Development of Abrasive Sandpaper Grains from Agro-Waste

Adeleke University Journal of Engineering and Technology

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Development of Abrasive Sandpaper Grains from Agro-Waste

Material for Polishing of Wood Surface

Ibrahim H. K.1, Abdulhamid A.S.

1, Abdulkareem, S.

1, Shuaib-Babata, Y. L.

2 Popoola O.

T.1, Kareem, A.G.,

3 Adeyi A. M.,

4 Busari, O. Y.

2, Ambali, I.O.

2

1Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria.

2Department of Material and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria.

3National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI) Abuja, Nigeria

4.National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization Km. 20, Ilorin-Lokoja Highway Idofian, Kwara State.

Corresponding Author: [email protected]

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T Received: January / 2019

Revised: January / 2019

Accepted: February / 2019

Published: February / 2019

In Nigeria, natural and some synthetic abrasive grains used in manufacturing

of sandpaper such as silicon carbide, aluminum oxide and aluminum silicate

mineral are scarce and expensive. The aim of this paper focused on

development of sandpaper grains from agricultural waste material (Coconut

shell) and resin (binder) for smoothening of wood surface. Sieving analysis

was conducted in particle sizes of P40 (420 μm) and P60 (250 μm) sandpaper

grit size (according to Federation of European Producers of Abrasive

standard). The Physical and Mechanical properties were determined and

compared with properties of conventional products (P60 and P40 Garnet

Paper). Surface finish assessments were carried out with visual inspection on

selected wood. The result from elemental composition analysis showed that the

produced sample grains contain some hard ceramic materials needed for

effective polishing or surface finishing. The physical and mechanical

properties of the grains samples were found to have close properties with the

standard conventional sand paper. Hardness and compressive strength of

Coconut shell (CNS) grains/resin composites samples increased with increase

in polyester resin concentration. Samples made from 250 μm sieve size showed

better mechanical properties than the corresponding samples from 420 μm

sieve size. The wear rate of CNS/resin composites was also found to increase

with increase in load (40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 g) and temperature (50 and 150 oC. Also, result from visual examination shows that the CNS specimens

contribute to high material removal but not smoother due to grain sizes

considered for this study.

Keywords: Abrasive grains,

Sandpaper, Polishing, Eco

friendly, wear properties, and

Coconut shell

1. INTRODUCTION

Sandpaper is a form of paper where an abrasive grain material has been fixed to a flexible backing material by an

adhesive bond (Aku et al., 2012). It is used to remove small amounts of work piece surface material to make it either

smoother or rougher through rubbing. It is also used to remove a layer, or coating, of material from the surface, such

as paint, stain and dirt (Odior and Oyawale, 2010; Obot et al., 2016)). There are two common types of abrasive

materials from which abrasive grains are manufactured and these include natural abrasive and synthetic abrasive

materials. Natural abrasive materials are those materials that are found existing naturally. Examples of these materials

include alumni silicate mineral, lime, chalk and silica, kaolinite, diatomite and diamond (Eckart et al., 2013; Obot et

al., 2015). According to Scott (2010), impurities in natural abrasive materials are less effective that led to the


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development of synthetic abrasive materials. Synthetic abrasive materials are those materials that are usually obtained

from synthesis of chemicals (Arunachalam & Ramamoorthy, 2007). An important characteristic of the synthetic

abrasive materials is their purity which has an important bearing in their efficiency (Suryarghya & Paul, 2007). The

most commonly used synthetic abrasive materials include silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, cubic boron nitride (CBN)

while aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are the most common material in use today (Zhong &Venkatesh, 2008).

The choice of the abrasive grains selection depends on hardness, brittleness, toughness, grain shape and size, character

of failure, purity, nature of the work piece and desired surface finish (Obot et al., 2015). However, better surface

quality can be achieved with increasing the grit number of the abrasive grains.

