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An Investigation Analysing the Perceivable Differences between Analogue and Digital Audio Equipment on a
Piece of Music.
Faculty of Arts and Creative Technologies.
By Scott Probert
10022259
BSc (HONS) Music Technology
Supervisor: Doug Rouxel
May 2014
Word Count (8794/8000)
CE70057-‐6
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Abstract
The purpose of this investigation is to ascertain whether or not a piece of music will benefit from introducing analogue signal processors at the different stages of music production. With digital signal processing (DSP) becoming more prevalent in the world of music production due to the recent advancements in digital technology and the availability of DSPs within digital audio workstations (DAWs). More and more producers’ are now producing tracks entirely within a DAW. For the relatively cheap cost of using the DSPs provided within a DAW compared to hiring a top end studio to produce a piece of music, it is time to find out whether the quality of music is been affected. This investigation aims to provide producers’ with answers as to whether listeners’ actually prefer music produced entirely within a DAW or with the introduction of analogue signal processors. The investigation will involve mixing and mastering a track using both analogue and digital signal processors in the following ways:
• Digital Mix/Digital Master • Digital Mix/Analogue Master • Analogue Mix/Analogue Master • Analogue Mix/Digital Master
Accompanied by a controlled listening test and survey that can provide additional information as to why listeners’ prefer the version they do, the investigation should be seen as a guide for producers’ who are having difficulty deciding which signal processing method to use. The investigations aim is to allow producers’ to make informed decisions based on the results of the investigation for their future productions that will make their music more appealing to the public.
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Acknowledgements
Thanks go to the following people for their assistance in the production of this investigation and recordings made. Doug Rouxel – For the supervision, guidance and advice given throughout the production of this investigation. Thomas Frew – For the assistance in performing the analogue mix and advice on the techniques used. Adam Brown – For the assistance in recording some of the sounds used in the production of the track as well as the critical feedback received on the production techniques used. Staffordshire University – For providing the facilities to perform produce the recordings made for this investigation. Amanda Drennan – For assistance in collating the data of the listening tests. To all the manufacturers of the equipment used as specified in the ‘Equipment List’, which can be found in ‘Appendices 8.2’. To all the participants in the listening test and survey who shall remain anonymous, without them this investigation would not have been possible.
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Contents
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. 3 CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 4 TABLE OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................... 5 1 -‐ INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 6 2 -‐ TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS .............................................................................................. 7 2.1 -‐ DSPS. .......................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.2 -‐ ANALOGUE SIGNAL PROCESSORS. ......................................................................................................... 8
3 -‐ RESEARCH AND PROCESS ..................................................................................................... 10 3.1 -‐ PRODUCING THE TRACK. ..................................................................................................................... 10 3.2 -‐ PERFORMING THE MIX. ........................................................................................................................ 11 3.2.1 -‐ Preliminary Work. ........................................................................................................................ 11 3.2.2 -‐ The Aim of the Mix. ...................................................................................................................... 11 3.2.4 -‐ Digital Mix. ...................................................................................................................................... 12 3.2.5 -‐ Analogue Mix. ................................................................................................................................. 13
3.3 -‐ PERFORMING THE MASTER. ................................................................................................................ 13 3.3.1 -‐ Digital Master. ............................................................................................................................... 15 3.3.2 -‐ Analogue Master. .......................................................................................................................... 15
4 -‐ TESTING METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 17 4.1 -‐ RESEARCH. ............................................................................................................................................. 17 4.1.1 -‐ ‘ABX’ Testing. .................................................................................................................................. 17 4.1.2 -‐ Qualitative Research. .................................................................................................................. 17 4.1.3 -‐ Quantitative Research. ............................................................................................................... 18
