Development of Air and Space Flight

SIGNIFICANT DATES ASSIGNMENT #1

By

JAMES CROWSON

Associate in Arts Meridian Community College

Meridian, MS 1995

Bachelor of Arts in Political Science

The University of Oklahoma Norman, OK

1998

Master of Public Administration The University of Oklahoma

Norman, OK 2010

Submitted to the Faculty of the Development of Aviation and Space Flight

of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION September 9, 2013

1

SIGNIFICANT DATES ASSIGNMENT #1 Yuri Gargarin Orbits Earth Three Times: 12 April 1961

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The name of this mission was Vostok

1, aka, Sputnik 11. The mission represented the Soviet Union’s race against the United

States to be the first country to launch a human being into space, cosmonaut Yuri A.

Gargarin.

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not? Yes, the event was successful. The Soviets

launched Gargarin 25 days prior to the first U.S. suborbital flight carrying naval officer

and astronaut Alan Shepard (NASA, 1961-012A).

3. What was the timeline of this event?

Launch: April 12, 1961, 06:07 UTC

Landing: April 12, 1961, 07:55 UTC

All data provided in this timeline provided by the European Space Agency (n.d.). LAUNCH 06:07 UTC Launch occurs from the Baikonur Cosmodrome Site No.1. Korolev radioed, "Preliminary stage..... intermediate..... main..... LIFT OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right." Gagarin replied, "Poyekhali! (Off we go!)." 06:09 UTC (T+ 119 s) Two minutes into the flight and the four strap-on booster sections of the Vostok rocket have used up the last of their propellant, they shut down and drop away from the core vehicle. 06:10 UTC (T+ 156 s) The payload shroud covering Vostok 1 is released, this uncovers the window at Gagarin's feet with the optical orientation device Vzor. 06:12 UTC (T+ 300 s) Five minutes into the flight and the Vostok rocket core stage has used up its propellant,

2

shuts down and falls away from the Vostok 1 spacecraft and final rocket stage. The final rocket stage ignites to continue the journey to orbit. 06:13 UTC The rocket is still firing, pushing Vostok 1 toward orbit. Gagarin reports, "...the flight is continuing well. I can see the Earth. The visibility is good. I almost see everything. There's a certain amount of space under cumulus cloud cover. I continue the flight, everything is good." 06:14 UTC The rocket continues to fire, starting to pass over central Russia now. Gagarin reports, "Everything is working very well. All systems are working. Let's keep going!" 06:15 UTC Three minutes into the burn of the final rocket stage and Gagarin reports, "Zarya-1, Zarya-1, I can't hear you very well. I feel fine. I'm in good spirits. I'm continuing the flight..." Vostok 1 is moving further downrange from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. He is reporting back to Zarya-1 (the Baikonur ground station) and must be starting to move out of radio range of that station. ORBIT FLIGHT 06:17 UTC The Vostok rocket final stage shuts down, ten seconds later the spacecraft separates and Vostok 1 reaches orbit. (T+ 676 s) Gagarin reports, "The craft is operating normally. I can see Earth in the view port of the Vzor. Everything is proceeding as planned". Vostok 1 passes over Soviet Union and moves on over Siberia. 06:21 UTC Vostok 1 passes over the Kamchatka peninsula and out over the North Pacific Ocean. Gagarin calls, "...the lights are on on the descent mode monitor. I'm feeling fine, and I'm in good spirits. Cockpit parameters: pressure 1; humidity 65; temperature 20; pressure in the compartment 1; first automatic 155; second automatic 155; pressure in the retro-rocket system 320 atmospheres..." 06:25 UTC As Vostok 1 begins its diagonal crossing of the Pacific Ocean from Kamchatka peninsula to the southern tip of South America, Gagarin asks, "What can you tell me about the flight? What can you tell me?" He is requesting information about his orbital parameters. The ground station at Khabarovsk reports back, "There are no instructions from No. 20 (Sergei Korolev), and the flight is proceeding normally." They are telling Gagarin that they don't have his orbital parameters yet because the spacecraft has been in orbit for only six minutes, but the spacecraft systems are performing well. 06:31 UTC Gagarin transmits to the Khabarovsk ground station, "I feel splendid, very well, very well, very well. Give me some results on the flight!". Vostok 1 is nearing the VHF radio horizon for Khabarovsk and they respond, "Repeat. I can't hear you very well". Gagarin transmits again, "I feel very good. Give me your data on the flight!" Vostok 1 passes out of VHF range of the Khabarovsk ground station and contact is lost. 06:37 UTC

3

Vostok 1 continues on its journey as the Sun sets over the North Pacific. Gagarin crosses into night, northwest of the Hawaiian Islands. Out of VHF range with ground stations, communications must now take place via HF radio. 06:46 UTC Khabarovsk ground station sends the message "KK" via telegraph (on HF radio to Vostok 1). This message means, "Report the monitoring of commands." They were asking Gagarin to report when the spacecraft automated descent system had received its instructions from the ground control. Gagarin reported back at 06:48 UTC. 06:48 UTC Vostok 1 crosses the equator at about 170° West, traveling in a south east direction and begins crossing the South Pacific. Gagarin transmits over HF radio, "I am transmitting the regular report message: 9 hours 48 minutes (Moscow Time), the flight is proceeding successfully. Spusk-1 is operating normally. The mobile index of the descent mode monitor is moving. Pressure in the cockpit is 1; humidity 65; temperature 20; pressure in the compartment 1.2 ... Manual 150; First automatic 155; second automatic 155; retro rocket system tanks 320 atmospheres. I feel fine..." 06:49 UTC Gagarin reports he is on the night side of Earth. 06:51 UTC Gagarin reports the Sun-seeking attitude control system had been switched on. The Sun-seeking attitude control system is used to orient Vostok 1 for retrofire. The automated orientation system consisted of two redundant systems: an automatic/solar orientation system and a manual/visual orientation system. Either system could operate the two redundant cold nitrogen gas thruster systems, each with 10 kg (22 lb) of gas. 06:53 UTC The Khabarovsk ground station sends Gagarin the following message via HF radio, "By order of No.33 (General Nikolai Kamanin) the transmitters have been switched on, and we are transmitting this: the flight is proceeding as planned and the orbit is as calculated." They are telling Gagarin that Vostok 1 is in a stable orbit. He acknowledges the message. 06:57 UTC Vostok 1 is over the South Pacific between New Zealand and Chile when Gagarin sends this message, "...I'm continuing the flight, and I'm over America. I transmitted the telegraph signal 'ON'. 07:00 UTC Vostok 1 crosses the Strait of Magellan at the tip of South America. News of the Vostok 1 mission is broadcast on Radio Moscow. 07:04 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, similar to the one sent at 06:48. The message is not received by ground stations. 07:09 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. 07:10 UTC Passing over the South Atlantic, the Sun rises and Vostok 1 is in daylight again. Vostok

