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Dia
chro
nic
Asp
ects
of
the
Tu
pi
Lin
gu
isti
c F
am
ily
Lu
cian
a R
. S
tort
o
Lin
gu
isti
csD
epar
tmen
t
Un
iver
sid
ade
de
São
Pau
lo
Bra
zil
Ro
dri
gu
es(1
95
9,
64
) p
rop
ose
s th
e fi
rst
wel
l-in
form
ed l
exic
o-
stat
isti
cal
clas
sifi
cati
on
of
the
Tupi
Sto
ck,
bas
ed o
n w
ord
lis
ts
ran
gin
g fr
om
1
00
to
20
0 co
gn
ates
. In
h
is cl
assi
fica
tio
n,
six
fam
ilie
s o
ther
th
an T
upi-
Gu
ran
iw
ere
po
site
d,
nam
ely A
rik
ém,
Juru
na,
Mo
nd
é, P
uru
bo
rá,
Ram
aram
a, a
nd
Tup
arí.
Maw
éan
d
Aw
eti
wer
e co
nsi
der
ed to
be
lan
gu
ages
o
f th
e T
upi-
Guar
ani
fam
ily
, w
hic
h
is
un
der
stan
dab
le,
giv
en
the
larg
e n
um
ber
o
f
cog
nat
es
shar
ed
by
th
em
and
Tup
i-G
uar
ani
lan
gu
ages
.
Mu
nd
uru
ku
was
cl
assi
fied
as
a
Tupi-
Gu
aran
i la
ng
uag
e,
alth
ou
gh
it
was
men
tion
ed i
n a
fo
otn
ote
that
it
could
co
nst
itute
a fa
mil
y o
n i
ts o
wn
.
Th
e T
up
iL
ingu
isti
c F
amil
y:
•A
wet
i: A
wet
i(A
W)
•A
rik
ém:
Kar
itia
na
(KA
)
•Ju
run
a: J
uru
na
(JU
), X
ipay
a(X
I)
•M
awé:
Maw
é(M
W)
•M
on
dé:
6 l
ang
uag
es o
r dia
lect
s
•M
un
du
ruk
u:
Mu
nd
uru
ku
(MU
), K
uru
aya
(KU
)
•P
uru
bo
rá:
Pu
rub
orá
(PU
)
•R
amar
ama:
Kar
o(K
O)
•T
up
ari
-5
lan
gu
ages
•T
up
i-G
uar
ani:
40
lan
guag
es o
r dia
lect
s
(Rod
rigu
es198
6, 1
999
, Je
nse
n 1
999
, T
up
iC
om
par
ativ
e P
roje
ct,
Mu
seu
Em
ílio
Go
eld
i, B
razi
l, 2
006)
Proto
-Tu
pi
(40
00
-50
00
BP
)
Ra
ma
ram
a-P
uru
bo
rá
Ju
run
a
Aw
eti-
Ma
wé-
Tu
pi
Gu
ara
ni
Tu
pari
A
rik
ém
M
on
dé
M
un
du
ruk
u
Ra
ma
ram
a P
uru
bo
rá
Aw
eti
M
aw
é
T
-G
K
aro
Pu
rub
orá
J
uru
na
A
wet
i M
aw
é
A
yu
ru
Kari
tia
na
M
un
du
ruk
u
X
ipa
ya
A
ku
nts
u
K
uru
ay
a
M
ak
ura
p
M
ekén
s
A
Tu
pa
ri
I
I
I I
II
IV
V
VI
VII
VII
I
S
ala
mãy
B
Su
rui
A
ruá
Ga
viã
o Z
oró
Cin
ta-L
arg
a
•H
ow
do
we
kn
ow
th
at T
up
ila
ng
uag
es r
eall
y
form
a g
enet
ic u
nit
?
•T
he
evid
ence
dis
cuss
ed i
n t
his
pre
sen
tati
on
wil
l b
e m
ain
ly p
ho
no
logic
al i
n n
atu
re:
ther
e
are
recu
rrin
g
soun
d
corr
esp
on
den
ces
(th
e
typic
al re
sult
of
soun
d ch
ang
e) in
co
gnat
es
(wo
rds
of
com
mo
n o
rig
in)
occ
urr
ing
to
day
amo
ng
al
l la
ng
uag
es
of
the
Tu
pi
sto
ck,
enab
lin
g u
s to
rec
onst
ruct
wo
rds
that
ex
iste
d
in t
he
mo
ther
lan
gu
age.
•R
od
rig
ues
(19
64
) h
yp
oth
esiz
es t
hat
th
e ho
mel
and
of
all
Tu
pi
lan
gu
ages
(w
her
e th
e sp
eak
ers
of
Pro
to-
Tu
pi
liv
ed)
was
in
th
e p
rese
nt
stat
e o
f R
on
dô
nia
.
•R
on
dô
nia
is p
ropo
sed
as
the
cen
ter
of
dis
per
sion
of
Tu
pi
peo
ple
s b
ecau
se l
angu
ages
bel
on
gin
g t
o 6
Tu
pi
fam
ilie
s ar
e st
ill
spo
ken
ther
e to
day
: A
rik
ém,
Mo
nd
é, P
uru
bo
ráR
amar
ama,
Tu
par
i(a
ll l
imit
ed t
o
Ro
nd
ônia
), a
nd
Tu
pi
Gu
aran
i (s
pre
ad w
idel
y i
n
Bra
zil
and
oth
er S
ou
th A
mer
ican
co
un
trie
s).