4.2 -‐ CHOSEN TESTING METHOD. ................................................................................................................ 18 4.2.1 -‐ Producing the Listening Test. .................................................................................................. 18 4.2.2 -‐ Producing the Survey. ................................................................................................................. 20
5 -‐ RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 23 5.1 -‐ ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COLLECTED. ............................................................................................... 23 5.2 -‐ CONCLUSION. ......................................................................................................................................... 26
6 -‐ EVALUATION ............................................................................................................................ 29 7 -‐ BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................ 31 8 -‐ APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................. 36 8.1 -‐ FURTHER READING. .............................................................................................................................. 36 8.1.1 – Books. ................................................................................................................................................ 36 8.1.2 – Journals. ........................................................................................................................................... 37 8.1.3 – Magazines. ...................................................................................................................................... 37 8.1.4 – Websites. .......................................................................................................................................... 37
8.2 -‐ EQUIPMENT LIST. .................................................................................................................................. 38 8.3 -‐ SCREENSHOTS. ....................................................................................................................................... 39 8.4 -‐ COMPLETED QUESTIONNAIRES. ......................................................................................................... 40
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Table of Figures
Figure 1.1 – Table showing some descriptive words for musical instruments………………………………………………………………………………………………….22 Figure 2.1 – Graph showing the versions that are most and least preferred by the test subjects’……………………………………………………………………………………………..………...23 Figure 2.2 – Graph showing the age range and gender of subjects’ that choose versions 1 and 3…………………………………………………………………………………….……...24
Figure 2.3 – Graph showing the descriptive words used when describing both versions 1 and 3…………………………………………………………………………………..………..25
Figure 3.1 – Screenshot of the edit window of the structured project……………..39
Figure 3.2 – Screenshot of recorded percussion and Rhodes sample………………39
Figure 3.3 – Screenshot of the VST used for the creation of one of the bass parts for the project……………………………………………………………………………………..………..40
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1 -‐ Introduction
“In the good old days of professional recording a studio was built around an
analogue mixer, a 2-‐inch analogue multitrack recorder, a pair of monitors, and some outboard effects” (White, 1998).
Engineers such as ‘Nirvana’s’ Steve Albini still records to analogue tape believing that “today’s digital recordings will be unplayable in the future”(Guttenburg, 2013). However, today this is not common practice and though most artists’ use analogue equipment to record (like micing up an amp), the signal is recorded and stored digitally as binary code using a DAW. Today, due to recent technological advancements, most people record, mix, and master entirely within a DAW and the binary information that represents the sounds never return to an analogue signal (except for monitoring) until it leaves the listeners’ speakers (Hamasaki, et al, 2012, p.94). While now commonly accepted that the recording process will involve a digital representation being made within a DAW, more artists’ are now choosing to record their LPs from the very first note in an analogue environment and it’s renewed popularity suggests some listeners’ may be tired of MP3s squeezed sonics (Yu, et al, 2004, pp.1-‐14). Audio Engineering Society (AES) member Sterne (2006) believes the perceivable differences between analogue and digital audio are a philosophical debate among academics, journalists and audiophiles. Believing that the debate is simply an anxiety, and fear, of loss of audio quality as it passes through many signal processors from the time it is produced to the time it reaches the listener’s ears (Sterne, 2006, pp.338-‐348). Considering most recordings are converted to a digital format almost instantly, this project will help advise artists as to whether their recordings will benefit from introducing analogue processing at the mixing and/or mastering stages of a production.
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2 -‐ Technical Considerations
As the investigation will replicate a commercial recording environment, whether utilising DSPs provided within a DAW, outboard analogue processors or a combination of both. The equipment used will need to replicate the equipment used throughout the music industry that utilise both analogue and digital signal processors. The university offers the facilities to utilise both analogue and digital processors used throughout the music industry by artists’ that have had commercial success. Following is an explanation of these processes and how they are used throughout the music industry.
