Development of Mediterranean agriculture: An ecological approach

Landscapeand Urban Planning, 18 (1990) 21 l-220 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

211

Development of Mediterranean Agriculture: An Ecological Approach

MANUEL RUIZ PEREZ

Department of Ecology, Faculty of Science, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid (Spain)

(Accepted for publication 22 August 1989)

ABSTRACT

Perez, M.R., Development of Mediterranean agriculture: an ecological approach. Land- scape Urban Plann., 18: 21 l-220.

Environmental conditions in Mediterranean Europe impose restrictions on the development of modern agrarian practice. Traditional Med- iterranean agriculture generated landscapes of high environmental value, permitting the cultivation of a wide variety of crops with a sustained production, but with mean yields inferior to those ofAtlantic Europe.

In recent times the evolution of Mediterra- nean agriculture has followed a dual process of

a more intensive production in morefertile lands and marginalization and abandonment of the least productive lands. Both tendencies have been exacerbated by the introduction of CAP mechanisms, resulting in environmental dete- rioration. The new set-aside and extensifica- tion policies increase the uncertainty concerning environmental quality in the Mediterranean area. It is therefore recommended to set up specific policies for each individual area, taking in to consideration the particular ecological characteristics and development of the Mediterranean region, thereby safe-guarding the conservation of its interesting agrarian landscapes.

INTRODUCTION

Mediterranean countries joining the EEC are not only exposed to the rules of an open market, but also to the policies concerning agricultural production emanating from Brussels. Natural conditions supporting agricultural production, however, are vastly different from those in Atlantic Europe.

In order to explain the manner in which an agrosystem functions, one must identify first

of all the nature of its environmental setting. In this article we therefore begin by giving a brief outline of physical conditions, of climate and soils, that are characteristic of the Medi- terranean region. This is followed by an anal- ysis of agricultural traditions and contempo- rary developments resulting from EEC policies.

Within the context of the EEC, the paper considers Mediterranean countries to be those in which the Mediterranean climate domi- nates, i.e. Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

0169-2046/90/$03.50 0 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

M.R. PEREZ 112

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES CHARACTERIZING THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

The Mediterranean climate is typical of live different regions throughout the world: South and Southwest Australia, the Cape of South Africa, Central Chile, most of California and the Mediterranean Basin. These regions all lie on the Western fringes of the major continents, between latitudes of 30” and 45”, and on the poleward border of subtropical deserts. In total they account for approximately 1% of the Earth’s surface. The Mediterranean Basin, upon which the present study focuses, represents over half of this total, because of the combined effect of a large inland sea and the general east-west alignment of the mountain chains surrounding it, and the prevailing winds ( Di Castri and Mooney, 1973 ).

The Mediterranean climate and its variants are characterized by the fact that maximum temperatures and periods of precipitation do not coincide, thereby producing marked seasonal weather patterns. Rainfall, that may range from 300 to 900 mm per year, is concen- trated in the mild winter season, whilst droughts of two to eight months mark the hot dry summer months. All this, combined with the frequently stormy nature of rain showers and its marked variation from year to year, makes Mediterranean ecosystems suffer from strong climatic stress.

It should be emphasized that it is the sepa- ration between periods of maximum tempera- ture and maximum precipitation, and not their absolute values, that characterize the Mediter- ranean climate. Contrary to popular belief precipitation in numerous Mediterranean areas is equal to or higher than that of certain Atlantic European zones. Despite this, the total water deficit is higher. The average total rainfall in Paris is. for example, 646 mm, whereas in Rome it reaches 722 mm, which is closer to that of de Bilt in The Netherlands, with 768 mm.

The fact that maximum temperatures and

maximum precipitation are out of step, and that in summer there is a serious water deficit means that chemical weathering is generally slow and soils are therefore little developed and closely related to parent rocks. Fossil soils as- sume great importance, particularly in the many hilly and mountainous areas that sur- round the Mediterranean Basin. Such soils in- dicate that former climatic conditions were wetter than they are today. Wide, highly fertile alluvial plains characterize valley areas, even if the rivers flowing through them are subject to marked seasonal variations in flow. Good agricultural soils may also be found in the usually narrow coastal plain. Sheet and gulley ero- sion are common in areas with steep slopes.

These physical circumstances have influ- enced the development of a vegetation which has become adapted to suboptimal growing conditions in which existing levels of temper- ature and humidity are exploited for a maximum of biological productivity.

