University of IowaIowa Research Online

Theses and Dissertations

2012

Developing musicianship from the podium :adapting the Theory of multiple intelligences to theinstrumental rehearsalChristopher Herbert FashunUniversity of Iowa

Copyright 2012 Christopher Herbert Fashun

This dissertation is available at Iowa Research Online: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/3291

Follow this and additional works at: http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd

Part of the Music Commons

Recommended CitationFashun, Christopher Herbert. "Developing musicianship from the podium : adapting the Theory of multiple intelligences to theinstrumental rehearsal." DMA (Doctor of Musical Arts) thesis, University of Iowa, 2012.http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/3291.

DEVELOPING MUSICIANSHIP FROM THE PODIUM:

ADAPTING THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

TO THE INSTRUMENTAL REHEARSAL

by

Christopher Herbert Fashun

An essay submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Doctor of Musical Arts degree in the Graduate College of

The University of Iowa

July 2012

Essay Supervisor: Professor William LaRue Jones

Copyright by

CHRISTOPHER HERBERT FASHUN

2012

All Rights Reserved

Graduate College The University of Iowa

Iowa City, Iowa

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL _________________________

D.M.A. ESSAY ____________

This is to certify that the D.M.A. essay of

Christopher Herbert Fashun

has been approved by the Examining Committee for the essay requirement for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree at the July 2012 graduation.

Essay Committee: ________________________________________________________ William LaRue Jones, Essay Supervisor ________________________________________________________ Timothy Stalter ________________________________________________________ Richard Mark Heidel ________________________________________________________

Christine Rutledge

________________________________________________________ Scott Conklin

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my doctoral committee for their continued support,

encouragement, and insight through the essay process but also through my graduate

studies in the School of Music at the University of Iowa.

To Professor Christine Rutledge for expanding my knowledge of all things viola,

especially repertoire and Baroque performance practice.

To Dr. Richard Mark Heidel for your challenging thoughts regarding conducting

gestures and interpretive approaches to music-making.

To Dr. Timothy Stalter for your contributions to my expressive conducting and

musicianship.

To Dr. William LaRue Jones, for providing the opportunity to continue my

musical studies at the University of Iowa, the many ways you have assisted my artistic

and professional growth, and your continued personal support in my professional

endeavors.

Finally, to my wife Jessica, whose unwavering love, strength, and encouragement

I am eternally indebted. I cannot begin to express in words how much you mean to me.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction and Purpose of Study 1

2. HOWARD GARDNER, THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES, AND EDWARD S. LISK 11

Howard Gardner and the Theory of Multiple Intelligences 11 Multiple Intelligences, Music, and Edward Lisk 16

3. MUSICIANSHIP AND EXPRESSIVITY: HISTORY AND DEFINITION, ITS PURPOSE IN MUSIC EDUCATION, AND THE MEANS TO THE END – EXPRESSION 18

History and Definition 18 A Representation of Musicianship from Seminal Works 24 A Definition of Musicianship 33

4. HIGHER STANDARDS, SAME OLD REHEARSAL PROCESS:

BARRIERS TO MUSICIANSHIP AND EXPRESSION 35

Lack of Conductor/Educator Preparation 35 Barrier #1: Musicianship and Expression Are Not a High Priority in Undergraduate Curricula 37 Barrier #2: The Traditional Rehearsal Process 41 Barrier #3: The Notes First Approach 48 Barrier #4: Conductor Tells and Musician Does 52 Barrier #5: The Vicious Cycle of Extrinsic Motivation 56 The Bottom Line 59

5. THE NEED FOR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES: RECOGNIZING MI CONNECTIONS 60

Results of the Student Survey 60 Results of the Conductor Survey 70 Pedagogical Foundations for MI in Education 77 Validating the Need for More Than Rehearsing the Music 82

iv

6. APPLYING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES TO REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES 92

Assessment of Student Learning Styles 92 Categorization and Description of MI Rehearsal Strategies 95 Interpersonal 96 Intrapersonal 98 Visual-Spatial 101 Bodily-Kinesthetic 105 Verbal-Linguistic 109 Logical-Mathematical 112 Naturalist 116 Conclusion and Future Research 117

APPENDIX A. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CONDUCTING AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES RESOURCES 120

APPENDIX B. ADDITIONAL RESULTS OF THE STUDENT SURVEY 130 APPENDIX C. CONDUCTOR SURVEY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES REHEARSAL STRATEGIES 139 BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

v

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. David Lazear’s Summary of Gardner’s Eight Intelligences 12 Table 2. Assessment of Conducting Sources 39 Table 3. Synthesis of Lisk and Corporon’s Rehearsal Process Model 44 Table 4. Multiple Intelligences Student Survey 61 Table 5. Average MI Scores by Instrument 64 Table 6. Conductor Questionnaire Responses 65 Table 7. Abbreviated Conductor Biographies 68 Table 8. A Balanced Learning Process 84 Table 9. Eugene Corporon’s Objective-Subjective Formula 85 Table 10. Questions for Student Observation 93 Table 11. Edward Lisk’s Multiple Intelligences Definitions 94 Table 12. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 96 Table 13. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 99 Table 14. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 102 Table 15. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 106 Table 16. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 109 Table 17. Selected French Terms in Debussy’s Petite Suite 113 Table 18. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 113 Table 19. Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble 116 Table B1. Class of Survey Respondents by School and Overall 137 Table B2. Instrument of Survey Respondents by School and Overall 138

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1. The Conventional Rehearsal Structure 42 Figure 4.2. Eugene Corporon’s Process Model 43 Figure 5.1. Average MI Scores by Ensemble Type 63 Figure 5.2. Average MI Scores by Class 66 Figure B1. Average MI Score by Instrument: Visual Spatial 130 Figure B2. Average MI Score by Instrument: Bodily-Kinesthetic 131 Figure B3. Average MI Score by Instrument: Logical-Mathematical 132 Figure B4. Average MI Score by Instrument: Verbal-Linguistic 133 Figure B5. Average MI Score by Instrument: Intrapersonal 134 Figure B6. Average MI Score by Instrument: Interpersonal 135 Figure B7. Average MI Score by Instrument: Naturalist 136

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Introduction and Purpose of Study

One of the primary responsibilities of a conductor and music educator is to

facilitate and enhance a deeper understanding of music in students. This cultivation of

learning occurs on individual and corporate levels through various interactions during

rehearsals and performances. In an ensemble setting at the primary and secondary levels,

there seem to be two primary methodologies of teaching and rehearsing music from the

podium. One is the traditional rehearsal where the outcome is performance-focused and

the other, more recent method is teaching comprehensive musicianship through

performance.

The purpose of this study is to build upon student-centered rehearsal techniques

that address multiple learning styles throughout the music-making process. The goal for

developing rehearsal strategies that incorporate various ways of knowing creates a

platform for students to connect with the music based on their learning styles which can

lead more directly to expressive music-making through intrinsic connections. The central

focus of this essay is to present a method of teaching and rehearsing music from the

podium that is based on Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (abbreviated

MI). Additionally, the aspect of cultivating expressive musicians through MI rehearsal

strategies is equally important, as it reflects the writings and research of American music

education theorists and aestheticians.

2

Comprehensive musicianship and scholarship supporting music education

advocacy emerged after World War II from a series of events that began with the Young

Composer’s Project1 and were developed further by leading aestheticians, music

education theorists, and the formulation of aesthetic music education. In the 1950’s,

aestheticians Susanne Langer2 and Leonard Meyer3 emphasized the importance and role

of feeling and expression in the process of music-making. Charles Leonhard, a doctoral

student of Langer’s at Columbia University, brought the idea of aesthetic education into

the realm of music education in his 1953 article “Music Education: Aesthetic

Education.”4 Leonhard urged music educators to “eschew the instrumental or ancillary

values of music education then in vogue and to stress the aesthetic value of music as the

basis of their teaching.”5 Music education began to experience a shift in how it was

defined as a curricular subject and its inherent value in education.

Music education theorist James Mursell, a colleague of Susanne Langer, also

made several contributions to music education and the value of teaching emotion and

expression in music. He states in his book Human Values in Music Education that music

education “must help the child to discover that a musical composition is an opportunity

for emotional experience and response and for conveying something which one has felt,

1 The Young Composer’s Project placed composers in-residence to work with school music programs for the purpose of creating high quality educational repertoire. The project is discussed later in Chapter Three. 2 Susanne Langer, Feeling and Form, (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953). 3 Leonard Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1956). 4 Charles Leonhard, “Music Education—Aesthetic Education,” in Education 74 (September, 1953): 23-26. 5 George N. Heller, “Charles Leonhard and Music Education as Aesthetic Education at the University of Illinois,” in the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 125, In Celebration of 100 Years (Summer, 1995): 32-53.

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and apprehended one’s self to others.”6 Bennett Reimer, a student of Charles Leonhard,

continued the work begun by Mursell, Langer, Meyer, and Leonard in the field of

philosophy. In his seminal work, A Philosophy of Music Education, Reimer states that

music education is the “education of human feeling, through the development of

responsiveness to the aesthetic qualities of sound.”7 Reimer continues to lead the

“philosophical debate that allows the profession to define and sustain itself in the context

of contemporary society.”8 As a result of decades of research, initiatives such as the

Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship Through Performance Project and the National

Standards for Arts Education9 have had a significant impact on music education

pedagogical methods in band, choir, and orchestra.

Throughout the writings of the scholars mentioned above resonates the central

idea that musical feeling and expression need to be at the forefront for

conductor/educators. Contrary to these theories and beliefs, the thread of evidence from

studies and research regarding pedagogical approaches in band, choir, and orchestra

suggests that a majority of conductor/educators revert to a traditional rehearsal method

and tend to focus on the technical aspects of the music. James Austin, Professor of Music

Education at the University of Colorado-Boulder, concluded that “many ensemble

directors continue to favor a traditional, performance-focused methodology” even though

6 James Mursell, Human Values in Music Education, (New York: Silver, Burdett and Company, 1934), 377. 7 Bennett Reimer, A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision, Third ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2003), 39. 8 Michael L. Mark, “A Historical Interpretation of Aesthetic Education,” in the Journal of Aesthetic Education 33, No. 4 Special Issue: Musings: Essays in Honor of Bennett Reimer (Winter, 1999), 14. 9 Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship Through Performance Project and the National Standards for Arts Education will be discussed later in Chapter Three.

4

the directors acknowledged teaching comprehensive musicianship promoted deeper

understanding of music in their students.10 Recent studies done by Laura Sindberg11 and

Daniel E. Brame12 also support Austin’s conclusions.

Despite these trends, the last twenty years have witnessed significant progress in

the field of education concerning intelligence, how people learn, and how educators can

address the range of learning styles (rooted in Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple

Intelligences) represented by students in their ensembles. Most conducting texts and

courses for aspiring conductors and music educators address the fundamentals of

conducting. Unfortunately, very few texts provide any discussion of rehearsal techniques

or how to convey expressive gestures. Most often, resources for rehearsal techniques are

found in music education journals and texts. Additionally, there are limited resources

that address teaching to various learning styles in the rehearsal. Not only do most

conducting curricula not create enough rehearsal time for undergraduate conductors, they

also do not give enough attention to developing effective rehearsal techniques. It is

commonly understood that conductors should consider that the musicians and students in

their ensembles represent many learning styles and need to be provided with a variety of

examples to enhance their understanding of the music. Consequently, enhancing

understanding raises the level of their musicianship and elevates the overall quality of the

10 James Austin, “Comprehensive Musicianship Research: Implications for Addressing the National Standards in Music Ensemble Classes,” in Update: Applications of Research in Music Education 17, no. 1 (Fall-Winter, 1998), 30. 11 Laura K. Sindberg, “Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) in the Lived Experience of Students,” (Phd. diss., Northwestern University, 2006). 12 Daniel E. Brame, “Comprehensive Musicianship: Awareness, Acceptance, and Implementation Among High School Band Directors in Illinois and Wisconsin,” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2011).

5

ensemble and music program which leads to what many experienced conductor/educators

believe to be the ultimate goal of music-making – expression.

The idea to develop rehearsal strategies that are rooted in Howard Gardner’s

Theory of Multiple Intelligences for the instrumental ensemble is an outgrowth of

research I began as a master’s student studying percussion performance at the University

of Wisconsin-Madison. The impetus for that research was to create MI pedagogical

techniques for teaching percussion because the field of percussion was ideally suited to

implement these techniques. Although each intelligence will be defined further in

Chapter Two, it is important to mention the various MI’s that percussion utilizes to

provide an entry point to its application for this study and a connection to an MI

perspective for conductor/educators.

By its very nature, percussion is a bodily-kinesthetic medium and percussionists

are continually challenged with posture, body alignment, proximity to instruments, how

and where to move, coordination and dexterity of all limbs, body awareness, and

positioning of both instruments and body. Percussion music requires verbal-linguistic

and visual-spatial intelligences as the language of notation includes traditional, symbolic,

graphic, chanting rhythmic incantations or cycles (often times of another culture) and,

very frequently, idiosyncratic systems created by composers. Logical-mathematical

skills are required to problem solve and navigate complicated set-ups, compute fractions

for polyrhythms, encourage abstract thinking when interpreting a piece that has spatial or

graph notation, and identify patterns (which is true of any instrument or voice).

Intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences are universal for all musicians and are most

commonly represented by solo and ensemble playing respectively.

6

Because of the diversity of instruments/voices in an ensemble setting,

conductor/educators can discover several MI associations to integrate into their rehearsal

pedagogy. In many ways, MI supported and enhanced the goals established by

Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) and the National Standards

for Music Education (1994). These resources for conductor/educators create a

framework for students to perform music with knowledge of theory, history, composer

and composition background. Within this framework, MI becomes a window of

possibilities for developing musicianship and expressivity that conductor/educators can

adapt and apply the MI strategies to the ensemble rehearsal setting.

For conductor/educators, the ensemble rehearsal serves as a laboratory for

developing and refining rehearsal strategies. This essay presents a broad spectrum of

rehearsal techniques, which are discussed and categorized through an MI perspective.

The focus of MI rehearsal strategies is to first and foremost benefit the musicians and

students, although planning rehearsal strategies with this mindset can also benefit the

conductor/educator in regards to preparation and conceptualization of the score. An

important facet of what is proposed in this essay is that each conductor/educator can use

these MI strategies as a springboard to create his/her own rehearsal techniques. This

study gives credit to several great conductor/educators who have been employing similar

techniques and strategies for years. One of the objectives was to connect several

rehearsal techniques that have proven effective with those that are more contemporary in

order to demonstrate how they represent MI and how to apply them to the rehearsal.

Since the underlying concept is Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences,

Chapter Two gives an overview of the MI theory, provides some of the research and

7

evidence for it in education and music education, and includes the primary areas of

criticism of the MI theory. The chapter concludes with an introduction of the work of

conductor/educator Edward S. Lisk, who is the only individual who I have encountered to

date that has integrated and adapted MI to the ensemble.

Because the term “musicianship” is in the essay title, it is necessary to provide a

historical perspective and current usage of the word. Chapter Three demonstrates the

evolution of the term in American music education, gives several definitions from

conductor/educator/performers, and presents a definition of musicianship and how it will

be applied in this study. Additionally, the primary philosophy of what the mainstream

goals of musicianship seems to be in American music education is included based on

literature from organizations such as the National Association for Music Education and

the Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship Through Performance Project as well as

contemporary music education publications.

In Chapter Four, five common barriers are identified that are inhibitors in

developing musicianship and expression: 1) inadequate conductor/educator preparation,

2) the traditional rehearsal process, 3) the notes first approach, 4) the conductor says –

musician does, and 5) the vicious cycle of extrinsic rewards. Barrier #1 examines the

misplaced focus of more degree requirements and higher standards for undergraduate

conductor/educators, which, in reality, takes them away from developing their own

musicianship and conducting skills. In conjunction, particular attention is given to the

lack of rehearsal techniques (which includes developing musicianship) addressed in

conducting curricula and texts and provides an assessment of several of these curricula

texts based on specific criteria.

8

Barrier #2 briefly presents a historical perspective, a definition of the traditional

rehearsal process, and an evaluative overview of its efficacy. Incorporated into this

discussion is an analysis of the rehearsal process on macro (first rehearsal to

performance) and micro (daily rehearsal) levels and possible examples of rethinking the

rehearsal process are provided. Following that segment, an examination of why the

traditional rehearsal with a primary focus on technical elements and performance-

oriented programs seem to be the prevailing approach in instrumental programs is

presented. Several reasons are provided as to why these approaches continue to be

utilized and how they have adverse effects on expressive music-making and developing

independent musical thinking in students.

Barrier #3, the notes first approach, becomes an excurses from within Barrier #2

and a direct effect of insufficient conductor/educator preparation. Additionally, a notes-

first approach creates several obstacles to a destination of expressive music-making

through musicianship. Several statements are provided from current conductor/educators

who offer creative rehearsal techniques that lead to inspiring rehearsals, a sense of

student ownership of the music, and a higher level of musicianship and expression.

Because of insufficient rehearsal techniques, Barrier #4 addresses a common

obstacle to effective and creative music-making—the conductor says, musician does

approach. As a result of underdeveloped physical gestures, too many

conductor/educators resort to telling or describing how the music should sound and place

an emphasis on perfection or rightness. A discussion of the main causes of the problem

and suggestions from professional conductor/educator/performers are presented that

employ other strategies before verbalizing instruction.

9

Lastly, Barrier #5 discusses the emphasis of extrinsic rewards in music programs.

If the motivation for studying and performing music is extrinsically focused, then student

comprehension and ownership becomes lessened. If our intent is to cultivate the love of

music in our students for a lifetime, then continuing to develop rehearsal strategies that

focus more on feeling and expressive connection to the music would most benefit the

students.

Chapter Five demonstrates the need for an MI approach to the rehearsal via

student and conductor/educator surveys and creating MI associations to older and current

pedagogical approaches to learning music. Additionally, suggestions for accurately

assessing student learning styles are also provided. The primary objective of the student

surveys was to discover which MI’s were most prevalent in instrumental students and to

support a need to develop MI rehearsal strategies. The purpose of the conductor/educator

surveys was to ascertain what, if any, MI strategies are used by professional

conductor/educators. Pedagogical foundations for an MI approach to music are provided,

which seem to originate at the elementary level. Departing from the primary level,

evidence demonstrates that using MI in the performance classroom declines through the

intermediate, high school, and collegiate levels. Several rehearsal techniques from

leading conductor/educators/performers are amalgamated and their MI associations are

identified. The purpose of this is to create awareness that effective conductor/educators

use MI whether they label them as such or not.

Chapter Six is a presentation of MI rehearsal strategies. Definitions of each

intelligence are reiterated and general suggestions and considerations of possible

applications are given. These applications are followed by lists of strategies that include

10

elements of musicianship and expression such as instrumental techniques, musical and

foreign terms, stylistic periods and interpretation, form and structure, rhythm and meter,

and addressing the individual and ensemble. The goal of this section is to provide a

starting point for conductor/educators to create their own MI strategies.

Following the standard bibliography at the end of the essay are five appendices.

Appendix A is an annotated bibliography of conducting and MI sources. Appendix B

provides additional results of the student survey. Appendix C is the conductor survey of

rehearsal techniques used for this study.

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CHAPTER 2

HOWARD GARDNER, THE THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES,

AND EDWARD S. LISK

Howard Gardner and the Theory of Multiple Intelligences

In 1983, Howard Gardner, Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education and Co-

Director of Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, released his

groundbreaking book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner

structures the book in three sections. The opening section creates the basis for his

definition of what intelligence is and gives a historical perspective on the prevailing

schools of thought regarding intelligence. In part two, Gardner presents his theory and

each of the original seven intelligences in detail. He concludes section two with his own

critique of the MI theory and addresses the criticisms and potential criticisms of the

theory. Section three transitions to the MI theory’s implications and applications for

education. The basic premise of the MI theory explains how humans possess seven types

of intelligence (interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, spatial, logical-

mathematical, and musical). Since the theory’s 1983 inception, Gardner has added the

naturalist intelligence, although he has suggested two more recently – existentialist

(spiritual) and digital. For lack of empirical evidence, he has not given the latter two

intelligences the same importance as the other eight. Below is a description of each

intelligence, which will be used as the basis of understanding and application for this

study. Interestingly, Gardner has not provided abbreviated definitions of MI.

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Table 1: David Lazear’s Summary of Gardner’s Eight Intelligences

Verbal/linguistic intelligence is responsible for the production of language and all the complex possibilities that follow, including poetry, humor, storytelling, grammar, metaphors, similes, abstract reasoning, symbolic thinking, conceptual pattering, reading, and writing. This intelligence can be seen in such people as poets, playwrights, storytellers, novelists, public speakers, and comedians. Logical/mathematical intelligence is most often associated with what we call scientific thinking or inductive reasoning, although deductive thought processes are also involved. This intelligence involves the capacity to recognize patterns, work with abstract symbols (such as numbers and geometric shapes), and discern relationships and see connections between separate and distinct pieces of information. This intelligence can be seen in such people as scientists, computer programmers, accountants, lawyers, bankers, and of course, mathematicians. The logical/mathematical and verbal/linguistic intelligences form the bases for most systems of Western education, as well as for all forms of currently existing standardized testing programs. Visual/spatial intelligence deals with the visual arts (including painting, drawing, and sculpting); navigation, mapmaking, and architecture (which involve the use of space and knowing how to get around in it); and games such as chess (which require the ability to visualize objects from different perspectives and angles). The key sensory base of this intelligence is the sense of sight, but also the ability to form mental images and pictures in the mind. This intelligence can be seen in such people as architects, graphic artists, cartographers, industrial design draftspersons, and of course, visual artists (painters and sculptors). Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use the body to express emotion (as in dance and body language), to play a game (as in sports) and to create a new product (as in invention). Learning by doing has long been recognized as an important part of education. Our bodies know things our minds do not and cannot know in any other way. For example, our bodies know how to ride a bike, roller-skate, type, and parallel park a car. This intelligence can be seen in such people as actors, athletes, mimes, dancers, and inventors. Musical/rhythmic intelligence includes such capacities as the recognition and use of rhythmic and tonal patterns, and sensitivity to sounds from the environment, the human voice, and musical instruments. Many of us learned the alphabet through this intelligence and the A-B-C song. Of all forms of intelligence, the consciousness altering effect of music and rhythm on the brain is probably the greatest. This intelligence can be seen in advertising professionals (those who write catchy jingles to sell a product), performance musicians, rock musicians, dance bands, composers, and music teachers.

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Table 1 – Continued

Interpersonal intelligence involves the ability to work cooperatively with others in a group as well as the ability to communicate, verbally and nonverbally, with other people. It builds on the capacity to notice distinctions among others such as contrasts in moods, temperament, motivations, and intentions. In the more advanced forms of this intelligence, one can literally pass over into another’s perspective and read his or her intentions and desires. One can have genuine empathy for another’s feelings, fears, anticipations, and beliefs. This form of intelligence is usually highly developed in such people as counselors, teachers, therapists, politicians, and religious leaders. Intrapersonal intelligence involves knowledge of the internal aspects of the self, such as knowledge of feelings, the range of emotional responses, thinking processes, self-reflection, and a sense of intuition about spiritual realities. Intrapersonal intelligence allows us to be conscious of our consciousness; that is, to step back from ourselves and watch ourselves as an outside observer. It involves our capacity to experience wholeness and unity, to discern patterns of connection within the larger order of things, to perceive higher states of consciousness, to experience the lure of the future, and to dream of and actualize the possible. This intelligence can be seen in such people as philosophers, psychiatrists, spiritual counselors and gurus, and cognitive pattern researchers. Naturalist intelligence involves the ability to discern, comprehend, and appreciate the various flora and fauna of the world of nature as opposed to the world created by human beings. It involves such capacities as recognizing and classifying species, growing plants and raising or taming animals, knowing how to appropriately use the natural world (e.g., living off the land), and having a curiosity about the natural world, its creatures, weather patterns, physical history, etc. In working with and developing the naturalist intelligence one often discovers a sense of wonder, awe, and respect for all the various phenomena and species (plant and animal) of the natural world. This intelligence can be seen in such people as farmers, hunters, zookeepers, gardeners, cooks, veterinarians, nature guides, and forest rangers.

There are several interpretations and summaries of MI that can be found most frequently

in MI curriculum. Having assessed many MI texts, I have found David Lazear’s

summary of each MI to be the most accurate and encompassing. Table 1 (pp. 12-13) is

14

taken from his text Eight Ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Teaching with Multiple

Intelligences.13

Thomas Armstrong, one of Gardner’s protégés and former Harvard colleague

summarized the theory of MI into four key points:

1. Each person possesses all [eight] intelligences. 2. Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate level of

competency. 3. Intelligences usually work together. 4. There are many ways to be intelligent within each category.14

Through his research, Gardner studied people in a variety of settings and conditions that

included “prodigies, gifted individuals, brain-damaged patients, idiot savants, normal

children, normal adults, experts in different lines of work, and individuals from diverse

cultures.”15 His findings created a wave of criticism in the scientific community and a

surge of excitement in the world of education.