Agricultural wastes are organic compounds from plant seeds, shells, leaves, fruits and roots such as oil palm shell,

rice husk, corn chaff and coconut shell. The usefulness of Agricultural wastes in manufacturing industry are not only

economical but also remain the only way to control environmental pollution (Aku et al., 2012). Among the benefits of

these wastes are production of brake pads, sand paper grains, helmets, composite materials and as a fuel in energy

technology (Nuhu and Adeyemi, 2015; Suryarghya and Paul, 2007). It has been reported that different parts of the

plants can be obtained for different manufacturing purposes. In developing countries where abundant agricultural and

industrial wastes are discharged, these wastes can be used as potential material or replacement material especially in

production of sandpaper. Coconut is grown in more than 93 countries. The particle sizes of the coconut shell range

from 5 to 20 mm. The surface texture of the shell was fairly smooth on concave and rough on convex faces. However,

it is also the main contributor to the nation’s pollution problem as a solid waste in the form of shells represents more

than 60% of the domestic waste volume, which involves an annual production of approximately 3.18 million tonnes

(Maninder and Manpreet, 2012).

The need to convert these agricultural wastes into an industrial tool such as abrasive paper are essential to improve

the economic value of the raw materials and control the utilization of imported abrasive materials in fabrication

industries. Sulaiman et al. (2009) investigated the effect of sanding parameters on the surface roughness of

Rubberwood (Hevea brasilinsis). Results showed the samples had better surface qualities with higher grit size. The

study of formulation and manufacture of silicon carbide abrasives from locally sourced raw materials in Nigeria was

carried out. The Taguchi method was used to search for an optimal formulation of silicon carbide abrasives on five

local raw material substitutes. The materials are quartz, coal, sodium carbonate, saw dust and sodium chloride. The

mixture was fired in a furnace to 1600 oC for 6 hours forming silicon carbide chunks, which were crushed and sieved

into coarse and fine grades of abrasive grains of international standard (Odior and Oyawale 2011). Obot et al., (2015)

carried out a comparative analysis of abrasive sandpaper made from agro-waste materials (periwinkle and palm kernel

shells). It was observed that Periwinkle shell (PWS)/resin composites show an 80 % improvement in the coefficient of

friction value with increase in polyester resin from 4 – 12 wt.% and the obtained physical and mechanical properties

were compared to garnet sandpaper and found to be close to acceptable standard. Obot et al., (2016) produced

abrasive grains from agro-waste and were successfully compared with garnet, aluminum oxide abrasive sandpaper, It

was found to be very effective for wood and wood based composite surface smoothness.

The anisotropy of wood, moisture, and wood density, along with the kinematics of the cutting process, machine

conditions and other variables enhance the complexity of the wood surface (Sandak et al., 2004). The first evaluations

of surface smoothness were made using human senses, touch by hand and observation by eye. Sometimes the surface

has been “conditioned” by rubbing the surface across with a carbon paper or covered with a layer of wax. Both

methods have been reported to be very effective but are also highly subjective. Touch measures height distribution

along a line, whereas optical evaluation focuses more on the whole surface, determining the type and distribution of

detail on the structure (Sandak and Negri, 2015).

Unusual properties of wood, such as anatomical structure, color variations and porosity (density) makes the

measurement of wood surface smoothness problematic (Sandak and Tanaka, 2003). Moreover, most of novel

techniques for evaluation of surface geometry of homogenous materials (generally metals) are not applicable for

wood. This study considers the visual inspection (VI) for assessment of wood surface smoothness using the agro-

waste based abrasive sandpaper and conventional sandpaper (Garnet Paper). The aim of the paper was to develop

sandpaper abrasive grains from agro-waste for wood smoothness application.


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2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Preparation of Abrasive grains

The Coconut shell (CNS) sample was obtained from Oja-oba Ilorin, Kwara State. The Coconut shells were washed

in water to remove all traces of dirt on them. Approximately 2000 g of the samples were properly sun dried for 1

week, then oven dried at 100oC for 5 hours till all the moisture contents were totally removed. The dried samples were

further charged into a ball milling machine where they were milled and ground into powder then sieved using two

sieve sizes of 250μm and 420μm (ASTM E11) which is equivalent to abrasive grits of P60 and P40 standard grits

respectively (FEPA Abrasives, 2019).The CNS grains shown in Figure 1 and 2 were obtained and saved in cleaned

containers. Other experimental chemicals (such as polyester resin, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, and cobalt

naphthalene) were classified and contained in well labeled transparent glass containers for easy identification.

