Development Southern Africa Vol. 21, No. 3. September 2004 | ^ Carfax Publishing

Development Debate and Practice

Disaster risk reduction initiatives inSouth AfricaJaco Vermaak & Dewald van Niekerk^

The field of disaster management in South Africa has developed dramatically over the past sevenyears. The paradigm shift from civil protection to disaster risk management brought with it therealisation that the nianagemeni of disaster risk is paramount to reducing successfully thevulnerability of these communities mo.st at risk. The resilience and coping mechanisms ofcommunities affected by disasters have demonstrated ihe importance of local and traditionalknowledge in the reduction of risk and ihe effects of hazards. Tliis article aims to explore variousinitiatives for disaster risk reduction in South Africa undertaken hy government departmentsand non-governmental organisations from 1994 to 2003. ll describes the various methods andsystems employed to reduce risk and vulnerability. A ca.se study of the February 2(HX) floods inthe Limpopo province of South Africa provides insight into local coping mechani.sms andindigenous methods of risk reduction.

1. Introduction

South Africa is a country not prone to .spectacular, destructive and media-attractingdisasters such as volcanic eruptions and massive earthquakes. Disasters have mainlybeen dominated by localised incidents of veld fires, informal settlement tires, seasonalflooding in vulnerable communities, droughts, and human-induced disasters such as oilspills and mining accidents. Of late, the impact of HIV/Aids on the economy of SouthAfrica has increasingly come under scrutiny.

South Africa has an area of approximately 1 219 080 square kilometres (about 470 690square miles), with a population of approximately 43 million. The population densityaverages 36 persons per square kilometre (about 93 per square mile). Nearly two-thirdsof the population live in urban areas {Facts on File, 1998).

South Africa thus constitutes a vast area that is not adequately covered in terms ofdisaster risk reduction in the most vulnerable of communities. Rapid urbanisationimpacts on the availability of livelihoods and contributes to hazardous impacts andvulnerabilities in communities. These undesirable disaster risk patterns are worsened bypoor planning and uncoordinated settlement. Increasingly, poor development is toblame for risk creation and further increasing the probability of future disasters (ISDR.2002). The tack of resources and access to basic services, the exposure to hazards, andpoor coping mechanisms in many communities also add to their vulnerability to risksand disasters (South Africa, 1999).

The emergence of the democratic South Africa in the international arena has changedthe country's status from pariah nation to an equal international player. This has meant

'Respectively, Lecturer, School of Business Administration and Law, Department of Public andDevelopment Administration, University of Venda, South Africa: and Director. African Centrefor Disaster Studies. School for Social and Government Studies. North-Wesi University Poichef-stroom Campus, Potchefstroom, South Africa.

ISSN 0376-835X print/ISSN 1470-3637 online/04/030555-20 © 2004 Development Bank of Southern AfricaDOl: 10.1080/0376835042000265487

556 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

not only a change of government, but also a new realisation of the importance of HsVand disaster reduction in communities at risk. A process of implementing new policiesand legislation relating to disaster management also began.

This article looks at the disaster and risk reduction initiatives that many governmentand private role-players have embarked upon from 1994 to 2003. Various initiatives arediscussed, which gives an indication of the importance of risk reduction in SouthAfrica. A practical case study from the February 2000 floods in the Limpopo provinceof South Africa is given to illustrate what communities, and farmers in particular, aredoing to reduce the risk of disaster.

2. DISASTER RISK REDUCTION VS DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The subject of disaster and risk reduction draws its relevance from earlier contributionsand previous practices in the area of disaster management, where traditionally ihe fcKushas been on preparedness for response. At this point, it i.s important to establish acommon understanding of the basic tenets of disaster risk reduction and disastermanagement in the South African context.

Disaster risk reduction reflects a new global approach to the management of disastersand disaster risk. It can be seen as 'the systematic developinent and application ofpolicies, strategies and practices to minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks through-out a -society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverseimpact of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development" tISDR,2002:25).

Strategies for disaster reduction include, first and foremost, vulnerability and riskassessment, as well as a number of institutional capacities and operational abilities. Theassessment of the vulnerability of critical facilities, social and economic infrastructure,the use of effective early warning systems, and the application of many different typesof scientific, technical and other skilled abilities are essential features of disaster riskreduction. !t is therefore multidisciplinary in nature and does not assume that only onefunction of government has responsibility.

Disaster management, as defined by the UNDP (1992:21), is *the body of policy andadministrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to the various stagesof a disaster at all levels". The disaster management cycle in Figure 1 depicts thesevarious stages.

Disaster management is defined by the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002{South Africa, 2(K)2) as a continuous and integrated multisectoral. multidisciplinaryprocess of planning and implementation of measures aimed at the following:

• Prevention or reduction of the risk of disasters• Mitigation of the severity or consequences of disasters• Emergency preparedness "•• A rapid and effective response to disasters• Post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation

Disaster management in its international form entails the integration of pre- andpost-disaster activities in order to safeguard lives and property against possibledisasters. At first glance, disaster risk reduction appears to form an underlying tenet ofdisaster management in the definition supplied by the Disaster Management Act.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 557

Rescue

Disaster

Earlywarning

\Preparedness

\Mitigation Rehabilitation and

^..^ reconstructionPrevention ^t

Figure 1: The disaster management cycle (continuum)Notes: A = Pre-disaster reduction phase; B = Post-disaster recovery phase.

Should this, however, have been the case in practice, then 20 years of disastermanagement in Africa would have yielded more positive results, less loss of life andlivelihoods, and fewer disasters.

