , and c a r d i o v a s c u l a r

measures by use o f a Newman-Keuls t e s t i n d i c a t e d th e sk in

c o n d u c t a n c e m easu re p r o d u c e d a b e t t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

b e t w e e n " g u i l t y " a nd " i n n o c e n t " s u b j e c t s t h a n d i d

r e s p i r a t i o n and c a r d i o v a s c u l a r measures . A comparison o f

s k i n r e s i s t a n c e , p u p i l s i z e and h e a r t r a t e by Bradley and

J a n i s s e (1981), loo k ing a t p h y s i o l o g ic a l r e sp o n se a c r o s s

two d i f f e r e n t p o l y g r a p h t e s t s ( G u i l t y Knowledge T e s t

(GKT) v s . Contro l Q ues t ion T e s t (CQT), i n d i c a t e d the GSR

t o be s u p e r i o r to bo th p u p i l s i z e and h e a r t r a t e in t h e

d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t io n .

I n an e x p e r i m e n t by B a l l o u n and Holmes ( 1 9 7 9 ) ,

i n v o l v i n g a r e a l c r i m e in which s u b j e c t s w ere fou n d

c h e a t i n g , t h e GSR m oni to r proved to be the most e f f i c i e n t

i n d i c a t o r i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n . The

e l e c t r o d e r m a l r e s p o n s e was ag a in shown t o be th e most

e f f e c t i v e i n d i c a t o r i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n . The

a u th o r s of t h i s s t u d y go so f a r as t o s t a t e , "only s k in

r e s i s t a n c e was e f f e c t i v e f o r d e t e c t i n g g u i l t , t h u s

su g g e s t i n g t h a t o t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l measures employed by

exam iners may in t ro d u c e e r r o r s " (p. 316) .

I n r e v i e w i n g t h e r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o the f i e l d o f

l i e d e t e c t i o n , i t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t e le c t ro d e rm a l

r e s p o n s e i s th e b e s t i n d i c a t o r o f d e c e p t io n c u r r e n t l y

copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited without perm iss ion .E -

R e p ro d u c e d with p erm iss ion of the

11

a v a i l a b l e . While v a r i o u s combinat ions of measures can be

a s c e r t a i n e d th rough th e p o ly g rap h , i . e . , b lood p r e s s u r e ,

r e s p i r a t i o n , s k i n r e s i s t a n c e , p u p i l d i l a t i o n , t h e

e l e c t r o d e r m a l r e s p o n s e a p p e a r s t o be t h e most v a l i d

i n d i c a t i o n o f a s u b j e c t ' s a t tem pted d e c e i t .

T h e r e a r e tw o p r i n c i p l e t e s t i n g m e t h o d s o f

a d m i n i s t e r i n g a po lyg raph t e s t . These two methods a re

t h e G u i l t y P e r s o n T e s t (GPT) and t h e G u i l ty Knowledge

Tes t (GKT). A f i e l d l i e d e t e c t o r , u t i l i z i n g r e s p i r a t i o n ,

g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e and c a r d i o v a s c u l a r m easures , i s

g e n e r a l l y used w i th t h e GPT. The GPT i s a l s o know a s the

C r i t i c a l Q ues t ion Technique (CQT) .

The q u e s t i o n s asked in the G u i l t y Person T e s t f a l l

i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s . The f i r s t c a tego ry o f q u e s t io n i s

t h e " i r r e l e v a n t " q u e s t i o n s which s h o u l d e l i c i t v e r y

l i t t l e or no p h y s i o l o g i c a l resp o n se change on the p a r t of

th e s u b j e c t . An example o f t h i s q u e s t io n would b e , "Are

you s i t t i n g down?" The second c a t e g o r y of q u e s t io n t h a t

i s a sk e d i s t h e c o n t r o l q u e s t i o n , which should e l i c i t

some r e s p o n s e c h a n g e on t h e p a r t o f th e s u b j e c t . An

exam ple o f t h i s q u e s t io n might be , "Did you ever c h ea t

w h i le in h igh schoo l?" The t h i r d and f i n a l c a t e g o r y of


C u r r e n t T es t ing Methods

G u i l t y Person Test

q u e s t i o n s asked a r e th e r e l e v a n t or c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s .

These q u e s t io n s p e r t a i n d i r e c t l y to t h e s i t u a t i o n under

i n v e s t i g a t i o n and may be s i m i l a r to t h e q u e s t i o n , "Did

you s t e a l t h e d iamond r i n g f rom t h e v a u l t ? " I f t h e

s u b j e c t i s g u i l t y and c l a i m s t o b e i n n o c e n t , t h e

r a t i o n a l e behind t h i s q u e s t i o n i n g s t a t e s t h a t the g u i l t y

s u b j e c t sh o u ld r e s p o n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y t o a g r e a t e r

e x t e n t t o t h e c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a n t o e i t h e r t h e

c o n t r o l or i r r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n s . The in n o ce n t s u b j e c t ,

on the o t h e r hand, should show a g r e a t e r re spo n se to th e

c o n t r o l q u e s t io n s th a n to e i t h e r of t h e o t h e r two types

o f q u e s t i o n s . The e x a c t method o f th e i n t e r r o g a t i o n may

v a ry from po lyg rapher t o p o ly g rap h e r and the o rd e r of the

q u e s t i o n s may be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a l t e r e d o v e r th e th r e e

t r i a l s . The s c o r i n g o f t h i s t e s t i n g method in v o lv e s

c o m p a r in g a u to n o m ic r e sp o n se t o c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s and

t h e n e a r e s t c o n t r o l o r i r r e l e v a n t q u e s t i o n . Lykken

(1974) c l a i m s t h e method and c r i t e r i a o f s c o r i n g th e

graphs may v a ry a c r o s s p o ly g r a p h e r s . The GPT i s t h e t e s t

m o s t o f t e n u s e d i n t h e f i e l d , due t o i t s s p e e d o f

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n s t o a r e a l c r im e , and

p r e s e n c e o f " t r u e " a n x i e t y i n th e s u s p e c t o v e r t h e

r e s u l t s . T h i s a n x i e t y i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e when one

c o n s i d e r s t h a t a j o b may be l o s t o r j a i l s e n t e n c e

i n c u r r e d , based on t h e p o l y g r a p h e r ' s judgment .

FR e p ro d u c e d with perm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited w ithout perm iss ion .

13

G u i l ty Knowledge Tes t

The second method of i n t e r r o g a t i o n i s known as the

G u i l t y K n o w le d g e T e s t . T h i s t e s t i s d e s i g n e d to

de te rm ine i f th e s u s p e c t i s aware o f c e r t a i n in f o r m a t io n .

An example o f th e GKT i s as fo l lo w s :

Item 1. The man we a r e look ing f o r robbed a jew el ry

s t o r e i n t h i s v i c i n i t y . I f you a re th e g u i l t y p e rso n ,

you w i l l r e c o g n iz e t h e name o f th e s t o r e i n q u e s t i o n . I

am going t o name a few jew e l ry s t o r e s t h a t a r e l o c a t e d in

t h i s a r e a . P le a s e r e p e a t t h e name of each j e w e l ry s t o r e

a f t e r me. Was i t B a k e r ' s J e w e le r s ? . . . Was F r ie n d ly

J e w e l e r s ? . . . Was it. C r i b b ' s Jew e le r? . . . Was i t

F r a n k l i n J e w e l e r s ? I f t h e s u s p e c t u n d e r q u e s t i o n i n g

shows a marked p h y s i o l o g i c a l re sp o nse t o the i d e n t i f i e d

i t e m t h e n g u i l t i s i n f e r r e d . With f i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s

b e i n g g i v e n , c h a n c e s a r e .2 t h a t a s u s p e c t w i l l r e a c t

s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the i d e n t i f i e d q u e s t io n . This p rocedure

i s c o n t i n u e d i n s t a g e 2 w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s be ing the

p o s s i b l e weapon used in t h e p e r p e t r a t i o n of t h e c r im e.

