DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

The syllabus says:The syllabus says:

Concept of developmentConcept of development

Understand that development is not only concerned with Understand that development is not only concerned with economic growth, but includes other aspects such as providing for economic growth, but includes other aspects such as providing for people’s basic needs, equity and social justice, sustainability and people’s basic needs, equity and social justice, sustainability and interdependence. interdependence.

Understand also that development applies not only at the Understand also that development applies not only at the global/international level but also at the local and national level.global/international level but also at the local and national level.

Appreciate that the cause of poverty and inequality are Appreciate that the cause of poverty and inequality are fundamental to understanding the concept of development. fundamental to understanding the concept of development.

Issues of developmentIssues of development

As an intelligent IB geographer you should also be aware of some As an intelligent IB geographer you should also be aware of some of the issues surrounding these indicators.of the issues surrounding these indicators.

All of these indicators come from a very Western point of view. All of these indicators come from a very Western point of view. The most frequently used (GDP) is directly linked to money. The most frequently used (GDP) is directly linked to money. Is it Is it fair to value all societies by this?fair to value all societies by this?

On the discovery of Aboriginals in Australia Captain Cooks men On the discovery of Aboriginals in Australia Captain Cooks men offered them gold in return for their digging sticks – potential offered them gold in return for their digging sticks – potential souvenirs! No matter how much gold was offered the Aborigines souvenirs! No matter how much gold was offered the Aborigines would not part with their sticks. For them gold has no value. would not part with their sticks. For them gold has no value. Is Is money held in such high regard around the world?money held in such high regard around the world?

You must also remember that a high GDP does not necessarily You must also remember that a high GDP does not necessarily mean there is fair distribution throughout the country.mean there is fair distribution throughout the country.

With economic development comes stress. Cancer and heart With economic development comes stress. Cancer and heart disease is very rare in the developing world yet are the biggest disease is very rare in the developing world yet are the biggest killers in the Western World. killers in the Western World.

Development leads to destruction and pollution of the natural Development leads to destruction and pollution of the natural environment. In the last two centuries development has done environment. In the last two centuries development has done more damage to our world than the thousands of years before.more damage to our world than the thousands of years before.

You must use your own opinion on several matters especially You must use your own opinion on several matters especially when answering extended questions. when answering extended questions.

Indicators of Indicators of developmentdevelopment

Be aware of the various indicators used to measure development, Be aware of the various indicators used to measure development, their validity and their limitation. These indicators range from the their validity and their limitation. These indicators range from the simple component indices, that usually measure only economic simple component indices, that usually measure only economic development (GNP per capita or energy consumption per capita), development (GNP per capita or energy consumption per capita), to the multiple component indices that are more inclusive and to the multiple component indices that are more inclusive and attempt to measure the quality of life (Human Development attempt to measure the quality of life (Human Development Index). Index).

Patterns of developmentPatterns of development

Draw broad conclusions about the spatial pattern of development Draw broad conclusions about the spatial pattern of development at the global scale using a variety of measures. at the global scale using a variety of measures.

Recognize patterns within a country (core – periphery) and Recognize patterns within a country (core – periphery) and comment on changes over time in these spatial patterns. comment on changes over time in these spatial patterns.

Measuring differences in Measuring differences in developmentdevelopment

Indicators of developmentIndicators of development

Indicators of development have several uses:Indicators of development have several uses:

They allow us to use a figure for comparing different countries.They allow us to use a figure for comparing different countries.

Countries can be ranked in an attempt to fairly allocate aid payments.Countries can be ranked in an attempt to fairly allocate aid payments.

Indicators give us an idea about what the country is like economically, socially, Indicators give us an idea about what the country is like economically, socially, even environmentally.even environmentally.

They do however have limitations that you should be aware of. These are They do however have limitations that you should be aware of. These are discussed later.discussed later.

You need to be able to define the main indicators, explain what they mean and You need to be able to define the main indicators, explain what they mean and discuss their strengths and weaknesses. You should be aware that this is not a discuss their strengths and weaknesses. You should be aware that this is not a complete list of all indicators as that would be impossible. complete list of all indicators as that would be impossible.

