I B Aul ps3

DETERMINANTSOF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR IN TWO REC10NS OF CHINA

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENTTHE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DECREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS(POPULAT10N AND SOCIAL RESEARCH)

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FACULTY OFMAHIDOL

INGRADUATE STUDIESUNIVERSITY

1993

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Thesisentitled

DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR IN TWO REC10NS OF CHINA

_塑形Wang Ju-FenCandidate

Monthree Chulasamaya. M. D. , ph. D.

DeanFaculty of Graduate Studies

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:````:i:II― II15:Major Advisor

:盤もこ濯無憮ルCo― Adv■ sor

l}'n"lr^ Vdi** ^oo.n'-

N'l| 1-r---------------- ./Bencha Yoddumne rn -Att ig, ph. D.

Cha i.rmanMaster of Arts Programin Population and Soc ia]Re s earchInstitute for Populationand Social Research

^

Thes.isentitled

DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY BEHAV]OR IN TWO REGIONS OF CHINA

was submitted to the Faculty of craduate Studies,Mahidol University for the degree of Master of Arts' (Population and Social Research)

on25 June. 1993

普酷ヽ

Candidate

Cha irman

多li`盗 μ :響gr・た.4rJ笙

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Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig, Ph. D.Member

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^)Y1:-Som-arch Wongkhomthong, M. D. , D. H. Sc .Member

Monthree Chulasamaya,ltt. D. , Ph. D Aphichat Chamratr ithirong, Ph.D.

Dean DirectorFaculty of craduate studies fnstitute for Population and

SociaI Research

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BIOGRAPHY

NAME

DATE OF BIRTH

PLACE OF BIRTH

INSTITUTE ATTENDED

FUNDING ACENCY

PRESENT POSIT10N

Wang aluFen

2I May ,1949

Shanghai.P.R-China

Fudan Univers ityShanghai,P.R ChinaBache Ior(PoIiticaI Economics )

lroscow UniversityMoscor., , USSRShort Term Training

Institute for Populationand Social ResearchMahidol University. Thailand1992-1993. Master of Arts inPopulation and Social Research

World HeaIth Organization

Research Fellowlnstitute of PopulationResearchFudan University,Shanghai′P.R.China

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ACKNOWLEDCEI!ENT

I r.rould like to acknor.rledge uith gratitude the

intellectual guidance, .constructive comments and useful

suggestion of my major advisor Dr. Varachai Thongthai

throughout th j.s research.

I am very grateful to my co-advisors Dr Bencha

Yoddumnern-Attlg and Dr. Som-arch Wongkhomthong fortheir invaluable time and helpful. comments.

f r.rould like to thank W.H.O program for providing

financial support during 18 months studies in Thailand.

I $rould also Like to thank rehole teachers and staffof the Institute. for population and social Research,

even some one f could:t't rernember their name, but theirhospitality and friendliness keep in memory ever, r.rho

offered the hel.p both spirit and material during my

stay in IPSR.

Finally, my deepest appreciation is extended to my

beloved parents, husband and my lovely daughter, Ithank my father and mother. for them the be6t raisingand deep love, f thank my husband and my daughter forthem spiritual support and sincerely encouragement.

This work devoted to them.

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Thesis Title

Name

Degree

Determinants of FertilityBehavior in Two Regions of China

Wang JuFen

Master of Arts(Population and Sociat Research)

Thesis Supervisory Committee

Varachai Thongthai , Ph. D.

Bencha Yoddumnern-Attig, ph. D.

Date of craduation 25 」une B.E.2536 (1993)

ABSTRACT

Using data from survey ,'population Control

After Economic Reform in China.,, whlch was conducted by

Institute of Population Research, Fudan UniversityShanghai, the study examine determinants of fertilitybehavior in two regions of China.

The findings are age at first marriage vras

influenced by woman's age, occupation of woman and age

gap between husband and wife in both regions. Hourever,

the influence of woman's education on age at marriage

iiwaa found only in Thaichang.

Contraceptive use was affected by age of uroman

in both regions. Education had influenced on

contraceptive use only in Wugang, but the effect ofWoman' s occupation on contraception use was found

only in Thaichang. Finally, onty in Wugang where age

qap between husband and wife had influenced on

contraceptive use.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●iLIST OF TABLE .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●Vi

CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCT10N■.■ Introduction.....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●・・・・・ ●●●●●●●1■.2 0bjective of study .........・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・●●●●●・4

CHAPTER TWOREVIEW OF FERTILITY BEHAVIOR DETERMINANTS2.l Review of some Literature Related Age at

First Marr■age ........● ●●‐●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●52.1.■ age of woman ......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●52.1.2 Education Attainment......・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・ ‐・ ●●52.1.3 0ccupation of women ........・ ・・・・ ●●●●●●●●●●62.1.4 Age Cap Between Husband and wife .........● 7

2.2 Rev■ew of Some Literature Re■ ated contraceptiveUse .......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●92.2.l Age and lts Effects on Contraceptive use ..92.2.2 Woman's Educatio■ .......● ●●●●・・・・・・・・・・ ●●●●92.2.3 0ccupation of women ........● ●●●●●‐●●●・・・・ 102.2.4 Age Difference in Husband and Wife.....・ ・・■l