One significant problem with disaster management - as a discipline and the applicationof the continuum in Figure I - is that it still has a disaster-oriented focus. All activitiesand resources arc geared towards a disastrous event. In most cases, the underlyingcauses of these disaster (e.g. risk, hazards and vulnerability) are not considered, or arethe product of bureaucratic ignorance. Another weakness in the application of thedisaster management cycle is that a number of practitioners view its implementation asa phased approach where the activities follow a sequential path. Often, it is notrecognised that each of the cycle's processes occurs simultaneously,

Through multiple efforts, the importance and uniqueness of hai'.ard and further riskreduction for the future have become evident. In contrast to the earlier concepts ofdisaster management, hazard and risk reduction practices relate to significantly largerprofessional constituencies and depend on much more diverse infonnation requirements(Jeggle. in Rosenthal et al., 2001). While there is no doubl that emergency assistancewill remain necessary, the potential consequences of increasingly severe hazardsindicate that much greater investments need to be made to reduce the risk of social andeconomic disasters. The challenge for risk and disaster management in the comingyears is to find effective means by which a much more comprehensive and multisec-toral participation of professional disciplines and public interests can contribute toreducing disaster risk. Accomplishment of this goal requires both a political commit-ment, as much as public understanding to motivate local community involvement. It isin no one's interest that the resources on which all societies depend must first be lostto hazards before their value is deemed worthy of protection, replacement, or repair.

Table 1 sets out the difference between the focus of disaster management and disasterrisk reduction.

558 J. Vermaak & A van Niekerk

Table 1: Comparing traditional disaster management and new internationalthinking in disaster risk reduction

Disaster management (traditional) Disaster risk reduction

Primary focus on hazards Major focus on vulnerabilily ,

Single, eveni-based scenarios Dynamic, muiliple-hsk issues

Basic responsihitity to respond to an event Fundamental need lo assess and update

Often fixed, localion-speclfic conditions Extended, shared or regional locales

Responsibiiiiy in a single authoriiy or agency Multiple inierests, actont and responsibilities

Command-and-control directed operations Situation-specific functions and free asst>ci:ilion

Established hierarehical relationships Shifting, fluid and tangential relalioiiships

llrgeni, immediate to short lime frames in outlook. Comparative, mixlerate to long time frames in

planning, attention anij returns outlook, planning and retum values

Rapidly changing, dynamic use of information: Accumulated, historical, layered, updated and

often conflicting or "sensitive" comparative infonnalion: open or publie

Primary, 'authorised' or singular sources Multiple and diverse or changing sources

Need for definitive 'facts* Differing perspectives and points of view

Operallonal, or public infonnati<m-based use of Multiple-use, shared exchange, inlorsectoral

communications information, macrixes, nodal and lateral Hows in

communication

Source: Jeggle. in Roseothal el al. (2001); ISDR (2002).

The increasing number of disasters in the 1990s etnphasised the need to move beyondpure 'disaster management". This provided the impetus for a much greater focus ondisaster risk reduction, which aims to assess risk before mitigation and preventionstrategies are developed. Disaster risk reduction therefore has a clear focus on hazards:their characteristics and impact; vulnerability in terms of social, political, economic andenvironment factors; and risk as the product of hazards interacting with conditions ofvulnerability. Solving disaster and disaster risk-related problems therefore needs tohave a clear development focus.

Holloway (2003:30) indicates that in southern Africa, and perhaps more widelythroughout Africa, the field of disaster reduction has never explicitly achieved the samepolicy stature or secured levels of financial commitment comparable to those seen inAsia or Latin America. This is not only due to the nature of Africa's disaster riskprofile, which has differed from that of other continents, hut is also explained by thecharacter of international assistance that has tended to he either prolonged aid forrefugees and displaced populations, or highly visible food and other humanitarianassistance in times of drought and famine.

In the light of the above, it is clear that the focus in dealing with conditions of riskshould he on disaster risk reduction. The emphasis therefore shifts from disaster to risk.

3. RISK ASSESSMENT

The first step in disaster risk reduction is the assessment of possible hazards that canimpact on a community. The ISDR (2002) defines risk assessment as the process ofdetermining the nature and extent of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluatingexisting conditions of vulnerahility that could pose a potential threat or harm to people.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 559

property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. The YokohamaStrategy and Plan of Action (1994) indicates that risk assessment is a required step inthe adoption of adequate and successful policies and measures for disaster reduction.Risk assessment therefore requires the systematic use of infonnation and data todetermine the likelihood that a hazard (of cenain magnitude) might exploit a particularvulnerability within a given community. It also considers the possible consequences ofthe hazardous impact.

Risk assessment is undertaken by a number of national, provincial and local govern-ment departments as well as other non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The policydocument of the South African government on disaster management, the White Paperon Disaster Management (South Africa, 1999), mentions that one of the key policyproposals is the 'urgent integration of risk reduction strategies into developmentinitiatives'.

Two of the most profound processes of development planning at municipal level inSouth Africa are the development of land development objectives and IntegratedDevelopment Plans (IDPs) for ail municipalities. Integrated development planning is aprocess through which municipalities prepare a strategic development plan for afive-year peritxl. According to the Municipal Structures Act No. 117 of 1998 (SouthAfrica, 1998a) and the Municipal Systems Act No. 32 of 2(K)0 (South Africa, 2(XK)),all municipalities (i.e. metros, district municipalities and local municipalities) mustundenake an integrated development planning process to produce IDPs. The IDP is alegislative requirement, which has legal status, and therefore supersedes all other plansthat guide development at local government level. The development of a disastermanagement plan therefore forms an integral part of the IDP. The aim of a disastermanagement plun is to enhance the capacity of the municipality to assess risks, preventand deal with hazards, and avoid developments that are subject to high risk andpossible disaster. Such a disaster management plan should specify the following(DPLG.