In the same way Mediterranean vegetation has had to adapt to strong climatic fluctuations that may involve surviving periods of up to several years of drought. As a result, two major plant formations have gradually domi- nated Mediterranean flora: evergreen vegetation (with broad sclerophyllous leaves) and annuals.

The important geological, geomorphological and climatic variations that occur within the Mediterranean Basin, in conjunction with different levels of development, give rise to a complex mosaic of habitats with particular characteristics, that conditions different types of land use. Most of these habitats, however, present similar environmental restrictions, and a fragile relationship exists therefore as a rule between these and the land use management practices to which they are subjected. Erro- neous management leads to irreversible dete- rioration, and traditional cultures have there-

DEVELOPMENT OF MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE 213

Fig. 1. A typical dehesa landscape.

fore developed a variety of agricultural management practices which optimize the typical annual fluctuations in Mediterranean productivity without causing ecological degradation. The main aim of such agricultural systems is to raise the limits on production imposed by such restrictions through the development of homeostatic systems.

Comparison between Atlantic and Mediter- ranean European agriculture reveals the pecul- iar characteristics of the latter. The wide variety of habitats and climatic conditions in Mediterranean Europe permits the cultivation of an equally wide variety of crops which range

from citrus fruit, rice and sugar cane, to wheat, barley and potatoes (Grigg, 1974).

However, most Mediterranean crops cannot compete with the level of productivity ob- tained by the same crops in areas with special- ized agriculture (tropical and subtropical areas in the former case, and temperate zones in the latter), with the exception of crops grown on the most fertile soils with secure and plentiful water supply, or typical Mediterranean products such as vines and olives. Wheat, for example, the cereal most cultivated in the EEC, occupying 11.8% of Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA), presents an average yield of 6 170 kg

214 M.R. PEREZ

per hectare in Atlantic Europe but only 2700 kg per hectare in Mediterranean Europe.

Most annual Mediterranean crops are characterized by their long production cycles, being sown in autumn and harvested in summer. This is particularly true of extensive cereal crops. The low fertility of most soils increased the value put on traditional fallow practices, that today have lost importance because of the use of fertilizers.

Similarly, the livestock carrying capacity of Mediterranean pasture lands is equivalent to only lo-50% of that of Atlantic Europe, depending on the existing conditions in each particular area. The low carrying capacity was tra- ditionally overcome by the development of the so-called transhumance systems, that are found in most Mediterranean countries, in which agricultural production moves from the low- lands in the winter and spring time, to high- land zones in the summer when production in these zones is at the highest level (Grigg, 1974; Ruiz and Ruiz, 1986). A comparison between Atlantic and Mediterranean agriculture also reveals the limited development of fodder crops in the Mediterranean region because of the low yields and the use of the most fertile soils for crops that are used for human con- sumption. As a consequence the 60:40 ratio between animal and crop production, typical for Atlantic Europe is inverted in Mediterra- nean Europe, where the mean ratio is 40 : 60.

The importance of permanent crops such as olive groves, vineyards and orchards in Medi- terranean countries should be stressed (in fact, Koppen’s classification of climate zones de- scribes the Mediterranean area as that of the olive). Greece, Italy, Spain and Portugal represent 45.7% of the total surface of the EEC, while at the same time accounting for 86.3% of all land under permanent crops. Such crops represent 18.8% of UAA in these four countries, but only 2.2% in Atlantic Europe. Per- manent crops are particularly important from an environmental point of view, because they create a stable landscape with a permanent tree

or shrub cover, features that usually represent the mature elements of Mediterranean ecosystems and permit the coexistence of an important biocoenosis. Olive groves, a typical Med- iterranean agrosystem that represents 35.6% of all permanent crops in the EEC, are an excellent example of such biocoenosis with their interesting bird and plant communities that are closely associated with each other.

Another feature that differentiates agriculture in Atlantic and Mediterranean Europe is the character and the role of woodland in both areas. Those located in Atlantic Europe tend to be dense, high forests, they are managed with an eye on yielding marketable products (above all timber for saw mills) and are mainly composed of coniferous species. These forests are generally managed as separate units, with little relation to agricultural production. “South- ern” woodlands differ in their characteristics, their objectives and their management techniques, and are composed of a greater number of mainly broadleaved species. They include large expanses of mattoral and their major function is often soil and water conservation. They are usually exploited as grazing land, thereby providing both forage and shelter to livestock.