The impact of Gardner’s research cannot be understated. He has challenged the

traditional values of how we measure intelligence (standardized tests, GPAs,) and in turn,

educators have increased the scope of what intelligence is and have created new

pedagogical methods. Linda Campbell, Bruce Campbell, and Dee Dickinson, co-authors

of Teaching and Learning Through Multiple Intelligences, encapsulate Gardner’s

definition of intelligence into three statements:

13 David Leazar, Eight Ways of Teaching: The Artistry of Teaching with Multiple Intelligences (Arlington Heights, IL: SkyLight Professional Development, 1999), 2-4. 14 Thomas Armstrong, Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2000), 8-9. 15 Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1983), 9.

15

1. The ability to solve problems that one encounters in real life. 2. The ability to generate new problems to solve. 3. The ability to make something or offer a service that is valued within one’s

culture.16

Under this definition, the ways an individual can be “intelligent” are quite open-ended,

especially when cultural values are taken into consideration.

Criticism of the MI Theory occurs primarily in two arenas—cognitive science and

education. The first is criticism of the MI theory itself and the other is the application of

the MI theory in education. It should be noted that most critics acknowledge the

existence of what Gardner calls the intelligences, and that the sticking point seems to be a

matter of semantics over what intelligence is.

The fundamental criticism of MI theory is the belief by cognitive scientists and

the psychometric field (testing community) that each of the multiple intelligences is in

fact a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct. Critics who oppose the MI

theory support Charles Spearman’s theory of one intelligence believe that Gardner’s

intelligences are at best secondary or tertiary capacities to what Spearman identified as

the “g factor.”17 Many cognitive scientists and psychologists feel that the criteria

Gardner uses to define intelligence is insufficient. A second criticism is that Gardner's

theories derive rather more strongly from his own intuitions and reasoning than from a

comprehensive and full grounding in empirical research. Gardner himself admits that

there is an element of subjectivity in his theory, but in the process of developing a

16 Linda Campbell et al, Teaching and Learning Through the Multiple Intelligences, (Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon, 1996), xv. 17 Richard A. Weinberg, “Intelligence and IQ: Landmark issues and great debates,” American Psychologist 44, 2 (February 1989): 98.

16

method to measure each of the individual intelligences, he concluded that further testing

would only result in labeling and stigmatization.

In the world of education, there appear to be two prominent criticisms that

resonate in discussions of MI Theory. The first is that there is a lack of research, (i.e.

testing), that implementing MI curriculum improves student performance. The second is

closely related to the first stating that implementing a school-wide curriculum is

impractical because it involves too much time (teacher training and in-service) and

resources. The educational criticisms seem to be less convincing as Gardner’s theory

filled a deficiency in directional education (i.e., dissemination of information via lecture

method). Mindy Kornhaber, principal investigator of Project SUMIT (Schools Using

Multiple Intelligence Theory), conducted “a 3-year national investigation of schools

using MI theory. It sought to identify, document, and promote effective implementations

of MI.”18 The results of this study showed increases in student achievement, test scores,

quality of student work, attendance, behavior, and parent participation. The

impracticality of implementation because of time and resources has little ground on

which to stand on. There are numerous MI resources for educators and schools written

by MI experts like Kornhaber and Thomas Armstrong that are more than affordable and

can be integrated into any classroom or curriculum.

Multiple Intelligences, Music, and Edward Lisk

The most significant contributor in music education to integrating pedagogical

techniques that address a broad range of learning styles is Edward S. Lisk. Mr. Lisk is

the former Director of Bands and K-12 Music Supervisor for the Oswego School District

18 Project SUMIT (2000) SUMIT Compass Points Practices. <http://pzweb.harvard.edu/Research/SUMIT.htm.> (Accessed June 15, 2011).

17

in New York. In addition to being an internationally recognized clinician and conductor,

he is the author of The Creative Director Series and contributor to the eight-volume

publication Teaching Music Through Performance in Band. In the forward to The

Creative Director: Alternative Rehearsal Techniques, Lisk conveys the need “to look

beyond conventional rehearsal procedures” so that “ every student becomes totally

involved” and thus gains a greater technical and expressive understanding of music.19

His most recent book, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, briefly

explains how the theory of MI is uniquely suited for both the conductor and the students.

Mr. Lisk’s claims regarding the benefits of teaching to multiple learning styles focus on

individual enhancement and understanding of playing an instrument and that the ultimate

goal is “to be able to inform adults and decision makers about the importance of

instrumental music study.”20 He provides a detailed outline of the intelligences that

includes examples of musical skills and concepts that are applicable to the rehearsal.

This study acknowledges and supports Lisk’s observations and claims, but endeavors to

enhance musical understanding and performance levels through rehearsal techniques that

address multiple learning styles.

19 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Alternative Rehearsal Techniques, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1987), ix. 20 Ibid, 95.

18

CHAPTER 3

MUSICIANSHIP AND EXPRESSIVITY:

HISTORY AND DEFINITION, ITS PURPOSE IN MUSIC EDUCATION,

AND THE MEANS TO THE END – EXPRESSION

History and Definition

Musicianship is a term that we encounter at every level of development in music

education, the world of performance, music education/conducting texts and literature.

What is musicianship? Can a concrete, objective definition be given or is it relegated to a

subjective intangible where its understanding lies in the eye of the beholder? Is a

definition even needed? Having posed the question “How do you define musicianship?”

to a few colleagues, responses ranged from “Musicianship, I know it when I see it” to

long pauses to definitions with much specificity. Running parallel to this is the mystery

of cultivating expressive student musicians. Alexandra Pierce, Emerita Research

Professor at the University of Redlands in California, sought her colleagues out regarding

how they teach expressivity and musicality. She writes:

The answer sometimes goes like this: ‘I play the melodies over and over until they sound good, and then make sure they can be heard.’ If I persist, ‘But what are you listening for when you play a melody over and over? What do you teach your students about playing melody?’ They may reply, ‘Well, it’s basic musicality. Either you have it or you don’t.’21

In an effort to contribute to new rehearsal strategies using MI as a pedagogical

foundation with the aim of cultivating student musicianship as a means to expression, it 21 Alexandra Pierce, Deepening Musical Performance through Movement: The Theory and Practice of Embodied Interpretation, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 37.

19

necessary to address both musicianship and expressivity. Musicianship will first be

explored by providing a brief history of the evolution of the term musicianship in

American music education, existing ideas (i.e. definitions) of musicianship, what the

perceived goals of musicianship are currently in music education, and how it will be

defined and applied to this study.

The term musicianship in American music education finds its roots in The Young

Composers Project, begun in 1959 and funded by the Ford Foundation.22 The project’s

goal was to place composers in-residence to work with school music programs for the

purpose of creating high quality educational repertoire appropriate for middle and high

school ensembles. Norman Dello Joio and Grant Belgarian were appointed to oversee the

placement of composers and administer the program. As a result of the initial discussions

with representatives from the visual arts, theatre, and dance, Dello Joio’s idea of placing

young composers in schools to write music for that school’s music program gained the

most support from McNeil Lowry, the head of the Ford Foundation’s Humanities and

Arts Program. The program was named the Ford Foundation Young Composer’s Project

and began with $200,000 to fund a three-year period. Dello Joio was appointed as the

chairman of the program with the primary duty of selecting qualified composers. One of

the most notable composers selected was Peter Schickele, who later created the persona

of P. D. Q. Bach. After adjusting the program to the needs of the composers, music

educators, and the school programs, the project was named the Contemporary Music

Project for Creativity in Music Education. It was so successful that the Ford Foundation

and the Music Educators National Conference (MENC) funded the project until 1973.

22 Mike George and Will Schmid, An Introduction to the Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) Project (est. 1977) ed. L. K. Sindberg, Wisconsin Music Educators Association, http://www.wmea.com/index.php?module=cms&page=77 (accessed May 21, 2012).

20

During its tenure, seventy-three composers were placed in schools throughout the United

States and many of them were supported by the school districts after funding ceased. The

effects of this project filled a much-needed void in music for educational groups and laid

the groundwork for the ongoing development and support for educational literature.

During the CMP ten-year existence, five significant and unrelated events were the

catalysts for developing the standards for musicianship, music educator curricula, and re-

examination of music education.

Held in 1963, The Yale Seminar on Music Education brought together teachers

scholars, and musicians for the purpose of evaluating the development of repertoire and

enhancing students’ musical experiences through performing, composing, listening, and

dancing (movement). This event was a result of President Kennedy’s initiative through

the Panel on Educational Research and Development to ascertain why Americans were

neither musically literate nor active. The seminar revealed a dichotomy between

mediocre repertoire and high performance skills and standards. Interestingly, they also

concluded that the emphasis on performance goals led to less musical independence.

This led to a recommendation that led to the design of the Young Composer’s Project

later that year.

The second event was the Juilliard Repertory Project in 1964. Led by the Dean of

the Juilliard School of Music, Gideon Waldrop, the project contributors included

musicologists, ethnomusicologists, and music educators who sought to collect

appropriate and quality literature for students in kindergarten through sixth grade. The

culmination of their efforts produced a collection of vocal and instrumental works that

21

ranged from Medieval to Contemporary and folk music and was published as a collection

in 1970.

In 1965, the Manhattanville Music Curriculum Program (MMCP) was a third

catalyst for reform in music education. Held at the Manhattanville College of the Sacred

Heart in Purchase, New York, composers, music educators, and leaders in education and

curriculum and instruction met to address key issues regarding music educators.

Primarily, “they were reacting to dissatisfaction with the lack of personal creativity in

music education and the emphasis on a standardized set of musical works, or ‘finished

products,’ which stifled personal expression.”23 Participants stated that music educators

“dealt with music largely as an external and objective reality rather than as an intrinsic

means of organizing through and expressing oneself.”24

Following the MMCP, the Northwestern Seminar on Comprehensive

Musicianship occurred in 1965 and was sponsored by Contemporary Music Project.

Attended by music educators, composers, theorists, and musicologists from the United

States, the purpose of the conference was to evaluate and improve current curricular

standards for music educator preparation in regards to music theory and history courses.

One of the most influential outcomes of the Northwestern Seminar was the introduction

of the term comprehensive musicianship.

The fifth significant event was the Tanglewood Symposium (1967) and was

sponsored by MENC, Boston University, the Theodore Presser Foundation, and

23 Daniel E. Brame, “Comprehensive Musicianship: Awareness, Acceptance, and Implementation Among High School Band Directors in Illinois and Wisconsin” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2011), 13. 24 Ronald B. Thomas and Purchase, NY, Manhattanville Coll., Manhattanville Music Curriculum Program, Final Report. 1970. ERIC, EBSCOhost (accessed May 21, 2012), 8.

22

the Berkshire Music Center. “It was a seminal event that challenged almost all of

the basic tenets on which music education in the schools was based.”25 Indirectly, it

addressed elements of comprehensive musicianship in three key areas – broadening

repertoire, considering the education and learning of individual students, and music

educator preparation.

Following the Tanglewood Symposium, the Hawaii Comprehensive Musicianship

Program became the first K-12 curriculum developed and implemented in American

schools. Energized by the Yale Seminar and the Tanglewood Symposium, the Hawaii

Comprehensive Musicianship Program became the blueprint for the Wisconsin

Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) Project, other resources for

music educators, and eventually the National Standards for Music Education, which were

written and completed in 1994 by MENC which “received a total of $1 million from the

U.S. Department of Education, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the National

Endowment for the Humanities to develop voluntary national standards for each of the

four arts disciplines—music, visual arts, theatre, and dance—in grades K-12.”26

These events (and other texts discussed in the next section) became the precursors

to the Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship Through Performance Project. The

overwhelming research that supported the efficacy of a comprehensive approach to

teaching music performance for long term student understanding led to a partnership

among the Wisconsin State Music Association, the Wisconsin Music Educators 25 Mike George and Will Schmid, An Introduction to the Wisconsin Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) Project (est. 1977) ed. L. K. Sindberg, Wisconsin Music Educators Association, http://www.wmea.com/index.php?module=cms&page=77 (accessed June 12, 2010). 26 National Association for Music Education, “The National Standards for Arts Education: A Brief History,” National Association for Music Education, http://www.menc.org/resources/view/the-national-standards-for-arts-education-a-brief-history (accessed May 21, 2012).

23

Association, and the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. In 1977, this

partnership launched the Wisconsin CMP Project and its primary goals were professional

development of music educators, documentation of the impact of implementing the five-

point CMP model in their music programs, and disseminating the CMP model for

outreach to all music educators. In the CMP model, the development of musicianship

occurs in the rehearsal “where students can develop an understanding of musical concepts

such as expression, melody, rhythm, harmony, texture, timbre and form by being

involved in a variety of roles including performing, improvising, arranging, composing,

conducting, and analyzing music.27 The Wisconsin CMP Project continues to be an

organization that assists in improving the development of music educators through

publications, summer workshops, conventions, teacher in-service workshops, and

influencing post-secondary music education methods courses. Additionally, this model

has provided a foundation for other states to formulate their own versions of

comprehensive musicianship.28

The most recent contribution to the idea of musicianship is the Teaching Music

through Performance series, available for choir, band, orchestra, and jazz.

Philosophically poised with the Wisconsin CMP model and supporting the objectives of

the National Standards for Music Education, each volume of the series is structured

similarly in two parts. The first part consists of articles on a plethora of topics relating to

various aspects of being a music educator/director. The most frequent topics that appear

27 Wisconsin Center for Music Education, “Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance,” Wisconsin Music Educators Association, <http://www.wmea.com/index.php?module=cms&page=75> (accessed July 17, 2011). 28 Iowa Comprehensive Musicianship Project, “CMP History,” http://www.iowacmp.org/home/cmp-history (accessed May 28, 2012).

24

include conducting, repertoire selection, ensemble rehearsal techniques, organizational or

logistical matters, building a strong music program, issues related to music education

issues (e.g. the National Standards). Contributors to the volumes are leading educators

and conductors in their respective fields of which most are faculty members at

universities in the United States.

The second section consists of the “Teacher Resource Guides” and is the primary

reason why the Teaching Music Through Performance series exists – to provide music

educators a resource where they can find high quality repertoire and the comprehensive

knowledge about each piece in order to develop a deeper understanding of the music and

raise the level of musicianship individually and corporately. Nine supplemental units are

given for each work that include background information of the composer, composition

history, historical perspective of the work, technical considerations, stylistic

considerations, musical elements as they relate to the composition, form and structure,

suggested listening, and additional references and resources. There is no question that

these are time saving devices that allow music educators to find the essential elements of

a given work and easily digest them in order to efficiently disseminate them to their

students. To date, there is little research that shows the impact on musicianship or if

consistent use of this resource leads to more expressive music-making.

A Representation of Musicianship from Seminal Works

During this period of the conceptualization of musicianship in music education,

very few resources (save the ones associated with the aforementioned projects) were

written providing conductors/educators with a clear idea of what musicianship was and

how to go about developing it in their ensembles and individual players. In fact, it is

25

difficult to find either a broad or specific definition of the term. From the scarcity of

texts, there are a few that offer insights into the attitudes and metamorphosis of

musicianship.

One early view of musicianship can be found in Malcolm Holmes’ 1951

publication, Conducting an Amateur Orchestra. In addition to being the Dean of the

New England Conservatory, he conducted collegiate, semi-professional orchestras, the

Boston Pops on occasion, and the Harvard University Band. In his introduction, Holmes

implies that the level of musicianship derives from the highest quality teaching and

repertoire and cites the severe disconnect in the levels of musicianship between

professional and amateur orchestras. He believed that the “reasons can be traced back to

the imperfections in the early instrumental training of children and the general

inadequacy of the teaching and orchestral material to which they are first exposed.”29 He

emphasizes that if an orchestra has any chance of raising its level of musical standards,

the conductor must be the one to address the fundamentals of technique and be aware of

the needs of the players. For Holmes, the conductor would benefit to raise “the standards

of his own orchestral repertory and broaden its scope, and in so doing develop and

improve the musical intelligence of both his players and his audiences.”30 Concerning

the fundamentals, Holmes places particular emphasis on sight reading as a necessary skill

for successful orchestras and stresses the importance of incorporating music appreciation,

theory and history as a backdrop for creating intelligent listeners—one of his primary

beliefs of the purpose of amateur, or educational, orchestras. While this text is more of a

29 Malcolm Holmes, Conducting an Amateur Orchestra, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), 6. 30 Ibid, 7.

26

“relic,” its content points in the direction of the texts and thinking about musicianship as

explored by Benner, Labuta, and Kohut in the 1970’s.

Another aspect of Holmes’ idea of musicianship is the “broader motivation” of

the program, i.e., developing amateur players either for a professional career in music or

“for a lifetime of intelligent listening in the concert hall.”31 The text provides the

conductor/educator with a process model in developing an orchestral program from

programming and various stages of rehearsals to concert logistics, basic orchestral

training, repertoire resources, and the mission of an amateur music program. In the

chapter entitled “Final Rehearsals,” Holmes concludes the chapter with a section entitled

“Emotion,” where he states that technique is not enough. Players need to take ownership

(with guidance from the conductor) and embody their part emotionally for a sincere,

authentic performance.32

A second source is Charles H. Benner’s brief work entitled Teaching Performing

Groups, where through the evaluation of literature and his own observations regarding

teaching performing ensembles, he concludes that there is a significant difference in

teaching performance skills and teaching beyond performance skills. Realizing that the

primary form of dissemination of musical instruction comes through performing

ensembles, Benner surmised that educators needed to make a concerted effort to

supplement their students’ performance experience with additional types of knowledge—

namely music theory, history, and literature. This direction of thought became the

underpinning for “teaching with intention . . . performing with understanding,” a phrase

31 Ibid. 32 Ibid, 68-69.

27

that is the slogan for the Wisconsin CMP Project, and formulated a more focused idea of

musicianship in music education.

Written in the same year as Benner’s text, the seminal work of Joseph Labuta,

Teaching Musicianship in the High School Band (1972), enlarged the scope of

musicianship within the focused area of teaching band and adapted The Contemporary

Music Project’s structure for developing musicianship to the high school band. The

outline Labuta references states the following:

The basis for developing more comprehensive musicianship is a “common-elements” approach which views all musics, from all times, as consisting of the same basic musical elements, which might be outlined as follows: Sound, divisible into

1. Pitch a. horizontal (melody) b. vertical (harmony)

2. Duration (rhythm) 3. Quality

a. timbre b. dynamics c. texture

These elements are used to articulate shape, or form. Every musical work must be viewed in its many contexts – stylistic, historical, cultural, social and economic.33

Although this outline is helpful as an entry point for understanding the purpose

and structure of Labuta’s book, it does not provide a clear definition or purpose of what

musicianship is or what its purpose is in music education. The most interesting facet of

Labuta’s idea of musicianship is not that it is a definition per se, but embodies enigmatic

nature of the term that was alluded to at the onset of this chapter. He writes in the

preface: 33 Joseph Labuta, Teaching Musicianship in the High School Band, (West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing Company, Inc., 1972), 26.

28

Musicians seem to know intuitively what musicianship means and use the term in varying contexts. Music theory courses are labeled in many college catalogs as “courses in musicianship.” Certainly all theory and history courses should have the improvement of musicianship as a broad aim. On the other hand, the term musicianship is often used when referring to comprehensive music attributes and abilities of performers. It is theory applied to practice; it is knowledge and skill applied to practical music making. Musicianship is used here in the latter sense.34

His assumption in the first sentence, that musicians seem to know what

musicianship is and how the term is applied to various contexts, is difficult to ascertain.

There are so few resources from this period regarding the discussion of musicianship in

both the professional and educational worlds of music that it is conceivable that

conductors/educators did not have a common understanding of what musicianship was.

Labuta supports this claim by acknowledging the scarcity of “materials for teaching

musicianship” and as a result, band programs “remain too performance oriented.”35

Despite the elevation and awareness created by CMP and the National Standards, recent

research by Laura Sindberg36 and Daniel E. Brame37 suggest that many instrumental

programs remain performance driven and primarily focus on the technical aspects of the

music. The reasons for a performance-focused philosophy vary from director to director,

but some of the rationale include program justification to the school administration,

extrinsic recognition (e.g. winning competitions, festivals, collecting trophies and awards,

etc.), and less initiative required by the director in rehearsal planning. Labuta’s

34 Ibid, 7. 35 Ibid, 8. 36 Laura K. Sindberg, “Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) in the Lived Experience of Students,” (Phd. diss., Northwestern University, 2006), 5. 37 Daniel E. Brame, “Comprehensive Musicianship: Awareness, Acceptance, and Implementation Among High School Band Directors in Illinois and Wisconsin” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2011).

29

understanding of musicianship included what would be considered today a very skeletal

view of the term, consisting of the basic elements of music. The condensed nature of

musicianship explains why Labuta feels musicians intuitively knew what it was. The

“common-elements” approach cited in the Contemporary Music Project’s outline

supports Labuta’s statement. Coupled with this definition and the foundational structure

of his book, a close overview of the table of contents shows what elements Labuta feels

are necessary in developing musicianship as outlined in each chapter. They include

selecting high quality repertoire, timbre (i.e. tone quality), rhythm, melody and phrase

structure, harmonic structure and texture, structure and form, general styles of music,

performance practice and interpretation of historical styles, and interpreting the score (i.e.

expression markings and expression of phrase). Interestingly, the chapter focusing on

interpreting the score thoroughly discusses the how and why of expressive notation

markings, but contains a limited discussion regarding the emotional connection that is

needed for creating expressive music—an aspect of rehearsal pedagogy that has created a

need for this study.

A year later Daniel L. Kohut published a source for orchestra and band directors

in 1973 entitled Instrumental Music Pedagogy: Teaching Techniques for School Band

and Orchestra Directors.38 Although the book’s purpose deals with technical,

developmental, and idiosyncratic matters of teaching and rehearsing band and orchestra,

the opening chapter illustrates his philosophical basis for the presentation of the teaching

techniques. Kohut gives important insights into the state of music education at that time,

the purpose of teaching instrumental music, and the current understanding of

38 Daniel Kohut, Instrumental Music Pedagogy: Teaching Techniques for School Band and Orchestra Directors, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973).

30

musicianship. Like Malcolm Holmes, Kohut’s claims provide much evidence to the

current status of many music programs and the lack of competent educators. He

criticizes most of the scholarly writings for not providing legitimate reasons for justifying

instrumental programs in the schools. Kohut writes that the “extra-musical objectives

such as development of mental discipline, promoting good citizenship, worthy use of

leisure time, and the like,” and “the importance of developing man’s aesthetic potential,”

are not adequate enough reasons for school music programs.39

Further commentary follows on the treatment of school music programs by school

administrators and attitudes towards music that it is not seen as an art, but serves the

purposes of entertainment and public relations. Kohut also berates educators who either

allow their programs to be used in this way, or, programs that are solely focused on

performance as their primary goal. He concludes this section with the insightful notion

that objectives in music education are teacher-oriented, not student-centered, and

challenges directors to consider how they can best serve the needs of their students.

Supporting Labuta’s assertion of the importance of explaining the why of a musical

concept, Kohut writes: “It means that teachers have the responsibility to motivate, explain

and illustrate not only what and how, but also why certain knowledge and skills are

important.”40

More specifically, Kohut segues into similar rationale for instrumental music.

This section outlines his beliefs as to what the purpose and benefits of teaching

instrumental music are for students and where the responsibilities of the music educators

lie. Common to the thread of the previous sources discussed, Kohut stresses that

39 Ibid, 1-2. 40 Ibid, 4.

31

performance is not sufficient enough to “ensure that students will become intelligent

consumers of music in later life” and that when “musical style and other related elements

are properly taught, a love and understanding of the music itself is often one of the major

outcomes.”41 The frequency of whether this happens hinges on what Holmes, Labuta,

and Kohut believe to be the education and musicianship of the director. Kohut feels that

the teacher “needs to know the music inside out, its basic structure, materials, and

concepts” and that educators are the ones responsible for teaching their students to play

their best technically and musically.42

Lastly, and most importantly, is Kohut’s discussion of musicianship. Be begins

by asking a thread of questions similar to the ones given at the onset of this chapter.

Kohut constructs a framework for his definition by again stressing the importance of

educators possessing the highest level of competence in their respective areas. His

discussion of musicianship begins:

Most musicians agree that good musicianship is a vital requisite to success in music. But what constitutes good musicianship? How should it be developed? Can it be developed?

The word “musicianship” means a variety of things to different people. Most agree that it includes a person’s ability to read music accurately, to sing or play with good tone quality and intonation, to perform technical passages with accuracy and finesse, etc. All of these are important, but the essence of musicianship is one’s sensitivity to the expressive qualities of music, to the nuances of phrasing, interpretation, and style – in brief, all of those elements which make musical performance an art as well as a skill.

How does one develop musicianship that incorporates the more elusive qualities of musical expression? At the college level this is traditionally done in the applied studio, in large and small ensemble rehearsals, and in classes in conducting, theory, and music history. . .