The main indicatorsThe main indicators

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - this is the value of all - this is the value of all goods and services produced within a country. It is goods and services produced within a country. It is usually measured in US$ and calculated per capita. This usually measured in US$ and calculated per capita. This makes comparisons between different countries easier. makes comparisons between different countries easier.

Alternatively you could be faced with Alternatively you could be faced with Gross National Gross National Product (GNP)Product (GNP).. The difference is that GNP also includes The difference is that GNP also includes goods and services produced by that country overseas.goods and services produced by that country overseas.

GDPGDP is probably the most widely used indicator. It is probably the most widely used indicator. It implies a lot about the country. If the figure is high it implies a lot about the country. If the figure is high it suggests they have a large number of productive suggests they have a large number of productive industries producing goods. It also suggests that the industries producing goods. It also suggests that the service industry is well developed. (Services include service industry is well developed. (Services include things such as hospital and schools. If the figure is low it things such as hospital and schools. If the figure is low it suggests that the country has few industries and few suggests that the country has few industries and few services so therefore a poor standard of living.)services so therefore a poor standard of living.)

Infant mortalityInfant mortality

This is the number of infants that die prematurely. You need to check the figures because it could be the numbers that die before they are one or five. It could be as a percentage of the births or a per thousand figure. Just check carefully before using.

This will tell us the state of the countries health service, food provision and water quality:

Birth rateBirth rate

A simple one, the number of people born per thousand people per A simple one, the number of people born per thousand people per year. A high birth rate indicates a low level of development due to a year. A high birth rate indicates a low level of development due to a lack of contraception or the need for large families. (See lack of contraception or the need for large families. (See The The Demographic Transition ModelDemographic Transition Model in the Population section). A low in the Population section). A low birth rate indicates a high level of development.birth rate indicates a high level of development.

Death rateDeath rate

TThis is number of people who die per thousand people per year. It his is number of people who die per thousand people per year. It will be a clear indicator of the level of health care, quality of water, will be a clear indicator of the level of health care, quality of water, sanitation, accommodation, and food supply.sanitation, accommodation, and food supply.

Literacy ratesLiteracy rates

TThis is the percentage of people his is the percentage of people that can read and write. Clear that can read and write. Clear indication of the availability of indication of the availability of education and also the extent to education and also the extent to which people can get into which people can get into education – for example in India education – for example in India many children cannot get in to many children cannot get in to school as they have to work to school as they have to work to help support their families.help support their families.

There are of course other indicators but these are the There are of course other indicators but these are the main ones. If you come across another just think about main ones. If you come across another just think about what it shows and why.what it shows and why.

As you have seen each of these indicators have As you have seen each of these indicators have advantages and disadvantages. In an attempt to advantages and disadvantages. In an attempt to minimise these disadvantages composite indicators minimise these disadvantages composite indicators have been developed. Examples of these include the have been developed. Examples of these include the ""Human suffering indexHuman suffering index" and the "" and the "Human Human development indexdevelopment index". Each of these uses several ". Each of these uses several indicators to try and avoid the disadvantages of one.indicators to try and avoid the disadvantages of one.

Human suffering indexHuman suffering index

The country is ranked from 0 to 10 for each of the following The country is ranked from 0 to 10 for each of the following indicators (0 is very good, 10 very bad):indicators (0 is very good, 10 very bad):

Life expectancy Life expectancy Daily calorie supplyDaily calorie supply Access to clean water Access to clean water Per capital incomePer capital income Civil rights Civil rights Political freedomPolitical freedom Inflation Inflation CommunicationsCommunications Percentage in secondary school Percentage in secondary school Immunisation of infantsImmunisation of infants

The countries scores are totalled and then ranked accordingly. The countries scores are totalled and then ranked accordingly. The worst a country could have is 100, the best 0.The worst a country could have is 100, the best 0.

Using this score the worst countries would be Mozambique, Using this score the worst countries would be Mozambique, Somalia and Afghanistan whilst the best would be Denmark, The Somalia and Afghanistan whilst the best would be Denmark, The Netherlands and Belgium.Netherlands and Belgium.

