Dialects and Historical Linguistics, Key

7/23/2019 Dialects and Historical Linguistics, Key

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/dialects-and-historical-linguistics-key 1/9

Dia lec t s a nd His to r ica l /

Comparat ive Linguist ics

T h e l n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f S p a c e a n d T i m e

Mary R i t ch ie Key

Universi ty of Cal i fornia

l rv ine

ABSTRACT

Change in language is a natural phenomenon that parallels change in all the

environment. Dialects and other sociolinguistic aspects of language are the evidences

of historical change. Traditionally, historical linguistics developed before sociolingui-

stics was recognized as a subject, and before dialect maps were plotted with isoglosses

showing where particular varieties of language are spoken. My focus will show how

the perspective of historical linguistics wiU be enlarged by looking at all the articula-

tions of language spoken by a wide range of the population.

In another sense, there are elemental features of languages in phonology and

in semantics that remain stable throughout the millennia. These pristine features

are enduring, and can be seen in ancient languages, such as Hittite, and present-day

languages related to Hittite. These features cross dialect lines, and when looked at

as a whole, are seen to reflect semantic structures of great stability in spite of language

change. Elemental and innovative features are balanced from dialect to dialect and

language to language in an unending variety of languages in the world.

Change in language is a natural phenomenon that parallels change in all the

envi ronm ent . Dialects and other sociolinguistic aspects of language are the evidences

of historical change. Tradit ional ly, historical linguistics developed before

sociolinguistics was recognized as a subject, and before dialect maps were plotted

with isoglosses showing where pa rticular varieties of language are spoken. My focus

will show how the perspective o f historical linguistics will be enlarged by looking

at all the arti culat ions and related meanings of language spoken by a wide range

of the population.

The term sociolinguisties is being scrutinized these days for what it means.

Defin ition s and concep ts are being explored by scholars, such as in a recent

Sociolinguistics Ne w sletter

(December 1985). To paraphrase Sapir, the title of

one of the articles is: The Status of Sociolinguistics as a Science (Craen 1985).

In 1929 Sapir discussed the status of linguist ics as a science and ended with the

questi on, Where does linguistics stand as a science? (Sapir 1929 [1968: 166]).



2 0 8 L a n g u ag e S c i e n c e s , V o l u m e 9 , N u m b e r 2 1 9 8 7 )

H e w a s a s k i ng w he t he r t he s t udy o f l a ngua ge be l ongs w i t h t he na t u r a l sc i enc e s -

tha t i s, w i th a b io log ica l po in t o f v i ew - o r w as i t r a the r one of the soc ial s c i ences.

Our t e rm ' soc io l ingui s t i c s ' sugges t s the l a t t e r , bu t ou r ac tua l re sea rch sugges t s a

r a t he r m or e c om pl i c a t e d s t a te o f a f f a ir s . S a p i r l e f t the que s ti on t o be pon de r e d , by

no t i ng t ha t l ingu i st ic s doe s t i e in w i t h a n t h r op o l og y , c u l t u r e h i s t o r y , s oc i o l ogy ,

p s y c h o l o g y , p h i l o s o p h y , a n d , h e s a id , m o r e r e m o t e l y w i t h p h y s ic s a n d p h y s i o l o g y

(1968: 161) .

A ge ne r a t i on a f t e r S a p i r ' s t houg h t - p r ov ok i ng que s t i on , U r ie l W e i n r e ic h , in 1954 ,

asked ano the r ques t ion w hich , aga in , s ti ll dese rves to be t rea ted : I s a s t ruc tura l

d i a l e c t o l ogy pos s i b l e ? H e t hou gh t t ha t i t w a s a nd s poke o f a s ync h r on i c a nd

diachro nic d ia l ec to logy . He insp i red h i s s tude nt , Wi ll iam La bov , to wor k on the

p r o b l e m , w i t h m e t h o d o l o g y t h a t w a s fi r m l y g r o u n d e d in q u a n t i t a ti v e p r o c e d u r e s .

These s tud ies were h igh ly succes s fu l and have been wide ly quoted and d i scussed .