41 Ibid, 5. 42 Ibid, 5-6.

32

Hardly anyone will disagree with the above; and yet one of our major problems in music education today is still a lack of competent musicians who can teach. This may seem like a rash generalization, an oversimplification. After all, don’t most music educators consider themselves to be competent musicians, competent enough to teach in the public schools, at least at the elementary level?43 The amalgamation of the purpose of music education, instrumental music, and

understanding of musicianship concludes this section of the chapter and Kohut states that

all of these areas should “develop musical sensitivity.”44

The inclusion of Kohut’s thoughts on music education standards, instrumental

music pedagogy, and musicianship is inherently important in understanding the need for

this study. The three areas are interconnected and the symbiotic relationship between the

level of conductor/educator musicianship and student/music program musicianship cited

by Holmes and Kohut is significant. Their assertions of a general lack of musicianship in

educators directly effect the quality of instruction and level of musicianship in their

students. Because of the cause and effect relationship, there continues to be a need for

creating resources for conductor/educators to build both their own musicianship and their

students’. The thread of evidence from studies conducted by Lawler (1976), Garofalo

(1983), Burton (1990), Labuta (1997), Reimer (2000), Sindberg (2006), and Brame

(2011) of music programs reflect many of Kohut’s observations. His suggestion of

instilling lifelong appreciation of music in students and cultivating a deeper

understanding of the music beyond performance has been a focus in American music

education for decades. These ideals are objectives that the Wisconsin CMP, the Teaching

Music through Performance series, and the National Standards hold at their core and seek

43 Ibid, 6-7. 44 Ibid, 8.

33

to assist conductors/educators in continuing to raise the standards of musicianship in our

students and music programs.

The final “other resource” that many scholars cite today is Donald Barra’s The

Dynamic Performance.45 Similar to Labuta’s structure, although very different in its

intent, Barra’s work incorporates the following elements of musicianship: style,

character, emotional tone, patterns relating to melodic contour, harmonic structure and

motivic relationships; metric structure, meter, rhythm, rubato, and idiosyncrasies of

instrument techniques. The intent of Barra’s book is to comprehend these elements in

order to create the most expressive performance possible.

A Definition of Musicianship

Musicianship is an individual’s ability to develop and demonstrate the technique

of a given instrument or voice for a musical work at his/her level, and to comprehend the

various elements of large-scale form and phrasal structure, theory, history, composer and

compositional history, and stylistic and interpretive influences. The culmination of these

entities facilitates a deeper understanding of the music itself and provides a foundation

for each student to connect with the music on multiple levels (physically, emotionally,

mentally, spiritually) and on his/her own terms (i.e., how a student thinks, learns, and

feels) and leads to expressive music-making for the individual and/or the ensemble.

This definition and understanding of musicianship will be used throughout the

remaining essay. The function of the next two chapters will provide a segue to the final

chapter. After demonstrating the need for pedagogical/conducting resources for

conductor/educators, five barriers that inhibit the development of musicianship and

45 Donald Barra, The Dynamic Performance: A Performer’s Guide to Musical Expression and Interpretation, (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1983).

34

expression in ensemble environments will be presented. Embedded throughout are

research and thoughts from leading conductor/educators/performers that validate these

barriers and provide solutions of minimizing the barriers’ effects.

35

CHAPTER 4

HIGHER STANDARDS, SAME OLD REHEARSAL PROCESS:

BARRIERS TO MUSICANSHIP AND EXPRESSION

The emphasis on minimal resources for developing musicianship in the previous

chapter is inherently tied to the deficiencies in conductor/educator curricula regarding an

emphasis on cognitive skills and de-emphasis on affective elements, the traditional

rehearsal process, and the integrity of conductors/educators elevating their musicianship

and continuing their professional growth. If we believe that each one of our students can

develop musicianship, then continuing to create new rehearsal strategies that cultivate

musicianship through what we do on the podium will directly enhance both the

musicianship of individual students and the ensemble. The idea that “all children can

learn” is still a surprisingly new concept and

“its implications on our conventional rehearsal structure (warm-up, literature preparation, and evaluation and assessment), require change to accommodate new curriculum demands and student learning expectations. Rehearsal planning should consider how students learn and how specialized skill development expands an individual’s knowledge base and contributes to the whole of academic achievement.”46

This is how MI rehearsal strategies will contribute to the rehearsal process.

Lack of Conductor/Educator Preparation

Through organizations like National Association for Music Educators, the

Wisconsin CMP Project, American String Teachers Association, the National Band

Association, the American Choral Directors Association, and state music associations, 46 Edward S. Lisk, “Making the Connection: Academic, Rehearsal, Curriculum,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 40-41.

36

standards for music educators have been raised significantly during the last twenty-five

years. Ironically, the increased burden of more degree requirements because of increased

national and state standards for music education majors has contributed to deficiencies in

conductor/educator preparation. Although these additional requirements are meant for

improved preparation, they have had a detrimental effect on the development of

musicianship in music education undergraduates because less time is available to focus

on areas of conducting and applied studies. Music methods, childhood development

classes, and educational psychology courses, although valuable, do not allow music

education students to focus their time and attention in the areas that will benefit them

when they enter the field – conducting and performance. In Conducting With Feeling,

several of the conductors Harris interviewed “spoke to the disparity between the amount

of time students actually spend learning the craft of conducting and the amount of time

required for the other subjects in their program of studies.”47 Because ensembles

continue to be the nucleus of school music programs, music education students would

perhaps be more prepared for their profession if they could devote more of their time to

developing musicianship on their primary instrument/voice, learning and performing

repertoire in band, choir, and orchestra, and more conducting experiences. All of the

authors cited thus far emphasize the importance of conductor/educator musicianship and

the direct relationship commensurately to their music programs.

47 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 64.

37

Barrier #1: Musicianship and Expression Are Not a

High Priority in Undergraduate Curricula

Through the course of researching how conductors and music educators develop

musicianship from the podium, the need arose to address two separate, but related

questions – 1) How do conductors and music educators develop musicianship and

enhance a deeper understanding of the music from the podium? and 2) Where do

conductors and music educators learn to develop musicianship and create a deeper

understanding of the music from the podium? For most undergraduates, the answer to

this question can be found in their conducting, applied lessons, and music education

methods courses. But as recent studies have shown, this aspect seems to have fallen

through the proverbial cracks. In his most recent publication, Mr. Lisk cites a study

presented in a 2008 issue of the Psychology of Music Journal, volume 36, “Musical

Expression: An Observational Study of Instrumental Study,” by Jessika Karlsson and

Patrik Juslin, that focused on a specific facet of musicianship – expression – which

stated:

Research has shown that both music students and teachers think that expression is important. Yet, we know little about how expression is taught to students. Such knowledge is needed in order to enhance teaching of expression. The aim of this study was thus to explore the nature of instrumental music teaching in its natural context, with a focus on expression and emotion. Results suggested that the focus of teaching was mainly on technique and on the written score. Lessons were dominated by talk, with the teacher doing most of the talking. Issues concerning expression and emotion were mostly dealt with implicitly rather than explicitly, although some teachers used a variety of strategies to enhance expression. Although there were individual differences among teachers, a common feature was the lack of clear goals, specific tasks, and systematic teaching patterns.48

48 Edward S. Lisk, “The Energy of Musical Thought,” in Teaching Music Through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 8 (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2010), 15.

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Similarly, David Levitin points to the same issue at the university level. Levitin writes:

So much of the research on musical expertise has looked for accomplishment in the wrong place, in the facility of fingers rather than the expressiveness of emotion. I recently asked the dean of one of the top music schools in North America about this paradox. At what point in the curriculum is emotion and expressivity taught? Her answer was that they aren’t taught. “There is so much to cover in the approved curriculum,” she explained, “repertoire, ensemble, and solo training, sight singing, sight reading, music theory—that there simply isn’t time to teach expressivity.49

The apparent void in secondary and post-secondary music curricula is also present

in conducting resources and texts. This study assessed a variety of conducting resources

based on criteria of whether or not the text included any discussion or mention of any

language related to the rehearsal and, if so, did the text include suggestions as to how to

develop musicianship from the podium. The qualifying criteria for rehearsal language

encompasses superficial mention or resourceful discussion of rehearsal

planning/preparation, fundamental elements of music (sound, harmony, melody, rhythm,

timbre, texture), instrument techniques, expressive/interpretive suggestions, and any other

facet of rehearsing connected to music-making. The criteria for musicianship are based

on the definition at the end of Chapter One that address any facet of developing student

musicians. Table 2 (p. 39), Assessment of Conducting Sources, presents the results of

several conducting resources. (For a more complete description of each source, please

refer to Appendix A.)

49 David Levitin, This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession (New York: Dutton, 2006), 208.

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Table 2: Assessment of Conducting Sources

Rehearsal Language

Musicianship Addressed

Author/Title YES NO YES NO

Adey, Christopher. Orchestral Performance: A Guide for Conductors and Players. X X Boonshaft, Peter Loel. Teaching Music with Passion: Conducting, Rehearsing and Inspiring. X X Demaree, Robert W. and Don V. Moses. The Complete Conductor: A Comprehensive Resource for the Professional Conductor of the Twenty-First Century.

X X

Gattiker, Irvin. Complete Book of Rehearsal Techniques for the High School Orchestra. X X Green, Elizabeth and Mark Gibson. The Modern Conductor. X X Hunsberger, Donald and Roy E. Ernst. Art of Conducting. X X Kahn, Emil. Elements of Conducting. X X Kohut, Daniel Instrumental Music Pedagogy X X Kohut, Daniel L. and Joe W. Grant Learning to Conduct and Rehearse. X X Labuta, Joseph A. Basic Conducting Techniques. X X Labuta, Joseph A. Developing Musicianship in the High School Band X X Lisk, Edward S. The Creative Director: Alternative Rehearsal Techniques. X X Lisk, Edward S. The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader. X X Lisk, Edward S. The Creative Director: The Intangibles of Musical Expression. X X McElheran, Brock. Conducting Technique: For Beginners and Professionals. X X Meier, Gustav. Score, the Orchestra, and the Conductor. X X Noyes, Frank. Fundamentals of Conducting. X X Sharp, Timothy W. Precision Conducting: The Seven Disciplines of the Masterful Conductor. X X Wis, Ramona A. The Conductor As Leader: Principles of Leadership Applied to Life on the Podium.

X X

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Similarly, recent surveys of undergraduate conducting curricula reveal that most

conducting courses focus on the technical elements rather than aspects of score study and

expressive gestures. In a survey of several conducting texts and interviews with

prominent conducting pedagogues, Chapman stated that most conducting texts leave

“instructors of undergraduate instrumental conducting courses with little help and few

exercises they can implement when stressing the expressive gestures.”50 One of his

interviewees, Craig Kirchhoff provided this suggestion for an undergraduate conducting

course: “If I lived in a perfect world and could redesign college conducting programs, I

would prohibit students from learning patterns until they could demonstrate expressive

conducting with their faces and arms.”51 In his summary regarding “Teaching

Conductors,” Frederick Harris, Jr. stated:

It is clear from the combined interview responses that score study is a crucial component of a conductor’s ability to develop and communicate musical feeling. Although student conductors need a substantial amount of time in order to study scores, how the scores are learned is the key issue. Students must understand that the score study process is evolutionary and involves all facets of their musical and nonmusical experiences. Additionally, the use of imagination is integral to the process of learning a score and to conveying it.52

Although time is often the determining factor in what can be taught in a semester

or yearlong course, it is fascinating to see that only seven sources mention any aspect of

developing musicianship from the podium. Of those seven, only one is a conducting text.

The other six can be categorized as more educationally focused resources, even though 50 Christopher Carl Chapman, “An Investigation of Current Instruction Practices for the Undergraduate Instrumental Conducting Student Concerning Left Hand Technique and Facial Gestures,” (DMA Diss., University of Washington, 2008), 4-5. 51 Ibid, 18. 52 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 66.

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the target audience is conductor/educators. Based on these findings and from studies

found in music education, one might conclude that musicianship/expression is such a

subjective area that authors writing conducting texts deliberately choose not to address it.

Further exploration is needed to discover why limited discussion of musicianship and

expression exists in conducting resources.

Barrier #2: The Traditional Rehearsal Process

The perpetual effect of matriculating unprepared conductors/educators into the

field results in using a traditional rehearsal approach that leads to uninspired, ineffective

rehearsals and mediocre music-making. In his 2011 dissertation, Daniel Brame defines

the traditional rehearsal as “one in which the director chooses the literature and makes all

of the artistic decisions, emphasizing technique and reading skills with specific

performance as the end goal.”53 Rehearsals, especially at the secondary level, need a

consistent structure. The conventional rehearsal structure itself, as cited by Lisk, (warm-

up, literature preparation, and evaluation and assessment) contains necessary elements

that promote student learning (Figure 4.1, p. 42).54

The issue lies in how each of these elements is utilized and synthesized

throughout a given rehearsal. When forethought and planning are absent, these rehearsal

segments become ineffective and unrelated, which interrupt the rehearsal flow and do not

promote student learning. At best, ineffective conductor/educators utilize warm-up and

literature preparation and inconsistently engage their students in the creative process of

music-making, synthesis, and self-evaluation.

53 Daniel E. Brame, “Comprehensive Musicianship: Awareness, Acceptance, and Implementation Among High School Band Directors in Illinois and Wisconsin,” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2011), 48. 54 Edward S. Lisk, “Making the Connection: Academic, Rehearsal, Curriculum,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 41.

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Figure 4.1: The Conventional Rehearsal Structure

I. WARM-UP

II. LITERATURE PREPARATION

III. EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT

Simply stated, the traditional rehearsal process benefits the conductor/educator more than

the students, does not incorporate a comprehensive pedagogical approach to

disseminating the music, and rarely invites students to play expressively, either

individually or corporately.

Every rehearsal needs a consistent infrastructure. In a school program

environment, it is necessary to have a warm-up to begin rehearsal. Eugene Corporon

provides a macro rehearsal process from the initial rehearsal to the performance that can

be adapted to a micro level for daily rehearsals (Figure 4.2, p. 43).55 Table 3 (p. 44) is a

synthesis of Lisk’s rehearsal process and Corporon’s process model. The structure is

flexible and can be utilized in a variety of ways at the secondary level.

One of the important aspects of this model is the balance that needs to occur

between the objective and subjective elements of the music and how those elements are

55 Eugene Corporon, “The Quantum Conductor”, in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 19.

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disseminated through both the macro and micro rehearsal processes. This study supports

Corporon’s philosophy that expression and musicianship can be developed at every stage

of the rehearsal process, not simply after the technical aspects of the music are mastered.

He explains that “as the piece works its way from the top to the bottom of the hour glass,

the musicians develop skill, while learning more and more about the music.”56

Figure 4.2: Eugene Corporon’s Process Model

MACRO I

WEEK I MIDDLE I (take apart) WEEK II/III WEEK IV/V MICRO WEEK VI MIDDLE II (rebuild) WEEK VII PRESENTATION

MACRO II

56 Ibid.

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Table 3: Synthesis of Lisk and Corporon’s Rehearsal Process Model

The Rehearsal I. Opening (10-15 minutes)

a. Greet your students b. Announcements

A. Warm-up/Macro I (Focus In) 1. State objectives for rehearsal (not always necessary) 2. Stretching (musical athletes) 3. Technique building- relate warm-up exercises to repertoire to be

rehearsed for that day 4. Think of this time as a group lesson (individual lessons are

becoming more and more difficult to schedule)

5. Engage – Observe – Interact 6. Incorporate style, dynamics, articulation, balance, etc.

(psychological conducting) 7. Sight reading for instrumental 8. Tune (Instrumental) 9. Band-Develop wind, breath support, tone, balance, articulation,

double/triple tonguing, increase range through scales and arpeggios, chorales

10. String Orchestra-bowing styles, articulation, left hand dexterity, vibrato, dynamics, bow placement and distribution, balance

11. Full Orchestra-#9 and #10

II. Literature Preparation/Micro a. Play through section to be rehearsed b. Address issues in detail (avoid repeating an excerpt more than 3 times-Law of

Diminishing Returns) c. Stop only if something you hear necessitates it d. Faster pacing (keep feedback concise)

III. Assessment and Evaluation/Macro II

a. Synthesize - Play through large sections that were just rehearsed to create continuity on a larger scale

b. Create student awareness of progress made during music c. End rehearsal with students feeling positive about their work and a high sense of

achievement d. Thank them for their work e. Final announcements

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Similarly, developing expression in every facet of the rehearsal will teach the

students to think and play expressively from the first reading rehearsal to the

performance. “Good rehearsals develop feeling as well as skill”57 and it is the

responsibility of the conductor/educator to provide a balance of technical skill (objective)

to expression (creating, feeling, imagining—subjective) to create musical understanding

of a specific work.

In 2005, Richard F. Grunow, professor of music education at Eastman School of

Music, authored a chapter in The Development and Practical Application of Music

Learning Theory and asked:

What changes have we witnessed in beginning instrumental music instruction in the last forty years? With the exception of improvements in packaging and the use of technology – very little has changed in beginning instrumental music instruction. An old-timer observing in a beginning instrumental classroom today would recognize behaviors and comments prevalent forty or even sixty years ago.58

Discussions with university conductors/educators who consistently guest clinician and

observe school music programs support Grunow’s claim that what happens at the

beginning level also happens at the intermediate and high school levels. This is not to

say that wonderfully creative conductor/educators who are divergent thinkers within the

rehearsal process do not exist. For those innovative conductor/educators who possess

this quality, their creativity and impetus to think outside the box is an innate

characteristic. For those who do not, where can they learn how to develop this quality –

57 Ibid, 23. 58 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, (Galesville, MD: 2006), 20.

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their ensemble conductors, conducting and secondary music education courses, or

conducting and music education resources?

In The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, Lisk addresses the

engrained history of the traditional rehearsal model.

Unfortunately, little attention has been give to an inward look at many of the traditional approaches’ band directors have been using for decades. In the February 1991 issue of the Harvard Educational Journal, V.A. Howard stated, “once errors are stamped into the tradition of established practice, they often are perpetuated with great momentum.” Perhaps it is not the student that is at fault or lacking the desire to achieve superior levels of musicianship, it may be the instructional or rehearsal techniques that are restricting or stifling the student’s musical ability. Many of our conventional approaches accept the fact that the child must fit into a traditional system rather than looking at the uniqueness of learning with each student.59

The last two sentences address the focus of this study—creating another perspective for

student-centered learning by adapting MI rehearsal techniques to the rehearsal process.

Related to the issue of questioning the traditional rehearsal process is the reluctance

of many conductor/educators to try new rehearsal strategies. Perhaps the most

compelling reason is the perceived negative effect to the quality of performance. In a

1993 study entitled “Teaching Behaviors Exhibited by Middle and High School Band

Directors”, Larry Blocher, Richard Greenwood, and Bentley Shellahamer concluded that

“There is an apparent need for the development of instructional models for music teacher

training programs which deal with the use of teaching cycles and conceptual teaching

strategies within the band rehearsal setting.”60 In another article in the same year,

59 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1996), 18. 60 L. Blocher, R. Greenwood, and B. Shellahamer, “Teaching Behaviors Exhibited by Middle and High School Band Directors,” 45, no. 3 (Autumn 1997), 467.

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University of Illinois Emeritus Professor of Music Education John Grashel cited three

reasons explaining why conductor/educators are reluctant to devote time to teach

musicianship and expression. They were:

• Perceived community, parental, and administrative pressure for performance as

the only instructional option; • Lack of planning and rehearsal time for such instruction; and • Fear that students will reject nonperformance activities as a component of the

rehearsal.61

Grashel’s article also provides evidence from numerous sources that show when a

comprehensive philosophy to teaching musicianship is adopted, the effects of lower

performance quality or standards are not present. Music educators who implemented

CMP in their rehearsals in the studies of Sindberg (2006) and Brame (2011)

acknowledged no decline in the quality of performance in their ensembles. James Jordan,

in his book The Musician’s Soul, summarizes what the primary outcome of the traditional

rehearsal process yields:

It is interesting to hear a performance where the conductor is an exquisite teacher . . . all the elements of music have been well taught and there is rhythmic vitality to the performance. Yet, if one really listens, one can tell the music is barren of love and care. Most of these same conductors lull themselves into believing that they made music. They manufactured music . . . it is unfortunate that the conductors involved do not or cannot recognize the difference.62

This quote directly relates to the default approach to learning a piece of music within the

traditional rehearsal – the notes first approach.

61 John Grashel, “An Integrated Approach: Comprehensive Musicianship,” Music Educators Journal 79, no. 8 (April 1993): 38. 62 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, (Galesville, MD: 2006), 59.

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Barrier #3: The Notes First Approach

Within the traditional rehearsal process there is another debilitating obstacle to

developing musicianship and expressive music-making – the notes first approach (i.e. the

printed music, technical aspects). It would be logical to think that given the higher

standards and resources available to music educators today that it would result in more

effective, creative dissemination of the music. The awareness created by standards and

resources has certainly made it possible for conductor/educators to find new pedagogical

rehearsal techniques that result in more effective rehearsals. Still, there remains a

disconnect between the resources (conducting workshops, texts, scholarly articles, CMP,

conventions, etc.) and educators utilizing them to teach musicianship and for their own

professional growth. Signs of this phenomenon were present in 1993 when Grashel

acknowledged that teaching comprehensive musicianship had been “too long ignored by

instrumental educators” and that “the instrumental constituency has been particularly

unaffected by and uninformed about CM.”63 Laura Sindberg’s research of the application

of comprehensive musicianship supports the predominance of technical skill

development.64 Also, Daniel E. Brame’s 2011 study of comprehensive musicianship in

band directors in Wisconsin and Illinois gleaned similar results as those of Grashel in

1993.65 Now, in 2012, conductor/educators such as Eugene Corporon, James Kjelland,

Tim Lautzenheiser, Edward Lisk, and other leaders in our field continue to identify this

63 John Grashel, “An Integrated Approach: Comprehensive Musicianship,” Music Educators Journal 79, no. 8 (April 1993): 38. 64 Laura K. Sindberg, “Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) in the Lived Experience of Students,” in the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 174 (Fall, 2007): 26. 65 Daniel E. Brame, “Comprehensive Musicianship: Awareness, Acceptance, and Implementation Among High School Band Directors in Illinois and Wisconsin,” (DMA diss., Boston University, 2011), 119-121; 142-146.

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chasm and provide much needed solutions. There are several examples from these

distinguished experts and others in the areas of performance and music education that

support this view, which can be found in the sources listed in the bibliography.

In light of Lisk’s quote regarding the traditional rehearsal, Holmes’ text validates

the prevailing approach from the mid-twentieth century. Holmes outlines a three-phase

rehearsal process (reading rehearsals, detailed rehearsals, and final rehearsals) and gives

explanation that the detailed rehearsals are “to isolate all passages presenting problems of

technique, intonation, rhythm, or ensemble, and to concentrate on mastering them, to the

exclusion of the simpler passages.”66 For Holmes, “the success of the final rehearsals and

the concert will depend entirely on the efficiency and thoroughness with which the

technical and rhythmic foundations are laid in these rehearsals on details” which only

then “can free the players from the printed page” at which point “the conductor [can]

have the degree of control over his forces that is so vitally necessary when the orchestra

comes to grips with the problems of interpretation.”67

This process has been the default approach in teaching instrumental music in

American music education since the 1950’s. As Lisk points out:

From our earliest instruction, our teachers defined musical expression through the crescendo, decrescendo, phrase peaks, breath marks, and so on, and we were graded for lesson preparation, we did not venture beyond the written notes and directions. Although we might have had different feelings about the phrase or melody, we were obliged to follow directions. Such a learning environment stifled any imagination or expression in the student and director.68

66 Malcolm Holmes, Conducting an Amateur Orchestra, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), 40-41. 67 Ibid, 42. 68 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, (Galesville, MD: 2006), 10.

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Conscientious conductor/educators who utilize this approach may at times consider what

impact this approach has on the students. How often are the effects on the

conductor/educator taken into account? A teacher-centered approach greatly limits any

chance of creative, imaginative experience in the rehearsal for all participants. Alexandra

Pierce identifies with great clarity the unknowing danger of the “notes first, then add

interpretation and expression” process.

She writes:

One common snare is the rehearsal approach of getting the notes under control and later figuring out an interpretation. The piece is learned by translating notational signs into sounds without contacting, digesting, and bringing forth their connotations. An outer shell of accuracy may be attained in melodies and rhythms, perhaps even in articulations and dynamics. The performer has done what was asked and feels ready to turn to interpretation. But by now the piece has acquired a curious stability – a way of being played that is difficult to uproot. “Interpretation” has already taken place unawares: a superficial exterior has spread over the piece, and with each repetition the covering thickens.69

Pierce offers several approaches to learning a piece that takes into consideration both

technique and expression through bodily movement.

In more general terms, an approach that simply focuses on the objective qualities

of the music is bound to create a sterile, hollow performance. Corporon uses a verbal-

linguistic analogy to address this issue:

While correctness is one of our goals, we must realize that “making right” is not necessarily “making music.” The objective elements in music are much more easily observed and modified than the subjective feelings that music is about. It is important to understand that simply eliminating error is useless unless we find expression in the process. An over-concern with accuracy may drain the

69 Alexandra Pierce, Deepening Musical Performance through Movement: The Theory and Practice of Embodied Interpretation. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), xiii-xiv.