Human Development IndexHuman Development Index

This uses fewer indicators than the above. It simply uses wealth, This uses fewer indicators than the above. It simply uses wealth, health and education. It is calculated each year. The best country health and education. It is calculated each year. The best country get “1” the worst “0”. This score is compared to GDP tables. If a get “1” the worst “0”. This score is compared to GDP tables. If a country is higher up the country is higher up the HDIHDI table than the table than the GDPGDP table then it must table then it must be successfully investing in health and education. If it is below be successfully investing in health and education. If it is below then there is room for improvement.then there is room for improvement.

Currently, several countries including Pakistan, Vietnam and Cuba Currently, several countries including Pakistan, Vietnam and Cuba are doing well whilst Namibia, Morocco and Algeria poorly.are doing well whilst Namibia, Morocco and Algeria poorly.

Global inequalitiesGlobal inequalities

A divided worldA divided world

We can use a variety of these indicators to show us the general We can use a variety of these indicators to show us the general pattern of development around the world. You need to be able to pattern of development around the world. You need to be able to explain why these differences exist:explain why these differences exist:

HistoricHistoric

There are three significant historical factors:There are three significant historical factors:

1.1. The UK was particularly fortunate to discover large quantities of The UK was particularly fortunate to discover large quantities of high high quality coalquality coal::

This coal was used in early industries such as iron smelting. This led to This coal was used in early industries such as iron smelting. This led to wealth that could then be spent on:wealth that could then be spent on:

EducationEducation:: meaning a more skilled and able workforce. meaning a more skilled and able workforce.

ExperimentationExperimentation:: meaning innovating new technology. This included guns that meaning innovating new technology. This included guns that could be used to secure new colonies. There was also significant investment in the could be used to secure new colonies. There was also significant investment in the armed forces.armed forces.

ExplorationExploration:: exploring the world and colonising much of it looking for new raw exploring the world and colonising much of it looking for new raw materials and markets to exploit.materials and markets to exploit.

  

2.2. ColonialismColonialism: :

This is the policy of obtaining and maintaining colonies. Basically, country This is the policy of obtaining and maintaining colonies. Basically, country A goes into country B and says we are now in charge! - Nice! Many A goes into country B and says we are now in charge! - Nice! Many European countries with greater armies and firepower were able to do this European countries with greater armies and firepower were able to do this over most of Africa.over most of Africa.

If you look at the historic reasons for colonialism you should start to If you look at the historic reasons for colonialism you should start to appreciate how this hinders the development of some countries but appreciate how this hinders the development of some countries but promotes others. In the nineteenth century many countries from Europe promotes others. In the nineteenth century many countries from Europe went across to Africa to colonise them. went across to Africa to colonise them.

They wanted their raw materials to feed the industrial revolution that was They wanted their raw materials to feed the industrial revolution that was taking place in their countries. This means that the materials from Africa taking place in their countries. This means that the materials from Africa were used to increase the wealth of the countries in Europe but obviously were used to increase the wealth of the countries in Europe but obviously hindered the African countries chances of generating great wealth. hindered the African countries chances of generating great wealth.

3.3. The Slave TradeThe Slave Trade: :

This took the strongest men and women from many African This took the strongest men and women from many African countries to work for European countries in strengthening their countries to work for European countries in strengthening their economies. Basically providing an incredibly cheap labour force to economies. Basically providing an incredibly cheap labour force to make them money. This again increased the wealth of the make them money. This again increased the wealth of the

European countries and reducedEuropean countries and reduced the chance for African countries the chance for African countries to develop.to develop.

EconomicEconomic

1. 1. DebtDebt::

One of the greatest problems faced by less developing world countries is One of the greatest problems faced by less developing world countries is their level of foreign debt. By struggling to pay debt countries cannot their level of foreign debt. By struggling to pay debt countries cannot invest in education, medical care, transport route and are often giving up invest in education, medical care, transport route and are often giving up more of their raw materials as pay off. Many countries particularly in more of their raw materials as pay off. Many countries particularly in Africa owe staggering amounts of money. Africa owe staggering amounts of money.