4

1 is 15 minutes from retrofire. 07:13 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, similar to the one sent at 06:48. Moscow picks up this partial message from Gagarin, "I read you well. The flight is going..." 07:18 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. 07:23 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. The automatic system brings Vostok 1 into alignment for retrofire about one hour into the flight. RE-ENTRY AND LANDING 07:25 UTC The spacecraft's automatic systems bring it into the required attitude (orientation) for the reentry engine firing, and shortly afterwards, the engine firing occurs. This takes place over the west coast of Africa, near Angola, about 8000 km from the desired landing point. The liquid-fueled retrorockets fire for about 42 seconds. Ten seconds after retrofire, commands aree sent to separate the Vostok service module from the reentry module, but the Vostok equipment module unexpectedly remains attached to the reentry module by a bundle of wires. Around 07:35 UTC The two halves of the spacecraft begin reentry and go through strong gyrations as Vostok 1 crosses over Egypt. At this point the wires break, the two modules separate, and the descent module settles into the proper reentry attitude. Gagarin telegraphs "Everything is OK" despite continuing gyrations. He later reports that he did not want to 'make a noise' because he had (correctly) reasoned that the gyrations did not pose a danger to the mission (and were apparently caused by the spherical shape of the reentry module). As Gagarin continues his descent, he experiences about 8g during reentry but remains conscious. 07:55 UTC Vostok 1 is still 7 km from the ground when the hatch of the spacecraft is released, and two seconds later Gagarin uses the ejection seat to leave the capsule. At 2.5 km altitude, the main parachute is deployed from the Vostok spacecraft. 08:05 UTC Gagarin lands using his own parachute, which opened almost immediately after ejecting from the spacecraft ten minutes earlier. Both he and the spacecraft landed 26 km south west of Engels, in the Saratov region at 51° North, 45° East. Two schoolgirls witness the Vostok 1 capsule landing and describe the scene: "It was a huge ball, about two or three metres high. It fell, then it bounced and then it fell again. There was a huge hole where it hit the first time." A farmer and her daughter observe the strange scene of a figure in a bright orange suit with a large white helmet landing near them by parachute. Gagarin later recalled, "When they saw me in my spacesuit and the parachute dragging alongside as I walked, they started to back away in fear. I told them, 'Don't be afraid, I am a Soviet like you, who has descended from space and I must find a telephone to call Moscow!'"

5

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? Another

significant NASA event occurred on March 30, 1961. NASA civilian pilot Joseph A

Walker takes X-15 169,600' (51,690 m) (HistoryOrb, n.d.). This period overall was one

of the most contentious periods between the US and the USSR, other than the Cuban

Missile Crisis. Just 4 days after Gargarin goes into space, on April 17, the US fails in its

attempt to oust Cuban regime leader Fidel Castro using expatriates. It was a national

disgrace for the US.

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? Interestingly, during President

Kennedy’s new conference, a reporter asked about the president’s thoughts about the

Soviet’s achievements.

Reporter’s Question: “Could you give us your views, sir, about the Soviet achievement of putting a man in orbit and what it would mean to our space program, as such?” The president’s answer: “Well, it is a most impressive scientific accomplishment, and also I think that we, all of us as members of the race, have the greatest admiration for the Russian who participated in this extraordinary feat. I have already sent congratulations to Mr. Khrushchev, and I send congratulations to the man who was involved. I indicated that the task force, which we set up on space way back last January, January 12th, indicated that because of the Soviet progress in the field of boosters, where they have been ahead of us, that we expected that they would be first in space, in orbiting a man in space. Of course, that has taken place. We are carrying out our program and we expect to--hope to make progress in this area this year ourselves” (Peters & Woolley, 2013).

6. How did the Soviets putting a man in space affect the United State’s space program? The

American intelligence network had been aware of the impending launch by the Soviets

(Hall & Shayler, 2001, p. xxx). The subsequent spaceflight by Shepard could not be sped

up though. The Americans would lose this race. This was a big blow to the American

6

space program. It overshadowed all NASA space activities so much so that it in part

explains the reason that President Kennedy presented his vision and commitment to

putting a man on the moon before the end of the 1960s.

7. Other comments, any other information that is important, significant, or interesting about

this event.

Alan Shepard and the Freedom 7 Mission in Sub-orbital Flight: 6 May 1961

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of the event was to put

the first human into space. The overall purpose was to beat the Soviet Union; however,

this did not occur because they did it first less than one-month prior (NASA/Kennedy

Space Center, 2002).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not? Yes. While the race to win to put the first

human into space was lost, an American launched into space nonetheless

(NASA/Kennedy Space Center, 2002).

3. What was the timeline of this event? Here are significant events during the mission

according to Hammack & Heberlig (1961).

Countdown: May 5, 8:30pm;

Liftoff: May 6, 9:34am;

Drogue deployment: T+09:38;

Apogee: T+05:00;

Splashdown: T+15:30;

Rescue: T+15:30.

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? Three

weeks prior, the USSR was the first to put a man into space on April 12, 1961 named

7

Yuri Gagarin. Within the next several weeks after the mission, research occurred on the

vehicle and a decision rendered that it would redeploy for subsequent missions. What

were the major events occurring on that day? Shepherd entered the craft at 5:15am but

did not launch until 9:34am. The reason is there were a couple of delays that lasted about

2.5 hours. One delay was to make sure weather was perfect for photos. The other reason

was due to computer issues at Goddard (NASA/Kennedy Space Center, 2002).

5. Describe the launch-vehicle (Mercury-Redstone). Were there any modifications done to

the original vehicle? Yes. Modifications to the booster were accomplished. These

assemblies were modified: engine, tank section, instrument compartment, control and

abort systems, and instrumentation (NASA/Kennedy Space Center, 2002).

a. Were there any ground tests, if so what were the results, and where any

changes made. There were more than 200 ground tests (NASA/John Space

Center, n.d.). For example, multiple tests of the A-7 engine revealed

problems with fuel injectors. This was remedied and eliminated as a further

problem area.

b. What were the results from its flight, and were any changes made after the

flight? No system malfunctions occurred during the May 6 flight. There

were minor issues with vibration, but these too were corrected to ready the

vehicle for future flights (Kuettner & Bertram, n.d.).

6. Other comments, any other information that is important, significant, or interesting

about this event.

8

John Glenn and the Friendship 7 Mission: Three Orbits: 20 February 1962

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of this mission was

NASAs first attempt to place a man into space to orbit the earth and observe and measure

responses to the space environment (NASA, 2013).

2. Was the even successful? Why or Why not? Yes, the mission was successful. According

to NASA, “Mission Successful. First American in orbit. Total time weightless 4 hours

48min 27sec” (NASA/Kennedy Space Center, 2002).