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spontaneity of a group, and spontaneity is the ally of great music making. At some point we must stop correcting the grammar and start reading the story. The process must be about creation, not mindless repetition.70

One of the characteristics of effective rehearsals involves an element of creativity and

expression, not only eliminating errors. Lisk addresses the overemphasis on mechanics

and technique when he says, “The quintessential goal is to move beyond mechanics to

meaning,” and that the purpose of technique is “to help students make an emotional

connection with the sound.”71 In conclusion, Pablo Casals and Nadia Boulanger speak to

the heart of Barrier #3 in the following quotes. Casals said:

The written note is like a strait jacket, whereas music, like life itself, is constant movement, continuous spontaneity, free from any restrictions. . . There are so many excellent instrumentalists who are completely obsessed by the printed note, whereas it has a very limited power to express what the music actually means.72

Boulanger stated: The tyranny of technique in part blinds us, whilst analysis that is too anatomical makes us lukewarm. It is of course excellent if, over and above this analysis, there is an impassioned love of music and thought, an impassioned love of life and the ardent desire not to lose any of the beauty spread around us in indescribable profusion.73

70 Eugene Corporon, “The Quantum Conductor”, in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 13. 71 Edward S. Lisk, “Beyond the Page: Natural Laws of Musical Expression,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 4 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2002), 47-48. 72 Joseph Maria Corredor, Conversations with Casals, (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1957). 73 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1996), 105.

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Barrier #4: Conductor Tells and Musician Does

The American educational system in general is responsible for an overemphasis

on verbal-linguistic dissemination in the classroom at all levels. Unfortunately,

conductor/educators revert to verbalizing their instruction all too quickly. Lisk refers to

this approach as “teaching by imposition.”74 In rehearsals, the results of verbalized

instruction lead to several varieties of non-productivity for both the conductor/educator

and student. “Time lost during rehearsals is lost forever and the negative results of

wasted time far exceed what is casually observed. Students often become frustrated and

discouraged, and music rehearsals become an unpleasant experience rather than ‘the best

time of the day.’”75 Not only do excessive directives on how to play waste time, but they

also preoccupy the conductor’s mind. Conductor/educators who habitually talk for long

stretches during rehearsal spend much of their time formulating what they are going to

say while music-making is occurring. Rather than responding to the actual music,

artificial feedback is given because the mind was preoccupied with formulation of words

rather than listening.

Moreover, instructing students how to play and express music inhibits their ability

to make musical decisions and teaches them there is only one way to play – the

conductor’s way. “Telling students what to do (i.e. how loud to play; push in you are

flat; etc.) removes their decision making responsibility for the musical process.”76 Many

times conductor/educators use the argument that this approach is efficient and saves time. 74 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, (Galesville, MD: 2006), 18. 75 Tim Lautzenheiser, “The Essential Element to a Successful Band: The Teacher, The Conductor, The Director, The Leader,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 57. 76 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1996), 21.

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Perhaps, in the moment, it does save some time. However, if conductor/educators do not

allow the students to learn and discover how to expressively play based on their current

level of musicianship and consequently develop their ability to make informed musical

decisions, we will inevitably have to repeat the same instructions, thus cumulatively

waste time in the long term. As students are given the freedom to make their own

decisions based on their current level of musicianship, they will solve technical and

interpretive problems, which will decrease the time a conductor/educator needs for

verbalized instruction.

On this point, it is important to convey that musical expression and independent

musical decisions can only occur when technique and comprehension of a concept are

fully realized by the student and that the conductor/educator must take time to teach the

concepts and provide feedback when necessary. This is why it is important to allow

students to play expressively and make their own decisions at their current level of

musicianship. Experienced conductor/educators understand that before students can

accurately and consistently tune their own instruments, they must first explain the

physical properties of the instrument. The students can then understand the adjustment

that needs to occur based on whether their instrument is flat or sharp.

Another illustration of this example with string players would be to teach them

how to use their bows to shape a lyrical phrase that begins piano and crescendos to forte.

Teaching them to understand how the principles of bow speed and weight into the string

are the two primary factors in shaping dynamics on a stringed instrument. Once they

understand the concept, a conductor/educator can lead them through the thought process

of what they would need to do with their bow to effectively and expressively play the

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aforementioned lyrical phrase. The initial time devoted to teaching technical concepts

that allow for more expressive playing provides students with the knowledge for applying

what they know to other repertoire in the future. It also develops their ability to make

independent musical decisions as to how they want to shape a given phrase using a

known technique. Consequently, it saves the conductor/educator time in future rehearsals

by only needing to reference the technique to correct or adjust something in the

musicians’ playing. Essentially, it is not allowing students to play however they want,

but to provide a syntax for them with a technical or musical concept. Barrier #4,

Conductor Tells and Musician Does, operates under the paradigm that the

conductor/educator needs to teach and develop musicianship consistently and by doing

so, provides the students with a structure to expressively make their own musical

decisions.

Another product of “teaching by imposition” is that it conveys a message to the

students that they do not need to be engaged while they are playing. In essence, they are

not aware that they need to take ownership of their music-making. Neurologist Dr. Frank

Wilson states:

Your training in music must from the very beginning deliberately guide you toward the goal of making your own independent judgments about the quality of your playing. There is a serious threat to your growth if this does not occur, because if your interpretation must always be approved by someone with greater knowledge, your music ultimately can only be imitative.77

To overcome passivity, one of the most beneficial things we can do for our students is to

create awareness. More often than not, disengaged students are not aware of sonic

77 Frank R. Wilson, Tone Deaf and All Thumbs: An Invitation to Music-Making for Late Bloomers and Non-Prodigies, (New York: Viking Penguin, Inc., 1986), 197-198.

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relationships in music-making and creating awareness of relationships or any aspect of

the music (i.e. cultivating musicianship) will give their senses new pathways to

experience the music.

The same is true for disengaged conductor/educators who develop habits that

inhibit their rehearsal and conducting technique. It is not that they set out to waste

rehearsal time by talking excessively, but that they are not aware they talk excessively,

allow other disturbances to take their attention away from the music, or cannot convey

the musical meaning because they do not embody the physical gesture.

The lack of effective expressive gestures in conductor/educators reverts back to

Barrier #1, lack of conductor/educator preparation. The overwhelming message from the

conducting texts and authors cited in this study encourage conductor/educators to

communicate the sound in physical gesture first. That is why preparation of the score,

conceptualizing the sound into physical movement is the most efficient means of

rehearsing. If conductor/educators thoroughly prepare the score and create the sound

ideal in the mind’s ear and transform it into gestures that represent sound, they will be

most effective on the podium. Corporon states that “performers respond negatively to a

verbal approach” and a “verbal request should only come after a gesture has failed.”78 It

should be noted that “teaching by imposition” can also occur through non-verbal

communication by means of physical gesture and facial expression. Often times during a

rehearsal, the physical gesture fails because it does not incorporate both technical and

expressive qualities. Dr. Timothy Stalter, Director of Choral Studies at the University of

Iowa, identifies this issue and states that “In order for both the expressive and technical

78 Tim Lautzenheiser, “Living Expressively Among the Symbols,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. Richard Miles. 5 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007), 45.

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elements in a gesture to be fully communicated to an ensemble, the gesture must be

simultaneously expressive and technical.”79 It is the combination of insufficient

conducting technique and lack of personal growth that contributes to ineffective non-

verbal communication in rehearsal that leads to “teaching by imposition”.

Barrier #5: The Vicious Cycle of Extrinsic Motivation

One of the most outspoken critics of American education is Brown University

professor Alfie Cohn. Continually advocating and challenging the status quo, Cohn

writes in his book Punished By Rewards, “We teach thoughtless conformity to school

rules and call the conforming student responsible. We rely on extrinsic motivators with

our students because this will produce compliance . . . A recent research project asked a

group of students what their teachers most wanted them to do . . . they didn’t say, ‘ask

thoughtful questions’ or ‘make responsible decisions.’ The students said, ‘be quiet, don’t

fool around, and get your work done on time.’”80 Instead of being actively involved in

the creative music-making process, student musicians passively play their notes without

the slightest notion of breathing life into them. The blame cannot be placed on the

students. It is the conductor/educator who is responsible for leading their students to an

intrinsic, emotional connection to what they are playing.

Eugene Corporon gives this insightful thought regarding extrinsic rewards: “All

too often in music education we rely on the number of trophies in the case or first-

division ratings received to demonstrate the value of our programs to others. We must

remember that the trophies and rating sheets remain in the rehearsal room while

79 Timothy Stalter, “The Conductor’s Process Model and its Presentation in Current Conducting Materials and Methodologies” (DMA diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1996), 31. 80 Alfie Cohn, Punished By Rewards, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1993), 164.

57

experiences go with the students.”81 Extrinsic rewards will always exist in music

programs. Lautzenheiser stresses that “it is vital these bonuses be secondary in emphasis.

If a student puts greater value on awards, chair placement, ratings, rankings, trips, or

trophies, than on the musical experience, the product takes precedence over the process.82

He reiterates that it is the conductor/educator’s responsibility to create awareness of the

depth and lasting fulfillment of intrinsic rewards. He points out that when intrinsic

rewards become the focus, students are much less likely to abandon their participation in

music and absorb disappointments with perspective:

They [students] may be outstanding students committed to the band’s success, but they consider playing their instrument as a means to the end, and when the end does not provide a satisfying extrinsic reward they choose not to continue their study. In this case everyone loses, particularly the students that quit. In contrast if intrinsic value is the mainstay of the band experience, the extrinsic disappointments are far less damaging. Of course there will be setbacks, but they should not be devastating to the individual’s relationship with band or music. In this case everyone wins, particularly the student who is ready to move on to the next level in band.83

Charles P. Schmidt, professor of music education at Indiana University,

conducted extensive studies in 2005 and 2007 that support intrinsic motivation in

secondary and undergraduate music students. He remarked:

“Secondary instrumental students and undergraduate music education majors alike appear to endorse intrinsic motivations over competitive-ego (i.e.,

81 Eugene Corporon, “Whole Brain Listening,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 2 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998), 90. 82 Tim Lautzenheiser, “The Essential Element to a Successful Band: The Teacher – The Conductor – The Director – The Leader,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 62. 83 Ibid, 63.

58

performance) orientations that emphasize norm-referenced evaluation and external evaluation.84

Unfortunately, there are many school districts where music educators do have to

validate their programs to their administrators or school boards. Participating in state

competitions for trophies and first-ratings may be necessary or even an expectation, but

the conductor/educator can participate in festivals and competitions and still cultivate an

intrinsic love of music for life. Even when extrinsic rewards are musically focused

(conductor approval for playing “perfect,” rewards for practicing, etc.),

conductor/educators are reinforcing the idea that that is what music is about. If

conductor/educators seek to create a lifelong love of music in their students, then creating

powerful, memorable, and emotional musical experiences through a comprehensive

approach seems to be an effective pedagogical approach to accomplishing this outcome.

To continue Corporon’s quote above, “It is the wonderful memories of musicing as well

as enhanced knowledge and appreciation of music that the students take with them that

define the true value of our work as teachers.”85 In order for conductor/educators to

accomplish this, improving conductor/educator preparation is necessary. Leading

conductor/educators who educate future conductor/educators continue to seek solutions

improve undergraduate conducting curricula. Conductor’s interviewed by Harris and the

recent research on conducting curricula by Chapman and Romines support creating more

opportunities for conductor/educators to experience conducting expressively through

84 Charles P. Schmidt, “Intrinsic-Mastery Motivation in Instrumental Music: Extension of a Higher Order Construct,” in the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education No. 173 (Summer, 2007): 7. 85 Eugene Corporon, “Whole Brain Listening,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 2 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998), 90.

59

embodying and conveying physical gestures effectively. By emphasizing these ideas,

many of the detrimental effects that arise from the five barriers can be lessened

significantly.

The Bottom Line

How do we combat these barriers as conductor/educators? Through the

combination of developing our own musicianship and a philosophical approach to our

teaching that seeks to “create memorable moments for the performers that contribute to

their musicianship and life experiences” and “develop[s] a perspective through

contemplation, analysis, and performance.”86 Pursuing the artistic and pedagogical

aspirations Corporon cites could have several benefits for both the student and the

ensemble.

86 Eugene Corporon, “Living Expressively Among the Symbols,” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 5. (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2004), 44.

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CHAPTER 5

THE NEED FOR MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES:

RECOGNIZING MI CONNECTIONS

There are many effective conductor/educators who bring several creative

rehearsal techniques to the podium. Through the course of researching and reading a

wide spectrum of thoughts regarding conducting, teaching musicianship, developing

expressive musicians, and cultivating expression through the process of music making,

when amalgamated, the sum pointed to an MI approach to learning and performing. One

of the objectives in this chapter is to bring the various pieces of the MI puzzle together to

create a more unified image of diverse approaches to developing musicianship in order to

create the most expressive music possible. In addition to drawing on statements and

research that supports the need for MI rehearsal techniques, this chapter will present the

results of a survey that was sent out to five band and four orchestra programs in Indiana,

Wisconsin, and Iowa. The intent of the survey was to determine: 1) what kind of learning

styles are represented by instrumental music students; 2) ascertain if any intelligences

were more prominent than others by ensemble type and individual instruments; and 3)

consider what types of rehearsal strategies would be most applicable based on the results.

Results of the Student Survey

The student survey (Table 4, pp. 61-62) was comprised of thirty-five questions

and included five statements for each of the following intelligences: visual-spatial,

verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal,

and naturalist.

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Table 4: Multiple Intelligences Student Survey

Student Interest Inventory

Grade Level (circle): Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior

Instrument:___________________________

Check all that you feel most strongly describe you.

1. ____I enjoy viewing or creating art (painting, drawing, photography, sculpture).

2. ____I have a good memory for names, places, dates, and/or trivia.

3. ____I like to exercise and/or compete in athletics.

4. ____I find myself identifying or creating patterns.

5. ____I enjoy working and/or socializing with others.

6. ____I am independent and/or strong-willed.

7. ____I would rather spend time exploring or doing something in nature (hiking,

camping, etc.) rather than spend time in a city or indoors.

8. ____I learn more effectively by looking at pictures than reading text.

9. ____I like word games and/or crossword puzzles.

10. ____I enjoy moving and/or dancing.

11. ____I like following instructions or directions (setting up a gaming system or

following a recipe).

12. ____My friends seek me out for help or advice.

13. ____I enjoy studying or working on my own.

14. ____I am interested in the study of animals, plants, and nature.

15. ____I can easily read maps, charts, graphs, or diagrams.

16. ____I enjoy reading or writing (poetry, stories, non-fiction).

17. ____I use physical gestures when explaining something to my friends.

18. ____I enjoy playing games that use a high level of strategy.

19. ____I am involved in clubs or organizations.

20. ____I am good at figuring out solutions to things without assistance.

21. ____I enjoy biology and/or discussing environmental issues.

22. ____I can accurately recall and describe visual images.

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Table 4 – Continued 23. ____I enjoy listening to the spoken word (stories, talk radio, audio books).

24. ____I can mimic or imitate other people’s physical gestures, mannerisms,

or motions.

25. ____I enjoy figuring out solutions to problems.

26. ____I find myself seeking positions of leadership.

27. ____I march to the beat of a different drummer in my style of living and learning.

28. ____I speak out for the rights of animals and/or the preservation of the earth.

29. ____I have a vivid imagination.

30. ____I like to tell stories or create rhymes or lyrics.

31. ____I am good at working with my hands (mechanics, woodworking, sewing,

sculpture, etc.).

32. ____I am interested in science or math-related subjects.

33. ____I enjoy tutoring or mentoring younger students.

34. ____I can easily express how I feel.

35. ____I enjoy sharing about my pet(s) or places and things in nature.

The survey language was adapted from surveys and questionnaires found in Thomas

Armstrong’s Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom. The total number of completed

surveys was 879 and students were asked to provide their grade level and primary

instrument in their school ensemble. Interestingly, the highest four average means for

band and orchestra were the same intelligences – interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, visual-

spatial, and intrapersonal, respectively (Figure 5.1, p. 63). The average mean for the

remaining three intelligences for band were logical-mathematical, verbal-linguistic, and

naturalist. For orchestra, the last three were verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, and

naturalist.

63

Figure 5.1: Average MI Scores by Ensemble Type

Intelligence

NaturalistIntrapersonal

InterpersonalLogical-Mathmetical

Bodily-KinestheticVerbal-Linguistic

Visual-Spatial

Mea

n

4

3

2

1

0

2.16

2.96

3.36

2.66

3.25

2.84

3.15

1.97

3.22

3.50

3.18

3.34

2.77

3.23

OrchestraBand

EnsembleType

Average MI Score by Ensemble Type

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 1/23/12 || Page 1

64

One trend in both ensemble types included a noticeable drop in the average mean

from the fifth to sixth lowest intelligence. Even though the span from highest to lowest

in band (3.50 – 1.97) was greater than the orchestra’s (3.36 – 2.16), the same noticeable

drop in mean was present in both ensemble types. When analyzing the data by

instrument, it would be logical to assume that the overall trends seen in ensemble type

would continue with a more specific breakdown by instrument (Table 5). Surprisingly,

only violin followed the ensemble trend. Most instruments had interpersonal for their

highest mean (baritone saxophone, bassoon, flute, oboe, and percussion did not).

Table 5: Average MI Scores by Instrument

Visual-Spatial

Verbal-Linguistic

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Logical-Mathematical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean alto sax 3.33 2.63 3.04 3.16 3.35 2.92 1.84

bari sax 2.50 2.30 2.80 3.10 2.80 3.40 2.20

bass 3.21 2.50 3.04 3.21 3.29 3.04 1.68

bass clarinet

3.00 2.80 2.70 3.20 3.60 3.50 3.00

bassoon 2.56 3.22 2.89 3.56 3.11 3.33 2.78

cello 3.50 3.14 3.18 3.19 3.53 3.26 2.40

clarinet 3.11 2.94 3.40 2.83 3.74 3.25 1.94

euphonium 3.43 2.57 3.30 3.35 3.57 3.26 1.87

flute 3.45 3.04 3.30 2.82 3.41 3.20 2.41

horn 3.24 2.88 3.36 3.36 3.67 3.36 2.24

oboe 4.17 2.50 3.83 3.00 3.83 3.33 3.00

percussion 3.04 2.59 3.54 3.37 3.37 3.15 1.50

tenor sax 3.14 2.29 3.05 3.00 2.90 2.95 1.90

trombone 3.42 2.94 3.36 3.36 3.52 3.45 1.94

trumpet 3.24 2.67 3.56 3.49 3.65 3.28 1.71

tuba 3.36 2.71 3.36 3.50 3.57 2.93 1.93

viola 2.85 2.75 3.03 2.49 3.03 2.88 1.83

Instrument

violin 3.10 2.80 3.38 2.41 3.42 2.85 2.24

65

After that, there is much diversity among each instrument’s score and ranking for

the intelligences. Although the primary intent of the survey was to ascertain a more

holistic view of the representation of MI’s in instrumental high school students by

ensemble type and individual instrument, there were other permutations of more specific

data that were equally as fascinating. For example, analyzing the average mean by class

(i.e., freshmen, sophomore, junior, senior) to determine how MI ranked with differing age

levels challenges the conductor/educator to consider ways of communicating to younger

students versus older students (Figure 5.2, p. 66). Appendix B provides additional survey

results.

Table 6: Conductor Questionnaire Responses

Conductor INTELLIGENCE

Visual-Spatial

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Logical-Mathematical

Verbal-Linguistic

Inter-personal

Intra-personal

Naturalist

SURVEY QUESTIONS BY INTELLIGENCE

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1

Amundson N Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y

Bechen Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N

Bordo N Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y

George Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y N N N Y Y

Littrell N Y Y N Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y

Mahr Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Smith N Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Y N Y

Stalter Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y

66

Inte

llige

nce

Nat

ural

ist

Intra

pers

onal

Inte

rper

sona

lLo

gica

l-M

athm

etic

alB

odily

-Kin

esth

etic

Ver

bal-L

ingu

istic

Vis

ual-S

patia

l

Mean

4 3 2 1 0

1.68

3.09

3.45

2.81

2.97

2.66

3.02

2.28

3.05

3.54

3.01

3.44

2.86

3.21

2.06

3.17

3.53

3.12

3.38

2.95

3.21

2.03

3.13

3.31

2.90

3.30

2.69

3.27

Sen

ior

Juni

orS

opho

mor

eFr

eshm

an

Cla

ss

Ave

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MI S

core

by

Cla

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GC

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& I

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To some degree, every conductor/educator conveys technical, interpretive, or

expressive examples in the rehearsal based on personality, creativity, and individual

learning styles. For this study, eight conductors contributed responses to a questionnaire

where they were asked to describe rehearsal techniques through the same seven MI’s that

were represented in the student survey. The conductor questionnaire can be found in

Appendix C. Table 6 (p. 65) is a snapshot view of the conductor responses in a simplistic

Yes or No tabulation.

For those conductors who gave affirmative responses to using a specific MI, the

table does not display quantitative use of each (e.g., “once in a while” versus “all the

time”). A more specific overview will be provided in narrative form. Before proceeding

with these, here are some general observations of the conductor responses. It was

fascinating to see that all the conductors utilized an aspect of each MI in their rehearsal

techniques (each to a greater or lesser degree). Secondly, it was intriguing to see which

intelligences (or specific questions for a given MI) the conductors said they did not use a

rehearsal technique.

The MI’s with the highest percentage of No’s were bodily-kinesthetic (32.1%),

interpersonal (23.8%), and visual-spatial (21.4%). In comparison with the student survey

results, student responses were highest among these three MI’s. Rather than providing

answers, this data raises more questions and further research is necessary to determine

which MI rehearsal techniques are most effective for both conductors and students in the

music making process.

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Table 7: Abbreviated Conductor Biographies

Steven Amundson is in his 28th year on the faculty of St. Olaf College where he is Professor of Music and Conductor of the St. Olaf Orchestra. He also teaches courses in music theory, ear training and conducting, and conducts the Philharmonia. Before his arrival to Minnesota, Amundson held conducting posts at the University of Virginia, Tacoma Community College, and as Music Director of the Tacoma Youth Symphony. He is the also founding conductor of the Twin Cities' based Metropolitan Symphony that he led for five years, and served as Music Director and Conductor of the Bloomington (MN) Symphony from 1984 – 1997. He has held posts on the conducting faculty for the Interlochen National Arts Camp, the Lutheran Summer Music Program and has served as guest conductor for many All-State orchestra festivals throughout the United States. Dr. Gene Bechen is in his seventh year as Associate Professor of Music and Director of Bands at St. Ambrose University. He serves as coordinator of instrumental activities, teaches courses in instrumental music education, conducts the SAU Symphonic Band, and serves as faculty advisor for SAUSOM/CMENC. His twenty-four years of teaching include instrumental music at the elementary, junior high, high school, and university levels in Iowa, Nevada, Indiana and Wisconsin. Prior to his arrival at St. Ambrose University, Dr. Bechen served as Director of Bands and coordinator of instrumental activities at Lakeland College in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. From 2000-2003, he taught at Indiana State University where he conducted the ISU Concert Band, instructed courses in instrumental music education and graduate studies, coordinated student teaching supervision, and served as faculty advisor to CMENC and Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia. Guy Victor Bordo accepted the position of Director of Orchestras at The University of Akron School of Music in May of 2005. In this role he conducts the University of Akron Symphony Orchestra and the university opera productions each year. Dr. Bordo is also in his 11th season as Music Director and Conductor of the Richmond Symphony Orchestra, in Richmond, Indiana. During his tenure with the RSO the orchestra has built a strong reputation for innovative programming and has attracted many fine professional musicians in the region. The 2006-2007 season featured the debut of a new ensemble. Along with violinists Alan Bodman and Amy Barlowe, Dr. Bordo has founded Akron Baroque, a professional ensemble including members of the Akron and Canton Symphony Orchestras that perform masterworks from the Baroque period.

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Table 7 – Continued

Vance Y. George is recognized internationally as one of the world's leading choral conductors. He has conducted throughout the U.S. as well as Europe, Australia and Asia. Highly regarded as a teacher of conducting, Vance George has taught and presented workshops and lectures at many Universities including the University of Wisconsin, Indiana University, Eastman School of Music, the San Francisco Conservatory, Cincinnati Conservatory, Kent State University and the University Berkeley—California. During his twenty-three years as conductor with the San Francisco Symphony Chorus the group was hailed as one of the finest in the world. On their behalf he accepted two Grammy awards for Best Choral Performances in 1992 and 1995 for Orff's "Carmina burana" and Brahm's "Ein deutsches Requiem." Other Grammy-winning recordings featuring the San Francisco Symphony Chorus include Stravinsky's "Pérsephone" and Mahler's third symphony. David Littrell is a University Distinguished Professor of Music at Kansas State University where he conducts the University Orchestra and teaches cello. He conducted the K-State Chamber Orchestra that toured England and Scotland in 2008 and Ireland in 2011. He is the Director of String Fling, an annual event at K-State that attracts over 600 string students from Kansas. His Gold Orchestra, comprising students in grades 5-10, has performed twice in Carnegie Hall. He was Editor of ASTA’s 2009 String Syllabus and the editor of three volumes of Teaching Music through Performance in Orchestra for GIA Publications. Dr. Littrell was the national president of the American String Teachers Association in 2002-2004. In 2007, he was named Kansas Professor of the Year by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. He adjudicates solo and orchestra contests and is a clinician and conductor throughout the United States. Timothy Mahr has conducted the St. Olaf Band since 1994, and is a professor of music at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minn., teaching courses in composition, conducting and music education. He is also the principal conductor of the Twin Cities-based Minnesota Symphonic Winds. Before joining the faculty at St. Olaf College, Mahr was Director of Bands at the University of Minnesota, Duluth, for ten years and taught instrumental music at Milaca High School in central Minnesota for three years. While in Duluth, he was the founder and conductor of the Twin Ports Wind Ensemble. He is a past-president of the North Central Division of the College Band Directors National Association (1999-2001), has served on the Board of Directors of the National Band Association (1996-98) and was a founding board member of the Minnesota Band Directors Association. His interpretations have earned the praise of notable composers such as Gian Carlo Menotti, Warren Benson, Vincent Persichetti, Ned Rorem, Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, Stephen Paulus, Libby Larsen, David Maslanka and Dan Welcher.