Tu
pi
Lan
gu
age
fam
ilie
s (e
xce
pt
Tu
pi-
Gu
aran
i):
Map
by R
od
rigu
es19
99
, m
od
ifie
d b
y S
tort
o
Tup
i-G
uar
ani
lan
guag
es:
Jen
sen
19
99
Ro
dri
gu
es (
19
85
) cl
ass
ifie
sT
up
i G
ua
ran
i la
ngu
ag
esin
8 s
ub
gro
up
s:
I:G
ua
ran
iA
nti
go,
Gu
ara
ni,
Mb
yá
, X
etá
, 9
an
dev
a,
Ka
iwá
, G
ua
ya
kí,
T
ap
ieté
, C
hir
igu
an
o,
Izo
cen
o
(Arg
enti
na
, B
olí
via
, P
ara
gu
ay,
Bra
zil)
II:
Gu
ara
yo
, S
irio
nó
, H
orá
(Bolí
via
)
III:
Tu
pi
An
tigo
, T
up
ina
mb
á(B
razi
l),
Kok
ám
a,
Om
águ
a
(Bra
zil,
Co
lom
bia
, P
eru
)
IV:
Ta
pir
ap
é,
Avá
, A
suri
ni
(To
c.),
S
uru
í(T
oc.
),
Pa
rak
an
ã, G
ua
jajá
ra,
Tem
bé
(Bra
zil)
V:
Ka
ya
bí,
Asu
rin
í(X
ing
ú),
Ara
wet
é(B
razi
l)
VI:
Ap
iak
á,
Pa
rin
tin
tín
, T
up
i-K
aw
ah
íb (
Bra
zil)
VII
:K
am
ayu
rá(B
razi
l)
VII
I:G
uajá
, U
rub
ú,
Tu
riw
ára
, A
nam
bé,
A
ma
na
yé,
Ta
ku
ny
ap
é(B
razi
l),
Em
éril
lon
(F
ren
ch
Gu
ya
na),
Way
am
pí
(Fre
nch
Gu
yan
a, B
razi
l)
•W
hen
Bra
zil
was
co
nqu
ered
by
the
Po
rtu
gu
ese
in 1
500
,
Tup
inam
bá
(fir
st d
escr
ibed
by
Jo
séd
e A
nch
ieta
(1
59
5)
and
no
w e
xti
nct
) w
as s
po
ken
in
an
exte
nsi
ve
area
of
the
coas
t
of
Bra
zil
to th
e n
ort
h o
f R
io.
Old
G
uar
ani
was
sp
oken
sou
th o
f S
ão P
aulo
(fi
rst
des
crib
ed b
y R
uiz
de
Mo
nto
ya
(16
39
) an
d n
ow
ex
tin
ct).
T
upi,
a
ver
sio
n o
f T
up
inam
bá
lack
ing
fin
al c
on
son
ants
(li
ke
Gu
aran
i),
was
sp
ok
en i
n S
ão
Pau
lo (
in t
he
city
of
São
Vic
ente
an
d i
n t
he
Up
per
Tie
tê
Riv
er).
•C
hil
dre
n o
f m
ixed
mar
riag
es b
etw
een
Po
rtu
gu
ese
men
an
d i
ndig
eno
us
wo
men
sp
ok
e T
up
inam
bá,
an
d
the
lan
gu
age
gra
du
ally
ch
ang
ed u
nd
er t
he
infl
uen
ce
of
Po
rtu
gu
ese,
g
ener
atin
g a
lín
gua
fran
ca,
call
ed
Lín
gu
aG
eral
Pau
list
ao
r L
íng
ua
Bra
síli
ca,
that
bec
ame
the
mo
st c
om
mo
n l
ang
uag
e sp
ok
en i
n t
hat
regio
n
in
the
XV
IIth
cen
tury
. In
th
e X
VII
Ith
centu
ry t
his
lan
guag
e w
as r
epla
ced
by
Po
rtu
gu
ese:
“it
is t
rue
that
to
day
th
e fa
mil
ies
of
Po
rtu
gu
ese
and
the
India
ns
of
São
Pau
lo a
re s
o i
nte
rco
nn
ecte
d t
hat
…th
e la
ng
uag
e sp
oken
in
th
ese
fam
ilie
s is
th
at o
f
the
India
ns,
an
d
Po
rtug
ues
e is
le
arn
ed
by
th
e
chil
dre
n i
n s
cho
ol”
(Vie
ira
16
94,
apu
dR
od
rig
ues
19
86
)
In A
maz
ôn
ia,
a si
mil
ar s
itu
atio
n o
ccu
rred
, w
ith
Lín
gu
aG
eral
Am
azô
nic
ao
r N
hee
ng
atu
bei
ng
the
mo
st c
om
mo
n l
ang
uag
e sp
ok
en i
n t
he
stat
es
of
Mar
anh
ãoan
d
Par
áu
nti
l th
e X
VII
Ith
cen
tury
.