3. What was the timeline of this event? There were prior launch attempts, the first attempt

was on Jan. 27, 1962, but was stopped due to bad weather. Liftoff occurred on Feb. 20, at

8:47am CST or 14:47 UDT. The NASA/Kennedy Space Center (2002) website on the

Friendship 7 mission shows this timeline:

Liftoff: 00:00:00;

Tower jettison: T+00:02:33;

Orbital Operations: T+00:05:30-04:30:00;

Drogue Chute Deployment: T+04:39:38;

Splashdown: T+04:55:30;

Rescue: T+05:55:30.

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event?

Launch was delayed from Jan. 16, to Jan. 20, to Jan. 27, Feb. 1, and finally Feb. 20.

During these delays, repairs were made to the vessel.

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? In terms of problems during the

flight, NASAs Friendship 7 MA-6 site says that there were two problems. First, there was

an issue with the yaw attitude control jet. There was also a problem with a faulty switch

9

in the heat shield circuit. During reentry, however, the retropack was not jettisoned but

retained as a safety measure to hold the heat shield in place in the event it had loosened

(NASA/Kennedy Space Center, 2002).

6. Describe the training process, what were the requirements, characteristics of the job, the

chronology of the training program? It was a 3-year training program starting in 1958.

Candidates had to meet 7 requirements: be test pilots, a qualified jet pilot, less than 40

years old, shorter than 5’11”, have a B.S.E. degree, and have logged at least 1,500 hours

of flight time. As to chronology, the training regime started shortly after candidate

selection in March 1959 and lasted through the very hours prior to liftoff in Feb. 1962.

Every situation was a rehearsal for the flight so that as far as possible, the same demands

upon the body and mind of Glenn were simulated (Douglas, 2009).


this event. Additional summation of the mercury program is available at the University of

Oregon space lectures website: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/space/lectures/lec08.html.

Ed White, the First American to Step Outside a Spacecraft: 3 June 1965

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of this mission was to

evaluate the effects of prolonged spaceflight, demonstrate performance of the spacecraft,

and evaluate procedures for crew rest and work cycles. It was the first multi-day

spaceflight. A secondary mission was to successfully have White exit the vessel and free

float in space, aka, EVA or extra vehicular activity. The third objective was to attempt the

first in-space rendezvous by flying in formation with the discharged Titan II launch

vehicle (NASA/Kennedy Space Center).

10

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the mission was successful because the

mission objectives were achieved with the exception of the rendezvous with Titan II. For

example, White exited the vessel, free floated while tethered in space and returned after

20 minutes (NASA/Kennedy Space Center). This was a monumental achievement for

NASA.


Launch: June 3, 1965, 10:15:59.562 a.m.

Return Landing: June 7, 1965.

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? The media

reported that NASA was claiming that White may not be the first American astronaut to

walk in space because the decision was being considered up until just a day or two before

the day of launch (NASA/Kennedy Space Center).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? During this mission, White

successfully exited the spacecraft while attached to a tether and was the first American to

walk in space (NASA/Kennedy Space Center).

6. What were some of the obstacles that Gemini IV faced while in space? How were they

dealt with and what were the outcomes. All objectives were achieved except computer-

controlled reentry in the demonstration and evaluation of spacecraft systems objectives

was not because of inadvertent alteration of computer memory. Also, the secondary

objective was partially successful because separation and rendezvous was not attempted

due to fuel consumption (NASA/Kennedy Space Center).


this event.

11

The Apollo 1 Fire: 27 January 1967

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of this mission was to be

the first manned lunar landing program with a launch date of February 21, 1967 (NASA

Headquarters PAO, 2013).

2. Was the even successful? Why or Why not. No, the event was not successful of an on-

board cabin fire and the death of all three crewmembers (NASA Headquarters, PAO,

2013).

3. What was the timeline of this event? The fire occurred within the 012 command module

during testing on the launch pad on January 27, 1967. The launch date was scheduled for

February 21, 1967 but was cancelled as a result of the tragedy (NASA Headquarters

PAO, n.d.).

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? On January

19, 1967, tests of the command module 012 revealed numerous failures in the

communications cable assembly caused by broken wiring, bent pins, and connector

malfunctions (NASA Headquarters PAO, n.d.).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? Fire in command module 012 and the

deaths of three astronauts, Lt Col Virgil Grissom, Lt Col Edward White II, and LCDR

Roger Chaffee (NASA Headquarters PAO, 2013).

6. What were the results of this tragedy and how did the Apollo project overcome it? The

Apollo 204 Review Board investigated the accident to determine the cause of the fire.

The results of the investigation were used to make changes to design and engineering

modifications, test planning, test discipline, manufacturing, and quality control. Overall,

12

as a result more emphasis to overall safety was increased (NASA Headquarters PAO,

n.d.).


this event.

Apollo XI: Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walk on the moon: 20 July 1969

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of the Apollo 11 mission

was to land men on the lunar surface and to return them safely to Earth (NASA Human

Space Flight Office, 2009) (NASA Headquarters PAO, 2012).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the mission was successful. It is

considered the most successful spaceflight in history. With the success of Apollo 11, the

national objective to land men on the Moon and return them safely to Earth had been

accomplished (NASA Human Space Flight Office, 2009).

3. What was the timeline of this event? According to NASA’s Human Space Flight Office

(2009) and the KSC External Relations and Business Development Directorate (2003),

the timeline includes this schedule:

Launch date: July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC from Kennedy Space Center in Florida;

Splashdown: July 24, 1969, 16:50:35 UTC in the Pacific Ocean.

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? On July 1,

Charles Philip Arthur George, husband of Queen Elizabeth, invested as Prince of Wales.

On July 8, US troop withdrawals begin from Vietnam. Here are a few events occurring

after the spacewalk. On August 4, Willie Stargell is the first baseball player to knock a

homerun ball out of Dodger stadium. On August 5, Mariner 7 flies past Planet Mars

(HistoryOrb, n.d.). By August 10, after 21 days of quarantine, the three astronauts were

13

finally issued a clean bill of health and able to exit the quarantine facility (HistoryOrb,

n.d.).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? The main event of this mission was to

land Aldrin and Armstrong on the surface of the moon. They exited the Lunar Module

Eagle from the Command Module Columbia on July 20, 1969. They landing target was

adjusted manually by Armstrong because the computer guidance system was attempting

to place them into rocky surface area near the West crater. Once touchdown occurred,

Armstrong said, “Houston, tranquility base here. The Eagle has landed.” Then they exited

the lunar module and conducted surface investigations. Then Armstrong said, “That’s one

small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” From there, they collected rock samples

and moon dust. Before reentering the lunar module, they planted an American flag, which

fell over as a result of the engine exhaust from their ascent from the moon. Also, they left

behind many earth artifacts such as an informational disk, scientific instruments, a

plaque, Soviet medals, an Apollo I patch, and a gold replica olive branch. They rejoined

with Collins and the Columbia module and splashed down in the Pacific on July 24

(NASA Headquarters PAO, 2012).