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Table 7 – Continued James Smith conducts the University of Wisconsin-Madison Symphony Orchestra and the Chamber Orchestra while continuing in his position as Music Director of the University Opera. Mr. Smith began his career as a clarinetist. He has performed with the Empire Sinfonietta in New York City, the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, and the Miami Philharmonic. While in New York, he appeared as soloist with the Empire Sinfonietta performing Aaron Copland's Clarinet Concerto at Lincoln Center's Alice Tully Hall with Aaron Copland conducting. An interest in conducting began while teaching at the State University of New York at Fredonia, where he co-founded a faculty-student chamber orchestra, the Fredonia Chamber Players, and began appearing as a conductor with the university's bands and orchestra. From New York, he moved to the University of Wisconsin-Madison to conduct the Wind Ensemble and the Symphonic Band. Two years later, Mr. Smith was invited by the Wisconsin Youth Symphony Orchestras to become their Music Director, a position he continues to enjoy. Timothy Stalter is Director of Choral Activities at the University of Iowa where he conducts the premier choral ensemble, Kantorei, The University of Iowa University Choir, teaches graduate advanced conducting, and oversees the graduate program in choral conducting and pedagogy. Prior to coming to the University of Iowa, Dr. Stalter was assistant director of choral activities at the University of Wisconsin—Madison, director of choral activities at the University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point, and assistant professor of music at Goshen College (IN). Dr. Stalter is particularly interested in researching issues relating to the teaching of conducting to undergraduate and graduate students, contemporary British choral music, and historical musical performance. He is a frequent guest clinician in the United States and is an active member with the American Choral Directors Association.

The conductors who contributed to this study represent decades of experience working

with musicians from the secondary level to professional musicians with various areas of

focus within the conducting profession (i.e. choral, band, orchestra). Table 7 (pp. 68-70)

provides a brief biography for each participating conductor.

Results of the Conductor Survey

For this chapter, the results of the questionnaire will be discussed in the order by

which they appear and in the final chapter, share the specific rehearsal techniques cited

71

by the conductors for each MI. Beginning with the four questions for visual-spatial, four

of the eight conductors said they did not use diagrams or other written examples

(Question 1). Of those four, Amundson did not because of no available surface in the

rehearsal room. Smith said he did not use a chalkboard to draw images or diagrams to

explain musical ideas, but rather writes in articulations/symbols into the music itself

rather than taking time in a rehearsal to address the issue. The use of providing examples

of mental imagery (Question 2) ranged from “often” to “all the time.” Examples of

mental imagery included temperatures, textures (food, fabric), colors, gradations of light

and dark, and description of actions to lead musicians to embody a particular sound (e.g.,

pizzicato sounding like raindrops).

Regarding making connections to conducting gestures (Question 3) and how to

play a given gesture, all the conductors stressed the importance of creating awareness of

what gesture was demonstrated and what it sounded like (especially when it was not the

desired attack, articulation, etc.). Amundson, Bordo, and Smith all mentioned the

importance of not explaining or discussing the gesture, but rather emphasizing the actual

gesture by demonstration. All but one conductor affirmed connecting works of art to the

representation of sound or to specific styles/periods of music (Question 4). In addition to

making period connections to art and music, some conductors also referenced visual art

to create connections of mood and character.

Of the four bodily-kinesthetic questions, the strongest response was to Question 1,

which was the only question where all the conductors responded affirmatively.

Techniques mentioned included demonstrating bowing motions, shapes of sound,

dancing, breathing, conveying facial and body expression, eurhythmics, and idiomatic

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hand gestures that represent articulations and note/phrase shaping. Question 2 elicited a

wide variety of responses from “no,” “rarely,” and “all the time.” Conductors who

responded “Yes” ask their musicians to imitate phrasal gesture, gesture breath inhalation

and exhalation, and to encourage each string section to breath as a unit. Regarding the

use of eurhythmics, mimetic activities, or having students conduct patterns (Question 3),

Smith and Mahr employed techniques of imitating gesture when working with high

school musicians, but not at the collegiate level. Bechen and George stated they have

their musicians embody length of phrase and various articulations through physical

gestures. Stalter mentioned that he uses several bodily-kinesthetic activities through

eurhythmics, giving an example of having his singers count, sing, and gesture with

asymmetrical meter. Bordo cited that he used this technique occasionally for difficult

meters.

The final question regarding bodily-kinesthetic was creating physical awareness

in players as it relates to articulation, fingerings, embouchure, ornamentation, and health

and wellness. For the conductors that use techniques related to this aspect, Mahr

emphasized physical awareness through muscle memory of fingerings for fast, technical

passages. George addressed this in terms of creating awareness of posture and spine/head

alignment and the formation of embouchure for vowels. Amundson incorporates limited

stretching during rehearsals and discussion of posture and how to move/play on a given

instrument. Similarly, Stalter stressed the importance of creating a “hyper-awareness of

what students do and why they do it as well as talking about finger movement in

ornamentation, accuracy, and articulation.”

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There were three questions given for the logical-mathematical intelligence and all

the conductors responded “Yes” to the first, which asked how they dealt with complex

musical problems. Amundson stated he dedicates time to assisting students sort out and

read difficult passages, using the example of teaching a system to figure out how to play

a half-note triplet over four beats. Additionally, he cited a similar approach to tuning

chords and understanding the adjustments that need to be made based on what partial of

the chord they are playing (root, third, fifth, etc.). Stalter averred that all concepts should

be explained and that if an analogy is employed, a musical/technical explanation must

also accompany it “in order to reach all the different types of learners and to help those

who connect in one way to see a path to other ways of looking at things.” Stalter, Bordo,

and Mahr discussed the importance of breaking down complex issues to their most basic

level to make them as accessible as possible. Bechen utilized the macro-micro-macro

approach to complex issues. Smith addressed this question in terms of explaining the

mathematical relationship of a metric modulation and basic principles of acoustics for

intonation in the winds. Littrell cited using a drone for improving and creating awareness

(i.e., the adjustments that need to be made) in regards to intonation. George suggested

repetition as one technique to assist with working through complex issues.

Although some of the conductors mentioned tuning and intonation in Question 1,

Question 2 addressed understanding the physics of sound as it relates to physical

attributes of instruments as related to intonation, sound production, and tuning. The

conductors who responded to this question provided a variety of techniques. Littrell

stressed the importance of understanding the nature of sound frequencies as they relate to

pitch relationships and in regards to tuning (i.e. eliminating beats). Both Mahr and Smith

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said they discuss the effects of intonation with specific instruments (especially winds)

and the physical environment (e.g., temperature of the room, humidity, etc.). Amundson

and Mahr cited the importance of teaching about the harmonic series and overtones and

the adjustment of partials. Stalter discussed this issue in light of teaching students the

factors that need to be considered for creating a beautiful tone and how to understand

“why one voice sounds different than another and how to manipulate their resonators and

phonation in order to sing with openness and beauty.” Bechen made reference to the

differences in Renaissance and Baroque instruments and what adjustments must be made

to interpret dynamics and the “size” of the sounds being produced.

The final question (Question 3) pertained to discussing various processes in

regards to aspects of the rehearsal process and how individual practicing relates to the

ensemble. The conductors who responded “Yes” all expressed the importance of creating

perspective in the rehearsal process (e.g., providing feedback as to what needs to be

improved for the next rehearsal). More specifically, Bordo addresses this question by

discussing with students how to practice, how to use their time, using a metronome, and

standards for practicing. Additionally, Bordo communicates goals and objectives for the

overall rehearsal and for each work. Bechen referenced the macro-micro-macro rehearsal

approach and explains how that process applies to individual practicing. Bechen and

Mahr both stated that they provide as many individual practicing strategies for their

students. Amundson said that he discusses why some rehearsal strategies work and

others do not and stressed the importance of individual practicing.

There were three verbal-linguistic questions and all the conductors responded

“Yes” to the first two. In response to Question 1 (discussing/defining musical and

75

foreign terms), all the conductors stressed the importance of students knowing all terms

to create a deeper understanding of how to interpret and play their music. Responses for

sharing historical background of composers and works (Question 2) included diverse

types of information. Amundson discusses information specific to the work

(circumstances surrounding composition, inspiration for the piece), stating that one needs

to “provide only what is really useful and ultimately inspiring.” In addition to sharing

information during rehearsal, Bordo has graduate assistants send information via email.

Stalter stressed the importance of “contextualizing the works by learning about the

composers” and that he “relates the piece at hand to other literature from the same

composer or another composer from the same time period (ten to twenty year span) in

order for the students to make connections with other literature.” Smith and Mahr both

stated that they hoped that by sharing historical information would lead the students to do

further research on their own.

The final verbal-linguistic question asked the conductors if they create

connections between literature/poetry and music. Because of the nature of choral music,

both George and Stalter discuss the meaning of the text. Stalter stated that the students

“need to know what the words mean on a surface level and what they mean from a

deeper, more analytical level.” Bechen responded that he does this “only when there is a

direct correlation to the piece.” Mahr added that he takes the opportunity to read poetry

to his ensemble during the month of April (poetry month).

Conductor responses to each of the interpersonal questions were quite varied.

Question 1 pertained to creating individual awareness to external facets of music making

(interacting with others and the conductor, understanding their part in relation to the

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music and the whole ensemble). Amundson and Bordo emphasized the importance of

being connected visually and aurally and when that occurs, there is unity in the ensemble.

Stalter commented on how he directs student “attention to the whole score, encouraging

them to look around and see how they fit into the whole.” Amundson and Mahr

addressed Question 1 from the perspective of creating personal connections among the

students in order to build a level of trust that leads to a higher level of expression and

risk-taking. Question 2 elicited information regarding cooperative and collaborative

work among students in sectional rehearsals. The conductors who responded “Yes”

incorporate sectional rehearsals into their programs and give section leaders the

responsibility of accomplishing the goals and objectives given to them by the conductor.

Amundson and Smith both cited that student led sectionals created an increased sense of

ownership of the music and of the ensemble.

The last interpersonal question asked if the conductors developed interpersonal

skills through positions of leadership within the ensemble. Amundson, Bechen, and

Mahr all stated that they elect student officers who create opportunities for other students

to connect through social and musical outlets. Bordo takes the opportunity to develop

these skills by focusing on principal players and providing more leadership opportunities

by rotating seating for each concert.

One question was given for intrapersonal intelligence, which asked the conductors

if they created an intrapersonal awareness of self-knowledge, expression, one’s sense of

purpose and values through the process of music making. Amundson, Bordo, and Littrell

emphasized the importance of individual expression through playing and physical

movement. Amundson and Littrell also commented on when conductors share and

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express their thoughts and emotions, it allows the students to feel confident to express

themselves as well. George stated that one of his goals in creating intrapersonal

awareness was to connect the music making process with spirituality.

One question was also given for the naturalist intelligence that asked conductors if

they made musical connections to any facet of nature (flora and fauna). All the

conductors who responded “Yes” stated that they only make these connections if the

given work has an obvious association with nature. Specific works that were mentioned

included Beethoven Symphony No. 6 and Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloe, and Grofé’s Grand

Canyon Suite.

Pedagogical Foundations for MI in Education

Before presenting several conductor/educator/performer thoughts that use or

imply MI rehearsal techniques, it is necessary to briefly provide a pedagogical foundation

for MI that originates with teaching music at the elementary level. The impact of

Gardner’s theory, though matriculating into secondary and collegiate curricula, is still

strongest and most prevalent at the primary level. In their text, Integrating Music into the

Elementary Classroom, Anderson and Lawrence summarize what research says to

classroom teachers about inclusion of music in schools:

A large body of literature now supports the importance of music in schools by providing evidence that:

• Music is universal in every culture and time period. • All humans possess musical ability. • Fostering musical ability to its fullest requires early nurturing of musical

potential, particularly during the years of rapid brain development.1 • The study of music provides students with an understanding of important

aspects of their culture that are unavailable through any other means.

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• There are strong links between learning in music and in other areas of the school curriculum – e.g., aspects of musical note values and fractions in mathematics, and reading words and reading music.

1 See “Special Focus: Music and the Brain,” in Music Educators Journal 87, no. 2 (September 2000), pp. 17-44.

In essence, there is increasing evidence supporting the centrality of music in the education of all children and the importance of classroom teachers in ensuring that musical study is an integral part of the school curriculum.87 The idea of “arts integration” has recently become a buzzword in education and

has found its way into elementary education degree requirements. Claudia Cornett, an

expert in arts integration, cites several studies and provides much evidence for the impact

of teaching to student learning styles in her text Creating Meaning Through Literature

and the Arts. She claims that arts integration results in the following outcomes:

1. Arts-based teaching engages a wide range of learners. 2. Arts-based teaching and learning “opens avenues.” 3. Significant relationships and improvements in reading, writing, and math were

found.88

Regarding Gardner’s MI theory, Cornett remarks:

Four of the eight intelligences are arts domains: verbal (literary arts), visual/spatial (visual art), musical, and bodily/kinesthetic (dance/drama). The other four are linked. Logical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences are used during creative problem solving in the arts, including emphasis on self- reflection and critiquing. The arts also involve high-level cooperative work with others (e.g., choirs, plays).89

87 William M. Anderson and Joy E. Lawrence, Integrating Music into the Elementary Classroom, 8th ed. (Boston: Schirmer Cenage Learning, 2010), xix. 88 Claudia E. Cornett, Creating Meaning Through Literature and the Arts: An Integration Resource for Classroom Teachers, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson-Merrill Prentice Hall, 2007), 37. 89 Ibid, 40.

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In a classroom setting, MI theory in practice creates a circuit board where

information can transport and intersect the intelligences which creates a deeper level of

understanding. Cornett asserts that “the arts offer diverse means of transformation” where

“thinking and learning is made visible, and the arts become important assessment pieces

that both delight and inform classroom audiences and participants.”90 Coil further

provides support for an MI approach by citing studies done in 1984 by Griggs and

Dunn91 that “show[ed] a positive relationship between academic achievement, beneficial

attitudes, and desirable classroom behavior and the accommodation of students’ learning

style preferences in the classroom.”92 Student achievement was higher when information

was conveyed through their strongest intelligences. This is why so many elementary and

arts-based schools employ the MI theory in their curricula.

In the search for evidence that supports using the MI theory in the educational

environment outside of music, it appears that the application of MI decreases

significantly as one progresses through middle, high school, and into post-secondary

levels. One possible conclusion and explanation for this relates to the change in learning

environment and the level of increased focus in subject area. At the primary level,

children encounter their core subjects (mathematics, science, reading, writing, history) in

one classroom, save physical education, music, and art (there are schools that have

eliminated their music and art specialists and these areas have been relegated to the

classroom teachers). In secondary and post-secondary environments, the subjects are

90 Ibid, 41. 91 Shirley A. Griggs and Rita S. Dunn, “Selected Case Studies of Learning Style Preferences,” Gifted Child Quarterly 28, no. 3 (Summer 1984): 115-119. 92 Carolyn Coil, Teaching Tools for the 21st Century, (Dayton: Pieces of Learning, 2000), 26.

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segregated into multiple classrooms. Teacher responsibility to create approaches of

dissemination for diverse learning styles becomes much higher here because of teaching

one class focused on a particular subject. In contrast, applying diverse learning

techniques are more readily accessible for teachers when the presentation of multiple

subject areas occurs in one environment.

Within the last ten years, MI theory is slowly finding its way into higher

education curricula and pedagogy. In 2003, Dr. Clyde Coreil, professor of English at

New Jersey City University, was the editor for a text entitled Multiple Intelligences:

Howard Gardner and New Methods of College Teaching. It is a compilation of essays

based on the presentations from the 5th Urban Mission Conference in 2001 where the

theme of the conference was “Innovative Teaching in Higher Education.” In the preface,

Coreil asserts that the MI theory and Howard Gardner has had “far more influence on

Kindergarten through secondary education (K-12) than those of any other researcher or

writer of the 20th-century” and that “because of a certain reluctance of professors to

discuss teaching methods, Gardner’s influence has remained centered in pre-college

education.”93 He offers a challenge to higher education that “MI also provides important

approaches to problems faced by higher education at the turn of the millennium” and

poses objective questions that create a forum for discussion regarding the possible

efficacy and use of the MI theory in post-secondary education. The questions include:

• Are there levels of education past which Gardner’s notions do not apply? • Why have so few college teachers been taught how to teach? • Has the role of the professor changed over the past 30 years? • Can students actually be expected to learn from other students?

93 Clyde Coreil ed., Multiple Intelligences: Howard Gardner and New Methods of College Teaching, (Jersey City, NJ: New Jersey City University, 2003), ix.

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• Has education moved past the idea of a physical classroom shared by a professor and students in a specific location?

• Why is teaching for tests considered so profoundly pathetic and hopelessly misguided by so many teachers?

• Should professors in higher education look to elementary and secondary teachers for help in classroom methodology?94

How does this evidence relate to the need for MI rehearsal strategies? What this

study proposes for conductor/educators are MI-based techniques for teaching

musicianship to students that lead to deeper understanding of the music, which results in

more expressive music-making. This can happen if intrinsic connections are made, and

these are obtained more rapidly and directly when the concepts being taught address each

student’s learning style(s). Applied to the MI theory, it is an approach that incorporates

the intelligences through the musical intelligence, which can more immediately connect

to the variety of learning styles of every individual in our ensembles. However,

conductor/educators are most effective when they communicate with their musicians in a

variety of ways, as long as the physical gesture remains a priority. In interviews with

several conductors, Stalter’s findings concurred with the precedence of physical gesture,

but also included using various methods of communicating:

Physical gesture should be the most frequently used tool, then demonstration, and then last (if physical gesture and demonstration fail) is explanation . . . Anne Howard Jones stated that a conductor may need to use a number of different ways to get one’s point across to the ensemble. Jones wants the student conductors “to have several solutions to a problem, understanding that not everybody hears or learns or fixes things in the same way.”95

94 Ibid. 95 Timothy Stalter, “The Conductor’s Process Model and its Presentation in Current Conducting Materials and Methodologies” (DMA diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1996), 93.

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Stalter also states that “The conductor may use language that is descriptive or encourages

psychological images.”96

In an Update article “Teacher Effectiveness in the Performance Classroom,”

Manthei and Roth present information that identifies attributes of effective

conductor/educators:

Saunders and Worthington found that aside from a high level of musical competencies, the successful music educator possesses four skills. 1. The ability to plan, both on paper and interactively, in the classroom setting. 2. The ability to format and pace lessons in a way that maximizes learning and

minimizes frustration. 3. The ability to communicate with students in a variety of ways that enhance

learning. 4. The ability to maintain a positive classroom atmosphere where expectations

are high and students are constantly reinforced in their progress.97

If communication through a variety of ways is a valued attribute, how and what do we

communicate?

Validating the Need for More Than Rehearsing the Music

This segment presents various thoughts from professional

conductor/educator/performers in academia and the professional world, who through their

own pedagogy use or address MI techniques. MI can be applied at any level, even

professional orchestras. In the preface to his book The Composer’s Advocate: A Radical

Orthodoxy for Musicians, Erich Leinsdorf states:

All too many members of our profession should know more about music. They have been trained to learn only those parts of a work written for their own instruments. It is as though they were espionage agents allowed to know only a

96 Ibid, 155. 97 Manthei and Roth, “Teacher Effectiveness in the Performance Classroom,” Update, 8 (2), 26-29.

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tiny part of a grand strategic design. If it were in my power to arrange, every musician would possess and know the full score of every piece played and thereby come to appreciate wholly the beauty that he helps to create. Only in recent years have I come to understand as a conductor that a short explanation of the content and sense of the music to be performed can make rehearsals more meaningful for most participants. Only in recent years have I realized how much a conductor can and should tell, simply because it is not common knowledge among the musicians.98

In a conversation with Dr. William LaRue Jones, Director of Orchestral Studies at the

University of Iowa in June of 2011, Dr. Jones spoke to the benefits of sharing

information about the composer’s life and history of the composition throughout a given

rehearsal cycle. He averred that illuminating these aspects of a composition saved at

least the equivalent of one to two rehearsals.

As to addressing expression in the rehearsal, Lisk writes, “The critical ingredient

in communicating feeling is how a teacher’s instructional techniques access or release the

individual’s interpretation of feeling in a musical statement.”99 Specifically referencing

Gardner’s theory in relation to playing an instrument and how it impacts rehearsal

pedagogy, Lisk states:

The implications of this theory are vast and encompass all disciplines of learning especially when considering the complexities of playing a musical instrument within the framework of multiple intelligences. The extensive lists of publications now available by Howard Gardner are perhaps some of the most important textbooks available for instrumental music educators. The possibilities and implications of multiple intelligences and instrumental music offer many new considerations for the conductor/educator in a rehearsal setting.100

98 Erich Leinsdorf, The Composer’s Advocate: A Radical Orthodoxy for Musicians. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), vii-viii. 99 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1996), 8. 100 Ibid, 12.

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Corporon addresses another facet of rehearsal efficacy that suggests an MI

approach (Table 8).101 Translated into MI vernacular, Corporon’s learning process

suggests the following intelligences: bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical,

intrapersonal, and visual-spatial.

Table 8: A Balanced Learning Process OBJECTIVE Craft

Development Technical – Work for the Body Intellectual – Work for the Mind

Teach Skill

SUBJECTIVE Inspiration Growth

Musical – Work for the Soul Personal – Work for the Heart

Teach Musicianship

He explains what this approach entails:

Our approach must allow all four of these areas to grow evenly. The growth environment must be nurturing and facilitate the goal of teaching musical concepts which create knowledgeable and feelingful performers. The process must encourage creativity and stimulate curiosity. Some bit of knowledge must be transferred every day. The conscientious accumulation of meaningful information can lead us to our expressive selves.102

Later in the article, he provides another facet of integrating objective-subjective elements

into the rehearsal that lead “to improving their [the students] ability to identify and

understand musical relationships (Table 9).103 Utilizing words like see, imagine, and feel

point to verbal-linguistic (reading notation), visual-spatial (creating sound imagery), and

intrapersonal (intention of/creating feeling). Resultant relationships from the objective-

101 Eugene Corporon, “The Quantum Conductor,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 12. 102 Ibid. 103 Ibid, 23.

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subjective require logical-mathematical (exploring relationships, understanding how

concepts work together, identifying patterns), intrapersonal/interpersonal (an

individual’s/instrument’s relationship to the ensemble intrinsically and extrinsically), and

visual-spatial (seeing/constructing formal elements, compositional levels – linear,

horizontal, diagonal).

Table 9: Eugene Corporon’s Objective-Subjective Formula

In addition to creating relationships from within the music, using MI to find

connections to the music via non-musical avenues also creates musicianship and better

musicing. Ernest L. Boyer states:

Children not only need to know the isolated facts; they need to see connections that bridge the disciplines and discover how ideas are connected. Without a comprehension of larger patterns, we prepare our students not for wisdom but for a game of Trivial Pursuit.104

104 Richard Miles, “Teaching Music from a Historical Perspective,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 2 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998), 37.

INSTRUCTIONS UNDERSTANDING

OBJECTIVE + SUBJECTIVE = RELATIONSHIPS See Feel Cause – Effect Remember Hear Whole – Part Understand Imagine Foreground – Background Form – Function Unity – Variety Horizontal – Vertical – Diagonal Comparison – Contrast Successive – Simultaneous Replicate Product – Create Interpretation

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Richard Miles explains the importance of incorporating “historical chronology” as

part of students’ music education and learning repertoire. He states, “Making

connections to other disciplines and cultures through a historical perspective can lead to

deeper valuing, understanding, and fulfillment in music making.”105 Examples of MI

application to interdisciplinary instruction in the rehearsal setting could lead to a number

of possibilities.

Corporon creates a visual-spatial analogy by likening the process of making

music to visual art and a painter’s canvas. He describes:

Music has often been called a painting in sound on a canvas of silence framed by the element of time. In painting, even though the canvas is flat, the illusions of depth and dimension are very strong. Music has a similar analogy. I believe that we can create a multidimensional sound canvas that can envelop the listener. We can move sound around the room much the way a painter can move characters around on the canvas.106

For conductor/educators, Corporon suggests the use of charting a piece of music so that

one can acquire a holistic sense of the form and phrasing of a work. Not only does this

provide a visual representation, but it also allows the conductor to convey the form and

direction of the music to the ensemble.

In educational environments, teacher assessment of student growth and student

self-assessment is another facet of developing expressive musicians. Through the process

of Socratic questioning one utilizes both interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences.

105 Ibid. 106 Eugene Corporon, “Whole Brain Listening,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 2 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1998), 81.