In contrast to “Northern” forests, Mediter- ranean woodlands normally form an integral part of local agricultural systems and should therefore not be considered as a source of raw material disconnected from agricultural practices and needs, as is the case in the “North- ern” model (MAB, 1976; Service Information Agricole, 1984). The Iberian “dehesa” is an outstanding example of an agro-silvo-pastoral integration that simultaneously permits both sustained production and a high degree of environmental conservation and scenic value (Ruiz, 1986) (Fig. 1).

Other technical and structural differences, of interest from a landscape point of view, may also be pointed out. In addition to the well known inferior level of mechanization, use of agrochemicals, etc. Mediterranean agriculture


Fig. 2. View of a mountain landscape.

is also characterized by smaller farm units and a higher percentage of the population living in rural areas than is the case in Atlantic Europe. This circumstance, combined with the high crop diversity and the existence of hedges, stone walls and terraces defining the landscape, create an “artisan agriculture” and give a high environmental value to typical Mediter- ranean landscapes, certainly when compared with some of the more intensively used areas in Atlantic Europe.

The abandonment, or loss of agrarian activ- ity in such areas frequently entails a loss of scenic and environmental quality, as they are in- vaded by monotonous formations of mattoral

and weeds, thereby increasing fire risk in summer, and lose the important structural elements such as hedges and walls.

MEDITERRANEAN AGRICULTURE WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF THE CAP

As has happened in other developed countries, Mediterranean agriculture has evolved according to the two different tendencies that are caused by the general process of stepped up production and market competition.

One tendency is visible in areas that possess fertile soils and adequate water supplies. Pro-

216 M.R. PEREZ

Fig. 3. View ofthe same area as shown in Fig. 2, after the construction of a dam and the creation of a large water reservoir.

duction has been stepped up here to a high level, reaching productivity rates equivalent to those of the most developed areas in Atlantic Europe. Such areas tend to capitalize on climatic and locational advantages in relation to the European market, and concentrate most of their production on horticultural and out-of- season crops found in Mediterranean regions.

The other tendency is visible in areas in which limiting environmental factors represent insurmountable obstacles for the introduction of modern agricultural techniques, and therefore are gradually being abandoned.

Zones of intermediate quality are character-

ized by extensive agricultural practice, with lower yields than the average in Atlantic Eu- rope. They are increasingly subjected to intensification or become marginal land, to be abandoned.

Sometimes stepped-up production and abandonment are interrelated: some marginal areas are deliberately abandoned in order to permit the intensification of other areas. One of the most notorious examples is the creation of large water reservoirs (Figs. 2 and 3) that often imply the flooding of the most fertile lands in mountainous areas in order to supply water for irrigation projects in nearby dry low-


Fig. 4. Example of a dry lowland landscape.

Fig. 5. An irrigated lowland landscape.

lands. Such a process has been widespread in ricultural Policy (CAP) has intensified the Mediterranean Europe, particularly in Spain. general tendencies underlying the develop- It is generally accepted that the Common Ag- ment of a market economy, thereby speeding

218 M.R. PEREZ

up the dual process of intensification and land abandonment, and generating new specific conditions with important ecological costs (Swanwick, 1985; Roelants du Vivier, 1987),

What are these policies and their effects? First of all market protection, the guarantee of high products prices, the implementation of Regional Development Funds and Structural Funds have promoted a high production per unit of land, even imposing agricultural practices that at times surpass an area’s environmentally sound livestock carrying capacity or a sustained crop yield possibility (Wathern et al., 1985). The pollution of water, soils and the atmosphere, the destruction of biocenosis, and the simplification and degradation of the landscape owing to the removal of walls and hedges, and the spread of monocultures constitute the typical and increasingly apparent effects of an increased intensity of production. The expansion of irrigation projects in Mediterranean Europe has also provoked considerable change in the landscape (Figs. 4 and 5 ). Water management in such areas has frequently generated high environmental costs because of projects such as large dams and reservoirs, or aquifer depletion.