6. What were the scientific interests in the moon and how has our exploration of the moon

aided us technologically? The scientific interests to go to the moon were to discover if

there was any type of life form on the moon. As a result of the visit, life on earth has

changed dramatically. In terms of technological advancements alone, there have been

many. During the height of the Apollo program NASA was committed to the

“commercialization of space” (Bilstein, 1989, p. 145) also known as the “spinoff

concept” (p. 144), which meant seeking direct application of space technology and

14

techniques to commercial industry needs. Here are some examples that the Apollo

program improved upon: biomedical information, physiological monitoring, exotic

alloys, insulation materials, solar energy, heat transfer, runway surfaces, improvements in

structural analysis, production engineering, etc. (p. 144).


this event.

Pioneer 11 Launched: 5 April 1973

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this mission? The purpose of the Pioneer 11

mission was to investigate the asteroid belt and planets Jupiter and Saturn (NASA Jet

Propulsion Laboratory & California Institute of Technology, n.d.).

2. Was the mission successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the mission is considered successful.

Pioneer 11, along with its predecessor Pioneer 10, were the first space vehicles to ever

visit Jupiter and Saturn, and beyond (NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory & California

Institute of Technology, n.d.).

3. What was the timeline of this event? The launch date was April 5, 1973 at 02:11 UTC.

The end of the mission is considered to be September 29, 1995, because communications

with the vehicle were lost due to its distance from the earth (NASA Space Science Data

Center, 1995).

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the launch event?

About a month before on March 2, "Black September" terrorists occupy Saudi Embassy

in Khartoum; on March 29, and US troops leave Vietnam, 9 yrs after Tonkin Resolution

(HistoryOrb, n.d.). On April 14, acting FBI director L Patrick Gray resigns after

15

admitting he destroyed evidence in the Watergate scandal; and on April 19, USSR

performs nuclear test at Eastern Kazakh/Semipalitinsk USSR (HistoryOrb, n.d.).

5. What were the major events occurring during this mission? The major events for this

mission were successful passage through the asteroid belt and passing Jupiter and Saturn.

According to Bilstein (1989), Pioneer 11 passed within 26,000 miles and successfully

transmitted data back to earth (pp. 95-96).

6. Why was Pioneer 11 such a great accomplishment and what did we learn from its

accomplishments? On December 3, 1974, the vehicle passed Jupiter, and on September 1,

1979, it flew past Saturn. The last contact with Pioneer 11 was November 24, 1995

(NASA Solar System Exploration, 2012).


this event.

Docking of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project: 21 July 1975

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? According to a NASA website, “The

flight of Apollo-Soyuz,” in July 1975, the mission was the final flight of the Apollo

program in which crews from different nations docked in space. There were three US

Apollo 18 crewmembers and two Russian Soyuz 19 crewmembers (NASA, 2004).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the event was successful. It was

considered a huge success by both countries (NASA, 2004).

3. What was the timeline of this event? The mission only lasted nine days from July 15-24

although planning and negotiations between the US and the USSR began in 1970

(NASA, 2004).

16

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? The major

events occurring within approximately two weeks before the mission include on July 1,

Muhammad Ali beats Joe Bugner in 15 rounds for the heavyweight boxing title; On July

5, Arthur Ashe beats Jimmy Connors to win the title of Men’s Wimbledon

Championship. The major events within approximately two weeks after this mission

include on July 29, President Gerald Ford became the first US president to visit Nazi

concentration camp Auschwitz; on July 30, Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa disappears

in suburban Detroit (HistoryOrb, n.d.).

5. What were the major events occurring during the docking event? In order for the docking

to occur successfully, a primary consideration was to pressurize the two vessels equally.

Once the normal differences in pressurization were correct, the crews spent two days

docked and experiments conducted and crews exchanged. As to the major events

occurring during the mission, what are they? Mission events follow: July 15th, launch;

16th, the chase; 17th, rendezvous; 18th, transfers; 19th, exercises; 20th, independent

activities; 21st, crews bid farewell, Soyuz splashdown; 22nd – 23rd, Apollo experiments;

and 24th, Apollo splashdown (Ezell, E C; Ezell, L N; NASA History Office, 1978).

6. Based on the guided reading and your own research, explain the scientific, social, and

political aspect of the event. The mission involved creating a cooperative spaceflight in

planning since 1970 between the Russians and Americans. It was much more than a

spaceflight (NASA, 2004). It was a token of goodwill between two superpower countries

that were divided politically and militarily. By 1973, the July 1975 was negotiated and

agreed to as the launch date. According to Bilstein (1989), Apollo-Soyuz was a validation

of the détente between the two countries (pp. 107-108).

17


this event.

Viking 1 Touched Down: 20 July 1976

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of the mission was to

successfully soft-land a robot space vehicle on another planet. Earth’s moon is an

exception because it is not a planet (NASA Space Science Data Center, n.d.).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the event was successful. The

spacecraft, originally designed to function for 90 days, continued collecting scientific

data for more than six years. In that time, most of mankind knew about Mars was

rewritten. The mission ended in 1982, but the Viking data proved timeless (Angelo,

2009).

3. What was the timeline of this event? From the time Viking 1 was launched it took 304

days to touch down on Planet Mars.

Launch date: August 20, 1975

Orbital-Lander separation: July 20, 1976, 08:51 UTD

Mars Landing: July 20, 1976, 11:53:06 UTD (NASA Space Science Data Center, n.d.).

The lander communicated data until November 13, 1982, when communications were

lost. The orbiters continued imaging and other scientific operations from orbit while the

landers deployed instruments on the surface (NASA, n.d.).


Soyuz 21 carries 2 cosmonauts to Salyut 5 space station. Approximately two weeks after

Viking 1 was launched, Viking 2 was launched on September 9, 1975 (NASA Space

Science Data Center, n.d.).

18

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? Immediately after touchdown, the

lander's camera took its first picture and relayed the historic image back to Earth. That

first picture was of the lander's foot -- to see how far it had sunk into the Martian surface.

"And we couldn't have asked for anything better," said Martin. "That picture was really

worth a thousand words (NASA Space Science Data Center, n.d.)."

6. What were the reasons for exploring Mars? The principal reason for the Viking mission

was to look for evidence of life on Mars (NASA Space Science Data Center, n.d.).


this event.

Viking 2 Touched Down: 3 September 1976

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event? The purpose of the mission was to

successfully soft-land a robot space vehicle on another planet. Earth’s moon is an

exception because it is not a planet (NASA Space Science Data Center, n.d.).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the event was successful. The

spacecraft, originally designed to function for 90 days, continued collecting scientific

data for more than six years. In that time, most of mankind knew about Mars was

rewritten. The mission ended in 1982, but the Viking data proved timeless (Angelo,

2009).