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Corporon provides an example of questions a conductor might use following a rehearsal

or performance to both assess growth and set new goals. The questions include:

1. What did you like about your performance? 2. Is there still room for improvement? 3. Do you think any performance can be absolutely perfect? 4. If perfection is an impossible goal, what is the goal? 5. Did you experience something in this performance that was new? 6. Did you hear something in the music that was new? 7. Did you see anything that you hadn’t noticed before? 8. Did you remember things that you forgot you knew? 9. Did you use your imagination to create images? 10. Were you moved by this experience? 11. Do you think you moved the audience? 12. Did you feel connected to your fellow musicians? 13. Do you have any other comments or thoughts about this experience? 14. What do you think you will remember most about this experience ten years

from now?107 Several of these questions address the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and visual-spatial

intelligences. By leading our students through this type of evaluative and contemplative

process, Corporon concludes that “increasing the depth of our musicianship gives us the

ability to express our feelings while leading others to discover theirs.”108

Several conductor/educators incorporate the verbal-linguistic intelligence by

drawing a parallel between language and music. Christine Rutledge, Professor of Viola

at the University of Iowa (The Violist’s Handbook)109 and Lisk (The Creative Director:

The Intangibles of Music Performance) provide extensive lists of descriptive words for

conveying meaning and expression in music. Lisk describes an interpretive exercise that

107 Eugene Corporon, “The Quantum Conductor,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 1 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 1997), 24-25. 108 Ibid, 26. 109 Christine Rutledge, The Violist’s Handbook, (Iowa City: Linnet Press Editions, 2007).

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he uses with students where poetry (verbal-linguistic) becomes the means for teaching

expression. He has each student read the same prosody and points out how each

individual’s inflection, tempo, pitch variations, and feelings were expressed differently.

Lisk then makes the connection to create understanding with a musical phrase by citing

the similarities between musical and grammatical structures.

Lisk asserts that movement (bodily-kinesthetic) is a necessary ingredient to

expression and reinforces his point with a statement from composer Roger Sessions:

Movement is the primary tenet of expressive musicing. Composer Roger Sessions writes eloquently on the subject of movement in The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, Listener:

The basic ingredient of music is not so much sound as movement . . . I would even go a step farther, and say that music is significant for us as human beings principally because it embodies movement of a specifically human type that goes to the roots of our being and takes shape in the inner gestures which embody our deepest and most intimate responses.

The importance of natural and fluid movements from the conductor that “. . .take shape in the inner gestures which embody our deepest and most intimate responses . . “ (to the messages) cannot be over-stressed.110

Lisk also speaks to the importance of movement for conductors and provides an exercise

for conductor/educators to develop more expressive and interpretive gestures. The goal

of “Free Form Movement” is to “[develop] an individual uniqueness for musical sense

and interpretation rather than imitating someone else’s movements.”111 Essentially, it is a

way for conductor/educators to freely embody the sound, style, articulation, and

110 Edward S. Lisk, “Beyond the Page: Natural Laws of Musical Expression,” In Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 4 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2002), 59. 111 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance, (Ft. Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1996), 98.

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expression of music away from the printed score through physical gesture in order to

communicate more effectively with their ensemble and expand their expressive and

interpretive gestures.

In the realm of visual-spatial intelligence, Lisk utilizes a visualization technique

for developing consistent tone production and breath support for wind players with

sustained tones. He suggests for students that struggle with “pitch fluctuations or shaking

much like an uncontrolled vibrato, simply tell the student to imagine a long, horizontal

line, much like the edge of a ruler; close their eyes and sustain the sound down or along

this imagined straight line or edge.”112 Lisk states the result of this technique:

“visualization process provides a picture for the brain to see an imagined straight line or edge of a ruler. The brain then maintains the embouchure muscle control and breath support to produce a steady unchanging pitch. . . This concept allows the brain to control the whole process of a long sustained tone and not any one specific muscle or area as our conventional teaching techniques so often do.”113

Corporon, in discussing traits of conductor/educators being “responsible

expressionists,” addresses both the logical-mathematical (conceptualization/abstract

thinking) and visual-spatial intelligences in this statement regarding contributing factors

to expression. He states:

Shape, direction, emphasis, and scoring are among the most important. Shape deals with the vertical aspects of music, the rise and fall of the line created by phrase and melodic contour. Direction deals with the horizontal aspects of music, the expansion and contraction created by moving toward or away from perceived or implied goals. Emphasis deals with the saggital aspects of music, the weight

112 Ibid, 52. 113 Ibid.

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and stress of the various moments of impact. Scoring deals with the diagonal textures and the colorization of the music.114

Pierce incorporates several MI approaches into the practice techniques she

provides in her book, Deepening Musical Performance through Movement (bodily-

kinesthetic is at the forefront). At the onset of the book, Pierce cites ten elements of

music that possess “a distinct kinetic quality that can be vitalized by movement.”115 To

paraphrase Pierce, these elements include harmonic motion (as it relates to finality and

cadential function), melodic contour and shaping (particularly in regards to the physical

movement of playing/singing), the ictus of beat and measure and the enactment of

physical gesture (energy into and away from the ictus), “coalescence into chords and

middleground rhythmic vitality,” the motion and interaction of structural levels within a

phrase, musical climax/height of a phrase (demonstrated by physical motion),

reverberation and juncture which allow gestures to flow through and rest between

phrases, the expression of affect as it applies to the whole body, and the broad spectrum

of tones of voice and character.116 In Pierce’s more specific explanations of these

concepts, particularly the process she has devised for tones of voice, there are several MI

connections. In tones of voice, the performer begins with a verbal-linguistic approach,

For a given musical passage, one thinks of a descriptive word that embodies the music.

When selected, the performer speaks the word until the character or emotion of the word

is embodied physically. This includes facial expression, voice inflection, and eventually,

114 Eugene Corporon, “Fervor, Focus, Flow, and Feeling: ‘Making an Emotional Connection,’” in Teaching Music through Performance in Band, ed. by Richard Miles. 3 (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2000), 97. 115 Alexandra Pierce, Deepening Musical Performance through Movement: The Theory and Practice of Embodied Interpretation, (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 3. 116 Ibid, 3-4.

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develops as a full-bodied response as the performer plays the passage. In this abbreviated

process, verbal-linguistic (selecting a word), intrapersonal (self-awareness of feeling),

visual-spatial (becoming aware of how the word feels or looks externally), and bodily-

kinesthetic (transferring the character and emotion into sound) intelligences are

employed.

In addition to presenting the need for diverse approaches using MI as a point of

departure, a secondary emphasis was to create an awareness of how prevalent MI is in the

process of learning and performing music expressively. Bringing together the numerous

ideas and thoughts of conductor/educators and performers in this chapter has created an

MI mosaic that can serve as a creative springboard for conductor/educators in developing

their own rehearsal techniques. The final chapter of this essay will demonstrate what this

MI mosaic looks like by providing several techniques for each intelligence.

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CHAPTER 6

APPLYING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES TO REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES

Assessment of Student Learning Styles

Before providing a model for incorporating pedagogical techniques that address

multiple learning styles, assessment methods of student’s MI can assist the

conductor/educator in determining what types of intelligences the students possess.

When this information is gathered, a conductor/educator can begin to infuse examples

into the rehearsal. One of the most effective ways of identifying students’ learning styles

is asking questions. For conductor/educators at the secondary level, perhaps the most

effective way to do this is by taking time to know the students better individually. This

can be done through individual lessons or in social interactions. Discovering where their

interests lie can lead you to their predispositions toward certain intelligences. Armstrong

also suggests:

One good way to identify students’ most highly developed intelligences is to observe how they misbehave in class. The strongly linguistic student will be talking out of turn, the highly spatial student will be doodling or daydreaming, the interpersonally inclined student will be socializing, the bodily-kinesthetic student will be fidgeting, and the naturalistically engaged student will bring an animal to class without permission!117 Another approach might be to create a written survey (similar to the one

distributed for this study) and have the students complete it at the beginning of the school

year. Thirdly, a conductor can gain further insight into students’ affinities to certain

intelligences through auditions and rehearsal observation. Table 10 (p. 93) provides

117 Thomas Armstrong, Multiple Intelligences In The Classroom (Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2000), 8-9.

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several questions a conductor might consider when observing a student in an audition or

working with them in a rehearsal or lesson.

Table 10: Questions for Student Observation

Once a student’s learning styles have been realized, conductor/educators can

begin to apply teaching strategies to help expedite learning and increase musicianship.

The final section of this chapter will provide a categorized list of MI rehearsal strategies

that is a culmination of the conductor/educator/performer techniques cited in previous

chapters, ideas from the conductor/educators who contributed to this study, and strategies

from the other resources used in this study . It is important to stress that these rehearsal

techniques only scratch the surface of possibilities and that conductor/educators should

seek to create rehearsal techniques that work for them and their students.

Before sharing MI rehearsal techniques, Lisk’s definition of the MI’s used in this

study will be reiterated (Table 11, p. 94).

• What are the playing strengths of this student? • Is the student a strong sight-reader? • Can this student clearly verbalize how he/she wants something to

sound? • Does this student use imagery or analogies when describing music? • Does this student prefer to look at the music or play from memory? • Does this student gesture physically when playing? • Can this student analyze rhythms, phrases, or harmonic progressions

quickly? • Can this student identify or imitate bodily-kinesthetic or coordination

issues?

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Table 11: Edward Lisk’s Multiple Intelligences Definitions

118 Edward S. Lisk, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2006), 96-97.

1. Musical Intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and

appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Gardner, musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.

2. Visual-Spatial Intelligence is the language of shapes, images, patterns, designs,

color, textures, pictures, visual symbols, and “inner seeing,” involving such things as active imagination, pretending, and visualizations.

3. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence is the language of physical movement and involves

such things as creative and interpretive dance, drama, mime, conducting, playing a musical instrument, role play, gesture, body language, facial expression, physical games, and exercise.

4. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems

logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Gardner’s words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

5. Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence involves the sensitivity to spoken and written

language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. Writers, poets, lawyers, and speakers are among those that Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the

intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders, and counselors have high interpersonal intelligence.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence is the language of introspection and awareness of

internal aspects of the self, including awareness of one’s own feelings, intuitions, and thinking processes. Awareness and control of our thinking as we perform specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what we are doing (metacognition). Most of my Alternative Rehearsal Techniques are based on metacognition.

8. Naturalist Intelligence is the language of natural patterns, flora, fauna, species

groupings, external and internal sensory experience of the natural world, and all manner of encounters with plants, animals, water, weather, and inorganic matter, from the microscopic world to what can be seen with the naked eye.118

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The musical intelligence has also been included as a reminder to the frame of reference

from which this study encompasses the other seven intelligences.

Categorization and Description of MI Rehearsal Strategies

At the end of Chapter Two, Lisk’s outline of rehearsal strategies were mentioned

as they related to each MI. As a point of departure, this section will begin with the

discussion of rehearsal strategies for each intelligence with the corresponding outline

from Lisk’s publication, The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader, pages 98-

102. His outline provides excellent considerations for MI in the instrumental ensemble

rehearsal. The seven MI’s used in this study have been divided into two sub-groups –

Interpersonal/Intrapersonal and Visual-Spatial/Bodily-Kinesthetic/Verbal-

Linguistic/Logical-Mathematical/Naturalist. The rationale for this is twofold: 1)

Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences tend to begin with a human element

(conductor to music, conductor to individual students or the ensemble, students to music,

student to student, section to section, or students and themselves) whereas the strategies

for the latter five MI’s originate from either the music itself or other external ideas; 2)

although all the MI’s have an application throughout the music-making process,

interpersonal/intrapersonal rehearsal strategies have an overriding, omnipresent

application, while the other five have more idiosyncratic applications of rehearsal

techniques that are specific to, but not limited to, composer, composition, style period

(e.g., Baroque, Classical, Romantic, etc.) articulation, character, text, program/narrative,

and meter. Following each outline for those MI in the second sub-group a list of general

considerations is provided for each intelligence.

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Interpersonal

For interpersonal strategies, there is an important caveat that is necessary for

cultivating effective communication and participation on the journey to expressive music-

making.

Table 12: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

I. Interpersonal: working cooperatively in a group; effective verbal/non-verbal communication; sensitive to other’s moods, temperaments, and feelings.

a. Ensemble (group) i. Balance, blend, intonation

1. Sensitive to others, harmonious interaction 2. Give and take between individuals and group 3. Becoming and integral part of a larger whole

a. Individual: requires awareness that compliments the sensitivity of the section

b. Section awareness: contributes to the sensitivity/excellence of the full ensemble

c. Full ensemble awareness: complementing ensemble tone quality as projected to the listener

ii. Expressive style, characteristic performance expectations 1. Phrasing, dynamics, articulation: awareness of

subtleties, nuance and inflection through voice and instrument

2. Nuance and inflection of expressive rhythmic patterns for musical comprehension by performer and audience

3. Composer’s intent a. Historical importance b. Interpretation and stylistic elements

b. Sectional rehearsals i. Cooperative learning: assisting those in section

ii. Collaborating skills iii. Consensus-building skills: interpretation, style, and

characteristic performance c. Principal player or section leader responsibilities

i. Leadership: personality, sensitive to others, empathy ii. Understanding group process

iii. Organization and management skills

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Frederick Harris, Jr., author of Conducting With Feeling states:

In any personal relationship, a level of trust must be established; a conductor’s relationship with an ensemble is no different. Trust is established through a conductor’s consistent awareness and recognition of the individual personalities within an ensemble and through his or her own willingness to share personal feelings with the musicians. . . Conductors must have a clear vision of how a work should sound but it is important that they involve the musicians’ musical ideas in the realization of a piece. This approach not only provides the musicians with a sense of ownership of the overall musical experience but also adds an extra element of excitement to music-making in general. In an environment where people feel free to appropriately express themselves they often become more integrated with and sensitive to the other members of the ensemble.119

Amundson discussed several ways he instills ownership in his orchestra through

interpersonal connections.

My officers help a lot with this in terms of setting up opportunities for students to really connect with and get to know each other well. We stress looking not only at the conductor, but at each other during rehearsals and performances. Making these connections are really great for helping students think way beyond their part and their section. Listening should be stressed more than watching. Chamber music on a large scale! This concept is undoubtedly the most important one in terms of helping the ensemble truly play as one… not a bunch of individuals or sections, but as a full ensemble, inevitably all connected to the whole and all very interdependent on one another.

Bordo also stressed the importance of students being “connected visually as well as

aurally.” Amundson, Bechen, and Mahr all appoint student officers within their

ensembles and cite that it significantly contributes to the sense of student ownership.

Amundson, Mahr, and Smith also commented on how consistent, student-led sectional

rehearsals perpetuated the development of interpersonal connections. Bordo and Smith

119 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 39.

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encourage their principal players to assume leadership roles and to lead in a collaborative

way.

There are various examples of interpersonal techniques that are vital to building

an expressive music-making atmosphere. The first is imparting the idea that every

individual of the ensemble is valuable. For winds and percussion, this is an easier thing

to convey with orchestral music, as each player usually has a unique part. It is more

challenging to convince strings of this notion. One way to cultivate this among string

players is to encourage each player to lead from wherever they sit within the section.

Physical gesture (i.e., moving while playing) can vastly improve the ensemble’s sense of

connection with others in their section and the whole ensemble. Rotating string seating

for each concert can reinforce this idea. In concerto/aria works, one could create

interpersonal connections with the soloist and orchestra, drawing the orchestra’s attention

to the soloist’s sense of style, nuance, phrasing, etc. and ask them to match these aspects

of expression. Lastly, providing background of composer and composition through the

rehearsal process allows the students to connect to the composer and the work on their

own terms.

Intrapersonal

Many conductor/educators feel the heart of musical expression resides in the soul

and the embodiment of emotion. In the intrapersonal realm, the primary goal is to create

an environment where each member of the ensemble connects with the music on this

level. In Conducting With Feeling, Malcolm Rowell Jr., Director of Bands at the

University of Massachusetts cited the important connection of communicating musical

feeling and the soul.

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Table 13: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

I. Intrapersonal: awareness and expression of different feelings;

self-knowledge; sensitive to one’s own values; purpose; feelings; concentration of mind

a. Metacognition: knowledge about your own thoughts and the factors that influence your thinking. (Alternative Rehearsal Techniques are based upon metacognition.)

i. Concept formation: tone quality, phrasing, and expressive elements

ii. Sensitive to thought and thinking process 1. Individual, section, full ensemble 2. Intensity and energy of musical thought and phrases

iii. Application of knowledge and skill: spontaneous reaction to keys, chords, harmonic content, rhythm patterns

b. Higher-order thinking and reasoning i. Comparing, contrasting

1. Tone quality: balance, blend, and intonation 2. Historic style, harmonic content, rhythm patterns 3. Interpretation: composer’s intentions

ii. Analyzing 1. Form, style, harmonic content, key tonality, rhythm

patterns 2. Personal likes/dislikes (phrasing, expressive elements,

harmonic content) c. Concentration of the mind

i. Discipline of duration 1. Single-point focus for the length or duration of

composition (30 sec. to 30 min.) 2. Controlling all musical performance elements

(individual, section, full ensemble) ii. Application of musical knowledge and skill: spontaneous

reaction to keys, chords, harmonic content, rhythms d. Awareness and expression of different feelings: implications of a

melodic line, rhythm patterns, harmonic content, style, characteristic and interpretive freedom – nonmechanical and free to express inner feeling and emotions, uninhibited (musical personality)

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Rowell stated:

Ultimately, the only things that survive are the soul and the spirit. It’s important to me to spend my life teaching about the soul and nourishing the soul. You will one day need to replace your shoes and your shirt, your teeth and your hair will fall out. But the spirit and the soul will live forever. That’s the very essence of what we do [in music] and that is why Beethoven lives on, why Bach lives on, why Mahler, Copland, and all of these great composers live on.120

In connection with the soul, Vance George commented on how he relates the music

making process to spirituality. Bordo and Littrell both stated that they discuss playing

passionately from within and how the outward expression of moving are important

aspects of this. Bechen mentioned having his students write a letter expressing aspects of

music-making as it relates to expression of feelings/emotions, their sense of purpose and

values through the process of music making. Stalter approaches intrapersonal

connections “through the texts, first and foremost, and also through teaching the

ensemble members what it is to be responsible to the music.” Both Amundson and Mahr

cited the importance of regular meetings (called devotions) before concerts that are led by

senior members of the ensemble. Amundson elaborated regarding devotions:

Students lead these, and it is a chance to explore our feelings and emotions and our true purpose in performing. This is the main opportunity for student involvement in this. However, I speak about these things regularly at rehearsal. The older I get, the more convinced I am that talking with our ensembles about the true purpose and value of making music is critical to our success. Students really want to fully engage and express themselves, and what better outlet is there than community music-making. It’s not just about expressing their personal selves, it’s about a shared experience where we have the opportunity to collectively express our thoughts and emotions, and have that wonderful bonding experience that can happen when we become vulnerable enough to share our true selves. If we conductors can do this honestly, our students know they are free to do this too.

120 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 41.

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In the rehearsal, “Rachleff (Music Director for the Shepherd School Orchestra at

Rice University) discussed the conductor’s interaction with the musicians: ‘First, you

have to give the musicians the space to form their own feelings. That’s why nonverbal

communication is the deepest because, hopefully, they’re connecting to your body

language and you’re listening to what they’re saying with their instruments.’”121

Recalling Corporon’s Objective-Subjective Formula from Chapter 5,

conductor/educators can create intrapersonal moments in every rehearsal (from the first

rehearsal to the dress rehearsal) by bringing attention and challenging the students with

finding a personal and emotional connection to the music on some level and express that

musically. This could include connections to the composer’s life (sympathetic or

empathetic), the inspiration for the work itself, or musical elements (rhythm, harmony,

melody, dissonance, consonance, climax, resolution, conflict, narrative). Ideally, the

ultimate desire is for the intrapersonal connection to grow stronger and deeper so that the

strongest representation and expression of that work is at its highest point, both for the

individual and the ensemble. Through nurturing the intrapersonal intelligence, the

students learn how to more readily do this on their own in rehearsal and their applied

studies. Additionally, the students realize that the connection between music and

performer does not end with a performance, but grows as part of a lifelong continuum in

their participation in music.

Visual-Spatial

In addition to Lisk’s considerations in Table 14 (p. 102), other general visual-

spatial techniques include:

121 Ibid, 38.

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• Drawing visual images to demonstrate phrasing, attacks, decay, releases, note shaping

• Conductors varying facial expression to reflect character of music • Using specific analogies to non-musical ideas to help connect with or improve the

musical content • Bowing styles: Draw a diagram on the board showing the trajectory shape of the

bow across the string which can assist the student by seeing what each bow stroke looks like

• Drawing a diagram showing the trajectory that air needs to travel for wind instruments, especially brass instruments

• Diagram general or specific formal structures of works or movements (sonata, minuet and trio, rondo, etc.)

• Referencing works of visual art/sculpture to specific music periods or works • Discussing the connection between what a conducting gesture looks like and what

the corresponding sound should be

Table 14: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

In Harris’s interview with Professor of Music Emeritus at Luther College, Westin Noble,

Noble “listed several examples of using imagery to share musical feeling: ‘I talk about

word painting . . . What colors would you use if you were painting a picture? How much

III. Visual-Spatial: visual thinking; keen observation; mental images;

graphic representation; recognizing relationships of objects; a sense of “whole”

a. Guided imagery, creating visual relationships, mental images i. Images of tone quality, balance, blend, intonation

1. Image of full ensemble tone quality, articulation clarity, dynamic colors

2. Image of section tone quality, articulation clarity, dynamic colors

3. Rhythm patterns: mental response to pattern ii. Complex relationships: searching for rhythm and tonal

patterns, intervals, chord qualities iii. Images connect bits and pieces – mind’s eye and mind’s

ear: metaphors

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lighting is on the stage? That’s one of the most effective [descriptive questions] if I am

trying to teach dynamics’.”122 Harris also suggests that using the Socratic method can

engage a student’s imagination. When he asked Noble how he gets students to connect

emotionally to the music “in their own way, Noble responded:

Often I won’t tell them what I think and try to elicit their response. “What does this mean to you? What does this say to you?” They must know that whatever they say is right. They are not wrong, therefore it gives them the courage to speak up. . . . They may have a totally different interpretation from mine or the other students and they hear these varied responses. Then I’ll say, “Can you find a common thread here, a common feeling?” If they can’t I’ll help them out. . . . How do you involve them? You give them that challenge.123

All the conductors who participated in the conductor survey provided a plethora

of visual-spatial strategies. Bechen, George, Littrell, Mahr, and Stalter stated they used

some form of written examples. Stalter provided detailed description of a few examples:

For instance, this past semester I have been trying to emphasize how I want them [the students] to view and execute a dotted note followed by the resulting small note (dotted quarter followed by an eighth note) and so I called it the AXIOM and wrote an X, representing the dotted note, and a Y, representing the “little” note. I ask them what is missing (a space between the X and Y, an accent over the little note, the dot following the X). My point in using the X/Y is so they can relate this “axiom” to other denominations (dotted eighth followed by a sixteenth, etc.). Another time I drew a staff and wrote random notes on it (they didn’t matter), drew a sun above the staff and a potted plant below and told them that if they persist in singing everything legato and loud, connecting every single note to the next, they would block out the light from the sun and kill the plant. These types of illustrations really work in conjunction with the intellectual explanations.

Bechen distributes handouts that “show the principles behind the McBeth Balance

Pyramid” and another “that uses geographic shapes to show differences in attacks and

122 Ibid, 44. 123 Ibid.

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releases.” George said he shows lists of IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), diagrams

of form, phrasal structure, key relationships, and rhythm patterns. All the conductors said

they used various techniques for mental imagery. Bordo stated he used several

metaphors involving food, temperatures, and colors. Amundson correlated water drops to

different articulations and using light and dark images to enhance communication with

students. Bechen stated that he tries “to ‘paint’ pictures visually, by

explaining/describing a place and then linking it to an emotion.” Stalter’s example of

utilizing mental imagery read:

One example is this past semester I wanted a very dark and hollow sound on the word “mortuorum” and so I asked for them to pretend that they were singing in a very big barrel. I use gestures to teach articulation, tone, diction, phrases, technique, and arrival points in a phrase/section/composition. These gestures are of course kinesthetic as well as visual, so this may not speak specifically to your question. In addition (and maybe this does not belong here), if notes are not accurate and I hear “general” pitch, but not “specific” pitches, then I sometimes tell them that they are “playing darts with a watermelon” in order to get them to understand that they need to sing in the middle of the pitch with pin-point precision, and not sing some semblance of a pitch. This really helps alert them to their sloppiness.

As to discussing what a conducting gesture looks like and how the students

interpret it, Stalter said he has his students imitate the gesture and sing simultaneously so

that “they can easily make direct connections to what you are doing when you conduct.

Awareness is everything.” Bechen will contrast two gestures, the first being the desired

sound, followed by one that is not the desired sound. He stated he demonstrates this non-

verbally so that the students can attentively focus on the gesture. All the conductors said

they reference works of art or sculpture when appropriate. Several use visual art to create

connections with periods of music (e.g. Impressionism and obscured lines/images, the

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symmetry, transparency, sophistication of eighteenth century paintings with Classical

repertoire). Programmatic or narrative works lend themselves ideally to visual-spatial

examples, as they give a direct path for a student to formulate their own mental image.