W i t h t he s e e xe m pl a r y s t ud i e s , w e a r e ge t t i ng e ve n m or e c om pl i c a t e d a ns w e r s t o

W einre ich 's que s t ion . I f ee l tha t we a re a t t he ea r ly and cha l lenging s t ages o f dea l ing

w i t h t h i s i m por t a n t que s t i on .

W e ha ve c om e a l ong w a y s i nc e S a p i r ' s r e m a r ks a ha l f a c e n t u r y a go ; t oda y w e

f ind l ingu is ts w or k i ng in e ve r y one o f the a r e a s he m e n t i one d , a nd m or e . W e ha ve

d i s c ove r e d s o m uc h a bou t l a ngua ge by s t udy i ng t he b r a i n , by a na l yz i ng t he s pe e c h

be ha v i o r o f a pha s ic s , a nd by do i ng ne u r o li ngu i s ti c s tud i es . W e ha ve l e a r ne d so m uc h

a bo u t l a ngua ge w i t h t he i nve n t i on o f t he c o m pu t e r a nd w i t h a dva nc e s in m a c h i ne

t r a ns l a ti on . W e ha ve l e a r ne d so m uc h a b ou t l a nguage w i t h pe ne t r a t i ng s t ud i es o f

the acqu i s i t ion of l anguage . We have ga ined ins igh t s f ro m inves t iga ting pa ra l ingui s t i c

e xp r e s s i ons a nd f r om d i s c ove r i ng m e a n i ngs e xp r e s s e d by ge s t u r e a nd o t he r k i ne s i c

c om m un i c a t i on . W e ha ve be n e f i t t e d by do i ng c r o s s- c u l tu r a l re s e a rc h a nd by l is t en i ng

to l ingui st s in o th e r co unt r i e s g ive the i r ins igh ts in to the n a ture o f l anguage . We

ha ve l e ar ne d a bo u t how pe op l e u s e la ngua ge by a n a l yz i ng Cr e o le l a nguage s a nd

languages in contac t .

As for the s t a tus of soc io l ingui s t i c s , which we a re concerned wi th he re a t t h i s

c on f e r e nc e , I be li e ve t ha t w e a r e a t an i m po r t a n t j un c t u r e a nd w e c a n s ee i nc re a s ing l y

t he i n t e r c onne c t i on w i t h a n h i s to r i c al ou t l ook . T he s ub t i t le o f m y l e c t u r e t od a y

po i n t s t o thd: i n t e r c onn e c t i on o f s pa c e a nd t im e . ' S p a c e ' i nc o r p o r a t e s a ll the va r i e ti e s

of l anguage tha t we s tudy in soc io l ingui s t ic s : geograp hica l d ime ns ions , as we l l

a s p s yc ho l og i c a l a nd s oc ia l s pa c e. I be l ie ve , a l ong w i t h m a ny o t he r s , t ha t a m ode l

o ;~ l a ngua ge c ha nge a c c om m od a t e s t he m a ny va r i e ti e s o f l a ngua ge i n a soc i o li ngu is t ic

sense , and tha t th i s va r i ab le mode l wi l l he lp to expla in the pe rp lex ing res idues which

occu r in eve ry h i s tor ica l s tudy . Thi s i s a theor e t i ca l con cern : to in t e r re l a t e the

var i ab les , a s exem pl i f i ed by s tud ies in soc io lingui s t ic s wi th the va r i ab les tha t a re

obse rv ed in h i s tor i ca l dep th . H i s tor i ca l s tud ies trea t l anguage change , and it i s

prec i se ly the changes in l anguages tha t make up the va r ious d ia l ec t s and va r i e t i e s



D i a l e c t s a n d

Historicnl/Comparative Linguistics

2 9

of languages in an ever expanding array of human behavior. As I have noted above,

these ideas have been the focus of study among some linguists for the last couple

of decades. This gave rise to new expressions; and we now hear the term

'sociohistorical.' This is a good term, in that it reflects both breadth and depth

in language studies. This is a positive, useful way to look at human behavior and

language change.

Let us examine our resources here at this crossroads: we have precise

instruments and computers to handle large amounts of data; we have sophisticated

statistical methods, with capable mathematicians in our linguistic community; we

have libraries of historical documents in various languages around the world. In

this country I can refer to the Old Japanese literature, that gives depth to our

understanding o f change through time. We have increasing amounts of dialect

material in many areas that correspond to the historical material in libraries. Though

it is not enough, many atlases of dialect maps and dictionaries have been produced

in the century since the Indo-European studies began.