2.3 Conc■usion.....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●12

CHAPTER THREE3.■ Conceptual Framework ....._.● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●133.2 HypOthesis .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●143.3 The Sources of Data .......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●‐●●■43.4 Data Ana■ysis ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●17

CHAPTER FOURRESULT OF THE STUDY4.■ Soc■ o―Denlongraphic Characteristics of The

Respondents .....● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●184.2 Effects of Soc■ o― Demographical Varェ able on

The Age at First Marriage ........● ●●●●●●●●●・・・・254.2.l Effect of Age ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●254_2.2 Education Attainment......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●254.2.3 0ccupation of wOmen .._.....● ●●●●●●●●●・・・・284.2.4 Age Cap Between Husband and Wife .........30

4.3 Factors Affecting cOntraceptive Use ......・ ・ ‐・・・304.3.l Age of Woman......● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●o304。 3.2 Womanis Education .......● ●●●●・・・・・ ●●●●●o 334.3.3 0ccupation Of women ........● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●334.3.4 Age Cap Between Husband and Wife..._.....・ 36

4.4 Conclusion .._..● ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●・・・・・・・‐・‐・・・・・・・ 38

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IVCHAPTER FIVE5.1 summary and conclusion .. . - -..405.2 Recommendations ..... - - -42References . -. -.44Appendix. .......48

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LIST OF TABLEV

Page

Table 4.I Soc io-demographic characteristics ofmarried women in Thaichang and wugang

.Table 4.2 Mean number of childrea ever Sorn bywoman's age. ...... ' -2I

Tabte 4.3 Percent of ever married women by ageat marriage .........22

Table 4.4 Percent of ever married women bycontraceptive use. - -.... -.24

Table 4.5 Mean age at marriage by current age ofwomen in Thaichang and Wugang. ........26

Table 4.6 Mean age at marriage by education ofwomen. . -. -....27

Table 4.? Mean age at marriage by occupation ofwomen. - - -.....29

Table 4.8 Mean age at marriage bY age gap betweenhusband and wife. . -. -.. -..3I

Table 4.9 Percentage distribution of r.romen bycontraceptive use and age in Thaichangand Wugangr ..... -...32

Table 4.I0 Percentage distribution of women bYcontraceptive use and education.. -....34

Table 4.lI Percentage distribution of r.ronen bycontraceptive use and occupation.... -.36

Table 4.I2 Percentage distribution of women bycontraceptive use and age gap betweenhusband and wife .........37

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

■。■ Introductlon

China has achieved fertiュ ity decline since

1970。 According to the 1990 population census′ the

tota■ fertility rate was 2。 3 in ■989′ declining

from 5.68 in I960s to 4.0I in 1970s and further down

to 2.47 during 1981 1988. As compared with the

I960s, the total fertiltty rate of Chinese women,in the

1980s decreased by 57 percent, crude birtt rate by 43

percent, and rate of natural increase by 48 percent.

However, there is a gap of fertility between urban

and rural areas. Since 1980, total fertillty rate in

urban areas has been around 1.5, and around 2.8 in

rural areas. Besides the difference ln fertility

between urban and rural areas, there are also

variations in fertility among provinces of rural

areas. Lower total fertility rates (around 2.Ll can be

observed in the provinces along the east-coast and

higher total fertility rates of more than 3 could

still be found in remote areas (Peng lgg2 ).The government of China had set fertility rate

at lower than the average level of present developed

countries by the end of the century( TFR=I.9); However,

in light of high fertility in rural areas, it is

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still doubtful whether the aim could be achieved.

Although the family planning program is quite

successful in China, why does the fertillty gap between

urban and rural- as well as rural and rural still exist?

The present'situation reveals that fertility declj-ne

not only depends on the sole element of familyplanning, but also relies on social and economic

factors. If the object is to understand and predict

the onset of fertility transition, t,hen study should be

focused on the condition of stable high fertility and

on the nature of destabilization (Caldwell 1982). With

economic reform, socj.al-economic conditions have been

changing in many aspects in China. For example, with

the productive responsibitity system has being carried

out in rural China sj.nce 19?8, the family is being

renewed as a productive unit; therefore, conception

of family is enhanced. Large family size seems

much more important now than during the time when

the collective unit performed a productive task. So

studying the situation of a reformed society and neh,

conditions is an urgent task facing us.

Besides socioeconomic conditions, culture also

is a very relevant factor effects fertility. As a

country with a civilization of long-standing and

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3

distinct geographical features, culture evidently has

significant meaning in the process of fertility

transition. Owing to cultural change accompanied by

economic change, such changes are very slow; some

content of the culture is getting weaker, while other

content is getting strong€r, so we should distinguishthe culture which is affecting fertility or which ishindering the family planning program from going

further.