Finally, one effective technique some conductor/educators employ at the

secondary level is altering the physical arrangement of the rehearsal room. Having the

ensemble sitting in a circle where students are next to a player from another section

creates a heightened sense of awareness and more holistic understanding of the piece. A

related idea would be to form two concentric circles of students, the outer one facing in

and the inner one facing out. The inner circle would be those instruments that have the

theme and the outer group would be those playing the accompaniment. The effect of this

strategy works on multiple levels. First, it creates a visual connection for the students to

help them see which instruments have the primary material so that when they return to

their standard ensemble arrangement, they can visualize those instruments playing that

theme. It provides the conductor/educator an opportunity to incorporate the verbal-

linguistic intelligence by introducing the musical terms of Haupstimme and

Nebenstimme. Lastly, the spatial placement creates an interpersonal connection by

having the students face one another.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Here are some additional considerations for bodily-kinesthetic:

• Encourage students to move within the bounds of good taste to enhance expressivity

• Full ensemble: Working on coordination of breathing together • String players: Coordination of bow arm with left hand (fingerings) and showing

what each bow stroke looks like, allowing the students to try it, and solidifying understanding with feeling the difference of each stroke and recognizing how each sounds

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• Creating awareness of physical health, conveying the idea of “musical athletes” and that musicians must take the necessary steps to stretch, warm-up, cool down, in order to prevent injury

• Having students gesture shapes of sounds, conduct difficult meters (odd, mixed)

Table 15: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

Littrell and Mahr demonstrate various dance styles for their ensembles to convey

how the music should reflect the dance. Amundson and Smith both demonstrate bowing

styles for their string players. George and Stalter both incorporate the use of

eurhythmics. George also utilizes elements of Alexander technique and Feldenkrais to

address posture as well as having his singers “lift their upper body out of their lower body

IV. Bodily-Kinesthetic: control of one’s body and objects; timing;

trained responses that function like reflexes; the mind and body connection

a. Control of body movements i. Instruments: technical facility/skill

1. Mind/body connection a. Articulation b. Scales (finger feeling of “key”)

ii. Command of routines and patterns (practice) 1. Memorization of solo literature, scales 2. Warm-up exercises 3. Complex fingering patterns, trills, embellishments

b. Control of preprogrammed movements i. Conducting

1. Mind/body connection a. Basic/fundamental patterns b. Expressive gestures, patterns c. Complex, mixed meter patterns d. Tempo indications – metronome markings

ii. Memorization (preprogrammed) c. Mimetic abilities: observing conductors, performers; imitating

movements

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until the head is floating off the tip of the spine.” For singers, George also placed

particular emphasis on physical awareness of the shape of the embouchure and the

importance of a square mouth and rounding of vowels. Mahr emphasized how muscle

memory can assist in technically demanding passages and that he has his ensemble repeat

a given passage to reinforce the physical feeling of executing said passage successfully.

Several of the conductors also commented on various aspects of breathing.

Stalter provided a breathing technique for inhalation and exhalation. He stated, “I

demonstrate breathing technique and get them involved in gesturing the inhalation and

exhalation process through various means. One way is to have them breathe as their arms

move away from their body (starting with arms dangling) as if a balloon is under each

arm; then, they are asked to relax their arms on top of the ‘balloon’ and let them naturally

exhale.” This technique would be effective with wind players as well.

Amundson stressed the importance of being “very concerned about healthy

performance” and that he incorporates “some stretching during rehearsals to encourage

playing healthy.” He also addresses posture and creating awareness of how students are

moving. Through observation, a conductor-educator can see symptoms of tension in their

players. For string players, facial tension, jaw clenching, excessive left-hand finger

action, and right arm rigidity or absence of tension release can all be inhibitors to

beautiful sounds. Slouching or rounded shoulders contribute to physical tension and

inhibit beautiful tone quality and healthy playing. Several conductors mentioned the

importance of healthy posture. When the spine is tall and aligned correctly, the shoulders

are square and create a sense of openness and freedom of movement. When the

shoulders roll forward and the chest sinks in and the spine collapses, physical movement

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becomes limited, which, in turn limits a player’s ability to project sound or vary his/her

expression. It is important for string players to create understand bowing technique and

mechanics. When students understand what to do physically with their bow arms and

connect a kinesthetic movement or feeling to a specific articulation, tone quality, or

dynamic level, the level of clarity and expression increases significantly throughout the

string section. For music from the Baroque to late eighteenth century, many conductors

encourage string players use a transitional bow hold with modern bows, which can create

a sound ideal that more closely reflects those style periods. By using a transitional bow

hold (i.e., holding the bow a few inches above the frog), a string player is better able to

convey the strong – weak gesture (down bow – up bow) because of the change in weight

(the bow feels lighter) and balance point.

For wind players, discussing the mechanics of breathing and how to use air can be

effective. One helpful approach to breathing mechanics originates from the former tuba

professor at Northwestern University, Arnold Jacobs. He discussed the two words (air

and wind) in light of air being static (surrounding us, but with no direction) and wind

being dynamic (something actively moving with direction). This idea is very effective

with wind players of all ages because it transforms an abstract concept of something that

cannot be seen into an action (using the diaphragm to generate “wind”). Perhaps more

than any type of instrument, percussionists need to consider the most diverse range of

bodily-kinesthetic issues.

Dr. Anthony DiSanza, Professor of Percussion at the University of Wisconsin-

Madison, addresses issues of physical placement and set-up of instruments within the

percussion section and for an individual set-up when multiple instruments are involved.

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He also discusses body awareness and proximity to instruments and how it effects the

execution of a stroke and tone quality. To maximize full ensemble rehearsal time, he

observes orchestra and wind band rehearsals to address these things outside of rehearsal

either with the entire section or with individuals as needed.

Verbal-Linguistic

Here are some general considerations for verbal-linguistic rehearsal strategies:

• Using non-musical analogies to get the desired effect (asking the strings to sound like rain drops when playing pizzicato)

• Providing historical information about composer and/or piece • Using metaphors to communicate a desired sound • Making literary associations, especially with programmatic works • Defining any and all music terminology, foreign or otherwise • Providing or eliciting descriptive words that embody the character of the music • With younger musicians (primary and middle school), creating a narrative,

particularly of a piece of absolute music Table 16: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

Many of the conductors interviewed in Conducting With Feeling emphasized the

importance of engaging their musicians in some kind of a narrative. Dr. James Hainlen,

V. Verbal-Linguistic: sensitive to language, meanings and the

relationship of words a. Conductor

i. Persuasive, emotional meaning, convincing ensemble ii. Explaining and teaching

iii. Able to store vast amounts of information (music history, style, form, and analysis)

b. Instrumentalist i. Reading directions

ii. Discussions in large and small group settings iii. Musical terms iv. History, composer background information

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1994 Minnesota Orchestra Music Educator of the Year and 1995 American String

Teacher Educator of the Year for Minnesota provided this suggestion:

What helped me [to use referential ideas in my teaching] was having professional musicians coming into the school to present clinics. They were constantly loading [their sessions] with analogies, and stories, and narratives, which may or may not have had anything to do with the piece. . . Because I think public school training in colleges denigrates anything except pure music whereas [when] you get into a professional realm the musicians are very clear, very expressive, they’re even a little bawdy.124

“Rowell offered some insight:

I try to create analogies. I talk about a legato passage and how the entrances and exits of sounds need to have the sensation of lying on a bed filled with cotton, or clouds that move through the sky. In other words, there are no angles, there are no sharp protrusions. I try to find conceptual analogies that will help the musicians to make contact with their inner being, [to find] sensitivity of the self.125

Rowell’s quote validates what Gardner himself says about MI and how they work

together. Notice that the verbal-linguistic intelligence is the vehicle of communication,

but it engages the visual-spatial intelligence (students need to imagine the “sensation of

lying in a bed filled with cotton” or clouds in the sky) and the intrapersonal intelligence

by inviting students to “contact their inner being.” Hainlen provided further evidence

that incorporating descriptive words to music contributes to the meaning behind the

music. He shared this story with Harris:

124 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 43. 125 Ibid.

111

A student flew out to New York for a clinic session with the Juilliard String Quartet. They take one copy of their music and as an ensemble they write – but not agree upon – an emotion under every measure that they will perform. Every measure! They ascribe an emotional word to it. That’s part of their rehearsal technique.126

In conjunction with the conductor survey results, the verbal-linguistic intelligence

is high on the list of ways to communicate with most conductors. For ineffective

conductor/educators talking to their musicians about how to play the music becomes an

obstacle and an inefficient use of time. For successful conductors, it is a means to

communicate after a conducting gesture or demonstration has not been understood.

Additionally, it is a way to convey an idea for those students who are verbal-linguistic

learners. Interestingly, the verbal-linguistic intelligence is the one that most often

interacts with the other intelligences because spoken language is our default mode of

communication. When attempting to teach or demonstrate a concept from the podium,

the conductor/educator has essentially three modes of communication-physical gesture,

facial/eye expression, and speech. For example, in order to have students play staccato

articulation that sounds like medium-sized raindrops hitting the glass-like surface of a

puddle, one would need to describe that through the spoken word.

The conductors’ response to the verbal-linguistic questions was overwhelmingly

strong. All of them stated that they always define terms (musical or descriptive,

especially those in a foreign language). Smith stated that much insight can be gained as

to the meaning of a foreign word by using a language dictionary and not only a music

dictionary, since often there are additional cultural facets to the meaning of a word.

Smith and Mahr agreed that sharing historical background of composers and their works

126 Ibid, 46.

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would hopefully motivate students to do further research on their own. On this point,

Stalter shared the importance that by providing historical information, students would

begin to make associations with other literature they know from the same period. As

choral conductors, both George and Stalter reiterated the significance of a literal and

analytical understanding the text as it relates to the music. Bechen, Mahr, Smith, and

Littrell all stated they read poetry to their ensembles, especially when there was a direct

association with a given work. Bordo has a graduate assistant send program notes and

other information about the composers and repertoire via the internet to the students.

Sending lists of foreign terms to students and asking them to write the translations into

their parts is another effective strategy that eliminates the conductor taking time out of

rehearsal to translate terms. In particular, French music of the late nineteenth and early

twentieth centuries contains several specific terms and instructions that are not as familiar

to young musicians as Italian or even German. Table 17 (p. 113)is an example of

selected terms found in Debussy’s Petite Suite.

One effective approach to embodying rhythm is to have the students chant

rhythms or challenging patterns or meters or sing their part to create awareness of how to

shape the phrase. Building in moments during a rehearsal to apply these techniques

allows the players to relax physically and engage their minds in a different way.

Logical-Mathematical The following are general considerations for logical-mathematical strategies:

• Understanding form and structure (sonata, theme and variations, ritornello, dance forms)

• Identify interval, scale, motivic, rhythmic, melodic or harmonic patterns/progressions

• Identify/analyze phrase structure • Explain aspects of physics of sound, acoustics

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• Bring attention to physical characteristics of instruments • Discussing harmonic series and how it relates to intonation • Understanding key/tonal relationships, compositional practices (serialism,

dodecaphonic, pandiatonicism, common practice theory)

Table 17: Selected French Terms in Debussy’s Petite Suite

French term English translation un pupitre 1 desk (stand) tontes tutti avec sourdines with mutes etouffez dampen sur le La on the A string enlevez les sourdines remove the mutes très rythmé very precise très en dehors very emphasized frappée avec une baguette strike with a stick

Table 18: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

III. Logical-Mathematical: precision; counting; abstract thought;

organization; logical structure a. Solving musically complex problems

i. Able to see relationships in rhythm, harmonic, melodic patterns

ii. Predicting outcomes iii. Musical patterns that are linked to solve the more

complex problems iv. Understanding process, logical conclusions v. Form and analysis

vi. Intonation 1. Partials, overtones, intervals 2. Pitch discrepancies, measurement of flat/sharp

(+ or – cents)

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The logical-mathematical intelligence encompasses a spectrum of musical elements that

range from the science of sound to analysis and music theory to conceptual and abstract

aspects of music. The conductors from this study’s survey discussed several aspects of

this intelligence.

Amundson articulated two examples:

I do spend a good deal of time helping students learn to sort out and read difficult passages. For instance, long triplets (3 halfs) over four beats need a system. If they think quarter note triplets (6 notes against the four usual quarters) and then think every other one of these notes, the correct placement of the half note triplets immediately works so much better. Also, I spend lots of time tuning chords and helping students learn to find where they are in a chord – recognizing whether they are a root, third, or fifth for starters, and then learning to tune just thirds (leaning low on major thirds to tune them properly, and leaning high on minor 3rds . . same for 6ths).

Amundson, Bechen, Bordo, Mahr, Littrell, and Smith stated they teach facets of

intonation, partials, and the harmonic series/overtones. In regards to solving complex

musical problems all the conductors utilized some method of deconstructing a complex

issue to its most basic level. George employs repetition, Mahr identifies the “building

blocks that uphold the music” which incorporate both “discussion and graphic

representation,” and Stalter stated that “physical ‘games’ can aid them [the students] to

see the problem in living color through movement.” Techniques incorporating the

science of sound were used by several of the conductors. Mahr and Smith discuss the

effect of temperature on instruments and intonation, the adjustment of partials, and

aspects of blend and balance as they relate to intonation and timbre. Stalter, too,

addresses timbre in addition to “what makes a good tone” and “how to achieve a

beautiful sound.” For singers, he stated that the students “need to understand why one

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voice sounds different than another and how to manipulate their resonators and phonation

in order to sing with openness and beauty.” Littrell incorporates discussing cents and

frequencies to pitches and the mathematical relationship of intervals (e.g., an octave in

hertz is 440 = 220). Several of the conductors also cited the importance of discussing

individual and corporate rehearsal processes. Bordo stated that he discusses “how to

practice, how to use your time, use of a metronome, and standards in practice.” He also

shared that he “always [tells the students] the plan for rehearsal both overall and for each

work.” Bechen and Mahr both spoke of providing their students with as many strategies

to facilitate their individual practicing. Bechen teaches his students to apply the

ensemble macro – micro – macro approach to individual practicing. Amundson stressed

that individual practicing is a necessity. In regards to rehearsal processes, he stated, “I

love to talk about really good rehearsal ideas with my students, since I always have a

number of aspiring student conductors in the ensemble. I talk openly about why

something works so well, and why other processes do not work well.”

Taking time to discuss formal structure of works in order to create a syntax for the

students can have multiple benefits. When students obtain an understanding of what

generic sonata form is, it creates a higher level of intuition and musicianship. They begin

to anticipate where they are in the form and anticipate where the direction of the music is

going based on the formal expectations. When applicable, one could mention the

mathematical connection of the Fibonacci series and the Golden Mean to formal

construction. Students who have a high aptitude for logical-mathematical intelligence

could take the value of the Golden Mean (1.618) and test out the proportions of a

composition. Stating the goals and objectives is another way of creating student

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awareness and a tangible framework for each phase of the rehearsal process from first

rehearsal to performance. This allows students to gauge their progress as to the overall

goals of the music and ensemble. Discussing tempo relationships and metric

modulations are additional musical aspects that relate to the logical-mathematical

intelligence.

Naturalist

Here are some general considerations for naturalist rehearsal strategies:

• Imitation of sounds on instruments from the natural world (literally or figuratively)

• Citing the inspirational effects of the natural world in music (weather, water, space, mountains, animal kingdom)

• Creating analogies to music using the characteristics of nature (wind, motion, evolution, metamorphosis, timbre, texture, growth, etc.)

Table 19: Lisk’s MI Considerations for the Instrumental Ensemble

For the naturalist intelligence, the conductors who responded to using rehearsal

techniques related to nature, all cited that they most use them when the music has a direct

implication of something from nature. There are countless works in the history of

orchestral music since the Baroque era that have an association with something in nature.

Popular examples of these include: Vivaldi-The Four Seasons, Handel-Concerto for

Organ HWV 295 “The Cuckoo and the Nightingale”, Haydn-Symphony Nos. 6-8 (“Le

VII. Naturalist: sensitive to flora and fauna; able to make appropriate

distinctions in the world of living entities

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matin”, “Le midi”, and “Le soir”), Beethoven-Symphony No. 6, Mendelssohn-Hebrides

Overture, Saint-Säens-Carnival of the Animals, Prokofiev-Peter and the Wolf, Copland-

Appalachian Spring, Holst-The Planets, and Peter Schickle-A Zoo Called Earth.

Many great conductors have cited the benefits of nature. In his book Of Music

and Music-Making, Bruno Walter said, “He who knows how to listen [to nature] will

recognize even in musical masterpieces that give no direct indication of this, the intimacy

and harmoniousness of the creative musician’s bond with Nature.”127

Conclusion and Future Research With the knowledge and data gained from this study, I am enthusiastic about

continuing to research certain aspects of this topic. The first facet is continuing to

develop and find effective rehearsal techniques that incorporate MI. Part of this research

will also seek to determine which MI rehearsal techniques prove to be ineffective or

inefficient and determine which MI tend to be most effective in the instrumental

rehearsal. Another aspect of this concerns finding an explanation for the chasm between

the strongest MI’s of instrumental students (interpersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, visual-

spatial, and intrapersonal) and the lowest MI’s for the conductors who contributed to my

survey (bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and visual-spatial).

A more imminent goal is to continue to develop an undergraduate conducting

curriculum; one that will seek to provide students a means to communicate music through

expressive physical gestures through embodiment of the score. In Conducting With

Feeling, Fredrick Harris, Jr. cited two studies that support an approach to conducting that

begins with focus on expressive movement. He stated:

127 Bruno Walter, Of Music and Music-Making (New York: W. W. Norton, 1961), 107.

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1995 and 1996, Orzolek and Benge researched the implementation of movement and/or imagery exercises into conducting curricula. Their findings indicate that the implementation of such techniques does make a difference in students’ ability to communicate musical interpretation with expressive gestures. According to Benge, many conductors and musicians agree that every emotional mood can be represented and more accurately expressed by movement than through verbalization . . . Orzolek stated that the exercises could help students develop their own expressiveness and through experimentation and improvisation they “could learn how it feels to make themselves look expressive.” Both the Benge and the Orzolek studies reinforce the idea that non-verbal, expressive communication is an effective way to communicate feeling.128 The rehearsal strategies presented here only begin to scratch the surface of

possibilities conductor/educators can infuse into their teaching. Through adapting and

applying Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences to rehearsal strategies, I hope to

create another perspective for conductor/educators to consider their pedagogy from the

podium and rehearsal techniques. Furthermore, the rehearsal strategies provided here are

meant to stimulate conductor/educators to identify and create rehearsal techniques so that

they can more effectively develop musicianship in their students and promote expressive

music-making. Through conversations with several conductors, I have found that

infusing the MI theory is a natural extension of how successful conductor/educators teach

and rehearse music. In a concluding statement from one of the chapters from Conducting

With Feeling, Harris speaks to the natural extension of MI for conductors. He states, “All

these methods [rehearsal techniques from conductors he interviewed] of

communicating/sharing musical feeling involve a high level of sensitivity and an

awareness of nuance in sound, speech, movement, and in feeling.”129 Upon reading this

quote, the mention of communicating “sound, speech, movement, and feeling” all create

128 Frederick Harris, Jr., Conducting With Feeling, (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001), 13-14. 129 Ibid, 49.

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MI correlations to musical (sound), verbal-linguistic (speech), bodily-kinesthetic

(movement), intrapersonal (feeling), and interpersonal (communicating).

From the numerous MI strategies of experienced, successful

conductor/educators/performers provided throughout this essay, it is apparent the use of

MI (whether intentional or unintentional) is part of every conductor’s pedagogy. It is

essential to remember that every individual possesses the ability to develop each of

Gardner’s intelligences to a level of proficiency and that the conductor should not only

teach to their students’ strengths, but also challenge their lesser ones as well. The

inclusion of MI into the rehearsal addresses a deficiency of pedagogy and developing

musicianship from the podium in conducting and music education undergraduate

curricula.

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APPENDIX A

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CONDUCTING AND

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE RESOURCES

Adey, Christopher. Orchestral Performance: A Guide for Conductors and Players. London: Faber and Faber, 1998.

This resource is a comprehensive guide to the techniques of orchestral playing and the development of non-professional orchestras. Adey addresses both the responsibilities of conductors and players in light of specific interpretations of orchestral literature. The first three sections of the book examine fundamental principles, performance techniques and qualitative aspects of each section of the orchestra. The final part addresses issues that deal with the orchestra as a whole.

Alexander, Lois Lynne. “The Writings of Howard Gardner and their Implications for

Music Education.” PhD diss., Michigan State University, 1992. The focus of this study takes the writings of Howard Gardner from 1970-1989 and

extracts the implications for music education. Admittedly, Alexander notes that it is not an exhaustive analysis of Gardner’s research, but a comprehensive history of documenting the development of his arts education. Its point of originality is that no studies had taken a cumulative look at Gardner’s writings and his development of thought in light of arts education.

Allix, Nicholas M. “The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: A Case of Missing Cognitive

Matter.” Australian Journal of Education 44.3 (2000): 272. Allix makes a compelling case against Gardner’s theoretical construction of the MI

Theory. After summarizing the MI Theory in his introduction, he begins his argument with methodological considerations and Gardner’s lack of scientific theory. He continues to cite what he believes are the fundamental problems of the MI Theory and the missing cognitive evidence supporting it. He claims that new cognitive science methods are a better way of measuring intelligence.

Armstrong, Thomas. Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom. 3rd ed. Alexandria, Va.:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2009. Now in its 3rd edition, this is a comprehensive resource for educators in

implementing the MI Theory into the classroom. Holistic in its content, it includes everything from a summary of the MI Theory, to MI critics, implementation strategies, lesson plans, assessment tools, classroom management, MI and special education, and other MI resources.

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Battisi, Frank L. On Becoming A Conductor: Lessons and Meditations on the Art of Conducting. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2007.

Written with the intent of not being a conducting text that focuses on the technical aspects of conducting. This resource explores the facets of conducting seldom introduced in undergraduate conducting courses. Chapters include discussions and quotes from leading professional conductors on topics such as programming, integrity of interpretation, imagination, rehearsal planning, and conductor as educator. It would serve as an excellent supplement to any conducting course.

Boonshaft, Peter Loel. Teaching Music with Passion: Conducting, Rehearsing and

Inspiring. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2002. Through personal experiences and anecdotes, Boonshaft’s book explores how to

develop musical excellence on and off the podium. Chapters focus on specific pedagogical aspects like elements of successful rehearsals, how to improve communication in rehearsal, teaching with passion and developing musicianship, and addressing common misunderstandings and myths of conducting and teaching.

Campbell, Linda, Bruce Campbell, and Dee Dickinson. Teaching & Learning through

Multiple Intelligences. 3rd ed. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 2004. Broad-based and comprehensive, this text describes applications for pedagogy,

team teaching, student strengths, curriculum, assessment, community involvement, and diverse classroom models. The authors devote one chapter to each of the eight intelligences. They define the intelligence, provide a checklist for identifying it, suggest environmental considerations, and offer related teaching strategies. Additional chapters survey Gardner's recent work on teaching for understanding, performance-based assessment, and model MI school programs and student outcomes.

Chi, Catherine Kai-ling. “Building an Ideal High School Instrumental Ensemble Program

in Taiwan: Based on the Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Ithaca High School Band Program from 1955 to 1967 Directed by Frank Battisti.” DMA diss., University of Washington, 2005.

The focus of this dissertation is to create the “ideal instrumental ensemble program” in Taiwan based on implementing the MI theory and using the approach by Frank Battisti in his band program. Chi gives evidence as to how an interdisciplinary instrumental program will contribute to character building of Taiwanese youth and benefit society in general. She gives consideration to the specific challenges of developing a music program in Taiwan and stresses the importance of proper training for the director in order for the music program to be successful.

122

Del Mar, Norman. Anatomy of the Orchestra. Berkeley: University of California Press,

1987. Written for conductors, professional and student musicians, and for orchestral

afficianados, it is an exhaustive work on the physical, sonic, and musical make-up of an orchestra. Del Mar first discusses the idiosyncrasies of each section of the orchestra that include general and specific tendencies as they relate to symphonic repertoire.

Demaree, Robert W. and Don V. Moses. The Complete Conductor: A Comprehensive

Resource for the Professional Conductor of the Twenty-First Century. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1995.

This text is an incredibly comprehensive conducting source that takes a holistic approach to conducting. Divided into four main parts, it addresses conducting technique, choral conducting, instrumental conducting, and managing a music program. Contained within the choral and instrumental conducting sections, specific performance practices and examples from musical periods are presented in chronological order.

Eberstadt, Mary. “The Schools They Deserve: Howard Gardner and the Remaking of

Elite Education.” Policy Review no. 97 (October/November 1999): 3-17. Arguing against progressive movement in U.S. education, Eberstadt claims that

Gardner’s mission supports only privileged students, elite schools, and is devoid of standardized testing and fixed curricula. The article digresses into more speculation rather than providing readers with evidence and summarizes other MI critics’ positions rather than supporting Eberstadt’s own position.