The Integrated Mediterranean Programmes, with a 6000 million ECU budget, stimulate projects that may cause unsustainable pressure on the environment in fragile Mediterranean ecosystems. Projects that are yet in an early stage of implementation such as in the Mikra Prespa in Greece, or the Lazio Region in Italy seem to confirm this expectation (World Wildlife Fund., 1987). In a similar way the substitution of crops as promoted by different EEC regulations may also have negative environmental consequences, particularly in re- gard to extensive cereal or permanent crops that were mentioned earlier in this paper. The EEC grants given to farmers willing to uproot vines or olive trees provide an excellent example of a negative impact, while these crops constitute highly valued ecosystems.

In the second place the combined effect of

modernization and the imposition of varying rent levels according to environmental conditions leads to the abandonment of other rural areas. Schemes such as the Farm Moderniza- tion and Cessation of Farming, and the Grant Reallocation Directives stimulate land abandonment, which ultimately leads to rural depopulation, both processes that may them- selves generate negative environmental impacts. The EEC is currently introducing measures that could positively affect such problems, but these measures are primarily designed to correct CAP disfunctionalities, such as the creation of agricultural surpluses. Envi- ronmental problems are considered to be sec- ondary issues. These new measures include the new Set-Aside and Extensilication Policy (EEC Regulation 797/85 and 1760/87; Service Porte Parole, 1988). Their eventual positive effects depend on the conditions under which they are applied and the area they cover. Extensifica- tion may lead to greater landscape diversity, if at least 20% of the land with surplus creating crops is left fallow or used for different crops. Grants may also be given to farmers willing to maintain traditional agrarian practices that enhance environmental stability and values. Similar measures have been proposed in the Environmentally Sensitive Areas Scheme, specifically designed for farmers in Less-Fa- voured Areas.

Implementation of these measures in South- ern Europe will have conflicting environmental results, given that an increased amount of land may be abandoned or devoted to unsuit- able use. One of the key measures that has been proposed to deal with land marginalization is afforestation as an alternative to existing crops or livestock practices. Such a proposal de- serves very careful consideration when applied to the Mediterranean Region in view of the ap- parently negative effects of forest programmes that have already been tested here (Maril et al., 1984). The effect of afforestation depends on the species and the type of planting techniques involved, on the territory in which it is ef-


fected, and the total surface of land affected. The substitution of a highly mechanized, fer- tilizer consuming agriculture by forest land may reduce pressure on the environment in intensively farmed areas such as those in Atlan- tic Europe. The expansion of similar forest monocultures of quick-growing species in mountainous of other less productive areas in the Mediterranean Region may cause important negative effects. These effects may be the loss of valued landscapes, the stimulation of rural depopulation, and the proliferation of forest fires. The indiscriminate spread of forest monocultures, introduced under the pre- text of reducing pressure on the environment, may, paradoxically, become one of the major threats to ecological stability in agricultural areas in Mediterranean Europe.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Mediterranean agriculture presents a set of specific characteristics that distinguish it from Atlantic European agriculture. The economic development and the environmental restrictions that are typical of Mediterranean areas have formed agrosystems supporting high vis- ual and natural qualities. The tendency to- wards intensification on the one hand and the abandonment of land on the other, stimulated by existing EEC agrarian policies, will increasingly affect the Mediterranean Region. Owing to its ecological fragility this area is being subjected to a rapid process of environmental de- terioration. The structural measures recently adopted by the EEC could reduce such environmental degradation. However, it should be stressed that the same measures applied in var- ious areas may give significantly different results, depending on the local ecological context. It is therefore recommended that all policies designed to conserve valued agrarian landscapes be specifically adapted to each par-

ticular area, taking into account the character of the development issues as well as that of the local environment.

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Di Castri, F. and Mooney, H.A. (Editors), 1973. Mediterra- nean Type Ecosystems. Ecological Studies, 7. Springer- Verlag, Berlin, 552 pp.

Godin, P., 1987. The CAP and the Environment. In: Green Europe, 2 19. Office des Publications. CEE. Luxembourg,

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MAB, 1976. Forets et maquis mediterraneens: Ccologie, conservation et amenagement. Les Presses de l’unesco, Paris,

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Roelants du Vivier, F., 1987. Agriculture Europfenne et En- vironnement. Un avenir fertile. Editions Sang de la Terre, Paris, 302 pp.

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Service Information Agricole, 1984. La coverture verte de I’Europe. In: L’Europe Verte, 204. Office des Pubhca- tions. CEE. Luxembourg, 26 pp.

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Development of Mediterranean agriculture: An ecological approach