2.1 -‐ DSPs. As “mechanical equipment can be expensive or impossible to acquire, and a hassle to maintain or use” (Robjohns, 2010), it is unsurprising that DSPs are now the most common method for processing audio (Brandenburg, 1998, p.1). One significant advantage of using DSPs is, unlike analogue processors, digital plugin processors allow custom settings to be saved and recalled for future use. These settings can also be edited to accommodate almost any situation making them very versatile for producers as well as mixing and mastering engineers’ (Levine & Skolnick, 1997, pp.1-‐23). Recent years have seen the continuation of the shift from using analogue signal processors to DSPs within the professional audio products market (Floru, 2005, pp.1-‐16). Due to the performance improvements in solid-‐state memory, disk drives and microprocessors, the performance capabilities of modern DSPs has got to a stage that is now comparable to their analogue counterparts making them a popular choice for music producers’ (Johnston & Musialik, 2012, pp.104-‐105). One criticism of using DSPs is that, although many parameters can be automated to change on playback simultaneously, it requires the input of data through the use of a keyboard or mouse and the limitation is that only one single control can be changed at any single time without the use of a digital controller. This method is often seen as too clinical and precise and doesn’t capture the ‘more human’ feel of analogue mixing techniques (Robjohns, 2013, p.26). As Avid’s ‘Pro Tools’, Imageline’s ‘FL Studio’ and Apple’s ‘Logic Pro’ are now the most popular DAWs (Stillman, 2013), it means that the plugins bundled with the DAWs are now owned and utilised by many people. This means the characteristics of each plugin are now embedded on many tracks heard by the public. This compared to the varying factors that can affect the characteristics of analogue processors can result in music having the same characteristics due to the plugins that are used (Kirn, 2013).
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2.2 -‐ Analogue Signal Processors. Using analogue processors during any stage of a production can cause some issues. While allowing the user to become more involved in the process with hands-‐on controls utilising more of the users senses such as tactile feedback (Altinsoy, et al, 2010, pp.1-‐7). It can have practical downfalls requiring the user to employ their own system for remembering settings and routing. This requires good organisational skills such as taking notes and pictures to allow settings and routing to be replicated in future sessions. Although modern DSPs are now often cheaper and affect the signals differently to their analogue counterparts, many companies still produce analogue audio equipment that are priced to compete with modern DSPs (Sterne, 2006, pp.338-‐348). Often these lower priced analogue processors have unbalanced inputs meaning that the tip and ring are ‘hot’ and the other is the reference or ground. This type of design cannot reject common mode signals present in the signal wire as well as in the ground pin. This can result in unwanted noise being added to the signal, and when used the signal is often boosted resulting in the unwanted noise been boosted as well (Floru, 2005, pp.1-‐16). To combat this problem balanced inputs are used which reject the common mode signal and amplifies the differential signal resulting in a cleaner sound as the ground wire does not carry a signal and any currents flowing through the ground pin do not interfere with the signal. However, this raises production costs and can drive up the price of the unit making some units less competitive with their digital counterparts. Cheaper analogue signal processors also find it hard to perform as well as their digital competitors as designing an analogue signal processor can challenge a design team’s ability to meet both cost and performance requirements (Murphy, 2013). Trying to avoid high production costs, cheaper components are used and less shielding is implemented making them more susceptible to noise due to power supply variations, electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI). These unwanted signals can be caused by many common aspects of the modern world such as:
• Radio and Television (TV) broadcasts • Mobile radio communications • Mobile telephones • Lighting • Utility power lines • Electric motors • Computers (Jung, 2005, pp.686-‐852).
As most of these signals are unavoidable, it is especially important that equipment used is as protected as possible from these unwanted interferences. This makes the cheaper analogue signal processors undesirable to many producers who would rather use DSP plugins within the same price range that
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can emulate the characteristics of classic analogue processors rather than open their audio up to these unwanted interferences (Lambert, 2010). This is why many analogue signal processors used by industry professionals in the top studios around the world like the Fairchild ‘670’ compressor and Manley’s ‘Massive Passive’ equaliser (EQ), although susceptible to RFI are relatively more expensive and can fetch around £5000 -‐ £30,000 second hand making them harder to come by for most people who have entered the music production world through the availability of common and relatively cheap DAWs. Using analogue equipment requires the signal to be (whether sound waves or binary information) turned into voltages to be processed. This is where the ‘analogue warmth’ in some analogue processors is added to the signal. Each component in the system, as well as the cables used, “will have specific frequency response characteristics, and will therefore modify the signal to some degree” (Davis & Jones, 1990, p.12). These characteristics, which are often seen as imperfections in the system, can also introduce harmonic distortion and a “significant roll-‐off above the cutoff frequency of the device” (Davis & Jones, 1990, p.13) that adds the character of the processor to the signal. It is this process that “adds a character which makes a significant improvement in the basic sound of the track being processed” resulting in “less EQ or compression being needed, preserving the quality of the original sound” (Kemp, 2000, p.1). This can help producers’ achieve sounds individual to them helping their track standout and become harder to replicate giving them an edge on the competition. Although sometimes improving the sound, most analogue processors due to the components used can sometimes be unpredictable and sound different each time they are used. This is due to the components becoming warm and worn out through use. This can change the noise levels and characteristics of the equipment producing unexpected and sometimes undesirable results.