The current situation of fertility in China

demonstrated two aspects.On the one hand,the population

growth is being controlled; compared with 1970s. On

the other hand, population growth still is a very

severe problem to a certain extent, sirice the annual

number of births in China has now risen to 23 million,with a net i-ncrease of over 16 million annually, which

is almost the total population of Australia. That isan unbearable burden in the proceds of economy

development. So studying and analyzing the determinants

of fertility behavior and finding the barrier of the

fertility decline in some higher fertility regions,

especially in rural areas, wiII help in forming a

program to reduce population growth rate as well as

accelerate economic development.

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L.2 ObJectlve of the Study

The purposes of this study are

I.examining factors which have effects on

fertility behavior in two regions; one with a lower

fertility and more developed economic Ieve1, and

another with a relatively higher fertility leve1 but

Iower economic development.

2.identifying the different factors affectingfertllity behavior in these two regions.

■

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CHA.PTER TWO

-RevLew of literature

'This chapter explores some literature review

concerned variables such as age of uroman, woman'E

education and occupation, and age gap between husband

and wife which affects fertility behavior, likecontraceptive use and age at first marriage.

2.L Factors affectlng age at first marriage

z.L.I Age of woman

Age at marriage is usually affected by woman's

d9€, younger cohort,s are generally getting married

Later than older cohorts . Smith (1980) found thatKorean women married much later, and younger cohorts

got married later than older cohorts. fslam and Islam

(1993) noted that older cohorts had a Iower age at

marriage than their younger counterparts.fn Bangladesh.

The mean age at marriage has increased by 2.5 years inIast 15 years

2.L.2 Educational attainment

Educational attainment seems to be the most

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important variable which delays age at flrst marriage

of women in aIl the countries examlned (United Nations

1990).

one study on differentials in age at first

marriage ( ltc Carthy 1982) indlcated that urban versus

rural residents and higher versus lower leveIs of

education are strongly associated with the age at which

a lromen married for the first time. Both urban $romen

and men with relatively higher levels of education are

less likely than their rural or less well-educated

counterparts to be married by the end of their teenage

years and are more likely to have a higher mean age at

marriage.

2.L.3 occupatlon of women

United Nation (1990), based on the ltlorld

Fertility Survey, found among ever-married r"romen aged

23 years and over from 10 African countries, shows that

the mean age at first marriage varied from 16 to 19

years for women who had no occupation or worked in the

traditional sector before marriage as compared with 19

years or over for those who had worked in the modern

sector of the economy. women who had worked before

marriage in a non-agricultural sector married somewhat

（一

7

Iater than the others. The same study also noted in

many Asian countries the mean age at first marriage of

h,omen involved in traditional agricultural occupations

is only slightly higher and probably not significantJ.y

different from those of women in the non-working

category, but the data confj.rm the very important

association between mean agte at first marriagre and work

in a modern occupation. For each country, women

involved in that type of work are characterized by the

highest mean ages at first marriage.

2.L.4 Age gap between husband and wife

United Nations (1990) reported that forcountries with an early-marriage patterns, particular Iy

those where women marrlr befo.re age I5, the age

differences between nusUana and wife $rere largest;differences of more than six years were reported forfndia, and they exceeded seven to eight years during

certain time periods in Pakistan. Conversely,

in countries of North America, Europe and Oceania,

which had intermediate and late-marriage pattern,

singulate mean age at marriage differences between man

and women $rere much smaller and varied, mostly between

two to four years, regardless of the time period

‐

-acons idered .

. So far, a1l of the above

first marriage differs with age

attainnent, occupation of r.romen

between husband and wife.

has sho$rn how age at

of women, educational

and age difference

+

2.2 Factors affectlng contraceptlve uae.

2.2.L Age of uonan

There are some arguments about, the age effect

on contraceptive use among research documents. saturday

(I984) indicated that age as a factor affecting

contraceptive use is not clear. since the result of

this study found that differences in age and parity

distributions at national level and among the subgroups

does not appear to affect the differentials in

contraceptive use observed among them. However.

Leoprapai and Thongthai (1989) perceived, that age

was curvilinear related to current contraceptive use.

Contraceptive use related to the age of women

is . also found China. One of the results of 1988

National Fertility Survey (zhoq FongXian I991) noted

that contraception was adopted mostly by women at age

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group 35-39, dropped followed by age increase. since

women at youngest age group are begging of birth. thus

prevalence rate was lowest. l{omen aged over 44,

except for a few still desire to have baby, mostly is

going to be Iow fertile, thus the prevalence rate for

r.romen at oldest age group also reduced.

2.2.2 Uoman'6 educatlon

contraceptive use is clearly associated l.,ith

educational attainment of r.roman, which were found in

some studies ( World Fertility Survey 1982, Leoprapai

and Thongthai 1989). Horrever, the former found, in

general, that higher education leads to higher use of

contracepticn, but there is no strong evidence to

conclude that the relative share of efficient methods

increases with education among the users. The latter

indicated that educational attainment of women which

showed a strong positive relationship betlireen the IeveI

of educational attainment and contraceptive use in the

past had become curvilinear. The only significant

difference in the level of contraceptive use was

between r.romen lrith no education and some education but

not between women with different l-evel of education

attainment. Besides the aforementioned, the study

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concerning determinants of contraceptive method choice

in an industrial city of fndia detected that wife's

education shows a strong positive relationship with the

overall use of contraception (Bhende et aI 199I)..