3. What was the timeline of this event? From the time Viking 2 was launched it took 333

days to touch down on Planet Mars.

Launch date: September 9, 1975

Orbital-Lander separation: September 3, 1976, 19:39:59 UTD

19

Mars Landing: September 3, 1976, 22:58:20 UTD (NASA Space Science Data Center,

n.d.). The lander provided data until April 11, 1980, when it turned off because the

batteries died. The orbiters continued imaging and other scientific operations from orbit

while the landers deployed instruments on the surface (NASA Space Science Data

Center, n.d.).

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? On August

18, USSR's Luna 24 soft-lands on Moon. On September 18, China’s communist dictator

Mao Zedong's funeral took place in Beijing.

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? No major world or US news events

on this day.

6. What were the areas of scientific interest and the objectives for this project? The principal

reason for the Viking mission was to look for evidence of life on Mars (NASA, n.d.).


this event.

Landsat 7 Launch: 15 April 1999


launch Landsat 7 a multispectral sensing orbiter that completely images the earth every

16 days (Angelo, 2009). The Landsat Program provides repetitive acquisition of high-

resolution multispectral data of the Earth’s surface on a global basis. Also, Landsat 7 is

the latest in a long history of land remote sensing spacecraft, spanning 40 years of

multispectral imaging of the Earth’s surface, starting with the launch of Landsat 1 in

1972. In particular, the ETM+ continues the database of Earth imagery begun in 1982 by

20

the Landsat 4 Thematic Mapper, providing the same spectral bands for consistent change

detection (NASA Landsat Science, 2013).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the launch event was successful. It was

launched from a Boeing Delta II expendable launch vehicle originating from Vandenberg

Air Force Base in California (Angelo, 2009).

3. What was the timeline of this event? Beginning to ending.

Launch date: April 15, 1999.

Fail incident: May 2003, hardware component malfunction caused image degradation.

Current status: Landsat 7

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? On March

24, Kosovo War: NATO commences air bombardment against Yugoslavia, marking the

first time NATO has attacked a sovereign country. On March 29, The Dow Jones

Industrial Average closes at 10006.78 - above the 10,000 mark for the first time ever. On

April 20, Columbine High School massacre: Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold kill 13

people and injure 24 others before committing suicide at Columbine High School located

in Jefferson County, Colorado (HistoryOrb, n.d.).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? No significant US or world events are

documented by reliable sources as occurring on April 15, 1999.

6. How long has the Landsat program been around, and what are the various applications of

the data it’s collected? The Landsat family of satellites began in the early 1970s. The first

satellite was Landsat 1 and was launched in July 1972 and provided a new opportunity to

see the earth from outer space. Scientists and laymen alike could benefit because NASA

provided the images worldwide. One of the most interesting applications was to improve

21

agriculture. In fact, though access to using the satellites for specific uses did not come

affordably, nevertheless, a new discipline referred to as precision agriculture sprung up

because of the remote sensing capabilities the satellites provided. Other users include

NOAA, urban planners, water resource evaluators, pollution monitoring, etc. (Angelo,

2009). Finally, the newest satellite Landsat 8 launched on February 11, 2003, and is the

newest technology providing better remote sensing capabilities than all of its

predecessors (NASA Landsat Science, 2013).


this event. The data from Landsat spacecraft constitute the longest record of the Earth’s

continental surfaces as seen from space. It is a record unmatched in quality, detail,

coverage, and value (NASA Landsat Science, 2013). As of October 2008, all new data

provided by Landsat 7 is free to the public. As of December 2009, all archived data is

free to public.

Shuttle Columbia Accident: 1 February 2003

1. What was the purpose and objectives of this event?

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. The low-earth orbit research mission was

considered to be successful. However, upon reentry into earth’s atmosphere the mission

is considered a disaster. No, it represents a very dark day in both the history of NASA

and the United States.

3. What was the timeline of this event? Beginning to ending. The following timeline data is

helpful to see how the disintegration happened (NASA History Office, n.d.):

Launch date: January 16, 2003

Explosion: February 1, 2003

22

Investigation begins: February 1, 2003

Investigation report released to public: April 26, 2003

Date Time Elapsed

Time Flight Day

Item

16-Jan-03 7:30:00

1 Crew transport to launch complex 39-A

16-Jan-03 7:53:00

1 Commander Rick Husband enters Columbia, first crew member to enter

16-Jan-03 8:45:00

1 Mission Specialist Kalpana Chawla enters Columbia, last crew member to enter

16-Jan-03 9:17:00

1 Crew hatch closed and locked 16-Jan-03 10:35:00

1 Go given for Auxiliary Power Unit start

16-Jan-03 10:39:00

1 Solid Rocket Booster Ignition

16-Jan-03

T+57sec. 1

Columbia encounters wind sheer; sheer "appears to have initiated a very low frequency oscillation, caused by liquid oxygen sloshing inside the External Tank", continues to SRB separation

16-Jan-03

T+75 sec. 1 Liquid Oxygen sloshing oscillation peaks in amplitude

16-Jan-03

T+81.7 sec.

1 One large and two smaller pieces of foam from the ET left bipod (-Y) ramp separate.

16-Jan-03

T+81.9 sec.

1 Large piece of foam from the ET left bipod (-Y) ramp strikes Columbia around RCC panels 5 through 9 on the underside of the left wing

16-Jan-03

T+95 sec. 1 Columbia encounters wind sheer (less severe than T+57 sec)

16-Jan-03

T+105 sec. 1 Columbia encounters wind sheer (less severe than T+57 sec)

16-Jan-03

T+115 sec. 1

SRB and SSME "exhaust nozzle pitch and yaw deflections exceed those seen previously by a factor of 1.4 and 1.06 to 1.6, respectively. These deflections were caused by lower than expected Reusable Solid Rocket Motor performance"

16-Jan-03

T+127 sec. 1 SRB separation from ET

16-Jan-03

T+8 minutes, 30 sec.

1 SSME engine shut down, ET separation followed

16-Jan-03 11:39:00

1 Columbia in orbit; crew enters "post insertion timeline"

23

17-Jan-03 10:30-11:00

2 Between 10:30 and 11:00 an object drifts away from Columbia in orbit

23-Jan-03

8

Mission Control emails Husband and McCool informing them of a debris strike with a short video clip. Mission Control indicated there was "absolutely no concern for reentry". Husband forwards the information to the rest of the crew.