Most promising of all, the linguistic community has grown - just in my lifetime

- at an astonishing rate, and we now find centers such as this all over the world.

Take for example, the situation in South America: When I first went to South

America in the early 1950s, there were a few linguists and philologists scattered

over that continent from Venezuela in the north to Argentina in the south. There

were brilliant scholars among them, but they were limited in what they could

accomplish because they were few in number. Today, in contrast, there are hundreds

of linguists in South America. Many of these scholars of the present generation are

working on the 600 or so Indian languages of the continent. Some of them are

native speakers of the Indian languages, and this is an added at traction of the

linguistic work in South America. This growing competence of South American

linguists, in fact, has led to the compilation of some of their works, published in

Language Sciences

There are limitless challenges for young scholars entering linguistics today.

In these moments I would focus on the matter of language change, and the many

unsolved problems in this realm of highly complicated variables of human expression.

I would challenge the next generation of linguists to reduce the domain of the

unknown, to quote a leading linguist of the world, Andr6 Martinet (1952 [1978:

122]). Another distinguished comparativist , Henry Hoenigswald, also challenged

us to give account of the loose ends in the areas where language change has not

been satisfactorily explained, and he called for more knowledge of dialect-

geographical data and more atten tion to intonation (Hoenigswald 1964 [1978:

170]) . A recent study of dialect forms in the metropolitan area around Tokyo

also exemplifies the bringing together of sociolinguistics and linguistic geography

(lnoue 1986: 88):



2 1 0 L a ng ua ge S c i e n c es , V o l u m e 9 , N u m b e r 2 1 9 8 7 )

The new dialect form s exemp lify, thus, the eternal process of mutual differentiation

of language. H en ce the new dialect form s can serve as a laboratory for historical

linguistics.

T oda y I w i l l s ugge s t s om e ne w pe r s pe c t i ve s i n s e m a n t i c s , w i t h t he hope t ha t you

w ill be s t i m u l a t e d t o f ind a f r e s h a pp r oa c h in yo u r ow n a r e a s o f in t e r e st . W i t h yo u r

de d i c a t ion t o yo u r d i sc i p li ne , yo u c a n he l p s o lve a f e w m or e p r o b l e m s in l angua ge

c ha nge be f o r e t he t u r n o f t he c e n t u r y .

I f w e a l l e ge t ha t a s oc i oh i s t o r i c a l a pp r oa c h w ou l d ha ve r i c h e xp l a na t o r y

us e f u lne s s , it w ill be he l p f u l t o p r oc e e d on s om e ba s ic a s s um pt i ons . W e c a n

e s t ab l i sh s om e pos t u l a t e s t o c la r i fy ou r w or k i ng p r oc e du r e s . I w ill m e n t i o n on l y

a c ou p l e o f e xa m pl e s , a nd I hop e t ha t t he s e w il l be e xp a nd e d s o t ha t w e w ill ha ve

a c o m m on und e r s t a nd i ng . M y f i rs t e xa m pl e s t r e a t pho no l o gy a nd i ll u s tr a t e t he

i n t e r re l a t e dne s s o f s oc i o l ingu i s ti c s a nd c om pa r a t i ve p r ob l e m s . D e s c r i p ti ve s t ud ie s

s hou l d r e c o r d c l e a r ly t he a l l ophone s a l ong w i t h d i s t r i bu t i ona l s t a t e m e n t s a bo u t

t he s e phon e t i c va r i a n ts . F o r e xa m pl e , the Ca v ine ~a l a ngua ge , o f t he T a c a na n f a m i l y

o f Bo li v ia , ha s a ph on e m e / w / , w h i c h i s a r t i c u l a te d w i t h t w o a l l ophone s : [ ~ ] , a

b i la b i a l vo i c e d , f r ic a t ive , oc c u r s be f o r e f r on t vow e l s , a s in [ ~e ka ka ] / w e ka k a / da y ,

t i m e a nd [ ~ in i] / w i n i / be e s w a x . T he a l l ophone [ w ] oc c u r s e l se w he r e : [ w a ne ]

/ w a n e / w om a n a nd [ s o ri w a ha ] / s o r i w a ha / be e . T he s is te r l angua ge T a c a n a ( o f

t h e T a c a n a n f a m i l y ) h a s b o t h o f t h es e s o u n d s a s c o n t r a s t in g p h o n e m e s : / t u a w e d a /

s h i n in g a n d / t u a ~ e d a / h e ; / e m a d a e w i / I m g o in g t o w h i st le a n d /e b i / n o s e .