It i
s st
ill
spo
ken
to
day
by
in
dig
eno
us
and
no
n-
indig
enou
s p
eop
le i
n t
he
Up
per
Neg
ro R
iver
, in
the
stat
e of
Am
azo
nas
.
•E
ven
th
oug
h L
íng
ua
Ger
alP
auli
sta
is e
xti
nct
,
it h
ad g
reat
infl
uen
ce o
n B
razi
lian
Po
rtug
ues
e,
bei
ng
th
e so
urc
e of
lex
ical
bo
rro
win
gs
(an
imal
and
p
lan
t sp
ecie
s,
and
p
lace
n
ames
) an
d
per
hap
s g
ram
mat
ical
ch
ang
es.
•P
arag
uay
an
Gu
aran
i d
evel
oped
fr
om
O
ld
Gu
aran
i w
ith
in
fluen
ce
form
S
pan
ish
an
d
is
tod
ay o
ne
of
the
2 o
ffic
ial
lan
gu
ages
sp
ok
en i
n
Par
agu
ay.
Vo
cali
c co
rres
pond
ence
s in
Tu
pi
lang
uag
es:
Th
e P
roto
-Ari
kém
Vo
wel
Sh
ift
A c
ou
nte
r-cl
ock
wis
e v
ow
el s
hif
t to
ok
pla
ce i
n t
he
des
cent
of
Pro
to-T
upi
to P
roto
-Ari
kém
(su
gg
este
d b
y R
od
rig
ues
19
86
,
corr
ob
ora
ted
by
S
tort
o
&
Bal
di
19
94
, an
d
the
Tupi
Co
mp
arat
ive
Pro
ject
, 2
00
6):
iˆ
eo
a
So
un
d C
han
ge
1:
Pro
to-T
up
ie
> P
roto
-Ari
kém
a
Ka
Ga
Me
Mu
Xi
Ko
Pu
Aw
Ma
TG
to s
leep
kat
két
Sét
-ket
ket
ate
t-k
et*
ker
nam
esa
t-s
et-t
et-p´t
etce
t-s
et-s
et*
er
leaf
sap
sep
ept ˆ
(e)p
win
gp
apˆ
pep
ó-
peb
oN
eba
seba
pep
o*
pep
o
to s
ay
/a/e
ze/e
-t/e
- /e
pig
soit
ata
ots
e-d
adZé
pro
n 2
sgãn
e ):t
e )te )n
ena
/e)t
e )t/e
nen
*en
de
husb
and
mãn
-met
-met
mena
me )n
men
*m
en
skin
pa
-pe
peo
nai-
pe
So
un
d C
han
ge
2:
Pro
to-T
up
i a
> P
roto
-Ari
kém
o
Ka
Ga
Me
Mu
Xi
Ko
Pu
Aw
Ma
TG
to f
all
/ot
-ala
-ak
ara
/at
aza
/at
/at
-a/a
t*/a
r
ho
to
kˆp
adô
:psa
ko
ptaSi
pja
kõ
pak
up
-aku
p*
akuB
fru
it/o
aá/a
/a/a/
/a/a
*/a
day
o:t
át*/a
r
mo
on
oti
gát
ti
ká S
ita
t ˆw
atˆ
slo
tho/i
ai
a /i
a /i
So
un
d C
han
ge
3:
Pro
to-T
up
io/u
> P
roto
-Ari
kém
ˆ
Ka
Ga
Me
Mu
Xi
Ko
Pu
Aw
Ma
TG
win
gpapˆ
pep
ó-
peb
op
epo
*p
epo
pro
n 1
sgˆn
õ:t
õt
õn
una
/õn
õt
to e
at/ˆ
ko
/oSu
/o/o
/u- /
u*/u
fath
ers ˆ
p-z
op
-to
pto
p-t
up
au
p*tuB
big
t ˆat
óo
aso
cuhu
wat
uw
ato
*w
atSu
egg
s ˆp
io
pis
ato
psa
-up
i /a
up
i /a
*u
pi /
a
So
un
d C
han
ge
4:
Pro
to-T
up
i ˆ
> P
roto
-Ari
kém
e
Ka
Ga
Me
Mu
Xi
Ko
Pu
Aw
Ma
TG
tree
/ep
îip
kˆp
/ip
ipa
ma /ˆp
Ba /ˆp
~
/ip
/ˆp
arja/ˆ
p
*/ˆB
lou
seˆi
ta
gep
git
kˆp
kíp
kˆp
a /t ˆ
p
~t ˆ
k
akˆp
Nˆt
*kˆB
wat
eres
eii
ˆkˆ
idib
íij
aicˆ
/ˆˆ/ˆ
*ˆ
liqu
idse
ci
kˆ
títi
a-c
i~-cˆ
Sere
hˆ
dee
rde
i:ti
:ˆsˆˆ
itˆ
ˆdˆ
t ˆ-w
apat
ˆtˆˆ
eart
he ¯
kˆn
a-kˆj
k´j
ˆgan
ãˆj
ˆi*ˆj
Ka
Ga
Me
Mu
Xi
Ko
Pu
Aw
Ma
TG
mo
ther
ti-t
i~-d
i-s
iSí
t ˆt ˆ
*t Sˆ
mo
on
oti
tik
a Si
tat ˆ
waa
t ˆ*
jac ˆ
foo
tp
i-p
i~b
i-p
iso
íbid
apa
pib
e/~
pi
Sibe
pˆ
-pˆ
*pˆ
egg
sˆp
io
pis
ato
psa
dZi
au
pi/
a-u
pi/
a*
up
i/a
smo
ke
¯i)¯
ga
tiN
siã
tiN
hi N
*tiN
slo
tho/i
ai
a/i
a/i
PT
i c
orr
espo
nd
s to
i i
n P
roto
-Ari
kém
:
Ora
l v
ow
els
in t
he
10
Tup
ifa
mil
ies:
Kar
itia
na
Mek
éns
Xip
aya
Mu
nd
uru
ku
Su
ruí
i
ˆ
e
o
a
i
ˆ
e
o
a
i
ˆ
u
e
a
i e
´
o
a
i
ˆ
e
o
a
Kam
ayu
ráA
wet
iM
awé
i
ˆ
u
e
o
a
i
ˆ
u
e
o
a
i
ˆ
u
e
o
a
Pu
rub
orá
Kar
o
i
ˆ
u
e
´
o
a
i
ˆ
u
e
´
o
a
Ro
dri
gu
es(2
00
5)
pro
po
ses
a si
x v
ow
el s
yst
em f
or
Pro
to-T
upi,
th
e sa
me
as
that
of
the
Aw
eti-
Maw
é-T
up
iG
uar
ani.