Figure 1: Sample of CNS of 250 μm sieve size Figure 2: Sample of CNS of 420 μm sieve size

2.2 Production of Abrasives Specimen

The technique of powder metallurgy as adopted by Obot et al. (2015) and Obot et al. (2016) was used to produce

abrasive specimens for fixing pre-cast mixture onto the surface of the backing steel metal plates. Different masses of

abrasive coconut shells (CNS) grains, binder (polyester resin), hardener (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide), and

accelerator (cobalt naphthalene) were weighed with digital weighing balance as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Mass composition of CNS/polyester resin and their equivalent percentage weight

Material CNS Sample Polyester Resin Accelerator Hardener % Composition

Specimen 1 masses (g) 60 5.2 0.8 0.8 66.8

Equiv. % weight 89.8 7.8 1.2 1.2 100

Specimen 2 masses (g) 57.6 7.6 0.8 0.8 66.8

Equiv. % weight 86.2 11.4 1.2 1.2 100

Specimen 3 Masses (g) 55.2 10 0.8 0.8 66.8

Equiv. % weight 82.6 15.0 1.2 1.2 100

Specimen 4 Masses (g) 52.8 12.4 0.8 0.8 66.8

Equiv. % weight 79.0 18.6 1.2 1.2 100

Specimen 5 Masses (g) 50.4 14.8 0.8 0.8 66.8

Equiv. % weight 75.4 22.2 1.2 1.2 100

The mixtures were blended one after the other in a mechanical mixer for five (5) minutes into a thick paste. Then

five (5) abrasive samples were produced using mould compression process to compress the pastes to solid shapes in a

steel mould of height 45 mm and diameter 65 mm and Compression was carried out at room temperature at a fixed

pressure of 13.5 N/mm2 with the compressed samples.

The same process was repeated to produce other abrasive samples. The samples obtained as given in Figure 3 were

kept in a well-aerated environment for 21 days to attain full strength before carrying out the mechanical tests. The

dried specimens were collected and subjected to tests which include; wear (abrasion) resistance test, water absorption

test, density test, hardness and compressive strength tests as practiced by Edokpia et al. (2014); Deepika et al. (2013).


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Figure 3: Samples of Abrasive Sandpaper From CNS Grains of 250µm and 420µm Sieve Size

2.3 Physical Properties Test

Each group of specimens was subjected to standard tests to determine the empirical values of the essential abrasives

analytical parameters.

2.3.1 Water absorption tests

Initial weight of each sample was taken and recorded as W1 before soaking in distilled water for 24 hours. The

specimens were brought out of water, thoroughly cleaned to remove water on surfaces, reweighed and recorded as

W2. Differences in initial and final weights for each specimen were then used to determine absorption rate in

accordance with (Edokpia et al., 2014) using equation 1.

(1)

Where W1 = initial weight of sample, W2 = final weight of sample

2.3.2 Density test

Density measurements were carried out on the CNS abrasive composite using Archimedes’ principle. The buoyant

force on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. The principle was used to determine the

volume and therefore the density of an irregular shaped object was obtained by measuring its mass in air and its

effective mass when submerged in water. The difference between the real and effective mass therefore gives the mass

of water displaced for volume of irregular shaped object. The density of the sample was obtained as given in equation

2.

(2)

2.4 Mechanical Properties Tests

The mechanical properties tests were conducted on the produced abrasives and the foreign abrasive sandpaper in the

market such as hardness, compressive strengths tests and wear (abrasion) resistance test as adopted by other

literatures (Obot et al., 2016).

2.4.1 Hardness test

The hardness values of CNS abrasive specimens were determined according to the American Society of Testing and

Materials (ASTM E18-79). The Rockwell hardness tester was conducted with 1.56 mm steel ball indenter minor load


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of 10 kg, major load of 100 kg and standard block of hardness value of 101.2 HRB was used as carried out by Obot et

al., (2015). The Rockwell hardness value was derived from the difference in the baseline and final depth

measurements. This distance was converted to a hardness number. The preliminary test force was removed and the

indenter was removed from the test specimen.