• Likely types of disasters or hazards, and specific locations or communities at risk• Prevention and mitigation strategies for each of the likely types of disaster• C{)ntingency plans and emergency procedures that ensure maximum emergency

preparedness, under consideration of available capacities• Roles and responsibilities of all roie-players

The guidelines for the preparation of IDPs suggest that, rather than taking possibledisasters into consideration, municipalities must focus on likely risks. The emphasis onrisk assessment is therefore understandable. Guidance on how to conduct risk assess-ments in order to compile disaster management plans still requires considerabledevelopment. Disaster management officials at local government level are not knowl-edgeable of the IDP process, or of the elements that should be included in acomprehensive disaster management plan. Apparent confusion also reigns over thedifference between disaster management plans and contingency plans (Van Niekerk,2002). Until such time as the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) givesclear guidance on these issues to local authorities, one can expect that risk assessmentwill be a haphazard exercise.

Besides the integration of risk assessment into development planning, various govern-ment departments at all spheres are engaged in activities that aim to reduce the risk ofdisaster:

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• The Department of Provincial and Local Government (DPLG) is responsible for riskassessment at national level through the NDMC.

• The Department of Agriculture provides support in times of droughts, floods, fires,IcKust outbreaks and severe weather conditions like tornadoes.

• The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for nationalwater management, including irrigated rural agriculture, urban water supply, and themonitoring of rainfall patterns, rainfall and dam, river and reservoir levels.

• The Department of Health uses health indicators (such as levels of malnutrition anddisease) to assess health-related disasters in communities, such as cholera, malariaand HIV/Aids.

• The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) conducts risk assessment in relationlo radioactive materials, pollution and hazardous waste, as well as mining safety. Italso monitors the atomic energy plant at Koeberg in the Western Cape.

• The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) deals with pol-lution, hazardous waste and radioactive materials.

• The Department of Social Development (DSD) plays an important role in alleviatingpoverty through development and poverty alleviation programmes (DSD, 2001) and,in so doing, contributes to risk assessment and the reduction of communities'vulnerability to disasters. The DSD also focuses on HIV/Aids issues, especially Aidsorphans.

• The Department of Housing assesses risk in relation to informal settlements,adherence to huilding standards, provision of infrastructure, and a.spects of planning(e.g. housing densities, soil stability, slope angles and Hood lines).

• The South African Weather Service supplies meteorological data and early warningsystems for drought, severe weather conditions, floods, tornadoes, tropical cyclonesand other atmospheric data.

• The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS, 2001) aims to develop standards ofrisk assessment for application at local government level.

Each of the above national departments maintains risk assessment measures within itsfield of jurisdiction. Due to 'cross-pollination" through the Interdepartmental DisasterManagement Committee (IDMC), coordination of risk assessment activities is im-proved and duplication is eliminated to a large extent.

Ideally, data dissemination should occur horizontally and vertically throughout allspheres of government. High-risk areas and hazards to communities are frequentlyassessed in terms of 'hazard-mapping' techniques.

4. HAZARD MAPPING

Various organisations and institutions conduct hazard mapping in South Africa.Unfortunately, some projects are carried out in isolation and the data are not widelyutilised. This, however, does not mean that the infonnation is not beneficial toinstitutions other than those it was intended for. Historical data contribute greatly tohazard mapping, for instance data concerning dam and reservoir levels, polluted surfacewater, land and veld degradation, and reported cases of malaria and cholera. Severalhazard maps are available online and function as clickable image maps that containadditional information on particular areas. Satellite data are also used to compile hazardmaps. The.'ie data provide a timely and relatively inexpensive means for assessing cropcondition and size, vegetation cover and type, surface temperature (land and sea), firemonitoring and risks of diseases. Satellite data from the National Oceanic and

Disaster risk reduction iniliatives in South Africa 561

Atmospheric Adtninistration (NOAA) of the United Slates allow the generation ofgeo-re fere need maps. The Nalional Botanical InsUlute also embarked on mapping landand veld degradation patterns for the whole of South Africa.

However, many practical problems are associated with the use of hazard maps. Due toIhe complicated nature oi" some software, considerable time delays may be experiencedwhen downloading relevant programs, especially from the Intemet. In addition,computer literacy and ignorance amongst government officials and decision makers arealso problematic. Another challenge is the quality and accuracy of hazard characterisa-tion. Information on various hazards (e.g. extreme weather and its dislribulion) is verypoor and further inhibits the use of hazard maps.

The impact of a hazard on a community depends largely on the community's ownvulnerability and capacity to withstand or recover from a disaster. A number ofinitiatives are currently in place to assess community vulnerability. In the next section,attention is given to certain initiatives regarding vulnerability assessment.

5. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

Little, If any, formal mechanisms exist that en.sure annual vulnerability assessments.Tbe Disaster Management Act makes provision for these types of assessments andrequires that local and provincial governments give feedback annually on a varietyof issues relating to vulnerability assessment. Some of the existing initiatives arediscussed below.