He
assu
mes
th
e P
roto
-Ari
kém
Vo
wel
Sh
ift,
alt
ho
ug
h h
e b
elie
ves
u a
nd o
to
hav
e bee
n s
epar
ate
ph
on
emes
in
Pro
to-
Tup
i. T
he
sou
nd c
han
ges
on w
hic
h h
e b
ases
his
an
aly
sis
are
giv
en b
elo
w,
alo
ng
wit
h t
he
dat
a h
e p
rese
nts
to
sup
po
rt i
t:
So
un
d C
han
ge
1:
PT
a >
PM
un
du
ruk
ue
(aft
er P
T k
j )
AR
MO
TP
MU
JUR
AP
UA
WM
AT
G
fru
it
**/a
/o/a
/a/a
- /a
/a/a
/a*/a
to f
all
**
k/ at
/ot
/ar
kat
/at
/az-
a/a
d-a
(to
be
bo
rn)
/at
/at
*/a
r
pan
**
wa /e)
wa /e)-
top/ a
wa /e
(bo
wl)
wa ˆè
ma /e)
ta/ã
wa /
ãja/e
)
was
p
**N
kap
Nop
Nab
Tp
:kap
Mp: N
ap
Ay: N
kap
kap
-ánãp
(type
of
bee)
dab
-ai
kap
Nap
*k
a B
fat
**
kj ap
kam
-
nag
/ap
Sep
kah
-ák
apk
ap-
put
kap
*k
a B
So
un
d C
han
ge
2:
PT
o >
PJu
run
a, P
Mo
nd
é, P
Ram
aram
a, P
Pu
rub
orá
a
So
un
d C
han
ge
3:
PT
o >
PM
un
du
ruk
u´
(the
sam
e as
PA
rik
ém)
AR
MO
TP
MU
JUR
AP
UA
WM
AT
G
hand
**
po
pˆ
pa
po
b´
ba
pa
pa
po
po
*p
o
win
g,
feat
her
**
pep/o
papˆ
pep/o
pew
ap
epo
pep
o*p
epo
snak
e
**
mpo
j
baj
bo
jp´j
mãj-
u)
mõ
jm
oj
*m
oj
hea
vy
**
pot Sˆj
pˆt
ip
atii
po
cip
oSi
i-p
ade-
tu
pi /
tip
ot ˆ
jp
ot ˆ
j*p
oc ˆ
j
gar
den
**N
ko
NaN
ag
ok´
ko
-ana-
cej
ko
ko
/ No
*k
o
So
un
d C
han
ge
4:
PT
e >
PA
wet
i-M
awé-
TG
o(b
efo
re P
roto
-Tupi
pw
and
kw)
In t
he
Juru
na
and
Mu
nd
uru
ku
fam
ilie
s, a
cco
rdin
g t
o r
od
rig
ues
(20
05
) th
ese
chan
ges
occ
urr
ed b
efo
re C
han
ges
2 a
nd
3 a
bo
ve
men
tio
ned
.
AR
MO
TP
MU
JUR
AP
UA
WM
AT
G
pat
h
**
ape/
**
pe
pa
me/
pe
ape
em
baha
mb
ep
e~m
e*ap
e/
*p
e
nam
e
**
-et
sat
led
etet
cet
etet
*er
to s
leep
**
kj et
kat
ker
/et
Set
ket
ket
-ak
etk
et*k
j er
leaf
**
epw
sap
sep
ep´p
up
-ao
po
p*oB
ho
use
**
ekw
sak
,
ako
ek´k
- /a
ak-a
ekek
-a,
ak-a
,
ok
-a
ok
ok
*o
k
to
gri
nd
,
to p
ound
**
t Sek
w
pa-
dak
-u
tok
*t S
ok
larv
ae
**
t Sek
wta
kk
a-d
egte
ka-
dak
-
a*t S
ok
AR
MO
TP
MU
JUR
AP
UA
WM
AT
G
mo
ther
**
t Sˆ
titi
siSi
t ˆt ˆ
*t Sˆ
foo
t
**
pˆ
pi
pi
si-t
o,
mi
ip
iSI
-be
pˆ
pˆ
*pˆ
to h
old
**
pˆ ˆk
pit
ikitSi
kp
adˆk
-
u
pˆtˆk
pˆtˆk
*pˆcˆk
hea
vy
**
po
c ˆj
pˆt
ip
atii
po
cip
oSi
i-p
ade-
tu
pi /
tip
ot ˆ
jp
ot ˆ
j*
po
c ˆj
swee
t
po
tato
**
wet
j ˆk
watSiN
-a,
wit
i N-a
we S
ikp
etik
-aw
itik
-ate
z ˆk
**
jet ˆ
k
slo
th
**
a /ˆ
o/i
ao-k
o
(?)
