Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (DDD)IN THE BIBLE
IN THE BIBLE
DDD Edited by
Pieter W. van der Horst
SECOND EXTENSIVELY REVISED
1999
o 1999 Koninklijke Brill NV. Leiden. The Netherlands
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First edition 1995 Second e~tensively revised edition 1999
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Printed in the United States of America
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Ubrary or Congress Cataloglng-In-Publlcatlon Data
Dictionary of deitiell and demon~ in the Dible (DOD) I Karel van der Toorn. Bob &eking. Pieter W. van der Horst. editors. - 2nd extensh'ely rev. ed.
p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. Brill ISBN 90-04-1 I 119-0 (cloth: alk. paper).
&rdmans ISBN 0-8028·2491·9 (cloth: alk. p3~r).
I. Gods in the Bible - Dictionaries. 2. Demonology in the Bible - Dictionaries. I. Toom. K. van du. II. Becking. Bob. 111. Horst. Pieter Willem van der.
BS680.G57053 1999 220.3 - de21 98-42505
CIP
Ole Deutsche Bibllothek - CIP·Elnheltsaurnahme
Dictionary or deities and demons In the BIble: (DOD) I Karel van dcr Toorn ... ed. ­ 2nd extensively rev. ed. - Leiden: Boston: Klnn : Brill. 1998
Brill ISBN 90-04-11119-0 Eerdmans ISBN 0-8028-2491·9
Brill ISBN 90 ~ 11119 0 &rdmans ISBN 0-8028·2491·9
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CONTENTS
Introduction.......... ... XV Preface to the Revised Edition......................................... XIX Abbreviations............................... XXI
General.... XXI Biblical Books (including the Apocrypha) XXI Pseudepigraphical and Early Patristic Works...... XXII Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Texts ~.............. XXIII Targumic Material XXIII Periodicals, Reference Works, and Series XXIV
List of Entries................................................................... XXXIII
Index a& flo............... 943
Larry J. ALDERINK, Moorhead (Demeter, Nike, Stoicheia)
Bendti\LSTER,<Jopenhagen (Tammuz, Tiamat, Tigris)
Jan ASSMANN, Heidelberg (Amun, Isis, Neith, Re)
David E. AUNE, Chicago (Archai, Archon, Hera, Heracles)
Tjitze BAARDA, Amsterdam (Sabbath)
Hans M. BARSTAD, Oslo (Dod, Sheol, Way)
Bernard F. BATTO, Greencastle (Behemoth, Curse, Zedeq)
Bob BECKING, Utrecht (Abel, Amalek, Ancient of Days, Arm, Blood, Breasts-and-womb, Cain, Day, Eagle. El-rophe, Ends of the earth. Exalted ones, Girl, Hubal, Ishbara, Jaghut, Jalam, Japheth, Jordan, Kenan, Lagamar, Protectors, Qatar, Rapha, Raven. Sarah, Sasam, Sha, Shalman, Shelah, Shem, Shining One(s), Shunama, Sisera, Thillakhuha, Thuka­ muna, Vanities, Varona,Virgin, YaCuq, Yehud, Zarnzummim)
Hans Dieter BETz, Chicago (Authorities, Dynamis, Legion)
VIII
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Jan N. BREMMER. Groningen (Ares. Hades. Hymenaios. Linos. Narcissus. Nereus. Nymph)
Cilliers BREITENBACH, Berlin (Hypsistos. Nomos. Satan)
Roelof VAN DEN BROEK, Utrecht (Apollo. Phoenix)
Mordechai CoGAN, Jerusalem (Ashima, Shulman, Shulmanitu. Sukkoth-benoth, Tartak)
John J. CoLUNS, Chicago (Daniel, Gabriel, Liers-in-wait, Prince. Saints of the Most High, Watcher)