1-Feb-03 8:10:00

17 Mission Control Cap COM notifies Columbia crew that they are a GO for de-orbit burn

1-Feb-03 8:15:30

17 Husband and McCool execute de-orbit burn 1-Feb-03 8:44:09

17 Entry Interface Occurs over the Pacific Ocean

1-Feb-03 8:48:39 EI+270

Left Wing Leading Edge spar sensor indicates higher strains than normal; readings recorded on the Modular Auxiliary Data System and were not displayed to the crew nor telemetered to Mission Control

1-Feb-03 8:48:59 EI+290

"Wing LE LWR Attach Clevis RCC10" indicates an "off nominal temperature trend"

1-Feb-03 8:49:32 EI+323

Columbia executes right roll maneuver [normal event]

1-Feb-03 8:49:49 EI+340

"Left OMS Pod Thermocouple Start of off-nominal temperature trend."

1-Feb-03 8:50:19 EI+370

"(Left Wing Lower Surface Thermocouple) Begins off-nominal temperature increase"

1-Feb-03 8:50:53 EI+404

Columbia enters 10 minute peak heating period [normal event]

1-Feb-03 8:51:14 EI+425

"(Wing Spar Panel 9 temp) Start off-nominal trend"

1-Feb-03 8:52:00 EI+471

Wing leading edge temperatures normally reach 2,650 degrees Fahrenheit

1-Feb-03 8:52:16 EI+487

"Wing Leading Edge Spar Burn Through"

1-Feb-03 8:52:17

"LMG Brake Line temp D-On Wheel well Inboard Sidewall (Small increase in temp-"Bit Flip Up")"

1-Feb-03 8:52:51 EI+522

"(Wing Spar Panel) 9 temp Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:52:59

"Left Inboard Elevon Lower Skin temp Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:53:11

"Hydraulic System 1LH Inboard Elevon Actr Ret LN Temp Off-Scale Low"

24

1-Feb-03 8:53:26 EI+557

Columbia crosses California coast west of Sacramento

1-Feb-03 8:53:31/

34 "Hydraulic System 1 LOE RTN LN Temp Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:53:36

"Hydraulic System 2 LH Return Line temp Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:53:44/

48 "First report of debris observed leaving the orbiter"

1-Feb-03 8:53:46/

50 Second report of observed debris

1-Feb-03 8:53:46 EI+577

Signs of debris shedding; streak noticed in Orbiter's trail

1-Feb-03 8:53:54/

58 Third report of observed debris; "Event followed by momentary brightening of plasma trail."

1-Feb-03 8:54:00/

04 Fourth report of observed debris

1-Feb-03 8:54:07/

11 Fifth report of observed debris

1-Feb-03 8:54:11

"Reversal in Rolling Movement from Negative to Positive Slope"

1-Feb-03 8:54:24 EI+613

Maintenance, Mechanical, and Crew Systems (MMACS) officer informs flight director of four hydraulic sensor readings in the left wing indicating "off-scale low"; first time Mission Control knows something is not normal about reentry

1-Feb-03 8:54:25 EI+614

Columbia crosses California into Nevada; bright flash seconds later

1-Feb-03 8:54:33.3/33.9

"Flash #1- Orbiter envelope suddenly brightened (duration 0.3 sec), leaving noticeable luminescent signature in plasma trail"

1-Feb-03 8:54:35/

37 Sixth report of observed debris

1-Feb-03 8:55:00 EI+651

wing leading edge temperatures normally reach 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit

1-Feb-03 8:55:04/

10 Seventh report of observed debris

1-Feb-03 8:55:21/

27 Eighth report of observed debris; "Event was followed by momentary brightening of plasma

25

trail."

1-Feb-03 8:55:25/

29 Ninth report of observed debris; "Event was followed by multiple secondary plasma trails."

1-Feb-03 8:55:26/

30 Tenth report of debris leaving the Shuttle

1-Feb-03 8:55:32 EI+683

Columbia crosses from Nevada into Utah

1-Feb-03 8:55:36/

42 Eleventh report of debris leaving the Shuttle

1-Feb-03 8:55:45/

49

Twelfth report of debris leaving the Shuttle; "Event was preceded and followed by secondary plasma trails."

1-Feb-03 8:55:52 EI+703

Columbia crosses from Utah into Arizona

1-Feb-03 8:55:58

Fourteenth report of debris leaving the Shuttle; "Very bright debris observed leaving the Orbiter."

1-Feb-03 8:56:09/

13 Fifteenth report of debris leaving the orbiter

1-Feb-03 8:56:30 EI+741

Columbia initiates right to left roll reversal over Arizona

1-Feb-03 8:56:45 EI+756

Columbia crosses from Arizona into New Mexico

1-Feb-03 8:56:55

"First Roll Reversal Complete"

1-Feb-03 8:57:19

"Main Landing Gear LH Outboard Tire Pressure 1 (Start of off-nominal trend - "Bit Flip Up")"

1-Feb-03 8:57:19/

29

Sixteenth report of debris leaving the orbiter; "Very faint debris observed leaving just aft of the Orbiter"

1-Feb-03 8:57:24 EI+795

Columbia passes north of Albuquerque

1-Feb-03 8:57:24

"Main Landing Gear LH Outboard Tire Pressure 2 (Start of off-nominal trend - "Bit Flip Up")"

1-Feb-03 8:58:00 EI+831

"Wing leading edge temperatures typically decreased to 2,880 degrees Fahrenheit"

1-Feb-03 8:58:03 (+/- 10

sec)

"Start of "Sharp" Aileron Trim" increase

1-Feb-03 8:58:20 EI+851

Columbia crosses from New Mexico into Texas; sheds most westerly piece of debris discovered in Littlefield, Texas

26

1-Feb-03 8:58:38

"Main Landing Gear LH Outboard Tire Pressure 1 Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:58:48

"Main Landing Gear LH Inboard Wheel Temp Off-Scale Low; Main Landing Gear Inboard Tire Pressure 2 Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:58:54

"Main Landing Gear LH Outboard Tire Pressure 2 Off-Scale Low"

1-Feb-03 8:59:06

"Left Main Gear Downlock Indication (Uplock Indicated No Change)"

1-Feb-03 8:59:15 EI+906

MMACS reports Flight Director that pressure readings are lost on both left main landing gear tires

1-Feb-03 8:59:32:

136 EI+923

Last communication from crew cut off; last telemetry received

1-Feb-03 9:00:02/

06

"Debris A observed leaving the Orbiter - Large debris seen falling away from the Orbiter envelope."

1-Feb-03 9:00:17/

21 "Debris B observed leaving the Orbiter"

1-Feb-03 9:00:18 EI+969

Videos made by observers on ground show Columbia disintegrating.