aj
a /i
a /i
*a /ˆ
tree
,
woo
d
**
k/ ˆ
p
/ep
( /)i
ibkˆp
/ip
/ip
-a/ˆ
p/ˆ
p*/ˆB
lice
**N
kˆp
Nep
Nit
kˆp
kip
kˆp
-anep
a-t ´
pkˆp
Nˆp
*kˆB
ho
ney
**
ewˆt
eet
iwit
ewit
eit
awˆl
aekˆt
ewˆr
*eir
dee
r
**ˆt
j ˆne
iib
kˆp
i Si
p-e
wit
iwit
t ˆ-
wap
at
ˆtˆ
*t Sˆ-
watSu
So
un
d C
han
ge
5:
PT
ˆ>
PT
up
ari,
PR
amar
ama,
PP
uru
bo
rái
(no
t a
syst
emat
ic c
han
ge;
in s
om
e co
nte
xts
i >
e i
n t
he
last
tw
o f
amil
ies)
So
un
d C
han
ge
6:
PT
ˆ>
PJu
run
a, P
Mu
nd
uru
ku
and
PM
on
dé
i
So
un
d C
han
ge
7:
PT
u w
as k
ept
on
ly i
n P
roto
-Aw
eti-
Maw
é-T
up
iG
uar
ani.
In
the
rem
ain
ing
fam
ilie
s it
chan
ged
to
o (
and i
n A
rikém
to ˆ
)
AR
MO
TP
MU
JUR
AP
AW
MA
TG
to e
at
**
k/ u
/ˆ/o
t
(eat
er)
ko
/oi-
w-a
(eat
er)
/ot
(eat
er)
/o/u
/u*/u
arm
adil
o
**
t/aj
t/u
sos ˆ
Mk
:tat
o
Mp
:taj
to
dajd
od
u-
jájo
tatu
sahu
*ta
tu
ho
t
**
aku
pK
t:o
kˆ
A:a
ku
b
-a
ado
bak
op
Mu:aSi
p
Ku:a
kib
kuh-u
akõ
pak
up
aku
p*ak
u
B
fath
er
**
-up
s-ˆp
Su:l
-ob
Cl:
s-o
p
op
Mu:o
p
Ku:u
b
up-á
-up
*-uB
foo
t
wo
rm
**
tuN
A:n
juN
-T
p:j
õ-t
ap
Mp
:joN
Mu:n
õN
Ku:n
oN
tuN
juN
*tuN
Co
nso
nan
t C
orr
esp
on
den
ces
in P
roto
-Tup
i
•Ro
dri
gu
es(2
00
7)
hyp
oth
esiz
es 2
8 c
on
son
ants
fo
r P
roto
-
Tup
i:
Pro
to-T
up
i C
on
son
anta
l C
har
t (R
od
rigu
es 2
00
7)
pp
wt
tjc
[ts]
c& [
tS]
kk
jk
w
p/
pw/
t/c/
c&/k/
kw/
/mp
nt
N k
mn
NNw
wR
Rjj
Ro
dri
gu
es20
07
su
gg
ests
th
e fo
llo
win
g c
har
t fo
r th
e T
upi
fam
ily
of
lan
gu
ages
(fo
llo
win
g C
abra
l &
Ro
dri
gu
es2
00
2):
Tup
iS
tock
Wes
tern
bra
nch
Eas
tern
bra
nch
PU
R
A
MO
T
U
AR
JU
M
U
MA
A
W
TG
Mo
stla
ngu
ages
hav
eth
efo
llow
ing
11 c
on
son
ants
(ran
ge
bet
wee
n11
an
d19
Cs)
:
A s
erie
s o
f v
oic
eles
sst
op
sp
t k
(lan
gu
ages
may
or
may
no
th
ave
a p
ho
nem
icg
lott
alst
op
).
•A
ser
ies
of
nas
als
man
dn
is p
rese
nt
in a
llla
ng
uag
es.
Tw
ola
ng
uag
esfa
ilto
hav
ea
vel
ar n
asal
:
Xip
aya,
an
d,
may
be,
Pu
rub
orá
. L
ang
uag
esm
ayo
rm
ayn
ot
hav
ea
pal
atal
nas
al.
•A
ser
ies
of
app
rox
iman
tsw
and
jth
atn
asal
ize
in n
asal
en
vir
on
men
ts(i
n s
om
e la
ng
uag
esth
ep
alat
al
gli
de
jan
dth
ep
alat
al n
asal
are
all
op
hon
esof
the
sam
ep
ho
nem
e, t
hat
can
be
ph
on
emic
ally
ora
l o
r
nas
al).