Again, f i v e p o s s ib l e a l t e r n a t i v e s w i l l be made a v a i l a b l e .

The c h a n c e s o f the s u s p e c t r e a c t i n g t o both i d e n t i f i e d

a l t e r n a t i v e s i n s t a g e s 1 and 2 a r e now . 0 4 . T h is

p rocedure can be con t inued over a coup le more s t a g e s to

in c r e a s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

The assumption behind th e G u i l ty Knowledge T es t i s

t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f

¥ ■


14

d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s i v i t y t o i tems of in fo rm a t io n t h a t

o n l y t h e g u i l t y s u s p e c t s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e as b e in g

r e l e v a n t ( L y k k e n , 1974) . W h i l e a h y p e r a c t i v e o r

h y p o r e a c t iv e s u s p e c t may show an abnormal r esponse t o the

v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s , the po lyg rapher must compare the

s u b j e c t ' s r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s c e r t a i n i n c o r r e c t

a l t e r n a t i v e s , as w e l l as t o l a t e r s t a g e respo n d ing . In

g e n e r a l , t h e g u i l t y s u s p e c t w i l l show a g r e a t e r

p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n se t o th e i d e n t i f i e d a l t e r n a t i v e as

compared t o the c o n t r o l i t e m s . The in no ce n t s u s p e c t w i l l

n o t respond with any c o n s i s t e n c y o r he ig h tened a ro u s a l to

th e c r i t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s . An in c r e a s e i n t h e number of

s t a g e s i n t h i s t e s t should a l low t h e s u s p e c t to f u r t h e r

c l a s s i f y h im s e l f as in n o c e n t o r g u i l t y .

The GKT i s d e s ig n ed t o p r o t e c t the in n o c e n t s u b j e c t

from be in g f a l s e l y c l a s s i f i e d as g u i l t y . This i s termed

f a l s e p o s i t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Lykken (1974) s t a t e s ,

" t h e G u i l t y Knowledge T es t i s des igned such t h a t f a l s e

p o s i t i v e s w i l l b e m i n i m i z e d , u n l i k e o t h e r

p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n (PDD)

p ro ce d u res " (p. 728) . I t does appear though t h a t whi le

t h e GKT may d e c r e a s e t h e number o f f a l s e p o s i t i v e s i t

does a l s o tend t o i n c r e a s e th e number o f f a l s e n e g a t iv e s

( g u i l t y s u b j e c t s c l a s s i f i e d as innocen t) as i n d i c a t e d in

th e s tudy by Lykken (1959).

One o f the problems w i th th e G u i l ty Knowledge T es t


15

i s t h e g u i l t y s u b j e c t ' s r e c o l l e c t i o n of c e r t a i n d e t a i l s .

I t i s not unusua l in mock cr im e s t u d i e s f o r s u b j e c t s t o

r e p o r t a f t e r the i n t e r r o g a t i o n t h a t they " h a d n ' t n o t ic e d "

some v i t a l a s p e c t s o f the c r im e , i . e . , t h e c o l o r o f a

s u s p e c t ' s h a i r . At t h e same t im e , when t h e GKT i s used

i n r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s which in v o lv e l e s s c o n t r o l on

e x t ran eo us v a r i a b l e s , t h e chances f o r an i n n o c e n t su s p e c t

t o g a i n knowledge of c e r t a i n c r imes th rough e i t h e r th e

media or word of mouth i n c r e a s e s d r a s t i c a l l y .

Some o t h e r problems w i th the G u i l ty Knowledge T es t

i n v o lv e th e s h o r t " t r u n c a te d " answers on t h e p a r t of th e4

s u b j e c t and the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h a b i t u a t i o n may occu r .

T h is " tu n in g ou t of i n s i g n i f i c a n t s t i m u l i a l lo w s people

t o r e d u c e t h e i r l e v e l s o f s t r e s s w h i l e a v o i d i n g

u n n e c e s sa ry c o g n i t i v e i n t e r r u p t i o n s (Timm, 1984) . In a

r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e by Iacono and Lykken (1983) th e s tudy of

r e p e a te d exposure by t h e s u b j e c t t o s t i m u l i may cause th e

s t i m u l i to lose t h e i r s i g n a l va lu e ( the e x t e n t t o which

t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d r e l e v a n t and may i n d u c e f u r t h e r

p ro ce ss in g ) and r e s u l t i n a g e n e r a l " tu n in g o u t" on th e

p a r t o f th e s u b j e c t .

L abora to ry Versus F i e ld T es t in g

I n a c o m p a r i s o n o f l i e d e t e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s i n

l a b o r a t o r y v s . r e a l l i f e c o n d i t i o n s , b o th t e s t i n g

p rocedures a r e used in each c o n d i t i o n . The G u i l t y Person


T e s t o r Con tro l Quest ion Technique i s more o f t e n found in

r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s . The G u i l ty Knowledge T e s t , on the

o t h e r hand, i s more common in th e l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g and

a s a consequence has r e s u l t e d in more documented r e s e a r c h

b e in g done on i t . The two p rocedures a r e o f t e n compared

i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g ( B r a d le y & J a n i s s e , 1981;

Podlesny & Raskin , 1978; Waid e t a l . , 1981: Waid & Orne,

1980) u s i n g mock c r im e s , word t e s t s o r v a r i a t i o n s o f a

numbered card t e s t .

R e s e a r c h i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y has t h e a d v a n t a g e of

c o n t r o l o f f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n . C ircum stances may be

m a n i p u l a t e d t o t h e p o i n t t h a t a p u r e l y o b j e c t i v e

a p p r a i s a l o f a s u b j e c t ' s g u i l t o r i n n o c e n c e c an be

o b t a i n e d and i n t u r n o b j e c t i v e l y v e r i f y the p o l y g r a p h e r ' s

judgment . In r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , a l l o f t h e f a c t s may

n o t be p r e s e n t and the judgment o f t h e po ly g rap h e r may

n o t be v e r i f i e d o b j e c t i v e l y . The ex p e r im e n te r can a l s o

m a n i p u l a t e more v a r i a b l e s which can be s t u d i e d w i th

g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y u s i n g t h e l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g th en in

c o m p a r i s o n t o a v a i l a b l e f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s (P o d le sn y &

R a sk in , 1977).

S k e p t ic s o f l a b o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h in g e n e ra l c la im the

" r e a l l i f e " a n x ie ty i s n o t p r e s e n t in t h e l a b o r a t o r y . In

a s tudy by Davidson (1968) , th e GKT was e v a lu a te d us ing

s i m u l a t e d s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g r e a l c r i m e s , w h i l e

m a i n t a i n i n g r i g o r o u s exp er im en ta l c o n t r o l . The r e s u l t s


17

of t h i s s tudy d id n o t show any s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in

d e t e c t i o n r a t e s f o r a r e a l crime in which th e l e v e l of

m o t iv a t io n was m an ipu la ted . This tends t o lend su p p o r t

f o r bo th th e GKT as w e l l as th e l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g in the

p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e t e c t i o n of d e c e p t io n .