5.1 Social development/poverty alleviation project

The Department of Social Development plays an integral part in the identification ofvulnerable comtnunities as part of its social development/poverty alleviation pro-gramme in the different provinces. The eradication of poverty and social integration areemphasised. The programme has five basic tenets:

• Support for food security initiatives• Provision and maintenance of support structures for those affected by HIV/Aids• Creation of skills and employment opportunities to reduce the level of youth

criminality• Support lor income-generating activities for rural women• Community-based child care that capitalises on the economic and social capabilities

of the aged

5.2 National Disaster VulnerabUity Atlas

One of the biggest projects in vulnerability assessment at national level is the NDMC'sdevelopment of a national disaster vulnerability atlas. This atlas is a web-enabled,database-driven, interactive, vulnerability and risk assessment management system. Itenables all departments to capture data relating to vulnerabilities on one system foreasy access. The atlas will enable users to access 'maps on the fly' (i.e. creating mapsin real time using the most current data available), graphs, charts, drawings, and imagesrelating to a variety of risks, hazards and potential disastrous scenarios. Some featuresof the vulnerability atlas are already available online (see htlp://sandmc.pwv.gov.za;Sakulski, 2001; Safari2000, 2001).

562 J. Vemuiuk & D. van Niekerk

The initial focus of the vulnerability atlas is on floods and droughl, The NDMC aimsto have all vulnerability data relating to floods, drought, extreme weather conditions,fires, landslides, hazardous material spills and pollution, and other human-madedisasters included in the atlas. The main aim of the atlas is to provide all relevantrole-players with a one-stop website that provides all the data and information required.This project will further ensure better coordination and help to prevent duplication(Sakulski, 2001).

5.3 DiMP's Mandisa Projecl

Universities, NGOs and private sector companies are also developing systems to assistwith risk and vulnerability assessment. An example is the Mandisa Project of theUniversity of Cape Town's Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihood Programme(DiMP). DiMP has developed a disaster risk information management system to trackand represent small, medium and large-scale disaster events in the Cape TownMetropolitan Area. The objective is to provide a system that could identify trends andvulnerabilities related to localised disaster incidents. The information gathered will betiiadc available on a website that will enable users such as emergency medical services,fire and rescue, disaster management departments and city planning services to draw upreports. The system is capable of capturing data relating to the:

• Disaster (type, date, declared, geographic information system (GIS) location througha geographical map interface, photos, etc.)

• Triggering event (type, sub-type, duration. Intensity)• Contributing risk factors (environment, building infrastructure, service infrastructure,

siting/location, social/behavioural, management/organisational, climatic co-risk fac-tors, emergency preparedness/response)

• Impacts (people, buildings, public infrastructure, humanitarian relief organisations)• Reconstruction and recovery (buildings, public infrastructure, agriculture)

This system could potentially be implemented in other cities once the initial ground-work and data collection are completed {Computer Week, 2001).

5.4 ITL-Systnan's DRM

A Johannesburg-based software company specialising in emergency managementsoftware, joined forces wiih tbe African Centre for Disaster Studies at the Norlh-WestUniversity (Potchefstroom Catnpus) and developed a generic all-inclusive risk, hazardand vulnerability assessment tool. The software package, called DRM (Disaster RiskManagement), is a client-based application that uses qualitative formulae and scales torank and tneasure hazards and vulnerability. The software is generic in nature, allowingfor a wide variety of different hazards and vulnerabilities to be assessed. It has a GISoutput for easy viewing of maps. The system uses public domain information (e.g.census data, street tnaps. I:5O(X)O topographical tiiaps and aerial photographs) as itsbaseline information, which is supplemented by field research. Through the capturingof hazard, vulnerability and capacity-related information, layers for the different mapscan be created. For instance, all settlements within fire-prone areas can be viewed, orthe location of fire stations and the area they can cover in a reasonable period of time.The system further provides the user wilh a variety of different templates and reports(e.g. disaster management plans) lo facilitate the planning process.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 563

5.5 CSIR Environmentek

CSIR Environmentek of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)provides technologies for environmental assessment and management, terrestrial re-sources, forestry and foresl products, water resource management, coastal developmentand marine resources (CSIR, 2(X)lb).

5.6 Working for Water Programme

The Working for Water Programme was launched in 1995 as a multi-departmentalpublic w()rks programme, in an effort to tackle the problems of invasive alitn plantsand of unemployment. There are currently 300 such projects in South Africa, spreadthroughout the nine provinces. The programme aims to enhance water security,improve ecological integrity, restore the productive potential of land, promote sustain-able use of natural resources, and invest in the mosl marginalised sectors of the SouthAfrican society (DWAF, 2001).

5.7 Safari2000

Safari2000 is an international regional science initiative Ihat has been developed forsouthern Africa through the collaboration of southern African and North Americanuniversities, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and theCSIR. It explores, studies and addresses linkages between land-atmosphere processes,the relationship of biogenic. pyrogenic or anthropogenic emissions, and the conse-quences of their deposition to the functioning of the biogeophysical and biogeochem-ical systems of southern Africa. This initiative is being built around a number ofongoing activities funded by NASA, the international community and African nationsin the southern African region (Safari2000, 2001).

The above said, the best risk assessment, hazard mapping and vulnerability assessmentwill have a minute impact on any community if they are unaware of possible hazardsand their impact on tlie community's own distinct way of life. Public awareness andeducation play a paramount role in the reduction of risk.

6. PUBLIC AWARENESS

A considerable number of public awareness projects are currently under way indifferent municipalities. In this section, some of these awareness campaigns are brieflydiscussed.

6.1 Ukuvuka: Operation Firestop Campaign

One of the most active awareness campaigns is the Ukuvuka: Operation FirestopCampaign in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area. The campaign was launched inFebruary 2000 as a result of the fires that destroyed almost 8 370 hectares of land alongTable Mountain In JanuLU-y of the same year. The campaign aims to reduce the risk of,and danger from wildfires in the Cape Peninsula in at least three focus areas:

• The first target area is the land and its plants, where the aim is to control invadingalien plants and rehabilitate fire-damaged areas.