•A
ser
ies
of
vo
icel
ess
fric
ativ
ess
and
h,
that
nev
ero
ccu
rin
syll
abic
cod
ap
osi
tio
n.
Gav
ião
an
dM
ekén
s
hav
en
o h
, P
uru
bo
ráan
dA
wet
ih
ave
no
s;
the
form
erh
asa
po
st-a
lveo
lar
fric
ativ
ean
dth
ela
tter
has
z
and
ts.
Kar
itia
na
and
Mek
éns
hav
ets
as o
ne
of
the
real
izat
ion
so
f s.
•An
alv
eola
r ta
p.
p
t
k
m
n
N NNN
R RRR
s
h
w
j
Ka
rit
ian
a (
Arik
ém
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
pt
k
�asa
lsm
n¯̄̄̄
N NNN T
ap
R RRRF
rica
tive
ss
h
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
Th
ere
are
11
co
nso
nan
ts i
n K
arit
ian
a. B
esid
es m
an
d n
in
th
e n
asal
ser
ies,
the
lan
gu
age
also
has
N NNN a
nd
¯̄̄̄ (
wh
ere
j is
an
all
op
ho
ne
of
the
ph
on
eme ¯̄̄̄
in o
ral
envir
on
men
ts).
tS SSS
is
rare
, o
ccu
rrin
g i
n o
no
mat
op
oei
a o
r as
a r
eali
zati
on o
f [Ô ÔÔÔ
+t]
. T
he
glo
ttal
sto
p / ///
ex
ists
in
the
lan
gu
age,
bu
t is
co
nsi
der
ed e
pen
thet
ic,
that
is,
inse
rted
th
rou
gh
a p
ho
no
logic
al p
roce
ss a
s
the
on
set
of
on
setl
ess
stre
ssed
syll
able
s, w
ith
a f
ew e
xce
pti
on
s (S
tort
o 1
99
9).
Ga
viã
o (
Mon
dé f
am
ily
):
Bil
ab
ial
La
bio
-
den
tal
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
r
Sto
ps
p
b
t
dc
Ô ÔÔÔ
k
g
�asa
lsm
n¯̄̄̄
N NNN T
ap
R RRRF
rica
tive
sv
s
z
La
tera
l
Ap
pro
xim
an
t
l
In G
aviã
o t
her
e ar
e 1
7 c
on
son
ants
. T
he
vo
icel
ess
stop
ser
ies
incl
udes
a p
alat
al c
,
and
th
e n
asal
ser
ies
incl
udes
a p
alat
al ¯̄̄̄
an
d a
vel
ar N NNN
. G
lott
al s
top
s o
ccu
r li
mit
ed t
o w
ord
inte
rnal
po
siti
on
but
are
not
ph
on
emic
. G
aviã
o,
in a
dd
itio
n,
has
a c
om
ple
te s
erie
s o
f
vo
iced
sto
ps:
b,
d, Ô ÔÔÔ
and
g.
Th
ere
is n
o s
erie
s o
f ap
pro
xim
ants
in
Gav
ião
: it
do
es n
ot
hav
e
a w
, an
d j
is
no
t p
ho
nem
ic.
The
seri
es o
f vo
iced
fri
cati
ves
in
clu
des
v a
nd
z,
and
th
e
vo
icel
ess
seri
es h
as s
bu
t n
o h
. A
tap
R RRR a
nd
a l
iquid
l a
re a
lso
pre
sent
as p
ho
nem
es i
n t
he
lan
gu
age
(Mo
ore
19
84
).
Mek
én
s (T
up
ari
fam
ily
):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Vela
rP
ala
tal
La
bio
-
vela
r
Sto
ps
p
b
tk
g
kw
�asa
lsm
nN NNN
N NNNw
Tap
R RRRF
rica
tive
ss
Ap
pro
xim
an
ts(w
)j
Th
ere
are
13
co
nso
nan
ts i
n M
ekén
s, t
hat
has
a s
erie
s o
f vo
icel
ess
stop
s w
ith
th
e
usu
al l
abia
l, a
lveo
lar
and
vel
ar p
oin
ts o
f ar
ticu
lati
on
plu
s a
labio
-vel
ar k
w.
Th
e glo
ttal
stop
is
no
t p
ho
nem
ic,
sin
ce i
t is
op
tio
nal
in
ever
y p
lace
wh
ere
it o
ccu
rs.
Th
e nas
al s
erie
s
has
co
nso
nan
ts i
n t
he
sam
e p
oin
ts o
f ar
ticu
lati
on
as
the
vo
icel
ess
stop
ser
ies.
Th
e vo
iced
stop
ser
ies
incl
udes
b a
nd
g.
Th
e o
nly
fri
cati
ve
is s
. It
is
po
ssib
le t
hat
w i
s n
ot
a p
ho
nem
e,
bec
ause
it
is r
are
(Gal
úci
o 2
00
1).