The Role o f P o t e n t i a l V a r ia b le s

The number o f p o t e n t i a l v a r i a b l e s t h a t one may s tu d y

i n c o n n e c t io n with th e polygraph i s r e l a t i v e l y e n d l e s s .

Some of t h e more common a re a s of i n t e r e s t i n c lu d e imagery

( K u b i s , 1 9 6 2 ) , f e e d b a c k ( B a r l a n d , 1972; B r a d l e y &

J a n i s s e , 1979; G us ta fson & Orne, 1963), coun te rm easures

( H o n te s , Hodes , & R a s k i n , 1985; Raskin , 1978), e t h n i c

d i f f e r e n c e s (Kugelmass & L i e b l i c h , 1968; Waid & Orne,

1 9 8 0 ) , d e p t h o f p r o c e s s i n g (Timm, 1984; Waid e t a l . ,

1981) , t o name a few. One o f the more p opu la r v a r i a b l e s

t o s tudy in conn ec t ion w ith t h e po lygraph i s m o t iv a t io n .

Numerous s t u d i e s (Davidson, 1968; G us ta fson & Orne, 1964,

1965; G us ta fson & Orne, 1965; Horvath , 1979; Podlesny &

R a s k i n , 1978; R a s k in & H a r e , 1978) hav e a t t e m p te d to

a s s e s s t h e e f f e c t s o f m o t i v a t i o n i n some a s p e c t on

s u s p e c t ' s performance d u r in g a polygraph t e s t .

R e s e a r c h by R a s k in and Hare (1978) c o n s id e re d th e

e f f e c t s o f p s y c h o p a t h y on t h e d e t e c t i o n of d e c e p t i o n .

This s tu d y looked a t p r i s o n inmates who may have c e r t a i n

q u a l i t i e s which make th e d e t e c t i o n of t h e i r d e c e i t l e s s

..


18

pro b ab le f o r the p o ly g r a p h e r . All s u b j e c t s were o f f e r e d

$20 t o a t t e m p t t o convince a p o lyg raphe r t h a t th ey had

n o t com m it ted a mock crime j u s t p r i o r t o th e po lyg raph

t e s t . The use o f t h e money, i t was t h o u g h t , would

a c c e n t u a t e t h e p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n d i n g o f a l l

inmates invo lved . This s tudy used money a s a m o t iv a to r

in a d i f f e r e n t way than Davidson (1968), who through an

e l a b o r a t e charade o f a mock k i l l i n g , used money or t h e

p u r s u i t o f a g i f t c e r t i f i c a t e which c o u ld be used t o

p u rch ase i tem s in a l o c a l s t o r e . In th e Davidson (1968)

s t u d y , one s u b j e c t o u t o f f o u r p o s s i b l e s u b j e c t s was

h i g h ly motiva ted t o de ce iv e t h e p o lyg rap h e r and i n t u r n

r e c e i v e t h e re w a rd t h a t he h ad e a r n e d . The s u b j e c t s

c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e " low m o t i v a t i o n " group knew n o th in g

a b o u t t h e c r im e o r t h e v i c t im and would n o t r e c e i v e a

voucher i f he passed th e polygraph t e s t . The r e s u l t s o f

t h i s s tu d y , while showing no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , do

show t h e h i g h l y m o t iv a te d s u s p e c t s a s e a s i e r to d e t e c t

th en t h e nonmotivated s u s p e c t s .

A s t u d y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e e f f e c t s o f h e i g h t e n e d

m o t i v a t i o n by G u s t a f s o n and Orne (1963) a t t e m p t e d t o

c r e a t e t h i s s t a t e o f a ro u s a l by o f f e r i n g bo th one e x t r a

d o l l a r a s w e l l a s some v e r b a l " e n c o u r a g e m e n t . " This

encouragement came in t h e form o f a t a p e r e c o r d in g t h a t

i n f o r m e d t h e s u b j e c t s ( p r i o r t o t h e t e s t ) t h a t o n l y

p e r s o n s who were o f s u p e r i o r i n t e l l i g e n c e and g r e a t


19

e m o t i o n a l c o n t r o l w o u l d be a b l e t o d e c e i v e t h e

p o l y g r a p h e r . W he th e r o r n o t t h i s p r o c e d u r e a c t u a l l y

h e i g h t e n e d th e m o t i v a t i o n a l s t a t e or merely r a i s e d t h e

a n x i e t y l e v e l s o f t h e s t u d e n t s i s y e t an o th e r i s s u e i n

the l i e d e t e c t i o n paradigm.

R a t io n a l f o r T hes is

T h i s t h e s i s had a s i t s purpose t o h e lp expand and

perhaps c l a r i f y some i s s u e s su r ro u nd in g th e f i e l d of l i e

d e t e c t i o n . T h is l a b o r a t o r y s t u d y i n v o l v e d f i v e main

a r e a s . The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s s u e s was th e v a l i d i t y o f4

s k i n r e s i s t a n c e a s a m e a s u r e o f t h e d e t e c t i o n o f

d e c e p t io n . While the G u i l t y Knowledge T es t was used , i t

was n o t a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n . The s e co n d i s s u e t h i s

r e s e a r c h a d d re s sed was th e use of a monetary reward (high

m o t i v a t i o n ) t o i n c r e a s e t h e d e t e c t a b i l i t y o f t h o s e

s u b j e c t s , a s has been su g ges ted i n p r i o r r e s e a r c h . Two

o t h e r a r e a s , t h a t may be o f l e s s e r im p o r ta n c e to t h e

f i e l d o f po lyg raphy , were examined he re as w e l l . These

i s s u e s were the a d m i n i s t e r i n g o f two t e s t s p e r pe rson and

t h e u s e o f b l a n k c a r d s a long w i th numbered c a r d s in a

numbered c a r d t e s t . The f i n a l a r e a t h i s s tu d y d e a l t w i th

was t h e u s e of an o b j e c t i v e s c o r in g system s i m i l a r t o

t h a t used i n the s tudy by G us ta fson and Orne (1963) .

FT ■ . -

It •


METHOD

D e s c r ip t i o n of S u b je c t s

The s u b j e c t s were u n d e rg rad ua te s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in

a psychology o f work c l a s s o f a p p ro x im a te ly 280 s t u d e n t s .

The s u b j e c t s were t o l d th ey could earn two e x t r a c r e d i t

p o i n t s towards t h e i r c o u rs e t o t a l f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n

in a l i e d e t e c t i o n e x p e r im e n t . In g e n e r a l , t h e s u b j e c t s

were freshmen o r sophomore b u s in e s s majors i n t e r e s t e d in

s e e in g i f they could " b e a t t h e machine" o r i n c r e a s e t h e i r

t o t a l number o f p o i n t s in t h e c l a s s . The s u b j e c t s were

s e l e c t e d on a f i r s t c o m e , f i r s t s e r v e b a s i s . The

s u b j e c t s were p laced i n one of f o u r p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n s

by th e p o l y g r a p h e r ' s a s s i s t a n t who c o n t r o l l e d the random

ass ignm en t of s u b j e c t s t o each c o n d i t i o n .