Ethiopia owes more than $10 billion. This is more than 13 times its foreign Ethiopia owes more than $10 billion. This is more than 13 times its foreign earnings. Ethiopia pays 4 times as much on debt repayment as it does on earnings. Ethiopia pays 4 times as much on debt repayment as it does on home expenditure. In the mean time 100 000 children die each year from home expenditure. In the mean time 100 000 children die each year from diarrhoea.diarrhoea.

You may have read about president Clinton put a system in place to write You may have read about president Clinton put a system in place to write

off debt. This is a good start and will be discussed in the reducing off debt. This is a good start and will be discussed in the reducing inequalities section.inequalities section.

2.2. The trade gameThe trade game::

Less developed countries are disadvantaged by the world-trading Less developed countries are disadvantaged by the world-trading pattern. They primarily produce raw materials, which are sold to pattern. They primarily produce raw materials, which are sold to developed countries that manufacture a product. The profits on developed countries that manufacture a product. The profits on the raw material are very low whilst those on the manufacturing the raw material are very low whilst those on the manufacturing good are high. good are high.

Profits on the raw materials are kept low because so many Profits on the raw materials are kept low because so many countries are producing it. It is not unknown for that manufactured countries are producing it. It is not unknown for that manufactured good to be sold back to the country that produced the raw good to be sold back to the country that produced the raw material! material!

CoffeeCoffee is a good is a good example: example:

The UK imports 90% of its coffee as beans that it processes. On The UK imports 90% of its coffee as beans that it processes. On this it makes considerable profit. It prevents the developing world this it makes considerable profit. It prevents the developing world from setting up their own coffee processing plants by putting such from setting up their own coffee processing plants by putting such a heavy tax on imported coffee that it would be unprofitable for a heavy tax on imported coffee that it would be unprofitable for them – i.e. It would be so highly priced because of the tax that no them – i.e. It would be so highly priced because of the tax that no one would buy it.one would buy it.

3.3. Within the developing world the problems they face have often been Within the developing world the problems they face have often been

made worse by made worse by political corruptionpolitical corruption::

In Zaire for example the late President Mobuto is reputed to have had a In Zaire for example the late President Mobuto is reputed to have had a personal fortune of over £5 billion, much of which was money siphoned of personal fortune of over £5 billion, much of which was money siphoned of loans from the World Bank. loans from the World Bank.

In the time it took him to accrue this fortune the development of his In the time it took him to accrue this fortune the development of his country went into reverse. It was not even able to maintain the existing country went into reverse. It was not even able to maintain the existing road networks.road networks.

4.4. When looking at the development of countries around the world it When looking at the development of countries around the world it is always worthwhile considering the is always worthwhile considering the multiplier effectmultiplier effect::

The simple principal is that if you have any investment in an area it will The simple principal is that if you have any investment in an area it will stimulate further investment. For example a new car plant in an area is stimulate further investment. For example a new car plant in an area is likely to encourage linked industries to set up. likely to encourage linked industries to set up.

This could simply be the local catering van for the workers or textile This could simply be the local catering van for the workers or textile industries making seat covers, engineering companies making shock industries making seat covers, engineering companies making shock absorbers or a new tyre plant. This gives more people work and therefore absorbers or a new tyre plant. This gives more people work and therefore a wage that they will be inclined to spend so creating more jobs. The a wage that they will be inclined to spend so creating more jobs. The economy continues to grow.economy continues to grow.

Countries in the developed world have benefited significantly from this Countries in the developed world have benefited significantly from this

whilst those in the developing world have not.whilst those in the developing world have not.

EnvironmentalEnvironmental

1.1. Many less developed countries are located on or about the Many less developed countries are located on or about the

tropics. This means that they are in a situation where they will be tropics. This means that they are in a situation where they will be prone to prone to hurricaneshurricanes::

These can have a devastating effect on a countrys attempt to These can have a devastating effect on a countrys attempt to develop. Hurricane, which recently hit Central America, put back develop. Hurricane, which recently hit Central America, put back the development of Honduras by approximately 30 years. the development of Honduras by approximately 30 years.

Their economy was left in ruin, as it was almost entirely Their economy was left in ruin, as it was almost entirely dependent on single crop agriculture – bananas – for the export dependent on single crop agriculture – bananas – for the export

market. These were destroyed by high winds and flooding.market. These were destroyed by high winds and flooding.