Peter W. COXON, St. Andrews (Gibborim, Nephilim. Noah)
Peggy L. DAY, Winnipeg (Anat. Jephtah's daughter. Satan)
Meindert DIJKSTRA. Utrecht (Abraham. Adat, Aliyan, Clay, Esau. Ishmael, Jacob. Joseph. Leah, Mother. Rachel)
Ken DOWDEN. Birmingham (Aeneas. Daphne, Dioskouroi. Jason. Makedon. Menelaos. Patroklos. Pcrseus.Quiri­ nus, Silvanus, Skythes, Thessalos)
Han J. W. DRIJVERS, Groningen (Aion, Atargatis, Mithras)
Eric E. ELNES, Princeton (Elyon, Olden Gods)
Reinhard FELDMEIER, Bayreuth (Almighty, Mediator II, World rulers)
Jarl E. FOSSUM, Ann Arbor (Dove, Glory, Simon Magus, Son of God)
Hannes D. GAUER, Graz (Aya, Bashtu, Hubur)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Fritz GRAF, Basel (Aphrodite. Athena, Bacchus, Dionysus, Heros, Zeus)
Jonas C. GREENFIELD, Jerusalem (Apkallu, Hadad)
Mayer I. GRUBER. Beer-Sheva (Abomination, Azabbim, Gillulim, Lies, One)
John F. HEALEY, Manchester (Dagon. Dew, Ilib. Mot. Tirash)
Matthieu S. H. G. HEERMA VAN VOSS, Amsterdam (Hathor, Horus, Osiris, Ptah)
George C. HEIDER. River Forest (Lahmu, Molech, Tannin)
Ronald S. HENDEL. Dallas (Nehushtan, Serpent, Vampire)
Jan Willem VAN HENTEN, Amsterdam (Angel II. Archangel, Dragon. Mastemah, Python, Roma. Ruler cult. Typhon)
Wolfgang HERRMANN. Stuttgart (Baal, Baal-zebub, EI, Rider-upon-the-c1ouds)
IX
Pieter W. VAN DER HORST, Utrecht (Adam, Amazons, Ananke, Chaos, Dike, Dominion. Eros, Evil Inclination, Father of the lights, God II, Hosios kai dikaios, Hyle, Hypnos, Lamb, Mammon, Thanatos. Themis, Unknown God)
Comelis HOUTMAN, Kampen (Elijah, Moses, Queen of Heaven)
Herbert B. HUFFMON, Madison (Brother, Father, Name, Shalem)
Manfred HUTTER, Graz (Abaddon. Asmodeus, Earth, Heaven, Heaven-and-earth, Lilith, Shaushka)
x UST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Albert DE JONG, Leiden (Khvarenah, Mithras, Vohu Manah, Wrath)
Marinus DE JONGE, Leiden (Christ, Emmanuel, Heaven, Sin, Thrones)
Jean KELLENS, Liege (Arta, Baga, Haoma)
Ernst Axel KNAUF, Bern (Edom, Qos, Shadday)
Matthias KOCKERT, Berlin (Fear of Isaac, Mighty One of Jacob, Shield of Abraham)
Frans VAN KOPPEN, Leiden (Agreement, Altar, Holy One, Humban, Kiriri~a, Sanctuary, Soil, Vashti)
Marjo C. A. KORPEL, Utrecht (Creator of AJI, Rock, Stone, Thombush)
Bernhard LANG, Paderborn (Wisdom)
Fabrizio LELu, Florence (Stars)
Theodore 1. LEWIS, Athens (USA) (Dead, First-born of death, Teraphim)
Bert Jan LIETAERT PEERBOLTE, Leiden (Antichrist)
Edouard LIPINSKI, Louvain (Lamp, Light, Shemesh)
Alasdair LIVINGSTONE, Binningham (Assur, Image, Nergal)
Johan LUST, Louvain (Gog, Magog)
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
P. Kyle McCARTER, Baltimore (Evil spirit of God, Id. Zion)
Meir MALUL, Haifa (Strong Drink, Taboo, Terror of the Night)
Luther H. MARTIN, Burlington (Fortuna, Hennes, Tyche)
Samuel A. MEIER, Columbus (Angel I, Angel of Yahweh, Destroyer, Mediator I)
Tryggve N. D. METTINGER, Lund (Cherubim, Seraphim, Yahweh zebaoth)
A. R. MILLARD, Liverpool (Adrammelech, Anammelech. Nabu, Nibhaz)
Patrick D. MILLER, Princeton (Elyon, Olden Gods)
Hans-Peter MOLLER, MUnster (Chemosh, Falsehood. Malik)
S. MONGER, Fribourg (Ariel)
E. Theodore MULLEN, Indianapolis (Baalat, Go'el, Witness)