Effect of education on contraceptive use can be

observed in China also, FongXian (199I) announced that

the highest rate of contraception is among the women

with collage or university education, followed by

women with primary school and women with

secondary school.

2.2.3 Occupatlon of wonen

occupation, as an index of women's social

status, whether having influence cn contraceptive use

or not, is still debatable.

A result of a study on World Fertility Surveys

stressed that the work status of women as measured in

these surveys doesn't seem to show any pattern of

relationship with the use of contraception. Wives of

professional and clerical workers use contraception

more often than wives of those with no work as well as

those engaged in agriculture and farming (Sathar and

Chidambaram I9B4).

亀

The Study carried out among Thai Women in

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II1987 found that whether women are working or not

stiIl makes some difference in contraceptive use.

However, there was no difference in the percentage of

women practicing contraception among those working inthe farm and non-farm sectors ( Leoprapai and Thongthai

1989). Although the prevalence rate of eontraeeption isvery hlgh in China, the difference in the percentage of

user among the different occupation of women also

existed. One study used data from two per thousand

survey ( FongXian 199I) revealed that u/omen engaged inthird enterpnise and engaged in industrial work are

more likely to practice contraception than those Lromen

engaged in agricultural work.

2.2.4 Age difference between husband and wife

Although no documents on effect of age gap

between spouse on contraceptive use have been found,

the case of Thaichang is special one, because TFR inthis region is very low and age gap between husband and

wife is very short, it is strong suspected to be

associated with the use of contraceptive and

consequentially, lead to low fertility. So this study

attempt to test the relation between age gap between

spouse and contraceptive use.

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2.3 Conclusion

Most studies confirm younger cohorts got

married later than older cohorts, and some studies

indicated woman's education is strongly associated with

the age at which a woman married for the first time.

Some studies found that age at first marriage issubstantially delayed when premarital work pertains to

a modern occupation. Finally, one study reported _

thatfor countries with an early marriage patterns,particularly those where women marry before age 15, the

age differences between husband and wife were largest.Some studies documented that contraception sras

adopted initially by older women who wanted to cease

childbearing, ever though there are sonne argument about

the age effect on contraceptive use. Most of the

studies emphasize that contraceptive use is clearlyassociated with educational attainment and occupation

of women. Few study testified the relationship between

age gap between husband and wife and contraceptive

use.

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CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY AND SOURCE OF DATA

3.1 Conceptual Franer.rork

fn this study, fertility behavior is defined by

two indicators: age at first marriage and contraceptivepractice. The determined variables set here are age

of woman, education of woman, occupation of woman, and

age gap between husband and wife. The independent

variables to be set to test the effect to age at firstmarriage should relate to the situation before

marriage. with exception of woman,s occupati.on,

education attainment and age gap between husband and

wife, can satisfy this condition. However, we could

assume that occupation of woman do not change before

and after marriage. In the case of wugang. there was

97 percent of women engaged in agricuftural work, so

it does not natter srhether occupation of women

changed. fn Thaichand although 80 percent of women

engaged in non agricultural work, 87 percent of uomen

got married within the township, thus it is lesspossible for Thaichang women to change occupation

because of marriage migration. Moreover, people's jobs

are quite stable in China, therefore it can be assumed

14

that current occupation is not much different from the

previous ones.

The age match for couple is divided into three

categories: husband younger than wife, husband same

as wife and husband older than wife. The $rhole

study was guided by this conceptual framework.

3.2 Hylrothesis

According to the research purpose and

conceptual frameeork, the hypotheses of this study

would be stated as f ollor.rs:

I Higher educated women would marry later than lor.rer

educated women.

2 Women engaged i:r non-agriculturaL work would mary

later than u/omen engaged in agricultural work.

3 Higher educated women are more likely to practice

contraception than lower educated women.

4 Women engaged in non agricultural work are more

IikeIy to adopt contraception than women who engaged

in agricultural work.

3.3 Sources of data

The fnstitute of Population Re6earch, Fudan

University, China, undertook the survey titted

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15

Population Control After the Economic Reform Has Been

Conducting in Chlna, supported by the foundation of He

Yin Dong in Hong Kong with the purpose of making a

study about the characteri sti.cs of the peoples,

reproductive behavior under the environment of economi.c

reform in three countLes qrithin three provinces, inthe summer of 1990. Each of them represents differentfertility levels or represents the different economics

and cultural types in China. Wugang county representsthe Kejla culture, the main characteristics of which

reflect natlves and Lmmigrants from the North of China

nixed together and middle level economic development.