• The second key iirea concerns communities and individuals, by helping to createemployment, offering training and poverty relief for disadvantaged people, protect-

564 J. Vermaak <&. D. van Niekerk

ing the most vulnerable communities from fire, and promoting cooperation and socialcohesion between communities.

• Thirdly, institutions will be assisted to implement integrated fire management plansand manage the urban edge. ,

The Ukuvuka Campaign has a four-year mandate to achieve Its goals. The lessonsleamed about effective biodiversity conservation linked to social delivery can be passedon to other communities. Another aim of the campaign is to become u role model forsimilar projects elsewhere in the country. Linked to this campaign is supplyingcommunities at risk with tire buckets, whistles and awareness posters. These posterscan be used as part of the construction of infonnal settlements, thus incorporating theawareness message into the informal architecture (Pillay, 2001; Santam/Cape Argus,2000).

6.2 Tshwane Metro Disaster Management Awareness Campaign

In other provinces in South Africa, various disaster awareness campaigns are also underway. The Disaster Management department of Tshwane Metropolitan Council em-barked on a campaign to create awareness among tbe urban community as to a varietyof urban risks, including informal settlement fires, spreading of diseases, floods,extreme weather conditions, pollution and HIV/Aids. Information brochures wereplaced In matchboxes and handed out in various communities. Bruwer & Fourie (2001)note that a variety of other materials were also used, such as posters, fridge magnets,computer mouse pads, and colouring-in competitions for primary schoolchildrendepicting various risks in the community.

I •

6.3 EYE-SPY

Tbe Western and Eastern Cape provinces jointly implemented the EYE-SPY awarenesscampaign, which involves the distribution of 'information boxes'. These boxes arepertect squares, approximately the size of a matchbox, with round magnifying glasseson two adjacent sides. Disaster risk information can be gained by peering through themagnifying glass that enlarges the information printed on the opposite inside side of thebox. Tbe information was depicted in picture format to cross language barriers (Reid,2001).

6.4 Eastern Cape Disaster Awareness

The Eastern Cape province is in the process of proposing a further two programmes incapacity building and community awareness. The first programme involves communityawareness aimed at communities at risk in rural areas, which will be channelledthrough headmen, schools and the media. The strategy is to identify those communitiesmost at risk, and then to assess particular hazards and risks in each of them. Reid(2001) indicates that a presentation package will be prepared, which directly addressesspecifics relating to risk and vulnerability. To disseminate the information amongstscbools a one-day teacher's workshop will be arranged in view of channelling theinformation to the parents via the schoolchildren. This will be linked to a scboo!competition. A further medium that will be used is local radio stations, wherewell-known, credible personalities will interview knowledgeable individuals who canspeak tbe local vernacular.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 565

The second programme is a capacity-building programme for functionaries in localgovernmcnl ihul will empower them lo initiate effective disaster management, planningand organisation in their area of responsibility (Reid, 2(X)I).

6.5 HIV/Aids awareness

A nationwide HIV/Aids awareness programme is currently in operation wiih theassistance of the Department of Health. The programme is underpinned and supportedby a communication strategy, using print media, radio, television, leaflets, billboardsand mobile media, such as mini-bus taxis. An Aids loll free helpline provides advice,education and support to callers. Communication strategies for reaching those who arephysically challenged have also been developed and continue to be improved.

7. DISASTER MANAGEMENT NETWORKS

7.1 Interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships

The nature of current policies in South Africa requires a considerable amount ofnetworking and inlersecloral collaboration. Beside the structures listed in the followingsection, a Training and Capacity Building Working Group (TCBWG) of the lnlerde-panmental Disaster Management Committee was established at national level. Themain aim of ihe TCBWG is the comprehensive eompilalion of a framework for disastermanagement training and capacity building. This framework should include all formal,non-formal and capaeity-building programmes (DPLG, 2001b). The TCBWG has alsodeveloped standards for disaster management training through the Public Administra-tion and Management Standards Generating Body (see http://www.jupmet.org./.a/li-tles.htm). This is in keeping witb the National Qualifications Framework and ibeprescriptions of the South African Qualiiication.s Authority. The TCBWG is also in Iheprocess of bringing together different tertiary educational institutions and NGOs toform a single national body for monitoring disaster management training and research.

The Disaster Management Institute of Southern Africa (DMISA) (seewww.disaster.co.za) is a professional body of disaster management practitioners withinthe soutbem Africa region (DMISA. 2(WI). DMISA aims to promote disaster manage-ment practice in southern Africa and to establish disaster management as a professionalfield. Within DMISA, a Technical Training Board (TTB) has been established for theaccreditation and registration of disaster management offerings and service providers.The TTB is also involved in community awareness and capacity building. It isresponsible for administering the training policy of DMISA and for making recommen-dations regarding training to the executive committee (DMISA, 2001).

7.2 National institutional arrangements

After the June 1994 floods on the Cape Flats, the Cabinet resolved to assess SouthAfrica's ability to deal with risks and disaster management. This resulted in the reviewof disaster management structures and policies (South Africa, 1998b). In 1995, theCabinet recommended that a formal structure for disaster management be establisbed.It resolved that the Department of Constitutional Development (now ihe Department ofProvincial and Local Government), whicb administers the Civil Protection Act No. 67of 1977, would serve as the focal point for disaster management in the interim. TheNalional Disaster Management Committee was subsequently established in 1996, withthe functions of coordinating and managing disaster management policy.