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3 -‐ Research and Process
Although the track used will be the same recording for the four different processing methods, each process will be treated as an individual session independent from its analogue or digital counterpart. This, due to the different equipment that will be used, will ensure the best possible outcome for each method and will take into account the different processing methods for each piece of equipment used.
3.1 -‐ Producing the Track. The availability and ease of use of the modern DAW has made music production a viable option for anybody interested in music to become involved in all stages of music production. Widely used for audio production, modern DAWs can be purchased quite inexpensively and by non-‐legal means for free (Hamaski, et al, 2012, p.94). The track used for this project was created in Apple’s ‘Logic Pro 9.1.8’. Currently available for purchase on Apple’s ‘App Store’ for £139.99 (as of March 2014) making it relatively cheap compared to other DAWs available such as Propellerhead’s ‘Reason 7’ and Avid’s ‘Pro Tools 11’ with recommended retail prices (RRP) of £349 and £550 respectively making it a popular choice amongst new producers’ (Try, 2011). Considering the nature of the investigation it is important that the recording will not bias the outcome. For this reason the track was produced using neither completely analogue nor completely digital recording methods and instead incorporated both. Using a mixture of analogue drums and keys samples alongside digitally produced sounds for bass and synths allowed the track to not be influenced too dramatically towards one side or another. As the purpose of the investigation is to analyse the sonic differences between analogue and digital processing it is important to use a mixture of both recorded sounds and digital sounds to not bias the test from the start.
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3.2 -‐ Performing the Mix. To achieve a good mix it is believed that preliminary work is beneficial to the creative process and is key to the process running smoothly (Bennett, 2005).
3.2.1 -‐ Preliminary Work. The individual tracks were exported in the stereo interleaved waveform audio file format (WAVE) with a bit depth and sample rate of 16Bit 44.1kHz ensuring that the tracks retain the original quality as when they were created. Along with setting up auxiliary buss channels for drums, bass, sub bass, synths and incidental sounds, the creative workflow of the project is ready for the mixing process (Altinsoy, et al, 2010, pp.1-‐7). This process was carried out for both the analogue and digital mix projects and although it initially seems unnecessary, it is believed that this simple preliminary process can increase creativity by allowing the “more technical ‘left-‐brain’ activity to be out of the way” (Lockwood, White & Robjohns, 2013, p.197) allowing the more creative ‘right-‐brain’ to work more efficiently and save time as well as CPU (Thornton, 2007). Using a reference track that has already proven to work within the genre is good practice and allows a reference point for the mix to be performed by providing a goal for the mix (Johnston & Spors, 2012, pp.105-‐106). The reference track used for this project is ‘Let Me Hold You’ by the artist ‘Calibre’ (2009) who is an established artist within the ‘Drum and Bass’ genre.
3.2.2 -‐ The Aim of the Mix. ‘Although common mixing techniques can be taught the art of mixing is not purely an analytical process that can be calculated to provide a solution’ (Sandler, et al,
2014, pp.4-‐13).