Apparatus

Sk in r e s i s t a n c e r e c o r d i n g s were o b t a i n e d f o r each

s u b j e c t th ro u g h a G rass Model 7 Polygraph w i th a 7P-1A

Low Level ED.C. P r e - A m p l i f i e r . The p r e - a m p l i f i e r was s e t

in t h e P .G .R . mode. The p r e - g e l l e d Ag/AgCl e l e c t r o d e s

w e r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e p a l m a r s u r f a c e o f t h e d i s t a l

p h a l a n g e o f t h e f i r s t and t h i r d f i n g e r s o f the r i g h t

hand.

The " t a r g e t " numbers were drawn on 3 x 5 inch index

20

rR e p ro d u c e d with p erm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited without perm iss ion .

21

c a r d s . One s e t o f c a rd s inc luded t h e numbers 1 th rough 6

o m i t t i n g t h e number 4 . The second s e t o f c a r d s was

s i m i l a r t o th e p r e v io u s s e t b u t in c lu d ed two b lan k c a rd s

as w e l l . The numbered c a rd s a l s o had t h e number w r i t t e n

on t h e b o t to m t o a v o i d any p o s s i b l e c o n f u s i o n . The

s u b j e c t ' s chosen ca rd was p lac ed in a ca rd bo ard box in

th e i n t e r r o g a t i o n room.

The i n t e r r o g a t i o n room was a s p a r s e l y f u r n i s h e d

l a b o r a t o r y room w i t h m o d e r a te l i g h t i n g . D u r ing th e

q u e s t i o n p r o c e s s t h e s u s p e c t s a t in a cushioned c h a i r

f a c i n g a b l a c k w a l l . The p o l y g r a p h a p p a r a t u s and

p o l y g r a p h e r r e m a in e d i n t h e same room a s t h e su s p e c t

d u r in g the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e t e s t .

Design and Procedure

The exper im en t conducted was a 2 x 2 d e s ig n . Both

v a r i a b l e s were m an ipu la ted between s u b j e c t s . The f i r s t

independen t v a r i a b l e was the l e v e l of m o t iv a t io n on the

p a r t o f t h e s u b j e c t . The o p p o r t u n i t y t o g a in a cash

re w a rd d i s t i n g u i s h e d " m o t i v a t e d " group from th e "non-

m o t i v a t e d " g r o u p . The s e c o n d in d ep e n d en t v a r i a b l e in

t h i s s t u d y was t h e number o f c a rd s th e s u b j e c t s e l e c t s

from. Half the s u b j e c t s s e l e c t e d a number c a rd from the

numbers 1 t o 6 (with t h e number 4 o m i t t e d ) . The o t h e r 20

s u b j e c t s s e l e c t e d a c a rd from seven p o s s ib l e c a r d s ( f i v e

numbered and two b lank c a r d s ) . Each s u b j e c t was t e s t e d


over two t r i a l s .

The dependent v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s tudy was t h e number

o f " c o r r e c t h i t s " by t h e p o ly g ra p h e r . A c o r r e c t h i t i s

de te rmined when t h e p o ly g rap h e r s c o r e s t h e s u s p e c t ' s GSR

c h a r t s and w r i t e s down the number that, he b e l i e v e d th e

s u s p e c t was c o n c e a l in g . The s u s p e c t th e n r ev e a le d h i s

number and a comparison was made by th e a s s i s t a n t , who

in f o r m e d b o t h p a r t i e s a s t o th e o u tco m e . W ith e a c h

s u b j e c t b e i n g t e s t e d t w o s e p a r a t e t i m e s w i t h

" p o t e n t i a l l y " two d i f f e r e n t c a r d s , th e p o ly g ra p h e r could

s c o re a maximum of two c o r r e c t h i t s pe r s u s p e c t .

There were two s t a g e s in t h i s exper im ent . In s t a g e

1 th e s u b j e c t s were randomly a s s i g n e d to one of th e f o u r

p o s s i b l e g r o u p s . T h is was done by t h e p o l y g r a p h e r ' s

a s s i s t a n t f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f k e e p in g t h e p o l y g r a p h e r

b l i n d t o which c o n d i t i o n any s u b j e c t may be i n . A f t e r

th e p r e l i m i n a r y s ig n in g o f th e e x t r a c r e d i t s h e e t and th e

human s u b j e c t s p r o t e c t i o n form , t h e s u b j e c t was r ea d a

l i s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s by the a s s i s t a n t . The po ly g rap h e r

r e m a in e d i n a n o t h e r room t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p r e l i m i n a r y

phase . There were two s e t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s used d u r ing

t h e e x p e r i m e n t . Each s u b j e c t would r e c e i v e one s e t of

i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t were c o n s i s t e n t w i th t h e c o n d i t i o n of

" m o t i v a t i o n " t h e s u b j e c t w a s i n . S u b j e c t s i n t h e

" m o t i v a t i o n " g r o u p who s u c c e s s f u l l y d e c e i v e d t h e

p o ly g rap he r were p a id by the a s s i s t a n t . The money p a id


came from a fund s e t up by t h e p o ly g ra p h e r . A l i s t of

t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s r e a d t o each s u b j e c t can be found in

Appendix A or Appendix B, depending on th e c o n d i t i o n .

A f t e r t h e i n i t i a l i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e a d by t h e

a s s i s t a n t to th e s u b j e c t , th e s u b j e c t was asked t o draw a

c a rd from a deck th e a s s i s t a n t was h o ld in g . The s u b j e c t

t h e n chose a card and was asked by t h e a s s i s t a n t to say

what was on t h e c a r d . T h is was done t o v e r i f y t h a t th e

s u b j e c t was aware o f the c a r d ' s c o n t e n t . In the s tu dy by

G u s ta fso n and Orne (1965) , the s u b j e c t was asked t o w r i t e

down th e number s e l e c t e d . One o f th e g o a l s o f t h i s s tudy

and s i m i l a r s t u d i e s in t h i s a r e a i s t o e nsu re t h a t th e

s u b j e c t i s aware of th e in fo rm a t io n on the c a r d . A f te r

s e l e c t i n g a c a r d a n d s t a t i n g i t s c o n t e n t s t o t h e

a s s i s t a n t , t h e s u b j e c t was led t o an a d j o i n i n g room where

th e card was p laced i n a ca rdboard box. The s u b j e c t was

th e n hooked up to t h e s k in r esponse m onitor and r ea d some

g e n e r a l i n s t r u c t i o n s by t h e p o l y g r a p h e r . The

i n s t r u c t i o n s read t o the s u b j e c t by t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r can

be seen in A ppend ix C. These i n s t r u c t i o n s were read

a f t e r t h e e l e c t r o d e s w e r e i n p l a c e , t o g i v e t h e

i n t e r r o g a t o r a chance t o d e r i v e a b a s e l i n e response f o r

t h e s u b j e c t .