T he s oc io l ingu i s ti c obs e r va t i on a bo u t t he s e c on t r a s t i ng s ounds is t ha t t he youn ge r

s pe a ke r s t e nd t o m e r ge t he s ounds , i gno r i ng t he c on t r a s t , w h i l e t he o l de r pe op l e

m a i n t a i n a d i s ti nc t ion . I n t he c ogna t e s r e f le c t e d f r om t he f o r m e r p r o t o la ngua ge ,

T a c a n a / ~ / o c c u r s i n c o g n a t e se ts o n l y b e f o r e f ro n t v o w e ls , a n d T a c a n a / w / o c c u r s

in c o g n a t e s et s b e f o r e / a / . I f w e d id n o t h a v e t h e p h o n e t i c d i s tr i b u ti o n s t a t e m e n t s

o f t he a l l ophone s in Ca v ine ~a , w e w ou l d n o t be a w a r e o f t he r e l a ti ons h i p be t w e e n

the soc io l ingui s t i c va r i a t ion and the h i s tor i ca l va r i a t ion (Key 1968a : 23 , 28) .

T h e n e x t e x a m p l e h a s t o d o w i t h f l u c t u a t io n o f p h o n e m e s in t h e s p e ec h o f

E s e ej ja , a no t he r m e m be r o f t he T a c a n a n f a m i l y o f Bo li v ia ( K e y 1968b , 1979 ) .

S poke n E se ejja ha s a n e x t r a o r d i na r y a m ou n t o f f l uc t ua t i on in p r onu nc i a t i on . Bu t

i t is no t r a nd om ; i t fo l l ow s c e r t a in pa t t e r n s w h i c h a r e re l a te d t o t he c o r r e s pon de nc e s

o f p h o n e m e s i n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s tu d i es o f T a c a n a n . F o r e x a m p l e , C a v in e ~ a h

a n d E s e e j j a / h / c o r r e s p o n d t o T a c a n a / s / a n d th e s e t w o s o u n d s f l u c tu a t e in e v e r y d a y

spee ch in Eseej ja , as in kia sewi ~ kia hew i d i r ty ; kia sesi sa l ty ~ me~isehi sa l t .

T hus , t he e ve r y da y s pe e c h o f t he pe op l e e xh i b i t s t he i r h i s t o ri c a l he r i ta ge . I t s hou l d

be n o t e d , a s a s ync h r on i c s t a t e m e n t , t ha t w h i l e t he r e i s a goo d de a l o f f l uc t ua t i on

in Esee jj a , t he re a re few m inim al pa i r s (K ey 1979) . Eq ui l ib r ium is e s t ab l i shed wi th

n o lo ss o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

A s e t o f pos t u l a t e s w ou l d a l s o i nc l ude s om e a s s um pt i ons a bou t s e m a n t i c c ha nge .



D i a l e c t s a n d H i s t o r i c a l C o m p a r a t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s 2 1 1

These systematic changes are recorded in cognate sets in comparative studies. From

these a framework of semantic changes can be constructed that is useful for

evaluating meaning relationships. In the following sections I am suggesting that

some of these meaning relationships may be primordial and universal.

Another assumption that we can make about sociohistorical linguistics has to

do with languages in contact. The subjects of borrowings and Mixed Languages

(Mischsprache) have been treated extensively and competently for a long time.

(See Rickford 1986, for a recent treatment of Irish and Scots English in contact

with Black speakers). The matter of Migrations - voluntary or involuntary -

probably plays a larger part in the evolvement of languages than we have heretofore

recognized. Prokosch (1939: 52) believed that the Germanic Migrations (the

V61kerwanderung) probably had a relation to major structural changes in the

language: . . . the consonant shift appears to stand in chronological and causal

relation to the social, economic, and emotional background of the V61ker-

wanderung. (1939: 57). We can add the discipline o f history, then, to Sapir's

'tie-in's.