Xl
Nadav NA'AMAN, Tel Aviv (Baal toponyms, Baal-gad, Baal-hamon, Baal-hazor, Baal-hennon, Baal-judah, Baal­ meon, Baal-perazim, Baal-shalisha, Baal-tamar)
XII LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Herbert NIEHR, Tilbingen (Baal-zaphon, God of heaven, He-of-the-Sinai, Host of heaven, Zaphon)
Kirsten NIELSEN, Arhus (Oak, Sycomore, Terebinth)
Gregorio DEL OUtO LETE. Barcelona (Bashan, Deher, Og)
Dennis PARDEE, Chicago (Asham, Eloah, Gepen. Gether, Koshar, Kosharoth)
Simon B. PARKER, Boston (Council, Saints, Shahar, Sons of (the) God(s»
Martin F. G. PARMENTIER, Utrecht (Mary)
Emile PUECH, Jerusalem (LeI. Lioness. Milcom)
Albert DE PURY, Geneva (El-olam, El-roi, Lahai-roi)
Jannes REILING, Utrecht (Elders, Holy Spirit, Melchizedek, Paraclete, Unclean Spirits)
Sergio RIBICHINI, Rome (Adonis, Baetyl, Eshmun, Gad, Melqart)
Greg 1. RILEY. Fairfax (Demon, Devil, Midday demon)
Wolfgang ROLLlG, Tilbingen (Baal-shamem, Bethel, EI-creator-of-the-earth, Hermon, Lebanon,
Sirion)
Udo ROTERSW{}RDEN, Kiel (Horeph, Horon, King of terrors)
Brian SCHMIDT, Ann Arbor (AI, Moon)
Choon-Leong SEOW, Princeton (Am, Face, Lim, Torah)
Klaas A. D. SMELIK, Brussels (Ma'at)
S. David SPERLING, New York (Belial, Meni, Sheben)
Klaas SPRONK, Amsterdam (Baal of Peor, Dedan, Lord, Noble ones, Rahab, Travellers)
Marten STOL, Amsterdam (Kaiwan, Mulissu, Nanea, Sakkuth, Sin)
Fritz STOLZ, ZUrich (River, Sea, Source)
Marvin A. SWEENEY, (Ten Sephirot)
XllI
Karel VAN DER TOORN, Amsterdam (Agreement, Altar, Amurru, Arvad, Avenger, Beltu, Boaz, Cybele, Eternity, Euphra­ tes, Gabnunnim, God I, Gush. Ham, Haran. Hayin, Hebat, Holy One, Humbaba, Humban, Jael, Kelti, Kese), Kiriri~a, Laban, Meriri, Min, Mouth, Nahor, Qatar, Rakib-El, Ram, Sanctuary, Serug, Seth, Shahan, Sheger, Shepherd, Shimige, Sidon, Soil, Terah, Vashti, Viper, Vohu Manah, Yahweh)
Joseph TROPPER, Berlin (Spirit of the dead, Wizard)
XIV LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Christoph UEHLlNGER, Fribourg (Leviathan, Nimrod. Nisroch, Riding Horseman)
Hcnnan TE VELDE, Groningen (Bastet. Bes, Khonsu, Nile)
Richard L. Vos, Capelle aan de IJssel (Apis, Atum, Ibis, Thoth)
Jan A. WAGENAAR, Utrecht (King)
Wilfred G. E. WATSON, Newcastle upon Tyne (Fire, Flame, Helel, Lah, Misharu)
Nicholas WYATT, Edinburgh (Asherah, Astarte, Calf, Eve, Kinnaru, Oil, Qeteb)
Paolo XELLA, Rome (Barad, Haby, Mountains-and-valleys, Resheph)
Larry ZALCMAN, Tel Aviv (Orion, Pleiades)
Ida ZATELU, Florence (Aldebaran, Constellations, Libra)
Dieter ZELLER, Mainz (Jesus, Kyrios)
INTRODUCIlON
The Dictiona1)' ofDeities and Demons in the Bible (henceforth DDD) is in some ways unlike any other dictionary in the field of biblical studies. This is the first catalogue of its kind, one which discusses all the gods and demons whose names are found in the Bible. Complementing the usual surveys and histories of Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Ugaritic, Syro-Palestinian, Persian, Greek, and Roman religion, DDD assesses the impact of contemporary religions on Israel and the Early Church by focusing on those gods that actually left traces in the Bible.