The s u b j e c t was i n f o r m e d t o r e s p o n d "no" t o a l l

q u e s t i o n s by th e i n t e r r o g a t o r . The q u e s t i o n s were asked

r o u g h l y e v e r y 15 s e c o n d s . The q u e s t io n s were only i n


r e g a rd t o th e s u b j e c t ' s h idden c a r d . The number asked by

t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r were i n a random o rd e r with t h e number 4

b e i n g t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n a sk e d o f a l l s u b j e c t s . The

a sk ing o f th e number 4 (which was om it ted from the deck)

a l l o w e d t h e i n t e r r o g a t o r t o throw o u t th e i n o r d i n a t e l y

l a r g e GSR r e s p o n s e which u s u a l l y appea rs on the f i r s t

s t i m u l u s p r e s e n t a t i o n . A l l p o t e n t i a l numbers were

s t a t e d , a s w el l as a b lank ca rd q u e s t i o n . This was done

t h r e e t i m e s i n s u c c e s s i o n . When t h e q u e s t i o n i n g

p r o c e d u r e was o v e r , the i n t e r r o g a t o r removed the graph

and went t o a nearby room t o s c o re t h e r e s p o n s e s . The

a s s i s t a n t t h e n d e t a c h e d t h e e l e c t r o d e s and k e p t t h e

s u b j e c t b u sy f o r a coup le o f m inu te s . The p o ly g rap h e r

th en r e t u r n e d and wro te th e re sp o n se t h a t he t h o u g h t th e

s u b j e c t was t r y i n g t o c o n c e a l . The a s s i s t a n t t h e n

v e r i f i e d t h i s d e c i s i o n by rem ov ing t h e c a r d from the

c a r d b o a r d b o x . The s u b j e c t was t h e n in fo rm ed o f h i s

success o r f a i l u r e a t d e c e iv in g t h e p o ly g rap h e r and lead

ou t to th e a d jo in in g room f o r s t a g e 2.

S t a g e 2 o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t c o n s i s t e d o f an

a b b r e v i a t e d s e t of i n s t r u c t i o n s by the a s s i s t a n t t o the

s u b j e c t . The s u b j e c t then s e l e c t e d a c a rd a g a in and the

p rocedure was r e p l i c a t e d a s t r i a l number 2. The e n t i r e

tw o -s ta g e p rocedure l a s t e d between 30-45 minutes f o r each

s u b j e c t .


25

The P o l y g r a p h e r ' s Scoring Method

The d i f f e r e n c e i n s k i n r e s i s t a n c e between t h e l e v e l

imm edia te ly p r i o r t o the s t im u lu s and the h i g h e s t l e v e l

reached w i t h in 6 seconds was used as t h e re spo n se measure

f o r each s t im u lu s . The t h r e e l a r g e s t r e sp o n se s (one p e r

s t i m u l u s number) i n e ac h s e t were ranked acco rd ing t o

h e i g h t . A s e t was de te rm ined by the q u e s t i o n i n g of each

p o s s i b l e number and b l a n k ca rd only once. There were

t h r e e s e t s o f q u e s t i o n s p e r d e t e c t i o n t r i a l . The

p o ly g rap h e r th e n had one resp o n se ranked a s the h i g h e s t

r e s p o h s e per s e t f o r t h r e e s e t s . Should t h e s u b j e c t ' s

p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e sp o n se to one number be g r e a t e s t in a l l

t h r e e s e t s , t h e n t h a t number was i d e n t i f i e d as t h e

s u b j e c t ' s "hidden number." I f a number came f i r s t in t h e

r a n k i n g in two o u t o f t h r e e s e t s , t h e n a g a i n i t was

i d e n t i f i e d by the graph i n t e r p r e t e r (po lyg raphe r) as t h e

c o n c e a l e d n u m b e r . What i f a l l t h r e e s e t s show a

d i f f e r e n t number a s t h e h i g h e s t r a n k i n g ? The g r a p h

i n t e r p r e t e r th en chose t h e l a r g e s t r e sp o n se o f t h e t h r e e

t o p ran k in g , and th e accompanying s t im u lu s number. When

t h e graph i n t e r p r e t e r was done s c o r in g the r e s p o n s e s , he

th e n w ro te t h e i d e n t i f i e d number on t h e back o f t h e c h a r t

a n d g a v e i t t o t h e a s s i s t a n t who t h e n v e r i f i e d t h e

p o l y g r a p h e r ' s ju d g m e n t . This s i g n a l e d t h e end of t h e

t r i a l .


Poly g rap h er T ra in in g

The e x p e r im e n te r who conducted t h i s s tudy a l s o a c t e d

as t h e p o ly g ra p h e r . While t h e p o ly g ra p h e r in t h i s s tu d y

was n o t a t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l , th e method o f t e s t i n g

(GKT) l e n d s i t s e l f t o be r e p l i c a t e d q u i t e e a s i l y by a

n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l . The use o f an o b j e c t i v e s c o r in g method

se rv ed two p u rp o se s : (1) i t can be performed q u ic k ly and

(2) i t d e c r e a s e s t h e s u b j e c t i v e e l e m e n t and in t u r n

a l l o w s f o r d i r e c t r e p l i c a t i o n . The p o l y g r a p h e r a l s o

t e s t e d f i v e s u b j e c t s p r i o r t o th e exper iment t o c l a r i f y

p rocedura l i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s and become a c q u a in ted with th e

a p p a ra tu s . The p o ly g ra p h e r had a l s o performed a s i m i l a r

e x p e r i m e n t a t t h e u n d e rg ra d u a te l e v e l u s in g a Galvanic

Skin Response m oni to r .


RESULTS

The p r i n c i p a l conce rn o f t h i s s tu d y was t o e v a lu a t e

t h e e f f e c t s o f h e i g h t e n e d s u b j e c t m o t i v a t i o n on t h e

d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n . Each o f t h e 40 s u b j e c t s was

t e s t e d over two t r i a l s . The t o t a l number of t e s t s run

was 8 0 . As can be s e e n i n Tables 1 and 2, a two way

r e p e a t e d m e a s u r e s a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was used t o

c a l c u l a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b j e c t d e t e c t i o n r a t e s o f

m o t i v a t e d and n o n - m o t i v a t e d s u b j e c t s o ve r two t r a i l s .

The n u m b e r o f c o r r e c t h i t s by t h e p o l y g r a p h e r was

s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r f o r t h e h ig h ly m o tiva ted s u b j e c t s

than th o se l e s s m o t iv a te d F (1,39) = 5 .5 5 6 , p< .05 . The

c o n v e n t io n a l l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f .05 was chosen to

i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s ? h o w e v e r , few s t u d i e s in v o lv in g

p o l y g r a p h a p p a r a t i go t o t h i s e x t r e m e . The d a ta a r e

t r a d i t i o n a l l y p re s e n te d i n th e l i t e r a t u r e i n th e form of

a p e r c e n t c o r r e c t . While d a ta pu t i n th e from o f p e rc e n t

may be more e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d by t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c ,

r e s e a r c h performed by t h e s c i e n t i f i c community tends t o

be p r e s e n t e d in a more complex form ( i . e . , a n a l y s i s of

v a r i a n c e ) . F u r t h e r , a n a l y s i s o f T a b le 1 i n d i c a t e s a

d i s p r o p o r t i o n of d e t e c t i o n s a c r o s s s u b j e c t s , from t r i a l 1

t o t r i a l 2 . W hile t h e number o f d e t e c t i o n s by t h e

p o ly g rap h e r d e c reased from 26 t o 18, t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y was

27


n o t s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t F (1,40) = 3 .22 0 , p = .076 . The

p o s s i b i l i t y o f an i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n l e v e l s o f

m o t iv a t io n and t r i a l s d id n o t t r a n s p i r e as i n d i c a t e d by

th e r e p e a t e d measures a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e .

Table 1

Repeated Measures A n a ly s is o f Var iance

Source SS DF MS F Prob.