A postulate that is crucial in comparative studies has to do with meaning. In

order to compare two or more lexical items, the meanings must be established to

be identical or similar. A variation must be historically explained or the etymology

is in doubt. The French philologist Michel Br6al coined the word

sdm ntique

in

1883 (Aarsleff 1979:67 ; Shapiro 1984) and this is the title of his often-quoted book.

Antoine Meillet was a student o f Br6al, and we are often told that Meillet was one

of the early forerunners who guided our thinking toward sociolinguistics. I cannot

help but think that, in his surroundings, Meillet realized the importance of meaning

in the communicative expressions between speakers. Research in sociolinguistics

since the time of Meillet has made us very aware of the different kinds of meaning

involved in human interaction. Words mean different things to different people

who talk in different spaces. I believe, however, that there is a small basic core of

stable meanings that are preserved throughout the millennia, because they result

from universal perceptions and cognitions. I will come back to this in the final

section of my talk. This short discussion of assumptions that we all carry in our

thinking during our research only touches on some aspects. You will add other

postulates, in your thinking, out of your experiences and expertise.

Now I wil l direct our attention to an analogy of language change with

the laws of nature. There may be only a limited number of fundamental laws of

nature that would explain the workings of the universe. I suggest, too, that there

probably is a limited number of linguistic rules that hold together the interactants

or participants in a linguistic community. Actually, the formula for explaining

SOCIOLINGUISTICS, or language change, or dialects, is probably a very simple

formula, such as Einstein's formula is a simple equation that explains a seemingly



2 1 2

La ng ua g e c iences Vo l um e

9 , N u m b e r 2 1 9 8 7 )

endles s a r ray o f ac t iv i ty . In lingui st i c wr i t ings , t he co nc ep t o f fo rce s is a l luded to

w i t h va r i ous voc a bu l a r y , s uc h a s: ' p r e s s u r e , a t t r a c t i on , re pu l s i on , bond i ng ,

a f f i li a t ion , e xc l u s i on , i nc l u s ion , d r a g a nd pus h , pus h - pu l l , m o t i va t i on , e qu i l i b r i um '

a nd s o on . O ne o f t he e a r ly r e f e r e nc e s c om e s f r om H e r m a nn P a u l , i n a d i sc us si on

o f h is c on f o r m i t y hypo t he s i s : A t al l t i m e s , he sa ys , t he pe r f o r m a nc e o f a s pe a ke r

i s unde r t he p r e s s u r e o f d i f f e r e n t f o r c e s t o c ha nge i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i ons .

( W e i n r e ic h , L a bov , a nd H e r z og , 19 68 : 11 2 ) . L a t e r , B r6al ( 196 4 [ 1900 ] : I x ) a ga in

us e d t he c on c e p t o f f o r c e s: L a ng ua ge is bu i l t upo n t he s e nse s , a nd t he y e xe r t

upo n i t a n a t t r a c t i on a s pow e r f u l a nd c ons t a n t a s g r a v i t y . I be l ie ve t ha t t he s e f o r c e s

o p e r a t e in t h e c o n t e x t o f th e c o m m u n i c a t i v e n e e d s o f h u m a n b e in g s, a n d , f u r th e r ,

tha t the pres sures ex e r t ed - bon ding , a s we l l a s s epara t ing - ac t a s a t ens ion tha t

ho l d s c om m u n i t i e s t oge t he r , w h i le a t t he s a m e t i m e , d i f f e r e n t i a t e s d i a le c ts .

W i t h r e ga rd t o m e a n i ng , I bel ie ve i t is the c on c e p t o f f o r c e s - w e a k a nd s t rong

t ha t ho l d s m e a n i ngs c on s t a n t a nd s t a b le t h r o ugh ou t t he h i s t o r y o f l angua ge s,

a nd a t t he s a m e t i m e r e pe l s a nd pus he s ou t va r i e t i e s t ha t a r e know n t o u s , t he n ,

a s d i a le c t s in s pa c e a nd t i m e . T o da y I a m us i ng t he c on c e p t o f f o r c e t o in t r oduc e

a new wa y to look a t s e m ant i c s t ruc tures . I t app ears tha t the re i s a re l a t ive ly smal l

i nve n t o r y o f e le m e n t a l f e a t u r e s in p r i m i t ive m o r ph e m e s , ba se d on c o r po r e a l

m or phe m e s ( a nd t he i r r e l a t i ons h i p t o s pa c e ) , a nd on pe r c e p t i on a nd c ogn i t i on .