1-Feb-03 9:00:18/

22 "Debris C observed leaving the Orbiter"

1-Feb-03 9:00:19:

44 "MADS Data Ends"

1-Feb-03 9:00:21/

25 "Vehicle Main Body break-up"

1-Feb-03 9:16:00

Countdown to arrival clock reaches zero; Associate Administrator for Spaceflight, Bill Readdy, declares spaceflight contingency and activates Recovery Control Center at KSC

1-Feb-03 9:29:00

Contingency Action Plan for Space Flight Operations Activated

1-Feb-03 10:00:00

All Data at NASA and contractor sites impounded; Headquarters Action Center activated

1-Feb-03 10:30:00

"NASA Mishap Response Team convened to assess the preliminary data and focus on the location of the crew compartment through the

27

Rescue Coordination Center at Langley Air Force Base in Virginia."; "The Rapid Response Team was activated for deployment to Barksdale AFB in Louisiana."

1-Feb-03 10:30:00

NASA Deputy Administrator begins calling Columbia Accident Investigation Board members currently listed on contingency plan

1-Feb-03 11:30:00

Administrator O'Keefe meets with Columbia families

1-Feb-03 13:15:00

Administrator O'Keefe makes televised statement expressing "deepest national regrets" for the accident and informs public about the creation of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board

1-Feb-03 17:00:00

Columbia Accident Investigation Board verbally activated by O'Keefe at the NASA Mishap Investigation Team teleconference

1-Feb-03 18:00:00

By this time "…during a teleconference with the White House Situation Room, we [O'Keefe/NASA] briefed officials from the Department of Homeland Security, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Department of Defense, FBI, and the FAA" about the investigation's current status

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? Two weeks

prior to this disaster, on January 16, is when the date Columbia launched. On January 23,

final communication between Earth and Pioneer 10 is received. On January 24, the

United States Department of Homeland Security officially begins operation (HistoryOrb,

n.d.). On February 15, an estimated eleven million people around the world take to the

streets to protest against the looming war with Iraq. On February 27, the U.N. tribunal in

The Hague, Netherlands, sentences former Bosnian Serb leader Biljana Plavsic to 11

years in prison (HistoryOrb, n.d.).

28

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? A crowded passenger train and a

freight train collided head on and burst into flames in northwestern Zimbabwe, killing 40

people and injuring about 60. The wreckage was still burning 14 hours after the collision

(BBC News, 2003). Also, seven high school students from Calgary, Alberta, Canada,

were killed when an avalanche swept over them on a school ski trip. The remaining ten

members of the ski trip survived (BBC News, 2003).

6. This was not the first tragedy NASA has incurred, how have the past tragedies shaped the

space program and how has this tragedy changed the program? Immediately after this

disaster, space shuttle operations were suspended. This was problematic because it

affected America’s participation in the International Space Station (ISS). The next space

shuttle, Discovery, was launched on July 26, 2005, and returned safely on August 9, 2005

(NASA, 2006).


this event.

Soyuz TMA-2: Russian’s first launch after the Columbia explodes: 26 April 2003


launch the Soyuz TMA-2 and fly it to the ISS. It carried two astronauts, one Russian Yuri

Ivanovich Malenchenko and one American Edward Tsang Lu, for a six-month stay at the

International Space Station (ISS), performing microgravity biology experiments (NASA

Space Science Data Center, n.d.).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, all aspects of the mission profile were

successful.


29

Launch date: April 26, 2003, 03:53:52 UTC

ISS docking date: April 28, 2003, 07:00 UTC.

Previous crew exit date: May 4, 2003, departed on the earlier previous spaceship Soyuz

TMA-1 that delivered them.

Soyuz TMA-2 exit date: October 27, 2003, crew remained docked in turn for their

eventual crew exchange.

4. What were the major events occurring two weeks before and after the event? On April 8,

2003, the United Nation’s International Atomic Energy Association leader reasserts that

only the UN has the authority to mandate a search for weapons of mass destruction in

Iraq. The US refuses to respond. On May 6, 2003, a United States House of

Representatives select committee on taxation approves a measure amounting to more

than $500B to be phased in over a 10-year period (GovTrack, 2003).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? On April 26, 2003, the wife of Nelson

Mandela was sentenced to prison for 5 years for participation in bank fraud (All Africa,

2003). Also on this day, massive explosions erupt in a Baghdad ammunition dump.

Assailants attempting to kill American soldiers triggered the event. There were 6 killed

and 6 wounded (Washington Post, 2003).

6. What is the importance of this event in regards to the relationship between the United

States and Russia? The event signaled new and important cooperation between the two

countries. Prior to the Columbia accident, many key American political questioned the

decision to allow the Russians to participate in the ISS project. Russian participation has

proven to be valuable in the years since the accident. For example, their value in

maintaining the ISS has prevented the project from tanking. Also, their participation

30

became a major incentive to keep the shuttle program going to the ISS (Russian Space

Web, n.d.).


this event.

Space Shuttle Discovery Mission:

NASA’s first launch after the Columbia explodes: 26 July 2005


implement safety improvements for space orbiters and external fuel tanks. This was the

first flight of a space shuttle since the space shuttle Columbia accident (NASA, 2005).

2. Was the event successful? Why or Why not. Yes, the event is considered successful.


Launch date: July 26, 2005, 10:39:00 a.m. EDT;

Landing date: August 9, 2005, 5:11:22 a.m. PDT;

Mission duration: 13 days, 21 hours, 32 minutes, 48 seconds (NASA, 2005).


coordinated terrorist bomb blasts strike London's public transport system during the

morning rush hour killing 52 and injuring 700 (HistoryOrb). On August 12, an F1

tornado strikes Glen Cove, New York, a rare event on Long Island (HistoryOrb).

5. What were the major events occurring on that day? On July 26, Secretary of Defense

Donald Rumsfeld announces a new slogan for the United States posture against terrorism.

Instead of the “global war on terrorism” (GWOT) , the change was made to “global

struggle against violent extremism” (GSAVE) (Schmitt & Shanker, 2005).

31

6. What changes were made to the shuttle in order to prevent further accidents? Discovery

was retrofitted with a system of on-ground, on-shuttle cameras, and sensors embedded

into the shuttle’s wings. These systems were part of a larger system to ensure that no

details of shuttle system degradation prior to and after launch and prior to landing would

be missed again (NASA, 2005).


this event.

32

REFERENCES

All Africa. (2003, April 26). South Africa: Winnie's day of shame. Retrieved from All

Africa: http://allafrica.com/stories/200304260034.html.

Angelo, J. A. (2009). Encyclopedia of space and astronomy: Facts on file science library.

New York City: Infobase Publishing.

BBC News. (2003, February 02). Africa: 40 die in Zimbabwe train crash. Retrieved from

BBC News World Edition: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2715483.stm.

BBC News. (2003, February 02). Americas: Pupils killed in Canada avalanche.

Retrieved from BBC News World Edition:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2717705.stm.

Bilstein, R. E. (1989). Orders of magnitude: A history of the NACA and NASA, 1915-

1990. (NASA, Office of Management, Scientific and Technical Information

Division) Retrieved from NASA, The History Office: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-

4406/contents.html.