Between S u b je c t s 9.80 39 .2513

A ( l e v e l of

m ot iva t ion ) 1.25 1 1.2500 5.556 .024

S u b je c t s w i t h in

groups 8.55 38 .2250

Within S u b je c t s 10.00 40 .2500

B ( T r i a l s ) .80 1 .8000 3.220 .076

A x B ( l e v e l .05 1 0.500 .208 .651

of m o t iv a t io n

groups x t r i a l s )

T o ta l 19.80 79


29

Table 2

Mean Number of C o r re c t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n s

M o t iv a t io n

St

Non M o t iva t io n

X

T ota l

5 Card 15 7 22

7 Card 12 10 22

T o ta l 27 17

A n o th e r o f t h e i n i t i a l conce rns of t h i s s tu d y was

t h e d e t e c t i o n r a t e s of t h e p o ly g rap h e r when b lank ca rd s

w e r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e s u b j e c t s ' s e l e c t i o n . The

a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e d a t a showed t h a t t h e p o l y g r a p h e r

d e t e c t e d the same number of s u b j e c t s i n each c o n d i t i o n ,

t h a t i s , t h e r a t e o f d e t e c t i o n was t h e same w i th and

w i t h o u t a b l a n k c a r d i n the s e t . A review of Table 2

i n d i c a t e s i d e n t i c a l d e t e c t i o n r a t e s o f 22 i n both th e 5

and 7 ca rd c o n d i t i o n s . The t o t a l number o f b lank ca rd s

drawn was 7 w i th t h e p o ly g rap h e rs c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y i n g 4

o f the s u b j e c t s .

O v e r a l l , th e p o ly g ra p h e r d e t e c t e d 44 c a r d s o u t o f 80

p o s s i b l e t r i a l s . As i n d i c a t e d on T ab le 3 , t h i s i s a

s u c c e s s r a t e o f 55%. The po lyg rap h e r in t h i s exper iment

w a s f o r c e d t o make a j u d g e m e n t a s t o t h e s u b j e c t ' s

4 .

R e p ro d u c e d with perm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited w ithout perm iss ion .

30

p o t e n t i a l c a r d . The number of f a l s e p o s i t i v e s , 36 out of

8 0 , may be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f o r c e d c h o i c e o f t h e

p o ly g ra p h e r s among o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . The o v e r a l l success

r a t e o f t h e p o l y g r a p h e r e x c e e d e d c h a n c e l e v e l s a s

i n d i c a t e d by a c h i - s q u a r e t e s t i n t h a t x2 (1) = 1 0 . 8 , p<

. 0 0 1 . While th e p o ly g ra p h e r exceeded chance l e v e l s of

d e t e c t i o n , a more i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f th e s tu d y i s th e

a c t u a l n u m b er of d e t e c t i o n s i n e a c h c a t e g o r y . The

breakdown of d e t e c t i o n s and misses can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3

Number of S u c c e s s f u l and Unsuccessfu l D e te c t io n onT r i a l s 1 and 2

Group

D e te c te d

# %

Non-

#

D etec ted

% T o ta l

M ot iva ted

(20 s u b j e c t s x 27 67 .5 13 32.5 40

2 t r i a l s )

Non-motivated 1 7 42 .5 23 57.5 40

T r i a l 1 26 65 14 35 40

T r i a l 2 18 45 22 55 40

5 Cards 22 55 18 45 40

7 Cards 22 55 18 45 40

Blank Cards 4 57 .1 3 42.82 7

E ' . ■Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

DISCUSSION

A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw ee n t h e number o f

d e t e c t i o n s i n t h e m o t i v a t i o n v s . n o n -m o t iva t ion groups

was p r e d i c t e d by p r i o r r e s e a r c h (G u s ta f s o n and Orne,

1963) . The s tudy by G u s ta fso n and Orne (1963) posed a

s i m i l a r q u e s t io n o f th e e f f e c t s o f m o t iv a t io n on s u b j e c t

d e t e c t a b i l i t y and found t h a t s u b j e c t s who were m otiva ted

t o d e c e i v e more f r e q u e n t l y p r o d u c e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y

l a r g e s k i n r e s i s t a n c e r e s p o n s e s t o c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l

i t e m s . This i n c r e a s e in r e s p o n s i v i t y due t o th e i n c r e a s e

i n m o t i v a t i o n can h e lp improve t h e d e t e c t i o n r a t i o f o r

t h e p o l y g r a p h e r f ro m a c h a n c e l e v e l t o a l e v e l o f

s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h is means t h a t the s u b j e c t ' s

l e v e l o f m o t iv a t io n may p lay a major r o l e in t h e o v e r a l l

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a p o l y g r a p h t e s t a t t e m p t i n g t o

d i s c r i m i n a t e g u i l t y f rom i n n o c e n t s u b j e c t s . With th e

l e v e l o f m o t i v a t i o n o f a s u b j e c t be ing such a dominant

v a r i a b l e i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e p t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n

c o nce rn ing t h e op t im al l e v e l o f m o t iv a t io n of a s u s p e c t ,

must be examined f u r t h e r .

The p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l a r o u s a l o f a p e r s o n may

i n a d v e r t e n t l y l e a d a p o l y g r a p h e r t o m i s c l a s s i f y t h a t

p e rso n . The r e a c t i o n o f pe rson u n i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g

a job i s i n v a r i a b l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f th e pe rson who

31

r . ' :■r ■


32

i s h ig h ly m otiva ted t o p a ss the same po lygraph t e s t and,

i n t u r n , g e t t h e j o b . The pe rson who i s ap p ly in g fo r a

j o b and i s h i g h ly m o t iv a te d s t a n d s a g r e a t e r chance o f

b e i n g fo u n d g u i l t y on a p o ly g r a p h t e s t v e r s u s a n o th e r

pe rson who i s pe rhaps go ing through t h e motions . While

b o t h a p p l i c a n t s may be g u i l t y o f some p r i o r v i o l a t i o n

( i . e . , s t e a l i n g f r o m a p r e v i o u s e m p l o y e r ) , t h e

m o t iv a t io n a l th e o ry expanded upon in t h i s s tu d y i n d i c a t e s

t h a t th e l e s s m o t iva ted a p p l i c a n t w i l l be more d i f f i c u l t

t o d e t e c t th rough a po lyg raph t e s t .

The l o g i c b e h in d t h i s p a ra d ig m i s t h a t t h e l e s s

m o tiva ted s u b j e c t w i l l pe rhaps go und e tec ted and p roceed

to the n e x t s t a g e o f the preemployment t e s t i n g . R e la te d

t o t h i s a r e a d i r e c t l y i s t h e c u r r e n t f e a r o f c l a s s i f y i n g

i n n o c e n t s u b j e c t s a s g u i l t y . T h is i s known as a f a l s e

p o s i t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A c co rd in g to Lykken (1984) ,

t h i s m i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of in n o c e n t s u b j e c t s may occu r as

much as 50% i n r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s . Q u i te o f t e n th e

p o l y g r a p h e r i s aware t h a t a cr im e was committed by one

p e r s o n and p e r h a p s se v en a r e i n t e r r o g a t e d . The usua l

p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e s t h e p o s t - t e s t i n g s e l e c t i o n o f th e

p o o r e s t s c o r in g s u s p e c t as th e g u i l t y p a r t y . In d e a l i n g

s t r i c t l y w i th th e s u b j e c t o f m o t iv a t io n , t h e l e v e l s o f

each p o s s i b l e s u s p e c t must d i f f e r in many r e s p e c t s . I f

someone's job i s in j eo p a rd y or someone was j u s t h i r e d ,

t h i s p e r s o n ' s l e v e l o f m o t i v a t i o n and a n x i e t y may be

F - dfciW _Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h e s u s p e c t who i s f r i e n d s w i th

management and has a s p o t l e s s r e c o rd over f i v e y e a r s .