Mu
nd
uru
ku
(M
un
du
ru
ku
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Post
-
alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
p
b
t
dk
/ ///�
asa
lsm
nN NNN
Tap
R RRRF
rica
tive
ss
S SSS
h
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
j
Aff
rica
tes
tS SSS
dZ ZZZ
Mu
nd
uru
ku
has
17
co
nso
nan
ts:
Th
e u
susa
l se
ries
of
vo
icel
ess
stop
s p
lus
a glo
ttal
sto
p / ///
, a
seri
es o
f vo
iced
sto
ps
b a
nd
d,
a se
ries
of
nas
als
wit
h m
, n
an
d N NNN
, af
fric
ates
tS SSS
and
dZ ZZZ,
fric
ativ
es s
, S SSS
and
h,
gli
des
w a
nd
j, an
d a
tap
R RRR (
Pic
anço
20
05
).
Xip
ay
a (
Ju
ru
na
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Post
-
alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
p
bt
dk
�asa
lsm
n
Tap
R RRRF
rica
tive
ss
z
S SSS
h
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
j
Aff
rica
tes
(tS SSS
)
dZ ZZZ
Th
ere
are
15
co
nso
nan
ts i
n X
ipay
a, t
hat
has
a s
erie
s o
f vo
icel
ess
stop
s w
ith
ou
t a
ph
on
emic
glo
ttal
sto
p,
a se
ries
of
vo
iced
sto
ps
b a
nd
d,
fric
ativ
es s
, z, S SSS
and
h,
and
th
e
affr
icat
e dZ ZZZ.
tS SSS
is e
xtr
emel
ly r
are
and
may
no
t b
e p
ho
nem
ic (
Ro
dri
gu
es,
C.
19
90
).
Ka
ro (
Ra
ma
ra
ma
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
p
bt
ck
g/ ///
�asa
lsm
nN NNN
Tap
sR RRR
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
j
Th
ere
are
13
co
nso
nan
ts i
n K
aro
: a
seri
es o
f vo
icel
ess
stop
s w
ith
c ccc a
nd
/ ///,
a n
asa
l se
ries
wit
h N NNN
, an
d a
ser
ies
of
vo
iced
sto
ps
wit
h b
an
d g
(G
abas
Jr.
19
99
).
Pu
ru
borá
(P
uru
borá
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pós-
alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
p
b
t
dk
/ ///�
asa
lsm
n¯̄̄̄
(N NNN)
Tap
R RRRF
rica
tive
sS SSS
(Z ZZZ
)h
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
Aff
rica
tes
(tS SSS)
It i
s d
iffi
cult
to
defi
ne
the
num
ber
of
con
son
anta
l p
ho
nem
es i
n P
uru
bo
rá,
since
the
lan
gu
age
that
su
rviv
es i
s k
no
wn
by t
wo
eld
erly
sp
eak
ers
wh
o h
ave
no
t b
een
usi
ng t
he
lan
gu
age
for
over
50
yea
rs,
bu
t it
is
bet
wee
n 1
3 a
nd
16
. T
he i
nven
tory
giv
en h
ere
is n
ot
pro
per
ly p
ho
nem
ic.
Th
e la
ngu
age
seem
s to
hav
e a
ph
on
emic
glo
ttal
sto
p,
a n
asal
ser
ies
wit
h ¯̄̄̄
(w
ith
j a
s o
ne
of
its
allo
ph
ones
) an
d p
erhap
s N NNN,
a v
oic
ed s
top
ser
ies
wit
h b
an
d d
(an
d m
ayb
e g
), f
rica
tives
S SSS (
inst
ead
of
s) a
nd
h (Z ZZZ
and
the
affr
icat
e tS SSS
are
mar
gin
al a
nd
pro
bab
ly n
ot
ph
on
emic
), a
nd
the
gli
de
w.
(Galú
cio
, per
son
al c
om
mu
nic
atio
n)
.
Maw
é (
Maw
é f
am
ily
):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
pt
k(/ ///
)
�a
sals
mn
N NNN T
ap
sR RRR
Fri
ca
tive
ss
h
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
j
Th
ere
are
12
co
nso
nan
ts i
n M
awé.
A g
lott
al s
top
can
be
per
ceiv
ed b
y e
ar,
bu
t is
nev
er
real
ized
as
a glo
ttal
sto
p i
n s
pec
tro
gra
ms,
ap
pea
rin
g a
s a
vo
iced
glo
ttal
ap
pro
xim
ant
or
as
lary
ngea
liza
tio
n i
n a
n a
dja
cen
t vo
wel
.
Aw
eti
(A
weti
fa
mil
y):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
pt
k/ ///
�a
sals
mn
N NNN T
ap
R RRRF
rica
tive
sz
(h)
Aff
rica
tes
ts
Ap
pro
xim
an
tsw
(l)
j
Th
ere
are
bet
wee
n 1
2 a
nd
14
co
nso
nan
ts i
n A
wet
i. T
he
fric
ativ
e h
may
no
t b
e a
ph
on
eme,
occ
urr
ing i
n d
issi
mil
atio
n p
roce
sses
. T
he
late
ral
app
rox
iman
t l
is m
argin
al, an
d m
ay n
ot
be
ph
on
emic
, o
ccu
rin
g i
n b
orr
ow
ings.