Sheqi represents the central plains culture and also a

middle leveI economic area. Thaichang reprssentsculture in the east coa6t areas and more developed

economics types. To meet those purposes of smallsamples r.lith whole representation, the method chosen

is the improbability survey because it does not need

to infer generalities from the sample. The whole studyinterviewed people in five villages; each of them is inthe middle Level of economic qnd family planingprograms sithin the three counties, one is inThaichang, tlro in Shiqi and two in wugang. Withi,n

five villages. every ever married woman in

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reproductive age had been interviewed.

individual cases is 1,076,

Besides the individual interview,

16

The tOtal

the study

group also made an anthropological Eurvey. They

investigated the data about the background of each

county and organized several focus group dj.scussions.

But qualitative data will not be used in this

study.

The survey called Population control contalns a

complete blrth history of ever-married woman in each

househofd, together uith the family planning attitude,

practice, as welI as intens j.ve information on proximate

socioeconomic and cultural situations in each

household.

The fertility levels of sheqi .and wugang are

very similar, and considering the purpose of this

research, the data used ror this study include only

two counties . which are Thaichang and wuganq. (see

map in appendix) The information concerni.ng the

fertility behavior determinants wou.Ld be selected

partly from data of those counties.

Thaichang is adjacent to Shanghai which belongs

to ilingShu province, an advanced area in the

popul-ation control and economic. The total fertility

L7

rate lras 1. 19 in 1990 and each of the economic index

either agricultural or industrial was higher than the

average. Total eases in Thaichang is 2OL. Wugang is

located in the south -west of Hunan province which isa typical pure agricultural area; economic and

population growth were at average level. Total

individual cases is 429.

3.4 Method of analysis

The statistical package for the soci.al science

(SPSS/PC) program is utilized for data analysis. To get

cumulative fertility and marriage age situations of

women, the mean tables were applied. To identify the

determinants of fertility behavior, the data were

analyzed using the bivarj-ate analysis techniques.

The Chi-square test and F test were used to

check the statistj-c association. The findings of thisstudy were summarized and classified by tables.

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT OF THE STUDY

4.1 Socio-demographic characteristlcs of the

respondents

The age structure of women in Thaichang is older

than women's in Wugang. The mean age of women in

Thaichang was 3.2 years older than the women in

Wugang. Evidently, in first 3 younger groups had more

higher percent people in Wugang than in Thaichang. In

contrast with last 3 older age groups, the percent of

women was lower in Wugang than in Thaichang (see Tabl6

4.r).Majority of women in both areas had less than

primary education, although Wugang's women tend to have

a little higher education than Thaichang's women (see

Table 4.I).

ft was observed that while most women in

Wugang were stiII engaged in agricultural work, nearly

B0 percent of r.romen in Thaichang. were working mostly

in factories of village or town (see Table 4.1).

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■9Table 4.1 Socio-demographic

married women incharacterlstics ofThalchang and Wugang.

Thaichang Wugang

Age Group

20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49

TotalNulnbe rMean .Median

Education leve■

Less thanPr■ maryMore than

TotalNumberMeanMedian

Primary

primary

Occupation

AgricultureNon― agr■ culture

TotalNumber

Age gap between Spouse

Husband youngerthan wifeHusband as sameas wifeHusband olderthan w■ fe

TotalNumber

3。 018。 415.929。 922.910。 0

100。 020137。 238.0

15.424.516.l17。 717.09.3

100.042933.933。 5

36.■28。 435。 4

100。 0429

5.66.0

97.03.0

100.0429

5。 8

14.2

80。 0

100.0429

森 ,

47。 321。 930.8

■00。 020■

5.l5.0

19.480.6

100.0201

26.9

25。 4

47.3

100_0201

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According to the viewpoint of Chinese social

custom, if husband were 2 or 4 years older than the

wife, that would be happy family. The data displayed

that the people in Wugang was still keeping this

traditional custom, but not in Thaichang. Age gap

between husband and wife in Thaichang was diverse

situation from Wugang (see Table 4.I). on the who1e,

the women in Thaichang had weak traditional conception,

almost half of them had not chosen the husbands who

were older.

As regards to cumulative fertility, mean number

of children ever born in Thaichang tras I.5 and in

Wugang was 2.2. Women in every age group in Wugang

had more children than those Lromen in Thaichang;

however, the differ.'ence in fertility level between two

regions $ras getting lesser for younger age than older

age group (see Table 4.21

Women in Thaichang got married later than

those women in Wugang. The percent of women in Wugang

who got married before aged 20 was 2 times more than

those vromen in Thaichang. On the other hand, percent of

women in Thaichang who got married after aged 25 was 3

times more than those women in Wugang (see Table 4.3),

The mean age at marriage of women in Thaichang Lras,.A>

>

21

Table 4.2 : Mean number of children ever bornby woman's age

Age Chlldren ever born

Thaichang Wugang

20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49

Total

0.81。 01。 1

1.62。 02。 3

■。5

1.01.52.02.63.24.0

2.2

らヽ

ィメヽさ

22

Table4.3 Percent of ever marrled women by ageat first marriage

Age at marrlage Thaichang t{ugang

Before21-2425 and

Tota■Number

or 20

after

19.462.217.9

100。 0201

44.149.96.1

100。 0429

ユ

ヾ

iL

23

22.5, and in Wugang was 20.4

The prevalence rate of contracepti-on was quite

high in both places (see Table 4.4). There was more

than 90 percent of ever mamied women practicing

contraception in both areas though the prevalence rate

of contraception in Wugang was lower than Thaichang.