2.4.2 Compression test

The abrasive specimens were compressed between the platens of a compression testing machine by gradual

application of load. The compressive strength test was done on a Tensometer. The samples were subjected to

compressive force, loaded continuously until failure occurred. The load at which failure occurred was then recorded.

2.4.3 Wear resistance test

The wear rate of abrasive specimens were conducted using ASTM 99-95 guidelines with pin on disk machine

(Figure 4) by sliding it over a cast iron surface at loads 40, 60, 80, 100 and 120 kg, sliding speed of 2.4 m/s and time

of 20 minutes. The tests were carried out at 50 °C and 150 °C. The initial weight of the samples was measured using

an electronic weighing machine with an accuracy of 0.0001g. During the test, the pin was pressed against the

counterpart rotating against a cast iron disk with a counter surface roughness of 0.3μm by applying the load. A friction

defecting arm connected to a strain gauge and loaded the pin samples vertically into the rotating hardened iron disk.

After a run through a fixed sliding distance, the samples were removed, cleaned and dried. The samples were then re-

weighed to determine the weight loss due to wear. The differences in the weight measured before and after the tests

give the wear of the sample. The formula used to convert the weight loss into wear rate is as presented in equation 3

(Bashar et al., 2012 and Edokpia et al., 2014).

(3)

Where ∆W, is the weight difference of the sample before and after the test in mg, and S is total sliding distance in

metres, Wx = initial weight of sample, Wy = final weight of the sample.

Figure 4: Pin-on-disc wear testing machine

2.5 Preparation of Wood Specimen

The Daniella thurifera (Igi Iya in Yoruba, Maje in Hausa, a/agba in Igbo, Oda in Igala, Igede and Ubakwa in

Idoma) was considered as wood sample and obtained from Itama sawmill, Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria. The physical

and mechanical properties were based on mature heartwood and growth conditions. The mechanical properties of the

wood sample has been obtained as 9550 MPa, 38 MPa and 68 MPa for Modulus of elasticity, crushing and static

bending strength respectively (Faro, 2012). The wood specimens were mechanically cut into dimension of 8.5 x 12.5 x

1.5 cm (with a surface area of 325 cm2). The samples surface was initially scraped with manual planner and manually

sanded using produced agro-waste abrasive grains sandpaper with grit size of P40 and P60 CNS. The Sanded samples


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were examined using visual inspection and compared with the surface roughness of wood when P40 (Garnet) abrasive

sandpaper was applied.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Physical Properties

3.1.1 Density Test

Figure 5 show the variation of density with particle weight percentage variation for different grains sizes. It can be

seen from the figure that density decreases with decreasing particle weight composition. It is also observed that

samples made from the 250 μm sieve size are denser than the corresponding samples made from the 420 μm sieve size

of CNS creating more homogeneity in the entire phase of composite body. This can be due to the increased packing

of CNS particles.

Figure 5: Density of CNS/ Particle Weight Variation for 250 Μm and 420 Μm

3.1.2 Water Absorption Test

The results of the water absorption test are presented in Figure 6. The water absorption rate in the developed

abrasive sandpaper increased as the sieve size increased from 250 µm to 420 µm in the formulation. This increase in

water absorption rate may be due to the poor interfacial bonding between binder and filler particle that caused increase

in porosity as established by Edokpia et al., (2014). The highest water absorption value for the 250 µm particle size of

developed CNS abrasive sandpaper was 7.76% as against the 420 µm particle size of CNS abrasive sandpaper which

showed a highest value of absorption rate of 9.21%. The CNS composites with low grains sieve size are prone to

water absorption due to poor interaction of grains surface area and the resin binder. This shows better water

absorption property than the produced abrasive sandpaper. From this result, 420 µm particle size of CNS abrasive

sandpaper shows better water absorption rate compared to 250 µm particle size. This result is in line with result

obtained by Deepika (2013).