The deities and demons dealt with in this dictionary are not all of one kind. Even though the distinction between major and minor gods is a delicate one, some of the gods here discussed are more representative of their culture than others; Marduk's place in Babylonian religion is more central than that of the god Euphrates. If both have nevertheless found their way into DDD, it is because the two of them are men­ tioned in the Bible. Other gods, however, despite their importance, have no separate entry in DDD because there is not a single mention of them in the biblical books: Enlil is an example of this. The imbalance produced by a selection based on the occurrence of a god's name in the Bible is redressed, to some degree, by a system of cross-refer­ ences throughout DDD and an index at the end. Thus Anu, the Mesopotamian god of heaven, does not have a separate entry, but is discussed under 'Heaven', and in various other articles indicated in the index. The inevitable disproportion caused by the cri­ terion on which DDD has been conceived is often more optical than real.
The criterion by which DDD has selected its gods has just been summarized as men­ tion of the god's name in the Bible. Yet things are not as straightforward as this rule of thumb measurement might suggest. The boundaries of the Bible, to begin with, change from the one religious community to the other. In order to make the selection of deities as representative as possible, the editors have chosen to base it on the most com­ prehensive canon currently used, viz. that of the Orthodox Churches, which consists of the complete canon of the Septuagint version (including 3 and 4 Maccabees) plus the Greek New Testament. The term Bible as used in the title of DDD covers in fact the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible; the complete Septuagint (including the so-called Apocrypha); and the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. Though many articles pay attention to the subsequent development of notions and concepts in the Pseud­ epigrapha, the latter have not been used as an independent quarry of theonyms.
Many gods discussed in DDD are mentioned by name in the Bible. They constitute what one might call the first group. Obvious examples are Asherah, Baal, EI, Hermes, Zeus and others. These gods were still recognized or recognizable as such by the author of the relevant passage and by the audience. In some instances the names are found only in the Septuagint and not in the corresponding section of the Masoretic text. An interesting example is Apis: at Jer 46:15 the Greek Old Testament has E¢UYEV 6 "Amc;,
XVI INTRODUcnON
"(Why) has Apis fled?", where the Masoretic text reads ~iiOj, "(Why) was it swept away?" Should the Greek be a misunderstanding of the Hebrew text (which is not cer­ tain), it is valuable as a reflection of the religious milieu surrounding the-Jewish­ community in which the translator was at home.
A second group of deities listed in DDD are mentioned in the Bible. not indepen­ dently, but as an element in personal names or place names. Such theophoric anthropo­ nyms and toponyms are a rich source of information on the religious milieu of the Israelites and the Early Christians. It need hardly be said that the occurrence of a deity in a place name. such as Anat in Anathoth. or Shemesh in Beth-shemesh, does not automatically imply that the deity in question was in fact worshipped by the people who lived there; nor need someone called Artemas or Tychicus (TIt 3: 12) have been a devotee of Artemis or Tyche. Yet such names reflect a certain familiarity with the dei­ ties in question. if not of the inhabitants of the town or the bearer of the name. then at least of their ancestors or their surroundings. The deities in question may therefore be said to have been part of the religious milieu of the Bible.
A third group of deities consists of gods mentioned in the Bible. but not in their capacity as gods. They are the so-called demythologized deities. Examples abound. One of the Hebrew words for moon used in the Bible is )'iirea~l; this is the etymological equivalent of Yarikh, the moon-god known from the Ugaritic texts. Although the moon may have retained faint traces of divinity in the Bible. it has basically been divested of its divine status. The same holds true of the sun (femeS): the Hebrew word corresponds with the god Shamash in Akkadian, and the goddess Shapshu in Ugaritic. There are many other. more trivial instances, such as tiros, the Hebrew word for new wine, ety­ mologically the equivalent of the Mesopotamian deity Sirish and the Canaanite god Tirash. Although the Hebrew words (and there arc also Greek examples) no longer stand for deities, the very fact that the corresponding terms in other Semitic languages do, is revealing. We have included many examples of such dethroned deities, not only to draw attention to the mythological overtones still occasionally perceptible, but also to demonstrnte how Israelites, Jews, and Early Christians were part of a religious cul­ ture from which they are to be distinguished at the same time.