In sum, the majority of women in both reglons

hrere around middle d9€, had at least 5 years of

schooling. Although women in Thaichang were a bit

older, and slightly less education, but a higher

percentage of them were engaged in non-agrricultural

work, in comparison with women in Wugang.

As regards to age gap between husband and wife,

there were more percentage of women whose husbands

were younger than wives in Thaichang than in l.Iugang.

fn addition, women in Thaichang got married

later than those women in Wugang. Finalllt, in terms

of practicing contraception. the women in both places

reached quite hiqh levels, though the prevalence rate

in Thaichang was slightly higher than Wugang.

-^)"

24

^ Table 4.4. Percent of ever married women bycontraception use

Contraceptive usesituation Thaichang Wugang

Current using 94.0 90.2Not using 6.0 9.8

Total 100.0 100.0Number 2OL 429

み

ハ

4.2 Effects of socio-denographlcal variable on

age at first marrlage

25

the

4.2.L Ef fect of age

Woman 's age affected age at first marri-age

in both Thaichang and Wugang (see Tab1e 4.5). The

age at first, marriage varied with the woman's age. Itis i.mportant to point out that getting married earlier

was a tendency for both regions. Although age at firstmarriage was raised, between the oldest age group

(45-49) and the middle age group (30-34), it was lower

again for the younger age group QO-24) (see Table

4.s).

4.2.2 Education attalnment

A significant influence of education on age at

first marriage was found only in Thaichang (see Table

4.6 ). It showed that woman who had more than primary

education got married latest among all groups; however.

woman who got married at the youngest age were not

those having less than primary education but was a

group who had primary education.

'^-

26

ハ． Table 4。 5 Mean

andage at marriage by current age of womanregLon

Current age Thaichang tlugang

20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49

Total

20.522.923.323。 021。 721.1

22.5

19.820.621.520.919.519。 4

20。 4

F.Sige

6。 74360。 0000

2.79800。 0258

ヽ

=

27

Table 4。 6 MeanOf

age at flrst marriage bY educationuronan and region

Education level Thaichang Uugang

Less thanPr■ maryMore than

Total

Primary

Primary

22。 421。 923.1

22.5

19.820。 720.8

20。 4

ヽ

ヽ

F.Sig.

3.99520。 0199

l.98870.1381

声

ｎ〉　

　

ｅ

２

　

　

ｇ

タ

In Wuqrang, there was no difference between a

at first marriage and education attainment of woman.

4.2.3 Occupation of woman

Woman's occupation affected age at first

marriage significantly in both areas (see Table 4.71.

In Thaichang women who were engaged in non-agricultural

work were married later than those women who were

engaged in agricultural work; however, the relationship

between occupation and age at first marriage was

reverse in Wugang, as women in non agricultural work

got marriage earlj-er than those in farm work.

The main reason to explain this that phenomena

is marital behavior is affected by many factors. The

specific functions of marrj-age are economic, social

and personal, but they vary with respect to the place

of resj.dence, educational level, religious affiliation,

as weIl as regional, and socio-economic and cultural

differentials, which all affect the age at marri-age

(Kadi 1987). So even women were engaged in

non-agricultural occupation, it does not mean marital

behavior would change too, that is why the result of

this study didn't lead to same conclusion as hypothesis

stated.

{-

29

お

Table 4.7 MeanOf

age at first marriage by occupationuroman and reglon

Occupation Thaichang Wugang

AgricultureNon― agr■culture

Total

21。 122。 8

22.5

20.516.3

20.4

FSig.

19.19650。 0000

10.23760。 0015

ヽ

～

お

ヽ

ト

30

4.2.4 Age gap betueen husband and ulfe

There was significant difference between age

at first marriage and the age gap between husband and

wife ln both regions (see Table 4.8).

The highest mean age at marriage was observed

among women whose husbands are younger than them, on

the other hand, the louest mean age at marriage $ras

among women whose husband are older than then. Age

match of couple has effect age at first marriage.

In sum, age at first narriage r.rere influenced by

women's age, occupation of women and age gap between

husband and wife in both regions. The effect of

r.roman's educatj.on on age at first marriage is found

only in Thaichang.

4.3 Factors affectlng contraceptlve uae

4.3.I Age of sonan

Age had a great infLuence on contraceptive use

in two regions. The extent of practicing contraception

varied with age. Preval-ence rate of contraception

increased folLowed by age increase from, age gtoup 20-24

to age group 35-39 or 4O-44, however, the peak of

prevalence rates were different (see Table 4.9).

31

Table 4.8: Mean age at marriage by age gap betweenhusband and wlfe

Age gap between spouse Thaichang Wugang

ミ

Husband youngerthan wifeHusband as sameas w■ feHusband oldthan wife

Total

24。 0

22.9

21。 4

22.5

24.3

22.0

19.8

20.4

F.Sig.