A w a r e ne s s o f t he h um a n bo dy is a n e l e m e n t a l e xpe r ie nc e . P e r c e p t i on i s w ha t t he

b io log ica l eye sees : shapes , m ov em en t , l igh t and da rkness . Thi s a spec t o f l anguage

a ppe a r s t o be s t a b le a nd is m a i n t a i ne d by t he a t t r a c t i on f o r c e . W he n hu m a n be i ngs

ha ve ne w e xpe r i e nc e s a nd ne w r e l a ti ons h i p s , the n t he c on c e p t o f r e pe ll ing , a s s e en

i n t he ne e d t o c om m un i c a t e , a nd i n t he ne e d t o e s t a b l i s h o t he r r e l a t i ons h i p s ,

p r odu c e s va r i e t ie s on t he o l d t he m e s , a nd t hus , n e w d i a l e ct s ( pe r ha ps s oci a l d i a l ec t s

a l ong w i t h ge og r a ph i c a l d ia l e c ts ) a nd ne w l a ngua ge s a r e f o r m e d . T he p r is t ine

fea tures a re endur ing and can be seen in anc ien t l anguages , such as Hi t t i t e , i n

c om pa r i s on w i t h p r e s e n t - da y l a ngua ge s r e l a te d t o H i t t it e ( K e y 1985a ). T he s e

f e a t u r e s c ro s s d ia l e c t l i ne s, a nd w he n obs e r ve d i n a c ohe s i ve s e m a n t i c f r a m e w o r k ,

a re s een to re f l ec t s em ant i c s t ru c tures o f g rea t s t ab i l i ty in sp i t e o f cons ide rab le

l angua ge cha nge . T he ba s ic s t ab l e m or p he m e s c om pr i s e a g r ou p o f w or ds tha t a r e

ne c e s sa r y t o hum a n c om m un i c a t i on a nd a r e un ive r sa l. T h i s e xc l ude s c u l t u r a l i t e m s ,

m etap ho rs , and f igures o f speech . I t exc lu des l ingui s ti c p l ay and s lang.

T he f r a m e w or k t ha t I a m i n t r oduc i ng i s ba s e d on pe r c e p t i on o f sha pe s, a nd

t he m ov e m e n t o f t hos e s ha pe s in spa c e , bo dy f unc t i ons , a nd l igh t a nd da r kne s s .

T he hum a n bo dy i s e l e m e n t a l i n r e f e r ri ng t o t he sha pe s: r ound : e ye , um b i l ic u s ;

po i n t e d : nos e ; s tr i ng -s ha pe d : vei n , t e nd on ; a ng le : a nk l e , ne c k , j o i n t . L o c a t i on is

a l so in r e f e re nc e t o the hum a n b od y : up , t op : he a d ; be l ow , f oun da t i on : f oo t . Bo dy

f unc t i ons a re e x t r a p o l a t e d t o t he e nv i r on m e n t a nd t o a r t i fa c t s : b r e a t h : w i nd , b l ow ,

f l u te , s m o ke . A n i m por t a n t f e a t u r e in la be li ng t he c o r po r e a l m o r phe m e s , a s w e lt



D i a l e c t s a n d H i s t o r i c a l C o m p a r a t i v e L i n g u i s t i c s 2 1 3

a s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o r p h e m e s , is t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e it em . F o r e x a m p l e ,

' t o o t h ' i s ha r d , s o th i s p r i m i t ive m or p he m e is e x t e nd e d t o ' r oc k , ' a nd f u r t he r

s e m a n t i c ( a nd l a te r , c u l t u r al ) r e l at i ons h ip s e x t e nd t he voc a b u l a r y in a s t r uc t u r e d

ne t w or k o f r e l a t e d m e a n i ngs ( K e y , in p r e s s) ,

T h e s e a re ju s t a f e w e x a m p l e s o f t h e f r a m e w o r k w h i c h I h a v e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m

s t udy i ng c om pa r a t i ve l ingu i st ic c o gna t e s e t s i n A m e r i c a n I nd i a n l a nguage s ( K e y