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This body never came into its own right and by mid-1997, the Cabinet approved theformation of the Intentiinisterial Committee for Disaster Management (IMC), thusmaking the National Disaster Management Committee redundant (South Africa,1998b). In August 1997. tbe IMC formed a Disaster Management Task Team with theduty of tabling a Green Paper on disaster managemeni for all spheres of government- national, provincial and local. February 1998 saw the birth of the Green Paper onDisaster Management, the first step in the establishment of formal disaster managementpolicy in South Africa.

In order to address South Africa's immediate needs, an Interim Disaster ManagementCentre (IDMC) consisting of ten different national departments was established in1997. With the run-up to Y2K, Ihe IDMC was converted to the National DisasterManagement Centre (NDMC). The NDMC has been operational since 1999. To ensurebetter coordination between different government departments at national level, anInterdepartmental Disaster Management Committee was established in 1999. This,however, is an interim measure until such time as the statutory structures, contained inthe Disaster Management Act No. 52 of 2(X)2. are fully functional.

The Disaster Management Act gives guidance as to the legal establishment of IbeNDMC, the duties and powers of the national, provincial and local spheres ofgovernment, and funding for post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.

The Act makes provision for an Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Manage-ment- Thi.s committee will consist of Cabinet members involved in disa.ster manage-ment, members of the Executive Councils in the nine provinces, and representatives oforganised local government. This committee will advise the Cabinet on issues relatingto disaster management in all spheres of government.

A further structure established by the Act is the National Disaster ManagementFramework (NDMF). The NDMF will outline coherent, transparent and inclusivepolicy on al! aspects of disaster risk reduction, including training and capacity building.

Furthermore, the Act makes provision for a National Disaster Management AdvisoryForum (NDMAF). The NDMAF will consist of the head of the NDMC. representativesfrom all provincial governments, representatives from all national departments thatform part of the Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management, representa-tives from organised labour, community-based organisations. NGOs. and other expertson disaster management designated by the Minister of Provincial and Local Govern-ment. I '

The NDMC is responsible for not only the reduction of disaster risk and vulnerability,but also disaster rehabilitation and recovery. Emphasis is also placed on the importantrole of the NDMC in training, and in raising community awareness. Parallel to regionaltrends, tbe NDMC and the IMC are actively involved in the initiative of tbe SouthernAfrican Development Community (SADC) to establish a regional disaster managementcoordinating body (Sakulski, 2001).

Considering the above, it appears that a large number of tbe statutory requirements andinstitutions on disaster management will soon become fully operational. The Act,however, is not the only piece of legislation or policy that contributes to the reductionof risks and disasters. The next section focuses on the current policies and legislationthat govern disaster management in South Africa.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 567

7.3 Review of policies and legislation

Until April 2004, disasters were managed under the auspices of the Civil Protection ActNo. 67 of 1977 and the Fund Raising Act No. 107 of 1978. Civil protection formerlyaimed at combating the consequences of terrorist activities against the privileged rulingminority, and later an apparent paradigm shift from civil protection to disastermanagement took place. In February 1998, the Green Paper on Disaster Managementwas tabled. In January 1999. the While Paper on Disa.ster Management was published,followed by the first Disa.ster Management Bill in May 2000. put out for publiccomment. In the period following May 2000. the initial enthusiasm and momentumevident in the government seemed to decline with the repeated postponements of thetabling of the Bill.

The devastating floods in the southern African region in February/March 2000reiterated the importance of disaster management policy and legislation. The secondhouse of Parliament, the National Council of Provinces, called for a disaster manage-ment conference in May 2000 to investigate disaster prevention at a regional level.After this conference, which was funded by USAID, the process regained momentumand the Bill was finally tabled before Cabinet and subsequently approved in August2001. After another delay, the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002 was enactedon 15 January 2003.

The aim of the Green Paper on Disaster Management was to ensure that an effeelivedisaster management system would be realised and implemented by way of nationalpolicy reflected in the While Paper. The Green Paper process was designed to set aconceptual framework for disaster management and risk reduction. In building on theinitial work in the Green Paper, the emphasis in the White Paper on DisasterManagement is clearly risk and disaster reduction, with a focus on regional andinternational trends and development. Besides the major policy proposals contained inthe White Paper on Disaster Management, the development of joint standards andpractices across the SADC are also emphasised.

As a fairly well-established developing country. South Africa has for some yearsenforced legislation pertaining to building codes and building within vulnerable areas.The establishment of economically, physically, environmentally and socially integratedand sustainable built environments is one of the most important factors that willcontribute to harnessing the full development potential of the country and addressingthe needs of its growing population. Recently, the CSIR published the Red Hook, whichstipulates guidelines for planniing and designing human settlements (CSIR, 2001a).Increasingly, the planning and management of informal settlements are enjoyingattention at all levels of government.

7.4 Community Involvement

The practice of using volunteers to perform disaster management functions is commonthroughout South Africa. The Eastern Cape province, for instance, has over 8 000registered volunteers who have received some form of training, be it first-aid or moreintensive courses, such as establishing early warning systems and managing jointoperation centres. The use of volunteers in other provinces is sadly lacking. Tlie highunemployment rate in South Africa contributes to the unwillingness of communities todo voluntary work, as they expect some form of payment. Nevertheless, various

568 / Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

successes have been achieved with the assistance of volunteers in communitiesperiodically affected by emergencies and disasters, such as seasonal Hooding.

As the case study in section 9 shows, many communities have taken ownership of riskreduction, vulnerability assessment and early warning. Moreover, the communityawareness campaigns are bearing fruit and there is a definite increase in the involve-ment of communities in reducing risks and disasters. Formal structures for mobilisingcommunities are stiU, however, inadequate and are in need of urgent attention.

8. APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The need for. and access lo spatial information in South Africa for use in decisionmaking, development planning and disaster reduction have inevitably led to discussionson uncoordinated efforts, a lack of funding and expertise, and the unavailability ofquality standardised data, In many circles it has been recognised that a well-coordinated, integrated and holistic model by means of GIS technology is a criticallyuseful approach to assist with the current problems surrounding disaster managementin South Africa. Such a model will help to address national growth and developmentstrategies; to comply with international protocols, treaties, conventitms. agendas(e.g. Agenda 21 - the convention on biodiversity, desertification and climate change)and programmes in view of global sustainability; and to promote the national govern-ment's Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) framework. It could alsofacilitate the storage, analysis and interpretation of geo-referenced information,including maps.

This need has led to the creation of the Agricultural Geographic Information Systemby the Department of Agriculture (2(X)I). The project intends to structure a corporateGIS for agriculture at a national and provincial level to such an extent that tasks arecoordinated and integrated as provincial, regional and national data sets, models anddecision support systems in order to ensure effective decision making.

Between the national Department of Agriculture, the provincial Departments ofAgriculture, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC, 2000) and other spatial infor-mation providers, there is a wealth of information pertaining to agricultural and relatedissues. However, this information is not readily accessible. This is because data areretained as a power base; communication is unsatisfactory, resulting in role-players notbeing aware of the information: and information is a non-standard or incompatibleformat.

The ARC has further developed an early warning system that monitors hazards thatcould impact on agricultural production. It is called the Umlindi system, from theisiZuiu word meiining 'watchman'. This system attempts to inform decision makers ofprevailing drought conditions, fire risks and vegetation conditions based on interpretedNOAA satellite data and climate data (Department of Agriculture, 20(K)).

As regards research, a number of different projects bave been conducted addressingvarious issues from food security, agriculture, sustainable development, and remotesensing (Safari2tM)0. 20()l) to the psychological impact of disasters on communities.Various universities and technikons are partners in these projects. Most of theresearch conducted does not relate directly to the reduction of disasters per se, butfocuses on areas relating to disaster management and, in doing so, contributes to riskreduction.

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 569

With such a considerable number of formal risk and disaster reduction initiativespresent, one could ask whether it is still necessary for communities to embark on riskreduction. The following section sheds more light on the initiatives taken by communi-ties in the Northern Province of South Africa following the devastating flotids inFebruary 2000 that impacted on a number of southern African countries.

9. CASE STUDY

The heavy rains that feil throughout southern Africa during late January and earlyFebruary 2000 brought severe flooding to the south-eastern regions. Further to thenorth, rivers filled to unprecedented levels. Reservoirs filled to maximum capacity,released the excess and caused even greater damage to the southern parts. The flatlandsin the region flooded severely, submerging hundreds of square kilometres on neigh-bouring land.

Considerable media attention was given to the devastating floods that occurred inMozambique and adjacent regions. Worldwide, television viewers could see thedestructive force of Cyclone Eline as it moved over the affected area. Although theseverity and extent of the consequences of disaster events are frequently discussed,little attention is often given to the aftermath and post-disaster period, which requiresconsiderable adaptation by farming communities. Farmers in disaster-affected regions,particularly the Nzhelele subsistence farmers, revealed considerable potential forrestoring their ecological balance. This case study provides practical insight, and aimsto extend the theoretical debate on disaster management and risk reduction as discussedpreviously in section 2.

Indigenous knowledge is well established in the developing world and, as in the caseof Nzhelele in the Limpopo province (Figure 2), agricultural activities are an importantelement of rural peoples" lives. The Nzhelele farmers harvest fruit and vegetahles suchas spinach, tomatoes and mangoes, and also farm with cattle.

Figure 2: Location map showing Nzhelele

570 ./, Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

9.1 Case study methodotogy

The inlormation on the impact of the 2000 floods on Ihc Nzhelele farmers wa.s gatheredfrom field visits to the area. These visits itivolved informal interviews with agriculturalproducers and 28 subsistence farmers in Nzhelele. Informal interviews were alsoconducted with road-side produce sellers, farm workers on large farms, and locaJbusinesses operating in Nzhelele. Two translators were used. Furthermore, practicalobservations were made, and newspaper articles and local radio broadcasts supple-mented the data obtained from the interviews.

9.2 Consequences

Both direct and indirect consequences resulted from the flood disaster. Farmers weredirectly affected by infrastructural damage, such as severe damage to roads, bridges,building structures and telephone lines. Farmers also experienced damage to existingirrigation structures (like water pipes and boreholes) and the loss of crops andlivestock. Excess mud caused blocked furrows and canals. Large-scale erosion occurredon dirt and gravel roads and al.so on sensitive land. When the shores of dams and riverscontinued to swell, grazing land became scarce and dry firewood became more andmore difficult to find. Power failures occurred frequently and there was large-scaledamage to the root systems of crops.

These direct effects of the flood triggered additional indirect consequences thai severelyhampered farmers' ability to sustain their livelihoods. The large water pools created alush breeding ground for malaria and cholera, as well as other health-associated riskssuch as bilhar/ia. Crops and liveslock became su.sceptible to diseases and, due u> ihecontinuing rain, they could not be sprayed and vaccinated. Relative to the impact onother larger-scale farmers In the fiood-affected region, the economic implications forthe Nzhelele subsistence farmers were dramatic.

9.3 Economic impact

Based on practical observations as well as the responses received from the intervie-wees, the cost of farming increased substantially. The following factors were listed:

• Economic activity declined in the form of loss of labour hours and income fortemporary workers and farmers.