29.61940。 0000

15。 84280。 0000

ヨ bl´

32

^

Table 4.9 Percentage distrlbution of uomen bycontraceptive use and age in Thaichang and l{ugang

Age Group Currently use Not use Total Number

‐Ц、

Tha■chang

20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49

Total

Wugang

20-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49

Total

66.794.696.996.7

100。 075。 0

94。 0

75.886。 791。 3

100。 097.390。 0

90.2

33.35.43。 ■

3.30.0

25.0

6.0

24。 2■3.3

8。 70.02.7

10。 0

9.8

100.0 6100。 0 37100.0 32100。 0 60100.0 46100。 0 20

100。 0 201

100.0 66100.0 105100。 0 69100.0 76100。 0 73100.0 40

100。 0 429

Chi― Square= 25◆ 05064P=0。 000■ 4

碑ヽ

Chi― Square=29.55367P=0.00002

彿繹 33

4.3.2 l{onan's education

The effects of woman's education on

contraceptive use is 6tatistical significant only inWugang (see Table 4.10). Ho$rever, the highest

prevalence rate wa6 among women who have lower than

prinary education, moderate among those who completed

primary education and lowest among women who compl,eted

higher than primary education. This result is opposite

to the hypothesis.

This may be due to early marriage. As women inlJugang stitrI kept early marriage cuEtom in which

lower educated eomen tend to marry earlier t.han higher

educated women. According to Chinese government familyplanning policy, women after having first baby are

advised to practice contraception, thus the higher

contraceptive use among less educated women was a

result of this policy.

4.3.3 Occupation of Lrouan

Woman's occupation affected contraceptive use

only in Thaichang ( see Table 4.1I). A higher

percentage of current married women practicingcontraception was among women in non -agricu ltura Isector. Therefore, the hypothesis is accepted.

ヽ

ヽlo l23300

レQう′」

34ニ

Table 4.10 Percentage dlstrLbution of woman bycontraceptive use and education

Educational level Currently use Not use Total Number

Tha■chang

Less than Pr■ maryPr■mary ,More than pr■ mary

Total,60897Chi― Square=31,16456P=01

Wugang

Less than Pr■ maryprュ maryMore than pr■ mary

TotalChi― square=9。 78405

P=0。 00751

92。 6100。 091.9

94。 0

94.292。 684。 2

90.2

7。 40。 08.■

6。 0

5.87.4

15.8

9.8

100.0 95100.0 44100。 0 62

100.0 201

100.0 155100。 0 122100.0 ■52

100。 0 429

“

ヽ

35

▲

Table 4.11 Percentage distribution of woman byfanlly planning status and occupation

Occupation Currently use Not use TotaI Number

Tha■chang

Agr■cultureNon― agr■ culture

Tota■Chi… Square=4。 04503

P=0.04430

Wugang

Agr■cultureNon― agr■ culture

TotalChi― Square=04639

P=0.8295

87.295.7

94。 0

90。 484.6。

90。 2

12.84。 3

6。 0

9。 615.4

9.8

100。 0 39100。 0 162

100.0 201

100.0 416100。 0 13

100.0 429

ヽ

ヽ

ヽ

36

4.3.4 Age gap between husband and wlfe

The effect of age gap between husband and wife

on the contraceptive practicing was perceived only

in Wugang (see Table 4.L21. A1l couples whose husband

Lras younger than his wife $Jere using contraception,

while only 75 percent of couples with the same age

were using.

The reason may be due to the fact that the

couples are more liberal and do not strictly follow the

norm of the society that prescribe husband to be older

than wife. In this kind of reverse si-tuation, where

wife is older than husband, there is the tendency thatwife will be more independent to make her decisj-on on

accepted contraception.

fn sum, effect of woman's age on contraceptive

use was found in both regions. Edueation affectingcontraceptive use was found only in Wugang, but

significant effect of woman's occupation on

contraception practicing was only prevailed inThaichang. Finally, effects of age gap between

husband and wife on contraceptive use occurred only

in Wugang.

ヽ

37

Tab1e 4.L2 Percentage distributlon of woman byfamily planning status and age gapbetween husband and wife

ヘ

Age gap Currently use Not use Total Number

Thaichang

Husband youngerthan wife 96.3 3.? 100.0 54

Husband as sameas wife 94.I 5.9 IOO.O 51

Husband olderthan wife 92.6 7.4 IOO.0 95

Total 94.0 6.0 I00. o 200Chi-Square=O . 82153

P=0.66314

Wugang

Husband youngerthan wife 100-0 0.0 I0O.O 25

Husband as sameas wif e 75.4 24.6 IOO. O 6I

Husband olderthan wife 92.L 7.9 I0O.O 343

Total 90 .2 9. B 100.0 429Chi-Square=19 .27L44

P=0.00007

ヽ

38

4.4 Concluslon

Women in Thaichang were a little older, and

slightly less educatlon than women in Wugang, however,

higher percentage of them $rere engaged innon-agricultural r.rork, in comparison with r.romen inl,Iugang.

Regards to the age gap between husband and wife.Thaichang had more proportion of couples uhiih husband

is younger than wife than wugang.