Fuchs, Peter Paul. Psychology of Conducting. New York: MCA Music, 1969. Written with professional conductors in mind, Fuchs narrates a first conducting

experience of a young professional conductor and the psychological preparation and presence a conductor must have to work with a professional orchestra. The journey begins with conductor traits what one must do to be a professional conductor and ends with the performance. The last section of the book is a compilation of responses from interviews of well-known professional conductors regarding their views on leadership, attitude, and perceptions of working with professional musicians.

123

Gardner, Howard. Creating Minds: An Anatomy of Creativity seen through the Lives of

Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New York: Basic Books, 1993.

Taking a similar approach to defining creativity as he did with intelligence, Gardner takes a close examination of perceiving creativity and the creative process in new ways through the lives of the seven individuals included in the book’s title. His premise is that there is more than one way to be creative, just as there is more than one way to be intelligent. In addition to this, he gives particular focus to each creator’s significant creative breakthrough moment and identifies patterns that give impetus to the creative process. His selection of these seven individuals becomes clear, as each represents on of his original seven intelligences.

______. The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests, The K-12

Education that Every Child Deserves. New York: Penguin Books, 2000. The Disciplined Mind offers a vision of what high functioning schools can be. His

educational model is a combination of traditional educational values and his own multiple intelligence values. Before presenting the model, Gardner provides a historical look at where education has been, where it is, and where it needs to go. He then explains the things that need to change in order to implement such a systemic change and provides specific examples of how his model would work in the areas of science, music, and history.

______. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books,

1985. Gardner’s groundbreaking book challenges the traditional belief in psychology and

science that there exists more that one intelligence that overrides all other intellectual capacities. Divided into three parts, the first gives a historical understanding of the definition and biological foundations of intelligence. The second part is where Gardner presents his MI Theory and his basis for each of the seven intelligences. The final section gives examples of applications of the MI Theory in education and its potential implications.

______. Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century. New York:

Basic Books, 1999. Intelligence Reframed is Gardner’s version of a self-evaluative progress report on

the efficacy and assimilation of the MI Theory into culture and education. Containing twelve chapters, Gardner reviews his theory in the first three chapters, introduces new evidence for more intelligences in chapters 4 and 5, addresses criticisms in chapters 6 and 7, and the final chapters are concerned with a more current adaptation of the MI Theory in areas of business, education, and culture.

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______. Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic Books, 1993.

One decade after the release of Frames of Mind, Gardner and a few of his colleagues at Project Zero present their findings of the application of the MI Theory in education and other studies. Divided into four parts, Part 1 is a summary of his theory and addresses some myths and criticisms, Part 2 presents models for implementation at pre-school to post-secondary levels, Part 3 looks at MI as a means of assessment as another option to standardized testing, and Part 4 looks forward to what the MI Theory will look like in 20 years and how it will change. There are four appendixes that supply further research, articles, and information about the multiple intelligences.

______. “Reflections on multiple intelligences: myths and messages.” Phi Delta Kappan

77.3. After ten years of silence not addressing his critics and the criticisms of the MI Theory, Gardner counters seven myths about multiple intelligences that have come to the forefront since the initial 1983 publication. In addition to addressing Demonstrates some problematic applications of MI theory in schools and praises three positive applications, including cultivation of desired capabilities, varied approaches to subject matter, and personalization of education.

______. “Response to Nicholas Allix.” Australian Journal of Education 44.3 (2000):

288. This brief article is Gardner’s response to Allix’s article “The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: A Case of Missing Cognitive Matter” where Gardner succinctly responds to Allix's contentions about the theory of multiple intelligences, the accusation of basing the MI Theory on empirical evidence alone, and systematically refutes each criticism with evidence and criticizes Allix’s essay as being “promissory”.

Gardner, Howard and Randy Robertson. “Debating the g factor”. The Wilson Quarterly.

28.4 (Autumn 2004): 4. In this brief article, the authors question the validity and efficacy of the century-old

view of one overriding human intelligence – the g factor. In an indirect manner, the article criticizes those psychologists and researchers of intelligence who simply accept the g factor. Using education as a primary example, Gardner uses the MI Theory and its influence in the classroom to suggest that measuring intelligence via the g factor creates frustration for educators.

Gattiker, Irvin. Complete Book of Rehearsal Techniques for the High School Orchestra.

West Nyack, NY: Parker Pub., 1977. Written specifically for high school orchestra directors, this book focuses on

rehearsal techniques and strategies. The author’s claim is that ensembles will have more efficient rehearsals, increase the level of performance, and improve contest ratings. It addresses specific issues directly applicable to the school environment such as classroom management and musical theater performances. There is also a chapter on non-musical aspects of rehearsals and the classroom.

125

Green, Elizabeth and Mark Gibson. The Modern Conductor. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Based on the teachings of Nicolai Malko, this text is constructed to be comprehensive conducting text for undergraduates. However, some sections, either in language or concepts, are perhaps more suited for advanced undergraduates or graduate level students. Basic to advanced conducting techniques are covered and musical excerpts are used to reinforce concepts. Beyond gestural techniques, there are specific chapters that focus on transpositions, instrumental conducting, choral conducting, concertos and operas, and applied musicianship. Appendixes provide supplemental information.

Harris, Jr., Frederick. Conducting With Feeling. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music

Publications, 2001. This is an excellent collection of thoughts encompassing a broad range of

conducting related topics. Conductors who were interviewed for this book include Frank Battisti, Frederick Fennell, James Hainlen, Craig Kirchhoff, Stephen Massey, William McManus, Gustav Meier, Weston Noble, Larry Rachleff, Malcolm Rowell, Gunther Schuller, and Stanislaw Skrowaczewski. Topics discussed in the book based on the title incorporated ideas regarding communicating feeling through music, developing feeling, and teaching conductors and assessing conducting curricula.

Haberlen, John. Mastering Conducting Techniques. Champaign: Mark Foster Music Co.,

1977. This book is an early example of a conducting resource that solely focuses on basic

technique and does not present information in a sequential way. It lacks detail, depth, and does not provide any score excerpts.

Hunsberger, Donald and Roy E. Ernst. Art of Conducting. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-

Hill, 1992. A conducting text intended for use at the undergraduate level but includes

techniques that surpass basic techniques. Most of the text is dedicated to conducting technique, score reading, and rehearsal procedures, which briefly mention developing musicianship from the podium. Special techniques include conducting contemporary music, musical theater, and jazz ensemble.

Jacobson, Bernard. Conductors on Conducting. Frenchtown, N.J.: Columbia Pub. Co.,

1979. A conducting resource for the conducting student and general classical music

enthusiast, Jacobson interviews eight prominent conductors of the time. As the author states in the introduction, the book’s aim is to focus on musical interpretation of orchestral and operatic works and less on baton technique. Jacobson asks thoughtful questions and receives insightful answers from conductors Charles Mackerras, James Levine, Jose Serebrier, Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Adrian Boult, Sir Colin Davis, Bernard Haitink, and Carlo Guilini.

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Kahn, Emil. Elements of Conducting. 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books, 1975. A method of conducting that covers a broad range of topics. Divided into six parts,

the first section deals with gestural techniques. The second section addresses aspects of conductor training – ear training, creating a sound ideal from a score, and score reading. Unlike some comprehensive conducting texts, the third part of this book deals with each family of instruments and specific techniques related to each. Part four covers interpretation, the fifth section addresses room and rehearsal organization, and the final section touches choral, band, concerto, and operatic conducting. Lastly, Kahn provides repertoire suggestions for school and amateur musicians in an appendix.

Kaschub, Michele E. “Defining Emotional Intelligence in Music Education.” Arts

Education Policy Review 103, no. 5 (May-June. 2002): 9-15. This article reviews some of the theories of multiple intelligences and factors contributing to established views of intelligence and relate those to the writings of journalist Daniel Goleman (1995). Goleman suggests that measures of emotional intelligence may provide a better understanding of human intellectual processes than the previously favored intelligence quotients derived largely from verbal and mathematics-based testing procedures. Kaschub takes Goleman’s theory and looks at the possible applications to music education.

Kassell, Cathy. “Music and the Theory of the Multiple Intelligences.” Music Educators Journal 84, no. 5 (Mar. 1998): 29-32. Assessing the application of MI to music education, Kassell’s argument consists of criticisms of various MI curricula, resource books, and proponents of the MI Theory in the classroom. Kassell warns music educators about the superficiality of MI activities as they relate to subjects outside of music, claiming that they do not create a deeper understanding of the subject area. Amidst all her criticisms, she does not give any examples of activities that she deems effective or successful and the examples she chooses to criticize for each intelligence are questionable at best.

Klein, Perry D. “Multiplying the Problems of Intelligence by Eight: A Critique of

Gardner's Theory.” Canadian Journal of Education 22, no. 4 (Autumn, 1997): 377-394. Although Klein validates Gardner’s MI theory, he criticizes the lack of criticism it has received and that a “weak” MI Theory would not have drawn any attention and that a “strong” one is not supported by enough evidence. He does admit that the MI Theory has been the catalyst for many new pedagogical techniques that include balanced programming, matching instruction to learning styles, and student specialization. Nevertheless, he purports that the MI Theory is too vague to create accurate assessment of students and that the traditional model for assessment is still more effective.

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Kohut, Daniel L. and Joe Grant. Learning to Conduct and Rehearse. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1990.

Designed to be a text for undergraduate conducting courses, this book divides conducting techniques into standard, intermediate, and advanced techniques. Score study, programming, and issues beyond gestural technique are included in some depth. An entire chapter is dedicated to rehearsal technique and organization and choral and instrumental musical excerpts are supplied for practice.

Kvet, Edward K. and Janet M. Tweed, eds. Strategies for Teaching: Beginning and

Intermediate Band. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1996. Part of a series, this resource for band directors is rooted in the National Standards

for Music Education created by MENC. Appropriating each of the nine standards to beginning and intermediate levels, the contributors present a sequential model for teaching each standard. Each standard includes an objective, suggested materials, procedures, and assessment.

Kvet, Edward K. and John E. Williamson, eds. Strategies for Teaching: High School

Band. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference, 1998. Part of a series, this resource for band directors is rooted in the National Standards

for Music Education created by MENC. Appropriating each of the nine standards to the secondary level, the contributors present a sequential model for teaching each standard. Each standard includes an objective, suggested materials, procedures, and assessment.

Labuta, Joseph A. Basic Conducting Techniques. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall, 2000. This comprehensive conducting text is a sequential method designed for

undergraduate conducting courses. A unique feature of this book is the competency checks for student evaluation at the end of each section. Each conducting skill/technique is discussed in excellent detail with equally as effective diagrams. Specific rehearsal suggestions for orchestra, band, and choir are given and score excerpts that apply to each chapter.

Lisk, Edward S. The Creative Director: Alternative Rehearsal Techniques. 3rd ed. Ft.

Lauderdale: Meredith Music Publications, 1991. This text provides a systematic approach to instructional concepts teaching the

elements of music in a band setting – rehearsal structure, concentration, creating sound, tone quality, rhythm, and dynamics. Numerous rehearsal strategies and diagrams are provided. The primary intent is to remove the technical obstacles that occur in young musicians and ensembles to create more productive rehearsals and increased quality of musical experiences.

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______. The Creative Director: Beginning and Intermediate Levels. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2001.

A fascinating approach to teaching beginners and intermediate level musicians, Lisk appropriates his previous publications on alternative rehearsal techniques to the primary level. Giving focus to elements of music musicians at this level encounter, he presents specific teaching techniques for the band director in the areas of rhythm, internal pulse, dynamics, scales, the circle of fourths, and learning to play in tune.

______. The Creative Director: Conductor, Teacher, Leader. Galesville, MD: 2006. Organized in by the three descriptors from the title, this book addresses three

aspects of the musical director. The section on the conductor focuses on listening skills and expressive conducting. The teacher section draws from Lisk’s previous publications on instructional concepts and rehearsal techniques and the final section on leadership addresses some of the important characteristics directors need to lead their music programs. Notably, he provides a basic introduction to applying Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences to teaching instrumental music and its benefits for the school community and the community at large.

______. The Creative Director: Intangibles of Musical Performance. Ft. Lauderdale:

Meredith Music Publications, 1996. A resource created with the sole purpose of teaching musical expression as it relates to student ensembles, characteristic performance, musical identity, and decision making processes regarding the subtleties of artistic response. Emphasis is given particularly to perception, imagery, and expressive qualities of music. It is meant to be used in the sequence in Mr. Lisk’s The Creative Director series.

______. “The Energy of Musical Thought.” In Teaching Music Through Performance in Band, ed. Richard Miles, 13-21. 8 volumes. Chicago: GIA Publications, 1997-.

Mr. Lisk’s most recent publication (December 2010) is part of the Teaching Music Through Performance series. In this chapter, Lisk addresses the issue of how musical expression is taught, especially to future music educators. He offers a number of techniques conductors can use to enhance musical expression in their students and ensembles.

McElheran, Brock. Conducting Technique for Beginners and Professionals. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1966. Created for both beginning and experienced conductors, this comprehensive

conducting text is less detailed in its approach and offers suggested assignments at the end of each chapter for the beginner and professional. Chapters include general conducting technique, beat patterns, the left hand, interpretation, and a conglomeration of other non-essential subjects. Some mention of rehearsal suggestions are provided.

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Meier, Gustav. Score, the Orchestra, and the Conductor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

This is a comprehensive and detailed approach to conducting that could be used for an undergraduate conducting course. Meier follows a sequential approach from understanding basic techniques to complex conducting issues, score analysis and preparation, seating arrangements, specific discussions of 10 canonic works, and other areas related to conducting. A broad range of conducting styles are addressed that include operatic, ballet, choral and band conducting in the Special Techniques section.

Noyes, Frank. Fundamentals of Conducting. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown, 1960. Former conductor of the Des Moines Symphony, Noyes has written a

comprehensive conducting text for aspiring conducting students. The focus is limited to orchestral conducting, but there is mention of band and choir. The text is divided into two sections – Practical and Theoretical Aspects. Clear diagrams of beat patterns and numerous score excerpts are supplied and general technical rehearsal suggestions are supplied.

Schuller, Gunther. Compleat Conductor. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Based on the author’s own professional experiences as an orchestral hornist and the

things he learned from the master conductors he played under, Schuller’s book is comprised of three sections. He first shares his own philosophy of conducting, then proceeds to an overview of the history of conducting. The final section is an exhaustive critique of eight canonic works from the symphonic repertoire wherein Schuller ventures into a compare-contrast of the scores and interpretations of renowned maestri from Toscanini to John Eliot Gardiner.

Sharp, Timothy W. Precision Conducting: The Seven Disciplines of the Masterful

Conductor. Leawood, Kan.: Leawood Music Press, 1996. This book is a technical conducting resource that takes a very specific look at preparing and conducting a piece of music. Beginning with analyzing a score, each chapter addresses a different facet of the most significant aspects of the musical process and how a conductor can best achieve the highest artistic results. Equal attention is given to analyzing, conducting, and interpreting a score. A five-page chapter on rehearsal planning and execution is included.

Wis, Ramona A. The Conductor As Leader: Principles of Leadership Applied to Life on

the Podium. Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2007. This book is an exploration of the various facets and responsibilities of the conductor as leader. It is a collection of essays that encourage the conductor to reflect on the leadership role and improve it. Wis’s fundamental premise is that a shift has occurred in the profession of conducting from what the conductor does to a role that focuses more on being a facilitator.

 

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Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

Mea

n V

isua

l-Spa

tial

5

4

3

2

1

0

3.102.85

3.363.24

3.423.143.04

4.17

3.243.453.43

3.11

3.50

2.56

3.003.21

2.50

3.33

Average MI Score by Instrument

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 1

APPENDIX B

ADDITIONAL RESULTS OF THE STUDENT SURVEY

Figure B1: Average MI Score by Instrument: Visual Spatial

131

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

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alto sax

Mea

n B

odily

-Kin

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etic

4

3

2

1

0

3.38

3.03

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3.36

3.05

3.54

3.83

3.363.303.303.40

3.18

2.892.70

3.04

2.80

3.04

Average MI Score by Instrument

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 3

Figure B2: Average MI Score by Instrument: Bodily-Kinesthetic

132

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

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3

2

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0

2.412.49

3.503.493.36

3.00

3.37

3.00

3.36

2.82

3.35

2.83

3.19

3.56

3.203.213.103.16

Average MI Score by Instrument

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 4

Figure B3: Average MI Score by Instrument: Logical-Mathematical

133

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

Mea

n V

erba

l-Lin

guis

tic

4

3

2

1

0

2.802.752.712.67

2.94

2.29

2.592.50

2.883.04

2.57

2.943.143.22

2.80

2.502.30

2.63

Average MI Score by Instrument

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Figure B4: Average MI Score by Instrument: Verbal-Linguistic

134

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

Mea

n In

trap

erso

nal

4

3

2

1

0

2.852.882.93

3.283.45

2.953.15

3.333.363.203.263.253.263.33

3.50

3.04

3.40

2.92

Average MI Score by Instrument

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Figure B5: Average MI Score by Instrument: Intrapersonal

135

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

Mea

n In

terp

erso

nal

4

3

2

1

0

3.42

3.03

3.573.653.52

2.90

3.37

3.833.67

3.413.57

3.743.53

3.11

3.60

3.29

2.80

3.35

Average MI Score by Instrument

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 5

Figure B6: Average MI Score by Instrument: Interpersonal

136

Figure B7: Average MI Score by Instrument: Naturalist

Instrumentviolin

violatuba

trumpettrombone

tenor saxpercussion

oboehorn

fluteeuphonium

clarinetcello

bassoonbass clarinet

bassbari sax

alto sax

Mea

n N

atur

alis

t

3

2

1

0

2.24

1.831.93

1.71

1.941.90

1.50

3.00

2.242.41

1.871.94

2.40

2.78

3.00

1.68

2.20

1.84

Average MI Score by Instrument

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 7

137

Class of Survey Respondents by School and Overall

ClassFreshman Sophomore Junior Senior Overall

School/Ensemble CHSB CountRow Valid N %

CHSO CountRow Valid N %

ECHSO CountRow Valid N %

GHSB CountRow Valid N %

GHSO CountRow Valid N %

ICHSO CountRow Valid N %

KHSB CountRow Valid N %

NHSB CountRow Valid N %

PHSB CountRow Valid N %

Overall CountRow Valid N %

7 17 15 24 6311.1% 27.0% 23.8% 38.1% 100.0%

18 12 17 9 5632.1% 21.4% 30.4% 16.1% 100.0%

27 11 19 22 7934.2% 13.9% 24.1% 27.8% 100.0%

38 36 29 15 11832.2% 30.5% 24.6% 12.7% 100.0%

42 27 25 27 12134.7% 22.3% 20.7% 22.3% 100.0%

24 34 34 0 9226.1% 37.0% 37.0% 0.0% 100.0%

17 15 18 12 6227.4% 24.2% 29.0% 19.4% 100.0%

27 24 15 8 7436.5% 32.4% 20.3% 10.8% 100.0%

95 74 33 12 21444.4% 34.6% 15.4% 5.6% 100.0%

295 250 205 129 87933.6% 28.4% 23.3% 14.7% 100.0%

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Table B1: Class of Survey Respondents by School and Overall

138

Instrument of Survey Respondents by School and Overall

School/EnsembleCHSB CHSO ECHSO GHSB GHSO ICHSO KHSB NHSB PHSB Overall

Instrument alto sax CountColumn Valid N %

bari sax CountColumn Valid N %

bass CountColumn Valid N %

bass clarinet CountColumn Valid N %

bassoon CountColumn Valid N %

cello CountColumn Valid N %

clarinet CountColumn Valid N %

euphonium CountColumn Valid N %

flute CountColumn Valid N %

horn CountColumn Valid N %

oboe CountColumn Valid N %

percussion CountColumn Valid N %

tenor sax CountColumn Valid N %

trombone CountColumn Valid N %

trumpet CountColumn Valid N %

tuba CountColumn Valid N %

viola CountColumn Valid N %

violin CountColumn Valid N %

Overall CountColumn Valid N %

5 0 0 9 0 0 6 12 17 497.9% 0.0% 0.0% 7.6% 0.0% 0.0% 9.7% 16.2% 7.9% 5.6%

1 0 0 1 0 0 2 2 5 111.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.8% 0.0% 0.0% 3.2% 2.7% 2.3% 1.3%

0 4 8 0 10 7 0 0 0 290.0% 7.1% 10.1% 0.0% 8.3% 7.6% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 3.3%

2 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 4 103.2% 0.0% 0.0% 2.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 1.4% 1.9% 1.1%

1 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 4 91.6% 0.0% 0.0% 1.7% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 2.7% 1.9% 1.0%

0 14 19 0 16 24 0 0 0 730.0% 25.0% 24.1% 0.0% 13.2% 26.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 8.3%

8 0 0 19 0 0 11 9 40 8712.7% 0.0% 0.0% 16.1% 0.0% 0.0% 17.7% 12.2% 18.7% 9.9%

3 0 0 7 0 0 1 2 11 244.8% 0.0% 0.0% 5.9% 0.0% 0.0% 1.6% 2.7% 5.1% 2.7%

8 0 0 13 0 0 7 13 31 7212.7% 0.0% 0.0% 11.0% 0.0% 0.0% 11.3% 17.6% 14.5% 8.2%

5 0 0 12 0 0 0 5 13 357.9% 0.0% 0.0% 10.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 6.8% 6.1% 4.0%

1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 61.6% 0.0% 0.0% 1.7% 0.0% 0.0% 1.6% 0.0% 0.9% 0.7%

10 0 0 10 0 0 9 9 21 5915.9% 0.0% 0.0% 8.5% 0.0% 0.0% 14.5% 12.2% 9.8% 6.7%

3 0 0 3 0 0 4 7 4 214.8% 0.0% 0.0% 2.5% 0.0% 0.0% 6.5% 9.5% 1.9% 2.4%

4 0 0 13 0 0 5 1 11 346.3% 0.0% 0.0% 11.0% 0.0% 0.0% 8.1% 1.4% 5.1% 3.9%

10 0 0 20 0 0 15 10 45 10015.9% 0.0% 0.0% 16.9% 0.0% 0.0% 24.2% 13.5% 21.0% 11.4%

2 0 0 4 0 0 1 1 6 143.2% 0.0% 0.0% 3.4% 0.0% 0.0% 1.6% 1.4% 2.8% 1.6%

0 11 15 0 22 13 0 0 0 610.0% 19.6% 19.0% 0.0% 18.2% 14.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 6.9%

0 27 37 0 73 48 0 0 0 1850.0% 48.2% 46.8% 0.0% 60.3% 52.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 21.0%

63 56 79 118 121 92 62 74 214 879100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

GC Assessment & Institutional Research || 12/15/11 || Page 4

Table B2: Instrument of Survey Respondents by School and Overall

139

APPENDIX C

CONDUCTOR SURVEY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

REHEARSAL STRATEGIES

Conductor/Educator Questionnaire of Rehearsal Techniques Visual-Spatial 1. Do you use diagrams or other written visual examples (form, shapes of sounds/attacks/decays, harmonic relationships,etc.)? Please list specific examples. 2. Do you use mental imagery (visual connections/analogies that represent sound)? Please list specific examples. 3. Do you make connections between the spatial placement and visual representation of gestures and what is meant by them musically? Please list specific examples. 4. Do you reference/show works of art to connect musical concepts, styles, periods? Please list specific examples. Bodily-Kinesthetic 1. Do you demonstrate physical gestures (dance, bowing, breathing, shapes of sound, technical or expressive)? Please list specific examples. 2. Do you ask students to imitate physical movements? Please list specific examples. 3. Do you engage the students in eurhythmics, have them conduct patterns (esp. odd, mixed, or additive meter), or engage in any mimetic activities? Please list specific examples. 4. Do you create physical awareness in players as it relates to articulation, fingerings, embouchure, ornamentation, and physical health and wellness (Alexander or Feldenkrais technique)? Please list specific examples. Logical-Mathematical 1. How do you discuss or solve complex musical problems (complex rhythmic patterns, melodic-harmonic relationships, form & analysis, intonation)? Please list specific examples. 2. Are there times when you discuss physics of sound, and how physical attributes of instruments relate to intonation, sound production, tuning, etc.? Please list specific examples.

140

3. Do you discuss various processes (rehearsal process, individual practicing as it relates to ensemble, etc.)? Please list specific examples. Verbal-Linguistic 1. Do you discuss/define/share musical terms and foreign terms? Please list specific examples. 2. Do you share historical background of composers and works? Please list specific examples. 3. When applicable, do you connect literature/poetry to music? Please list specific examples. Interpersonal 1. Do you create an interpersonal awareness on an individual level that incorporates aspects musical interaction, awareness within one’s section, awareness of the whole ensemble, and being musically sensitive to others, the composer, stylistic, expressive, and performance elements? Please list specific examples. 2. Do you emphasize cooperative, collaborative, or decision-making interaction in sectional rehearsals? Please list specific examples. 3. Do you find opportunities to develop interpersonal skills with positions of student leadership (principals or section leaders, student officers/leaders)? Please list specific examples. Intrapersonal 1. Do you find ways to create intrapersonal awareness as it relates to self-knowledge, expression of feelings/emotions, one’s sense of purpose and values through the process of music making? Please list specific examples. Naturalist 1. Are there times where you create analogies or connections to nature (flora and fauna) and music? Please list specific examples.

141

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