Douglas, W. K. (2009). Preparation of the astronaut. 1963. Aviation, Space, and

Environmental Medicine, 80(5), 503. Retrieved from Space Medicine

Association: http://spacemedicineassociation.org/timeline/1963/34030232-1.pdf.

European Space Agency (n.d.) The flight of Vostok 1. Retrieved from ESA:

http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Welcome_to_ESA/ESA_history/50_years_of_huma

ns_in_space/The_flight_of_Vostok_1.

33

Ezell, E C; Ezell, L N; NASA History Office. (1978). "The partnership: A history of the

Apollo-Soyuz test project." Published as NASA special publication 4209 in the

NASA History Series. Retrieved from NASA :

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/toc.htm.

GovTrack. (2003, May). Congress: Bills: H.R. 2 (108th): Jobs and growth tax relief

reconciliation act of 2003. Retrieved from GovTrack.us:

http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/108/hr2.

Hall, R., & Shayler, D. (2001). The rocket men: Vostok & Voshod. The first Soviet

manned spaceflights. Chichester: Praxis Publishing.

Hammack, J. B., & Heberlig, J. C. (1961). The Mercury-Redstone program. American

Rocket Society.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). August 2005. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/2005/august.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). July 2005. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/2005/july.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). April 1973. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/1973/april.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). April 1999. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/1999/april.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). August 1969. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/1969/august.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). February 2003. Retrieved from HistoryOrg.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/2003/february.

34

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). January 2003. Retrieved from HistoryOrg.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/2003/january.



HistoryOrb. (n.d.). July 1975. Retrieved from HistoryOrb:




HistoryOrb. (n.d.). March 1961. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/1961/march.

HistoryOrb. (n.d.). March 1973. Retrieved from HistoryOrb.com:

http://www.historyorb.com/events/date/1973/march.

Kuettner, J. P., & Bertram, E. (n.d.). Mercury project summary (NASA SP-45). Retrieved

from NASA: NASA history program office: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-

45/ch4.htm.

NASA. (2004, October 22). The flight of Apollo-Soyuz. Retrieved from The Apollo

Missions: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/apollo/apsoyhist.html.

NASA. (2005). Mission archives. Retrieved from Space Shuttle: STS-114:

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-114.html.

NASA. (2006, August 04). STS-114 Return to flight. Retrieved from NASA Return to

Flight: http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/main/index.html?skipIntro=1.

35

NASA. (2013, July 30). Mercury: Glenn orbits the earth. Retrieved from NASA: All

NASA missions:

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/bios/mercury_mission.html.

NASA Headquarters PAO. (2012, October 14). Press kit: Apollo 11 lunar landing

mission. Retrieved from NASA: Apollo lunar surface journal:

http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/A11_PressKit.pdf.

NASA History Office. (n.d.). Columbia chronology. Retrieved from NASA History:

Columbia:

http://history.nasa.gov/columbia/Troxell/Columbia%20Web%20Site/Timelines/C

olumbia%20Chronology%20.htm.

NASA Human Space Flight Office. (2009, July 01). The Apollo 11 mission. Retrieved

from NASA: Human Space Flight:

http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo11.

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory & California Institute of Technology. (n.d.). Mission

and spacecraft library: Pioneer program. Retrieved from JPL Program Mission

and Spacecraft Laboratory: http://space.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/Programs/pioneer.html.

NASA Landsat Science. (2013, September 05). Landsat 7. Retrieved from Landsat

Science: http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/?p=3184.

NASA. (n.d.). Viking: Mission to Mars. Retrieved from NASA Mission Pages:

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/viking/viking30_fs.html.

NASA Solar System Exploration. (2012, April 18). Pioneer 11: Missions to Saturn.

Retrieved from NASA Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Saturn:

36

Past: Pioneer 11:

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_11.

NASA Space Science Data Center. (1995, September 29). Press release 95-163: Pioneer

11 to end operations after epic career. Retrieved from NASA Lunar and

Planetary Science: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/text/pioneer-

11_endops.txt.

NASA Space Science Data Center. (n.d.). Soyuz TMA-2 (2003-016A). Retrieved from

NASA NSSDC: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=2003-

016A.

NASA Space Science Data Center. (n.d.). Viking 1 lander. Retrieved from NASA

NSSDC: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-075C.

NASA Space Science Data Center. (n.d.). Viking 1 Lander (1975-075C). Retrieved from

NASA NSSDC: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1975-

075C.

NASA Space Science Data Center. (n.d.). Vostok 1 (1961-012A). Retrieved from NASA

NSSDC: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1961-012A.

NASA, The History Office. (2013, August 12). Apollo-1 (204). Retrieved from NASA:

History Office: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollo204.

NASA, The History Office. (n.d.). The Apollo spacecraft: A chronology, Vol. IV, Part 1E

(1967 Jan): Preparation for flight, the accident, and investigation. Retrieved from

NASA: History Office: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-

4009/v4p1e.htm.

37

NASA/John Space Center. (n.d.). Mercury-Redstone. Retrieved from NASA: Rocket

Park: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/rocketpark/mercury_redstone_prt.htm.

NASA/Kennedy Space Center. (2002, April 05). Freedom 7 MR-3 (18). Retrieved from

NASA: Kennedy Space Center: Mercury: http://www-

pao.ksc.nasa.gov/history/mercury/mr-3/mr-3.htm.

NASA/Kennedy Space Center. (2002, April 05). Friendship 7 MA-6 (23). Retrieved from

NASA: Kennedy Space Center: Mercury.

NASA/Kennedy Space Center. (n.d.). Gemini IV. Retrieved from NASA: Kennedy Space

Center: Gemini: http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/gemini/gemini-

4/gemini4.htm.

NASA/KSC External Relations and Business Development Directorate. (2003, February

21). Apollo 11 (27): "The Eagle has landed.". Retrieved from NASA: Kennedy

Space Center: Apollo Information: http://www-

pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/history/apollo/apollo-11/apollo-11.htm.

Peters, G., & Woolley, J. T. (2013). John F. Kennedy: "The president's news conference,"

April 12, 1961. Retrieved from The American Presidency Project:

http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=8055.

Russian Space Web. (n.d.). Soyuz TMA-2. Retrieved from Russian Space Web:

http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_soyuztma2.html.

Schmitt, E., & Shanker, T. (2005, July 26). U.S. officials retool slogal for terror war.

Retrieved from The New York Times:

http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/26/politics/26strategy.html?pagewanted=print&

_r=0.

38

Washington Post. (2003, August 26). Deadly munitions explosion in Baghdad. Retrieved

from Washington Post On Assignment Archives:

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/photo/onassignment/archive.

Documents

Development of Air and Space Flight