Women in Thaichang had less children than $/omen

in l{ugang

In terns of practicing contraception. the $romen

in both places reached quite high levels. though theprevalence rate of contraception in Thaichang was

6lightly higher than l{ugang. Finally, women inThaichang got married Iater than those wonen inWugang.

Age at first marriage lras influenced by r.roman,s

age. The effects of woman's occupation and age gap

bet$reen husband and wife on age at first marriage were

found in both regions. A hypothesis which statedwoman's education have influence on age at firstmarriage is accepted only in Thaichang. The hypothesis.

which assumed $romen engaged in non-agriculturaL uork

ヽ

‐

39.

were more rikely to apply contraceptl0n than hromen

engagi-ng agricultural work is accepted in bothregions.

Contraceptive use L,as affected by age of uroman

in both regions. Education had effect on contraceptiveuse only in Wugang, but the result is opposite to thehypothesis. The hlpothesis which presumed woman' s

occupation made some difference in contraceptionpracticing onry accepted in Thaichang. Finarry theeffect of age gap between husband and wife on

contraceptive use was only found in Wugang.

さ

ヽ

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.I : Summary

The purpose of this study is to studydeterminants of fertirity behaviors, that are age atfirst marriage and contraceptive use, in two regionsof china. The data r.ras f rom the survey conducted by

the rnstitute of popuration Research at Fudan

University in 1990, alming to study population controlin china after economic reform. Totalry' ?30 cases

was selected from two regions, Thaichang and Wugang.

They are distinguished in terms of eeonomic conditionsand fertility situaticns. Thaichang is adjacent toshanghai which belongs to ilingshu province, dn

advanced area in the popuration contror and economic

in china. The total fertirity rate was 1.19 in 1990 and

each of the economic index either agriculturaL orindustrial was higher than the average. trlugang isrocated in the south -west of Hunan province which isa typicar agricurtural area; economie and populationgrowth were at average level.

The ma jority of r.romen in both regions was

middle d9€, had at least 5 years of schooling. Although

ミ

゛

As regards to the age gap between husband and

wife, Thaichang had more proportion of couples urhich

husband is younger than uife than Wugang.

Cumulative fertility levels in both regions lras

evidently different, the nean nuDber of children everborn for wonen in l{ugang vas 2.2 and for $romen inThaichang was 1.5.

Women in Thaichang got married later thanwomen in wugang. Finally, nearly all women in bothregions were us j.ng contraception. Though the provalence

rate in Thaichang was glightly higher than that inhlugang .

r.romen in Thaichang were

less educated, a higher

in non-agricultura I work,

Wugang.

41

a littIe older.and s Iightlypercent of them was engaged

as compared to women in

age at firstthe dependent

denograph icalis significantfirst marriage

全 The bivariabl"es analyses, using

marriage and contraceptive use as

variables, have shown that thecharacter ist ics , such as age of woman,

in explaining the variation of age atand contraceptive use in both regions.

The effect of education on age at firstmarriage only prevailed in Thaichang, and its effecta

42

on contraceptive use was found only in Wugang.

The occupation of woman was a factor r,lhich

signiflcantly affected age at first marriage in bothregions, but in Wugang, the result is opposite tothe hypothesis. Occupation had a significant relationr.rith contraceptive use only in Thaichang.

The effects of age difference between

husband and wife on age at first narriage are

particularly strong in both Thaichang and Wugang.

However, age gap between spouses affecting practicingcontraception was only showed in Wugang.

5.2 : Reconnendations

I The effect of education on age at firstmarriage was found in Thaichang, which means promoting

education is useful to influence later mamiage and

to go further consolidate the result of popul,ation

control in more developed regions in China.

2 The study implicated that in moderate

developed regions like Wugang, the prevaLence rate ofcontraceptive use was already high, but the cumulative

fertility was still high. Thus, besides of familyplanning program should not slacken, multiple champion

like later marriage, earty use contraception, should

゛

ヽ

43conduct, if the government wants to reach the populationaim by the end of the century.

3 The study proved that the woman.s occupationplays an important role in contraceptj.ve use and age atfirst marrj,age in Thaichang, ff r.re r.roulal adhere todevelop township enterprise 1ike 1n Thaichang, thatshould bring about great benefit to rural developmentas r.rell as to population control in rural China forthe future.

4 The result sho$n that age gap betr.reen husbandand r.rife has a influence on age at first marriage.If we could guide people to break down the Chinesecustom in most areas r.rhere the husband must be olderthan r.rif e, that would delay the age of rnarr j.age andqo further more to reduce the Level of fertility inChina.

ヾ

ヽ

q..

44REFERENCES

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Xenos,Peter and Socorro A. Guttiano1992 "Trends in female and male age at marriageand celibacy in Asia,, paper of erogram 5nPopulation, No. t2O, Honolulu: East_WestCenter .

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47XiZhi peng and xiYia Dai1992 'tPOpu■ ati。■ lssues in rural areas Of china

F[::1 8113:111:y'eξ:II:h:1:kP'H::lil:: by

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