• Due to the condiiion of the roads in the region, petroleum and diesel could not bedelivered. As a result, farmers could not take their produce to markets, and auctionmeetings could not be attended.

• Savings money was spent on repairing the damage.• Food prices increased due to the shortage of fresh fruit and vegetables.• Loans from banks, microlenders and financial schemes had to be repaid.

Fanners' innovations in reaction to the consequences of the catastrophe were many andvaried, and resulted directly from the urgent need for flood relief to meet their basicdaily needs.

9.4 Initial relief

Like many other farmers in the region, the Nzhelele farmers had to confront thechallenge of seeking aid to rebuild the physical infrastructure on iheir farms, in theirvillages, and the roads between villages and strategically situated larger towns. The

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 57!

Nzheiele Farmers' Association applied for funding from various agricultural unions,bul it was the financial assistance from churches that brought the much-neededimmediate relief. In addition, farmers applied for slate and insurance finance, butinstitutionalised finance and technical assistance could only be released after conditionshad stabilised. The South African government established a Niilional Disaster ReliefFund as a vehicle for administering and channelling national and international dona-tions to severely affected farming communities, in particular. Militai^ helicopters alsobrought much-needed medical supplies, food and blaiikeLs to isolated farmers.

9.5 Farmers' reaction

Fanners' local knowledge and types of innovations were subject to a variety of factors,such as experience, training and tradition. The planting season was brought to astandstill and many farmers were forced to rethink planting and fertilising techniqueson their farms. This was a direct result of the increased degree of harvest riskassociated with the flooding circumstimces. With the trace of the natural waters" flowclearly visible, many farmers took the initiative of amending and improving contours.These forms of risk reduction were brought on as a direct result of the floods and, asreactive mechanisms, farmers' innovations became means to foster preventative mea-sures. After the flood water levels declined, the Nzheiele subsistence fanners beganreplanting.

Innovative reactions from fiirmers were facilitated by means of local and regional radiobroadcasts. During the flooding period, farmers regularly followed weather forecastseach day and. by doing so, tried to predict when the rain would begin subsiding.Farmers listened to radio stations in particular, as the frequent occurrence of powerfailures made it difficult to watch televi.sion, and battery-operated radios are commonin Nzheiele. Some local and regional radio broadcasts helped farmers to formpartnerships across cultures, and interaction between innovators was thus facilitated.Farmers" interaction later proved to be a valuable asset, especially when they had toassess their damage resulting from the flood.

Many other remarkable innovations resulted from inside and outside the local farmingvillages to neutralise the negative effects of the flooding. Small-scale fanners andcommercial farmers alike demonstrated altruistic behaviour, for example renderingassistance to emergency rescue operations with their own equipment (like generatorsand vehicles), providing food and blankets to their workers, and bringing mobilephones to people. In some cases, repayment periods were reconsidered upon fanners'requests.

To spare farm workers long trips by taxi or bus, some fanners erected tents fortemporary accommodation. This was much needed, as even the alternative routesbecame hardly accessible for normal vehicles. Some of the Nzheiele farmers succeededin constructing a temporary bridge from logs in an effort to provide at least a pedestriancrossing over one of the damaged bridges. Farmers also repaired some imponant accessroads and removed mud from canals and furrows.

9.6 Disaster risk reduction

The case study did lind that the theoretical perspectives of disaster risk reductiondescribed in section 2 are useful to (potentially) reduce the effects of a Rood disaster.However, the resource poor farmers in the study site revealed that indigenous

572 J. Vermaak A D. van Niekerk

knowledge is mobilised or transformed into d.sk reduction efforts for the localcommunity. Fanners experimented with the following innovations or risk reductionbehaviour in order to build on their existing knowledge:

• Planting early ,• Ploughing deep• Applying strip cropping . ,• Modifying channels• Stabilising river banks• Broadening the variety of vegetable crops planted• Using nutshell and grass mulch

In addition, some farmers used sandbags to break water speed and deflect water awayfrom crops. New canals, contour steps and floodwalls were built in an effort to preventfurther negative consequences. Various specific preventative measures were employedto reduce the effects of a possible flood during the next rainy season. Farmers were ableto detect high-risk areas, and the post-flooding period revealed that even inexperiencedsmall farmers planted crops in precautionary ways. Some farmers began to plant treesand grass to protect the topsoil and to combat future erosion. Livestock farmerstransferred their livestock to lesser-effected camps and started with early vaccinationbefore the next rainy season.

The extent of the flooding disaster re-emphasised the need to avoid overgrazing and toprotect natural vegetation. This will improve farmers' resilience and also their chancesto recover and sustain their livelihoods. The value of farmers' innovation in riskreduction lies in the learning experience gained.

10. CONCLUSION

The importance of proper risk reduction cannot be overemphasised. This articleexplains the government, private as well as informal measures for reducing risks incommunities. It is clear that the government has an important role to play in theassessment of risks and vulnerability, and the planning for possible disasters. Becausedisaster risk reduction as defined in section 2 does not precisely fit the actions offarmers in Nzhelele's case, it is instructive to explore both disaster risk reductiontheory and community development practice. The importance of indigenous knowledgeshould also not be underestimated, as the Nzhelele community has clearly shown.Africa should learn from Africa. Although good in Iheir own right, risk reductionmodels cannot be successfully implemented in communities that do not understand (orforesee) the hazards affecting them. Together, the modern and the traditional riskreduction initiatives can. and will deter the adverse effects of disaster on communitiesmost at risk.

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