The b l a n k c a r d s were used in t h i s s tudy a s an added

v a r i a b l e t o both i n c r e a s e th e s i z e of t h e s e t o f numbers

and t o de te rmine t h e d e t e c t a b i l i t y o f a s u b j e c t who had not

c h o s e n a numbered c a r d . The use o f b lan k c a r d s in t h i s

s tudy proved to be l e s s of a f a c t o r th en was ex p ec te d .

The s t u d y by G u s t a f s o n and Orne (1965) , which a l s o

used blank c a r d s , was t h e i n i t i a t i n g f o r c e t o in c lu d e t h e s e

ca rd s ag a in . The d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s s tudy and t h a t of

G u s t a f s o n and Orne (1965) i s t h a t th e c u r r e n t exper im en t

a t tem p ted t o a s s e s s t h e d e t e c t a b i l i t y o f a s u b j e c t w i th a

b lank card w hi le t h e p re v io u s s tudy used th e b lan k c a r d to

m a n i p u l a t e g u i l t o r innocence on a "dummy" t r i a l . While

Gus ta fson and Orne (1965) used the b lan k ca rd to m anipu la te

p e rc e iv e d s u c c e s s , t h i s experiment used t h e b lan k c a rd to

a s s e s s d e t e c t a b i l i t y w i th o u t the s e l e c t i o n of a " g u i l t y "

number. To h e ig h t e n th e response o f th e s u b j e c t s who drew

b l a n k c a r d s , th e p o l y g r a p h e r ' s q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the

b lank card was t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e numbered

q u e s t i o n s ( i . e . , i s your number 5? . . . I s your number 2?

. . . I s y o u r c a r d b l a n k ? ) . I t was a l s o hoped t h a t t h i s

change of topography would h e lp i n c r e a s e th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l

r e s p o n s e making t h e s u b j e c t s w i th b lank ca rd s e a s i e r to

d e t e c t . This did n o t occu r i n t h i s s tu d y as seven s u b j e c t s

drew b l a n k c a r d s and o n ly f o u r were d e t e c t e d . The f a c t


34

t h a t a l l s u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d t o t r y t o " b e a t " t h e

p o l y g r a p h e r could have accounted f o r th e lack of s u b j e c t

r e a c t i v i t y t o t h e b l a n k c a rd q u e s t io n . While the b lank

c a r d s w ere u sed i n t h e manner j u s t d e s c r i b e d , they were

a l s o u s e d t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e s e t s o f n u m b e r s . T h i s

comparison o f the f i v e c a rd group t o the seven card group

i n d i c a t e d t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e in group d e t e c t i o n r a t e s .

The f a c t t h a t so few b lank c a rd s were p icked from the seven

c a r d group may a l s o have been a f a c t o r .

The c o m p a r i s o n o f the number o f d e t e c t i o n s a c r o s s

t r i a l s one and tw o , th o ug h n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , does b e a r

f u r t h e r s c r u t i n y . The d i f f e r e n c e i n th e d e t e c t i o n of t h e

s u b j e c t ' s c h o se n number d e c r e a s e d from t r i a l one (26

d e t e c t i o n s ) t o t r i a l two (18 d e t e c t i o n s ) . T h is i s in

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h o f Timm (1 9 8 4 ) w h i c h

i n d i c a t e d a p o s s i b l e p h y s i o l o g ic a l f a t i g u e on a second

t r i a l . N o te s t a k e n by th e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h e r s w e re

s i m i l a r t o th o s e o f G us ta fson and Orne (1965) i n terms o f

th e g en e ra l d e c r e a s e in o v e r a l l am pl i tude of GSR a c r o s s

t r i a l s . T h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f t h i s d e c r e a s e i n

p h y s i o l o g i c a l re sp o n se may be t h a t s u b j e c t s who have been

t e s t e d on a p o lyg raph a t a p rev io us t im e may in c r e a s e

t h e i r chances a t d e c e iv i n g a p o ly g ra p h e r . F u r th e r long

te rm r e s e a r c h on t h i s a s p e c t o f th e po lygraph p rocedure

should b e e v a lu a t e d .

The use o f an o b j e c t i v e s c o r in g method in t h i s s tu d y


allowed th e p o ly g rap h e r t o sc o re t h e s u b j e c t ' s r e spo n ses

q u i c k ly and w i th o u t b i a s . While t h e p o ly g raph e r may have

had " th o u g h ts " as t o what th e s u b j e c t ' s number was (based

on t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e o b s e r v e d t o v a r i o u s

q u e s t i o n s ) , t h e u se o f t h i s method o f s c o r i n g l e n d s

i t s e l f t o be r e p l i c a t e d in some form in f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .

One o f the problems w i th t h i s s c o r in g method was th e f la t .

GSR r e c o r d in g found p e r i o d i c a l l y on the second t r i a l f o r

some s u b j e c t s . T h i s t h e n f o r c e d t h e p o l y g r a p h e r t o

m a n i p u l a t e t h e p o l y g r a p h a p p a r a t u s b e tw ee n s e t s o f

numbers in o rd e r t o o b t a i n some graph movement. This was

only done on a few t r i a l s (second t r i a l s only) and a f t e r

th e f i r s t o r second s e t of q u e s t i o n s . This a l t e r i n g of

t h e s c o r i n g p ro ce d u re and a p p a r a tu s f o r a few s u b j e c t s

m a i n t a i n e d t h e o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t was d e s i r e d f o r t h i s

s tu d y .

Sugges t io ns f o r F u tu re Research

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e b o t h mixed and

i n d i c a t i v e o f some o f t h e problems c u r r e n t l y p la g u in g the

f i e l d o f l i e d e t e c t i o n . T h e i s s u e o f s u b j e c t

m o t iv a t io n a l l e v e l i s a major f a r r e a c h in g component in

th e d e t e c t i o n paradigm. At which p o i n t does m o t iv a t io n

a p p r o a c h a n x i e t y ? Q u e s t i o n s such a s t h i s must be

answered th rough r e s e a r c h i n th e l a b o r a t o r y long b e fo re

t h i s in s t r u m e n t and p ro ced u re a re used t o t ak e jobs away


36

o r c o n v i c t s u s p e c t s . The l a b o r a t o r y performance o f a

p o l y g r a p h e r can be o b j e c t i v e l y v e r i f i e d thus d e c r e a s in g

th e o f t e n i n f l a t e d accuracy r a t e s t h a t a r e found so o f t e n

i n t h e f i e l d .

T h is s t u d y h a s a t t e m p t e d t o r e p l i c a t e and expand

upon c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f a l i e d e t e c t i o n t e s t . The

v a r i a b l e s i n t h i s s tudy were th e l e v e l o f m o t iv a t io n of

t h e s u b j e c t s as w e l l a s s e t s i z e . This s tudy has n o t

s o l v e d any o r a l l o f t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a

po lygraph t e s t , y e t has added s u p p o r t fo r c o n t r o l l i n g th e

l e v e l o f m o t i v a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s t o b e t t e r d i s c r i m i n a t e

g u i l t y s u b j e c t s from i n n o c e n t . The s t u d y h a s a l s o

a p p r o a c h e d t h e t o p i c s o f s e t s i z e , h a b i t u a t i o n of

re sp o n se a c r o s s t r i a l s and t h e s c o r in g o f the GSR c h a r t s

o b j e c t i v e l y . F u r th e r r e s e a r c h can q u i t e e a s i l y take any

one o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s and compare d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s or

p ro c e d u re s . O v e r a l l , t h e GSR m onitor accompanied by th e

GKT p r o v e d t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n d i s c r i m i n a t i n g t h e

p h y s i o l o g i c a l re spo n ses of s u b j e c t s t o c r i t i c a l and non-

c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s .