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Figure 6: Water Absorption of CNS / Weight % Composition for 250 and 420 µm Sieve Sizes

3.2 Mechanical Properties

3.2.1 Hardness Test

Figures 7 shows the results of the Rockwell hardness test carried out on the samples made from the two different

sieve sizes. The results of the Rockwell hardness tests carried out on the CNS showed an increase in hardness with

increasing polyester resin concentration from 7.8 to 22.2 wt. %. The increase in hardness is as a result of the

interfacial bonding of the polyester resin holding the coconut grain particles together. The CNS sample with 250μm

sieve grade had the highest hardness value of 8.4HRB. A gradual drop in hardness was observed with samples in

higher sieve size (420μm) with hardness of 7.92 HRB. The results for Rockwell hardness tests carried out on CNS

abrasive sandpaper showed that the hardness values increased proportionally as the percentage weight composition of

the polyester resin increased from 7.8 to 22.2 wt. % (Figures 7). The increase in hardness is due to the interfacial

bonding of the polyester resin holding the coconut grain particles together, and which also contributes to the hardness

of the parent composite material. CNS displayed the hardness increment across the sieve size with hardness values of

8.75 HRB and 7.92 HRB for 250 µm and 420 µm sieve sizes with 22.2 wt. % polyester resin respectively. The

increase in hardness with reducing particle sizes is in agreement with the findings of Obot et al. (2015) who

investigated the hardness of abrasive sandpaper grains developed from composite using palm kernel and periwinkle

shells.

Figure 7: Rockwell Hardness Value of CNS / Resin Composites for P60 and P40 Sieve Size

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

7.8 11.4 15 18.6 22.2

HB

R V

alu

e

Polyester Resin Content

P40

P60


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3.2.2 Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test results in Figure 8 show the compressive strength across the sieve sizes. 250 μm

sieve size of the produced samples displayed the lowest compressive strength (3.03 and 4.93 for 7.8 % and 22.2 %

resin composition respectively) compared to the other sieve size of 420 μm (3.10 and 4.98 for 7.8 % and 22.2 % resin

composition respectively). This may be due to the powder fineness inducing brittleness upon the composite as seen by

the reduced strength with reducing sieve sizes.

Figure 8: Compressive Strength Value of CNS for 250 Μm and 420 Μm

It has been reported that elemental composition of CNS contained 29.4 % Lignin, 27.7 % Pentosans, 26.6 %

Cellulose, 8 % moisture, 4.2 % solvent extractive, 3.5 % Uronic anhydrides and 0.6 % Ash. Coconut shells have high

lignin content which acts as a stiffening agent for the cellulose molecules within composite formulation (Husseinsyah

and Mostapha, 2011). Therefore, the lignin and cellulose content of CNS increases the strength of coconut shell filled

with polyester composites. However, there is an increase in the compressive strength with increasing polyester resin

concentration from 7.8 to 22.2 wt. %. The highest ultimate compressive strengths obtained was 4.98 N/mm2 for 420

μm particle size of Coconut shells with 22.2 wt. % polyester resin and 4.93 N/mm2 was recorded for 250 µm particle

size with 22.2 wt.% polyester resin.

3.2.3 Wear resistance test

The results of the wear rate tests carried out at 50°C and 150°C and under loads of 40 g, 60 g 80 g, 100 g and 120 g

are presented in Figure 9 and 10 respectively. Wear rate on the coconut shell composite was conducted at two

temperatures to understand their wear behaviors under heat generated by friction during service conditions as abrasive

sandpapers. The results in Figure 9 and 10 revealed that wear rate increased with increasing coconut shell particle

concentration, applied load and temperature and decreased with decrease in the particle sizes of coconut shells. This

behavior of coconut shell polymer matrix composite to wear conditions is similar to the finding of Obot et al. (2015).