1985b) . T he f r a m e w or k a l so a ppe a r s t o fi t P o l yne s i a n la ngua ge s a nd I ndo - E ur ope a n

languages. I t r emains to be seen ho w the theo ry wi ll ap p ly to o th e r l anguage fami l i e s

o f t he w or l d . W ha t w e a r e c onc e r ne d w i t h a t t h i s c on f e r e nc e is ho w t he d i a le c t s

in te rac t and in te r re l a t e wi th h i s tor i ca l p roces ses . Br i e f ly , s t ab i l i ty in soun ds and

m eaning s a re s een in h i s tor ica l s tud ies ; va r i a t ion i s s een in soc io lingui s ti c s . E lem enta l

and innova t ive fea tures a re ba lanced f rom d ia lec t to d ia l ec t and l anguage to l anguage

in an un end ing va r i e ty o f l anguages in the wo r ld .

R E F E R E N C E S

Aars le f f , Hans

1979 Br6a l vs. Schle iche r : L ingui s t i c s and Phi lo logy Du r ing the La t t e r H a l f

o f t h e N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , in The European Background o f American

Linguistics, pp . 63 - 106 . H e n r y M . H oe n i gs w a l d ( e d . ), D o r d r e c h t -

Ho l l and: For i s Publ i ca t ions .

Br6al , Michel

1900

Semantics. Studies in the Science of Meaning,

( Re p r i n t e d i n 1964

N e w Y o r k : D ove r P ub l i c a ti ons ) .

Cr a e n , P e t e V a n de

1985 T he S ta tu s of Soc io l ingui s t i c s a s a Sc ien ce

Sociolinguistics

15,2.

28 - 41 ( D e c e m be r ) .

H oe n i gs w a l d , H e n r y M .

1964 G r a dua l i t y , S po r a d i c i t y , a nd t he M i no r S ound Cha nge P r oc e s s e s,

Phonetica

1 1 : 2 0 2 - 1 5 . ( R e p r i n te d in

Readings in Historical Phonology,

pp. 160-71 , 1978 . Phi l ip Ba ld i and Ro na ld N . W er th (eds . ) , Unive rs i ty

Park : Penn sylvania S ta t e Unive rs i ty P ress ) .

l n o u e , F u m i o

1986 S oc i o l i ngu i s ti c A s pe c t s o f N e w D i a le c t F o r m s : L a ngua ge Cha nge

in P rogres s in T o ky o , in

Sociolinguistics in Japan,

pp. 73-89 , Spec ia l

I s sue , Hara ld H aarm ann and F red C . C. Peng (eds . ) ,

International

Journal of the Sociology of Language 58.

K e y , M a r y R i t c h ie

1968a Comparative Tacanan Phonology: with Cavine~a Phonology and

Notes on Pano-Tacanan Relationship, T he H a gue : M ou t on .



2 1 4 l .a m g ua g e S c i e n c e s V o l u m e

9 , N u m b e r 2 1 9 8 7 )

1 9 6 8 b P h o n e m i c P a t t e rn a n d P h o n e m e F l u c t u a t io n in B o li vi an C h a m a

( T a c a n a n ) , La Linguistique 2.35-48 .

1979 P h one m e F luc tu a t ion a nd Minima l P air s in La ngua ge C ha ng e , i n

Linguistique Fonctionnelle: d~bats et perspectives: pour Andr~

Martinet pp. 305-10 . M or t6za M ahm oud ian (ed . ) , Pa ris: P resses

Univers i ta i re s de Fran ce .

1983 C om pa r a t ive M e thodo logy f o r D i s t a n t R e la t ionsh ips in N or th a nd

S ou th Am e r ic a n la ngua ge s, Language Sciences 5.2 .133-54 .

1985a Th e Age o f t he C oc kr oa c h a nd Le x ic a l S u r v iva l,

International

Journal of American Linguistics 51 .4 .476 - 8 .