R e p ro d u c e d with pe rm iss ion of the copyright ow ner. F u r th e r reproduction prohibited w ithout perm iss ion .

Appendix A

G eneral I n s t r u c t i o n s

37


G en era l I n s t r u c t i o n s Given to a l l S u b j e c t s

S t a g e 1 You a r e now i n s t a g e 1 o f a t w o - s t a g e

e x p e r i m e n t . T h is i s a ' l i e d e t e c t i o n ' s tu d y i n which

y o u r j o b w i l l be t o a t t e m p t t o c o n c e a l a ' s e l e c t e d

number ' from th e po lygraph o p e ra to r (po lyg rapher) . The

p o l y g r a p h o p e r a t o r w i l l be m o n i t o r i n g y o u r s k i n

c o n d u c t i v i t y . W h i l e y o u may h a v e h e a r d o f o t h e r

p o l y g r a p h s t u d i e s t h a t u t i l i z e d o t h e r measures ( i . e . /

r e s p i r a t i o n , h e a r t r a t e , vo ice f l u c t u a t i o n s , e t c . ) , we

have chosen t o m onitor s k i n r e s i s t a n c e . Sk in r e s i s t a n c e

or G a l v a n i c S k in Response has c o n s i s t e n t l y shown to be

t h e b e s t i n d i c a t o r i n t h e d e t e c t i o n o f d e c e i t , in t h e

l a b o r a t o r y . The t a s k in s t a g e 1 w i l l be f o r you t o p ic k

a c a r d o u t of the deck and r e p e a t t h e c o n te n t s o f t h i s

c a r d t o t h e a s s i s t a n t . T h is i s " y o u r c a r d " . The

a s s i s t a n t w i l l then show you t o the i n t e r r o g a t i o n room

where you w i l l d e p o s i t your card i n to a cardboard box f o r

v e r i f i c a t i o n a t t h e end o f s t a g e 1. Do you have any

q u e s t io n s ?

The p o ly g rap h e r w i l l a t t a c h the m onitor t o your hand

and th e q u e s t i o n i n g p r o c e s s w i l l b e g i n . D u r in g t h e

q u e s t i o n i n g p r o c e s s , p l e a s e r e f r a i n from any sudden

movements i f p o s s i b l e . You a r e i n s t r u c t e d to respond

with the answer "no" to e ac h q u e s t i o n . The p o lyg rapher

w i l l a sk , " i s your number t h r e e ? " The p o ly g raph e r w i l l

a l s o ask about a b l a n k c a r d ( i . e . , i s your ca rd blank?)

F-R e p ro d u c e d with perm iss ion of th e copyright ow ner. F u r the r reproduction prohibited w ithout perm iss ion .

39

which you may have s e l e c t e d from t h e group of numbered

c a r d s . P l e a s e r e s p o n d w i th t h e answ er "no" t o t h i s

q u e s t i o n as w e l l . There may o r may no t be a b lan k c a rd

i n th e deck from which you w i l l be s e l e c t i n g 'y o u r c a r d ' .

The p o ly g rap h e r w i l l not have knowledge as t o which deck

th e a s s i s t a n t i s p r e s e n t i n g t o you. The q u e s t io n s w i l l

b e a s k e d ' r a n d o m l y ' , w i t h one b e i n g a sk e d e v e r y 15

s e c o n d s . When t h i s p rocedure i s o v e r , t h e p o ly g rap h e r

w i l l t u r n o f f t h e m o n i to r and t a k e t h e g r a p h t o an

a d j a c e n t room t o e v a l u a t e t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e s .

The p o ly g rap h e r w i l l th en w r i t e down the number he f e e l s

you were t r y i n g t o co ncea l and th e a s s i s t a n t w i l l compare

h i s ' c h o i c e ' t o y o u r a c t u a l c a r d . Do you hav e any

q u e s t i o n s ? I w i l l now o f f e r a deck of c a r d s t o choose

from ( th e a s s i s t a n t s h u f f l e s t h e c a r d s so t h e s u b j e c t can

s e e t h a t n o t a l l c a r d s have t h e same number) . The

a s s i s t a n t th en t u r n s the deck over so the s u b j e c t canno t

p ick a s p e c i f i c number d e l i b e r a t e l y . What card have you

s e l e c t e d ?

Stage 2

In t h i s s t a g e you w i l l choose a card a g a in . We w i l l

go th rough t h e same p roce d u re . The deck i s th e same as

t h e one used f o r t h e f i r s t t r i a l . P lease s e l e c t a c a r d .

What i s your ca rd ? Do you have any q u e s t io n s ?

F ' . ■ ' .


Appendix B

M o t iv a t io n a l I n s t r u c t i o n s

40


Read G eneral I n s t r u c t i o n s o f Appendix A F i r s t

S t a g e 1 T hrough a p r o c e s s o f random a s s i g n m e n t of

s u b j e c t s you have been p laced i n the 'h i g h m o t iv a t io n '

c o n d i t i o n . Should you s u c c e s s f u l l y concea l t h e i d e n t i t y

of your c a r d from the p o ly g ra p h e r , you w i l l be pa id $3 as

wel l as o b t a i n i n g your two e x t r a c r e d i t p o i n t s . Should

you be s u c c e s s f u l in d e c e iv in g t h e p o ly g ra p h e r , you w i l l

be p a id by the a s s i s t a n t a f t e r th e complet ion o f s t a g e 1.

Do you f u l l y u n d e rs t a n d the p o t e n t i a l consequences of a

s u c c e s s f u l concealment? Do you know what your card i s ?

Stage 2

In t h i s s t a g e you w i l l choose a ca rd a g a i n . We w i l l

go th rough the same p r o c e d u r e . The deck of c a rd s i s the

same as t h e one used f o r t h e f i r s t t r i a l . I f you are

s u c c e s s f u l a t c o n c e a l i n g t h e i d e n t i t y o f your c a r d , I

w i l l pay you $3 a t t h e complet ion of t h i s t r i a l . P le a s e

s e l e c t a c a r d . What i s y o u r c a r d ? Do you hav e any

q u e s t io n s ?


Appendix C

P o ly g r a p h e r 's I n s t r u c t i o n s

42


P o l y g r a p h e r ' s I n s t r u c t i o n s

43

The exp er im en t you a re i n i s e x a c t l y as my a s s i s t a n t

has p r e s e n t e d i t . During t h e q u e s t io n in g p ro ce ss p l e a s e

r e f r a i n f rom any sudden movements i f p o s s i b l e . P l e a s e

l e t your hands hang f r e e l y o f f the end of the arms o f th e

c h a i r . Keep b o t h f e e t on th e f l o o r and look s t r a i g h t

ahead a t t h e w a l l . L ike my a s s i s t a n t d i s c u s s e d with you,

p l e a s e respond w i th t h e answer "no" to each q u e s t i o n . I

w i l l ask t h e numbers i n a random f a s h i o n . Do you have

any q u e s t io n s ? P l e a s e take a deep b re a th and e x h a l e . I

w i l l beg in the q u e s t io n i n g p ro c e s s now. I s your number

four?


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V;: ' '


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