2.2. The The discovery of coaldiscovery of coal as discussed earlier would also fall into this as discussed earlier would also fall into this category.category.

Successes in the Successes in the developing worlddeveloping world

It would be wrong to class the entire developing world as being It would be wrong to class the entire developing world as being exactly the same. Differences exist within the countries and exactly the same. Differences exist within the countries and between the countries. between the countries.

Two of the significant groups are discussed belowTwo of the significant groups are discussed below: : 

Oil rich nationsOil rich nations

The 1970’s saw huge The 1970’s saw huge increases in the price of oilincreases in the price of oil as Arab as Arab

countries withheld supply. This meant that any developing countries withheld supply. This meant that any developing country with oil suddenly had a source of great wealth. country with oil suddenly had a source of great wealth.

Those without faced a major disadvantage as they too had to pay the inflated Those without faced a major disadvantage as they too had to pay the inflated price for fuel.price for fuel.

The consequence for countries with oil was that they could now invest money in The consequence for countries with oil was that they could now invest money in trying to alleviate poverty and promote education and health. trying to alleviate poverty and promote education and health.

Many also invested in industries that refined oil adding great value to their Many also invested in industries that refined oil adding great value to their export. Additional profits were invested in overseas ventures or loaned to other export. Additional profits were invested in overseas ventures or loaned to other countries. As a consequence many of these countries found great wealth. countries. As a consequence many of these countries found great wealth.

The average wage of a person in Kuwait is the highest in the world! (The sheik The average wage of a person in Kuwait is the highest in the world! (The sheik who controls the countrywho controls the country´s´s oil is one of the richest people in the world taking oil is one of the richest people in the world taking 50% of all oil profits – this will obviously have some effect on the average 50% of all oil profits – this will obviously have some effect on the average income calculations).income calculations).

Kuwait has about 699 people per doctor – the UK has 619. It also has 100% Kuwait has about 699 people per doctor – the UK has 619. It also has 100% access to clean water and 94% primary school enrolment. (Figure for 1989, access to clean water and 94% primary school enrolment. (Figure for 1989, from Collins Longman Atlas).from Collins Longman Atlas).

Newly industrialised countriesNewly industrialised countries

Newly industrialised countries are Newly industrialised countries are those that have recently had those that have recently had substantial growth in their substantial growth in their manufacturing output and manufacturing output and consequently exports. They consequently exports. They include South Korea, Singapore, include South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Hong Kong.Taiwan and Hong Kong.

Many have followed a similar system. Firstly the country invests in industries that Many have followed a similar system. Firstly the country invests in industries that can produce goods they would normally import and supports these new industries can produce goods they would normally import and supports these new industries by putting extra taxes on imported goods to make them un-competitive. by putting extra taxes on imported goods to make them un-competitive.

Then when these industries are established they look to replicate many of the Then when these industries are established they look to replicate many of the products in the world export market. They concentrate on high technology products in the world export market. They concentrate on high technology industries, first mimicking existing products then improving them. Their economy industries, first mimicking existing products then improving them. Their economy typically grows by about 6-8% a year.typically grows by about 6-8% a year.

South Korea, for example, took advantage of its links with the USA. The USA, South Korea, for example, took advantage of its links with the USA. The USA, Japan and Europe provided the country with significant aid payments that it Japan and Europe provided the country with significant aid payments that it invested in iron, steel, shipbuilding, textiles and chemicals so it no longer had to invested in iron, steel, shipbuilding, textiles and chemicals so it no longer had to import these.import these.

It also imported raw cotton and developed a textile industry. Once these were all It also imported raw cotton and developed a textile industry. Once these were all

established it invested in industries that would export products such as established it invested in industries that would export products such as computers, televisions and microwaves.computers, televisions and microwaves.

As a consequence, South Korea has full primary school enrolment and a growing As a consequence, South Korea has full primary school enrolment and a growing GDP. In 1989, it was $4081 per person. (Collins Longman Atlas).GDP. In 1989, it was $4081 per person. (Collins Longman Atlas).