1985b An Ap pr oa c h to S e ma n t i c s t h r oug h C om pa r a t ive L ingu i s t ic s , in

Studia Linguistica Diachronica et Synchronica pp. 46 7-75 . Ursula

P ieper and Ge rhard S t icke l ( eds . ) , Berl in : M ou ton de Gruy te r .

I n p r e ss A S e m a n t i c S tud y o f B a si c M or phe m e s in C om pa r a t ive L ingu i s t ic s ,

Th i r d B ie nn ia l S ympos ium on L ingu i s t i c s a nd S e mio t i c s , Genetic

Classification o f Languages

R ic e Un ive r s ity , Hou s ton , T e xa s .

Labov, Will iam

1974 On the Use o f t he P r e se n t t o Exp la in the P a s t , Proceedings of the

Eleventh International Congress of Linguists 1972 Vol. I I , Bologna,

pp . 825 - 51 . ( R e p r in t e d in Linguistics at the Crosswoads pp. 226-61 ,

1977) . Ada m Makkai , Va le r ie Becke t M akka i , and Luig i He i lm ann

(eds.) , Pad ova , I ta ly and L ake Bluff , I ll inois. Also in Readings in

Historical Phonology pp. 275 -312 , 1978 . Phi l ip Ba ld i and R ona ld N.

W er th (eds . ) , Unive rs i ty Pa rk : Pennsylvania S ta te Univers i ty Press .

Le h m a nn , W in fr e d P.

1981 His tor ica l L inguis t ic s and Soc io l ing uis t ic s , International Journal of

the Sociology of Language 31 .11 - 27 .

Makka i , Adam, Va le r ie Becke t Makka i , and Luig i He i lmann

1977 Th e I n t e r r e l a tionsh ip o f D ia l e c to logy a nd H i s to ri c al C ha nge , in

Linguistics at the Crossroads pp. 203-31 4. A. Makkai et al. (eds.) ,

Padova , I ta ly and Lake Bluf f , Il l ino is .

M a r t ine t , Andr ~

1 9 5 2 F u n c t i o n , S t r u c t u r e , a n d S o u n d C h a n g e , ;Cord 8: 1-32 . (Repr in ted

in

Readings in Historical Phonology

pp. 121-59 , 1978) . Phi l ip Ba ld i

and R ona td N . W er th , ( eds . ), Un ive rs i ty Pa rk : Pennsylvania S ta te

U nive rsi ty Press.

P r okosc h , Edua r d

1939 A Comparative Germanic Grammar Phi lade lphia : Univers i ty o f

P e nnsy lvan ia a nd L ingu i st ic S oc ie ty o f Am e r ic a .



Dialects and H istorical/Com parativeL~nguistics 215

R i c k f o r d , J o h n R .

1986 Soc ia l Co ntac t and Linguis t ic Dif fus ion: Hiberno-Engl ish and New

W or ld Black Engl ish ,

Language

62 .2 .245 - 89 .

R om a ine , S uz a nne a nd E l i z a be th C loss T r a u go t t ( e ds . )

1985 Papers From the Workshop on Socio-Historical Linguistics August

1983, A dam M ickiewicz Univers i ty , Poznaf i ,

Folia Linguistica Historica

6.1.

Sapi r , Edward

1929 Th e S ta tu s o f L ingu is t ic s a s a S c ie nc e . ( R e p r in t e d in

Selected

Writings of Edward Sapir: in Language Culture and Personality

pp. 160-6 , 1968) . David G. M ande lbaum (ed . ) , Berke ley : Un ivers i ty

o f Californ ia Press.

Shapi ro , F red R .

1984 F i r s t Uses o f the English W ords Sem ant ics and Sem asio log y ,

American Speech 5 9 . 3 , 2 6 4 - 6 .

W einreich, U rie l

1954 I s a S t r uc tu r a l D ia l e c to logy P oss ib l e?

( Augus t - De c e mbe r ) .

Weinreich, Urie l , Will iam Labov, and Marvin I . Herzog

1968

Word 10.2-3 , 388-400,

Em pi r i c a l F ound a t ions f o r a Th e o r y o f Language C ha nge , in

Directions for Historical Linguistics

pp. 95-18 8. W. P . Leh m ann and

Yak ov Malk iel , Au s t in , Texas : Un ivers i ty of Texas Press .

Documents

Dialects and Historical Linguistics, Key