Aw
eti
has
th
e sa
me
inven
tory
as
Maw
é, e
xce
pt
that
it
has
a s
oli
d g
lott
al s
top
/ ///,
as w
ell
as z
. T
he
fric
ativ
e s
do
es n
ot
app
ear,
bu
t ts
occ
urs
inst
ead
(D
rud
e, p
erso
nal
com
mu
nic
atio
n).
Proto
Tu
pi-
Gu
ara
ni
(Ro
drig
ues
& D
ietr
ich
19
97
):
Bil
ab
ial
Alv
eo
lar
Pa
lata
lV
ela
rG
lott
al
Sto
ps
*p
*p
w
*p
j
*t
*ts
*k
*k
w
*k
j
*/ ///
�a
sals
*m
*m
w
*n
*N NNN
*N NNNw
Ta
p*R RRR
Aff
rica
tes
* tS SSS
Fri
ca
tive
s*B BBB
Ap
pro
xim
an
ts*w
*j
In T
up
i G
uar
ani
lan
gu
ages
we
hav
e, a
cco
rdin
g t
o R
odri
gu
es &
Die
tric
h (
19
97
), 1
9
con
son
ants
: th
e se
ries
*p
, *
pw,
*p
j , *
t, *
ts,
*tS SSS
, *
k,
*k
j , *
kw,
*/ ///
(th
at h
as v
oic
eles
s st
op
s
and
aff
rica
tes)
a n
asal
ser
ies
*m
, *
mw,
*n
, *N NNN
, *N NNN
w a
nd
the
seri
es *B BBB,
*R RRR,
*j,
*w
(th
at h
as
app
rox
iman
ts,
a ta
p a
nd
a f
rica
tive)
.
(1)
**
p:
(Pro
to-T
up
ib
ilab
ial
vo
icel
ess
sto
p)
tak
en f
rom
pg.
17
3 o
f p
aper
PT
**
p >
PT
G *
p (B
in w
ord
-fin
al p
osi
tio
n)
AW
p
MA
p
JU p
MU
p
(an
d z
ero
bef
ore
[+
ante
rio
r] v
ow
el)
AR
p
TU
p (
and
s b
efo
re i
in
wo
rd-i
nit
ial
env
s. a
nd
ps
bef
ore
i i
n w
ord
-med
ial
envs.
)
MO
p (
in S
uru
i, o
r P
aité
r, i
t is
b)
RA
p
PU
b (
casc
a, t
abac
o,
cam
inh
o,
pé,
mão
, ca
bel
o,
pen
a, v
esp
a, v
erm
elh
o(b
an
d p
))
(2)
**
pw
PT
**
p >
PT
G *
pw
wo
rd-i
nit
iall
y (B
in o
ther
po
siti
on
s)
AW
p (
w i
n w
ord
-med
ial
po
siti
on
)
MA
p (
w i
n w
ord
-med
ial
po
siti
on
)
JU p
an
d w
in
wo
rd-m
edia
l en
vs.
MU
p a
nd
b i
n w
ord
-med
ial
and
p i
n w
ord
-fin
al p
osi
tio
ns
AR
p a
nd
zer
o w
ord
-med
iall
y a
nd
p w
ord
-fin
ally
TU
:
Tu
par
í: p
in
itia
lly a
nd
med
iall
y a
nd
ps
med
iall
y b
efo
re i
Mak
urá
p:
p m
edia
lly
Mek
éns:
p f
inal
ly a
nd
b m
edia
lly
MO
p w
ord
-fin
ally
(in
Su
rui,
or
Pai
tér,
it
is b
)
RA
no
t cl
ear
PU
p w
ord
-fin
ally
(pg.
17
5)
Ro
dri
gu
es(2
00
7)
PT
PT
GA
WM
AJ
UM
UA
RT
UM
OR
AP
U
**ep
Wa
‘ fac
e’
*-oBa
-owa
-ewa
-M
u:d
-opa
Ku
:t-upa
s-ˆpo
‘ eye
’
Tp
:epa
‘ eye,
lig
ht’
epa-psi
‘ fac
e’
Me:eb
a-pi
‘ fac
e’
eba-op
ap‘ e
ye
’
--
-
**ˆpWˆ
‘ ear
th’
*ˆBˆ
ˆw- ete
-J
u:ˆpˆ
Xi:ipˆ-a
‘san
d’
ipi
Ka
:(/)ej
-
epi
‘ ear
th,
flo
or’
--
-
**kˆpW
ˆt‘ b
roth
er o
f
a w
om
an
*kˆBˆr
kˆwˆt
kˆwˆt
-
kipit
keet
Tp
, M
e:kip
‘irm
ão j
únio
r
de
ho
mem
’
--
-
**ep
W‘ l
eaf’
*- oB
- op
- op
Ju
:u@p-a@
Xi:s-up
-a@
Mu
:-´p
Ku
:l-ip
/ -ejp
A:s
- ab-ç
Ka
:s-ap
Tp
, M
e:-ep
Kep
kir
iwá
t
op
Ga
:s- ep
CL
:s-e@p
-- t
- ap
Mo
tivat
ion
of
Ro
dri
gu
es2
00
7 f
or
reco
nst
ruct
ing *
*p
w a
s a
dif
fere
nt
pho
nem
e fr
om
**p
:
•P
TG
*B
•A
W w
•R
ou
nd
ing
of
pre
cedin
g v
ow
el i
n T
G, A
W,
MA
, JU
and
MU