The fourth group of deities discussed in DDD consists of gods whose presence and/or divinity is often questionable. In the course of biblical scholarship. a wealth of alleged deities has been discovered whose very presence in the texts it not immediately evident. A famous example is that of Belti and Osiris. By slightly revocalizing Isa 10:4, and altering the division of the words, Paul de Lagarde obtained a reference to Belti and Osiris where generations of scholars before him had read a negation (bilri) and the collective designation of prisoners ('ass;r). Such emendations sometimes con­ jure up gods hitherto unknown: in many cases they are phantom deities. in the sense that they are unattested elsewhere in the Bible or in ancient Near Eastern texts, or that the textual proposal is simply unwarranted. In the category of speculated deities fall also the suggestions concerning the appellative use of certain epithets, such as Shep­ herd or Stone. The reinterpretation of good Hebrew words (such as rae. 'evil') as theo­ nyms (such as Re, the Egyptian sun-god) is another case in point. In a limited number of cases, the supposed deity is established as the hidden reality behind a human figure;
INTRODUcnO~ XVII
thus Jephthah's daughter has allegedly been modelled after a goddess. The inclusion of such deities often is more a tribute to the scholarly ingenuity of colleagues, present and past, than an accurate picture of the religious situation in biblical times. Also, it has proved impossible to be exhaustive in this domain. Some suggestions have no doubt escaped our notice, or simply been judged too far-fetched to qualify for inclusion in DDD.
The fifth and final category of gods is constituted by human figures who rose to attain divine or semi-divine status in a later tradition. Jesus and Mary belong to this group, but also Enoch, Moses and Elijah. At times the process of glorification, or more precisely divinization, started during the biblical period: before the closing of the first century CE divinity was ascribed to Jesus. In most cases. however. the development leading to divine status has been postbiblical. It tells more about the WirkuIIgsgescllich­ Ie than about the perception of such exceptional humans by their contemporaries. Yet the borderlines between human and divine are not always crystal clear; neither is the precise point at which the divinization began. \Vhat is found in its full-blown form in postbiblical writings is often contained ill 1IliCe in the Bible.
The aims of DDD, in short, cannot be reduced to a single object. It is meant primari­ ly as an up-to-date source-book on the deities and demons found in the Bible. Its various attendant aims are hardly less important. though. It is meant as a scholarly introduction to the religious universe which the Israelites and the Early Christians were part of; it is meant as a tool to enable readers to assess the distinctiveness of Israelite, Jewish and Early Christian religions: it is meant as a survey of biblical scholarship with respect to the mythological background of various biblical notions and concepts: and it is meant. finally, as a means to discover that the Bible has not only dethroned many deities, but h<ls also produced new ones.
Most articles of DDD consist of four sections, each marked by a Roman numeral. Sec­ tion I discusses the name of the god. including its etymology, as well as its occurrence in the various .mdent civilisations surrounding Israel and Judah. The biblical evidence is briefly surveyed, and a general indication as to the capacity in which the name occurs is given. Section II deals with the identity. character and role of the deity or demon in the culture of origin. When an originally non-Israelite deity is discussed. such as Amun. Marduk or Zeus, the section focuses on the cult of the god outside the Bible. If the god is primarily attested in the Bible, section II is devoted to a discussion of the extra-biblical references and parallels. Section III deals with the role and nature of the deity in the books of the Bible. Section IV consists of the relevant bibliography. An asterisk prefixed to the name of the *author marks a publication as particularly important for the subject. Studies containing further bibliographical infommtion are followed by the observation '& lit' between brackets after the title. A supplementary section is sometimes <Idded to discuss the post-Biblical attestations and developments.
Many people have collaborated over the past four years to carry DDD to completion. It is a pleasure to mention some of those who have been involved with the project. The initial impetus came from Michael Stone (Jerusalem). His idea of creating a dictionary
XVIII INTRODUCTION
of ancient Near Eastern religions found favour with Brill; one of its publishers. Elisabeth Erdman. began to look for an editor. The three editors she eventually found decided to curtail Stone's ambitious project to far more modest dimensions; and even as modest a project as DDD has proved more time-consuming than any of us expected.
During the first year a list of entries was prepared. sample articles were written, and over a hundred authors were solicited. Several of the latter suggested entries previously overlooked by the editors. The major part of the job began at the end of the second year when articles started coming in. Though the scholarly work on the manuscripts (or rather hard copy) was done by the editorial team. if need be after consulting with the advisors. the bulk of the articles were processed and made ready for publication by various assistants. Mrs Gerda Bergsma. Ms Kim de Berg, Mr Joost van Meggelen, Mr Hans Baart. and Mr Theo Bakker have assisted us with the preparation of the manu­ script. for different amounts of time. We owe a special debt of gratitude to Ms Meta Baauw who saw most of the articles through the final stage of preparation. Mr Hans van de Berg (Utrecht University) wali invaluable for his assistance with all mat­ ters pertaining to computers and software. Dr Peter Staples (Utrecht University) and Mrs Helen Richardson have polished the…