However, the wear rate decreases with decreasing coconut shell particle content. The positive impact of the polyester

resin concentration in reducing the wear rate of materials was observed with 75.4 wt % CNS to 22.2 wt% resin

composite having the most wear resistance (1.49 mg/m with 120 g applied load at 150oC)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7.8 11.4 15 18.6 22.2 Co

mp

ress

ive

str

en

ght(

N/m

m2

)

Polyester Resin Content

250 μm Comp. Strength (N/mm2)

420 μm Comp. Strength (N/mm2)


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Figure 9: Wear Rate (Mg/M) Value for 250 Μm Sieve Size of CNS at 50°C

Figure 10: Wear Rate (Mg/M) Value for 420 Μm Sieve Size of CNS at 150°C

The improvement in wear resistance accompanying the presence of increasing polyester resin binder in the coconut

shell composite is due to an increase in average hardness values and compressive strength of the CNS resin

composite. This is as a result of the increasing interfacial bonding between the coconut shell particles and polyester

resin. This relationship between hardness and compressive strength and wear resistance with increased polyester resin

content is covered by recent research works (Marinescu et al., 2004; Aigbodion et al., 2010 and Yawas et al., 2013,)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

7.8 11.4 15 18.6 22.2

Wea

r ra

te (

mg/

m)

Polyester resin content

40g

60g

80g

100g

120g

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

2

7.8 11.4 15 18.6 22.2

We

ar r

ate

(m

g/m

)

Polyester resin content

40g

60g

80g

100g

120g


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Figure 11: Comparison of Wear Rates of the Produced Abrasive Samples with The Conventional Ones At 40 G

Load

(P60 and P40 Garnet)

From the comparative result of wear rates in Figure 11, it can be observed that wear rate of the developed CNS

sandpaper is high compared to the conventional one. The wear rate decreased with increase in temperature of the

operation for all abrasive sandpaper. This shows sandpaper produced from experimental samples wear faster than the

one purchased from the market. This poor wear property is due to type of binder used. It has been established that the

type and amount of binder used affect the wear rate (Darlington et al., 2015). However, the wear properties of agro-

waste sand paper can be achieved with change the binder or increase in percentage of binder to improve the bonding

characteristic. It can be finally established that 250 μm of CNS with 1.18 mg/m wear rate, obtained at 50 oC as best

alternative sandpaper for conventional sandpaper which the wear rate at the same temperature obtained as 0.66.

3.3 Visual Examination

Visual inspections of wood surfaces were investigated to evaluate the polishing ability of CNS/resin based

sandpapers with different binder addition and selected conventional sandpaper (Garnet). The sandpaper P60 and P40

of CNS were applied on wood sample and compared with the same grade of conventional sandpaper (Garnet) as

shown in Figure 12. Figure 12a represents the control sample surface without application of abrasive sandpaper and

Figures 12b to 12d represent the wood surface smoothness with application of abrasive sandpaper samples. It could be

observed from the Figure 12c and 12d that the grain size selected improved the wood surface roughness. The

roughness of the wood surface left some small wood fibers on the surface. This is due to high grains size of selected

grains samples. Figure 12b demonstrated excellent smoothness of wood surface than the surface finish obtained with

application of P60 abrasive grains paper due to finer grains size. As a result of the variations, the smaller the grains

size, the smoother the surface of specimen. This means the P40 grains are applicable for high material removal that

gives rough surface. However, with the strong adhesive layer formation on the specimens and convectional sandpaper,

it can be observed that P40 and P60 grains of CNS wear faster compare to convectional sandpaper.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Average wear rate at 50 oC (mg/m)

Average wear rate at 150 oC (mg/m)

We

ar R

ate

(m

g/m

) P60 CNS

P40 CNS


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(a) (b) (c)

(d)

Figure 12: Surface Finished wood specimen with application P60 CNS, P40 CNS and Garnet Abrasive

Sandpaper

4. CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this work, the following conclusions were made:

i. Hardness and compressive strength of CNS based samples increase with increase in polyester resin

concentration. Samples made from 250μm sieve size have better mechanical properties than the corresponding

samples from 420 μm sieve size.

ii. The wear rates under 150℃ temperature were higher than the wear rates under 50℃ temperature; this

indicates that the produced abrasive samples from CNS wear faster under higher temperatures. The wear rate

was also found to increase as the load increased from 40g to 120g for both the coconut shell/resin composite

samples. The wear rates of the produced samples are higher than the wear rates of the conventional products

(P60 and P40 Garnet).

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Documents

Development of Abrasive Sandpaper Grains from Agro-Waste