Mixing can be described as “the process of putting multiple layers of audio together to make one final track” (Tromp, 2011). The important element to remember is layers. As most tracks will have many layers all fighting for space, it is important that decisions are made as to which elements require the listener’s attention. This involves using EQ, dynamic range processors, volume control and phase based imaging processors to create a track that has space for each sound to breathe and stand out to the listener when necessary. This will allow listening to the track to become an immersive experience that captures the listener’s attention helping them feel part of the track (Scott & Youngmoo, 2013, pp.1-‐6). As well as being given the control of all the components of the track creatively, it is also the responsibility of the mix engineer to ensure the mix is correct technically. This means ensuring that no tracks are clipping, there is enough
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headroom for the mix to compete with similar tracks within the genre and that the noise floor is as inaudible as possible. This requires consideration, and a trade-‐off between the technical and creative aspects of a mix should be made according to the artistic objectives of both the artist and mix engineer (Sandler, et al, 2014, pp.4-‐13). However, as the main goal for any song is that listener’s enjoy it, listener’s expectations should be considered. This raises an issue for the mix engineer, as they must attempt to mix for as many possible listening environments as possible. As the mix engineer, at this stage, doesn’t know whether the track will be listened to through a large ‘PA’ system or a small mono kitchen radio. It is the job of the mix engineer to ensure that the track translates well through as many different playback systems as possible. This is done through referencing the mix through different playback systems in different listening environments and adjusting the mix so that it sounds good through as many different playbacks systems as possible (Sandler, et al, 2014, pp.4-‐13).
3.2.4 -‐ Digital Mix. Although the techniques explained above were used when performing the mix, there are certain elements of the mixing process that could be performed within the DAW that could not be performed during the analogue mix. During the early stages of music production all the sounds were recorded to analogue tape and had to be spliced to produce the final structured piece. It is now much simpler to create a complex structured track within a DAW and respected musicians’ such as Paul White (1996) believe that a track containing “out-‐of-‐time and out-‐of-‐tune playing can be improved if you have patience” (White, 1996) during the mixing process. One benefit of using a DAW is the ability to automate the parameters of almost every control within the DAW. This was useful for automating the volume controls of the virtual mixer within ‘Logic’. This is a form of dynamic control and allowed the volume of the ‘keys’ sample and synths to be altered throughout the track creating space and interesting dynamics. The ability to save the project with all its settings was beneficial during the digital mix and allowed the workload to be spread out across several sessions allowing breaks to be taken to rest the ears and minimise ear fatigue which can change the way a mix sounds when finished (Robjohns, 2002). The ability to return to the processors and adjust settings was a simple case of opening the plugin and adjusting the parameters, and unlike analogue processors did not require the re-‐recording of the track each time an adjustment was made.
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3.2.5 -‐ Analogue Mix. While performing the analogue mix it became obvious that while the theories behind the mixing process were the same, the process required a lot more concentration and thought. Assistance with the process proved key to performing the mix. While the fader movements could be recorded they could not be automated and had to be performed manually with accuracy and took several practices to get right. There were also limitations to the amount of processing that could take place simultaneously. Compression was performed using the TL Audio ‘Ivory 2 5051’ mono compressor and required each track that needed compression to be sent through the desk, through the compressor and re-‐recorded back into the DAW to draw attention to certain elements (Sterne, 2006, pp.338-‐348). This was repeated for the EQ applied on the desk and fader levels were performed in groups. These groups were then sent back to the desk were the final mix was performed. However, as the mix continued it was felt that some sounds needed adjusting which required the process to be repeated several times to acquire the desired outcome. This proved time consuming and required several sessions to be performed. As the desk was analogue (see ‘Appendices 8.2’), the settings on the desk could not be saved and notes of the settings were written down for future reference. This proved helpful when returning to the studio for subsequent sessions. However, even though the position of the parameters were noted down, it appeared that when the settings were reapplied the effect produced on the sound slightly differed to before and adjustments were needed to achieve the desired outcome. This wasn’t a problem and simply required some critical listening to assess the quality of the processing applied (Hoeg, et al, 1997).
3.3 -‐ Performing the Master. “Mastering is the last creative step in the audio production process” (Katz, 2007,
p.12) Usually combining the use of EQ and dynamic processors, mastering is the final processing stage and is the last step to enhance the track before distribution (Strurmel, et al, 2012, pp.2-‐10). The aim of mastering is to allow processing to take place that not only addresses technical flaws such as pops, clicks and hum, but also enhance the final mix helping achieve the artists’ creative vision and consistency over different playback systems. EQ used at this stage is not just aesthetic, and is often used to remove unwanted frequencies that are not fundamental to the overall track. As EQ used during mastering is usually performed on the entire track, it is important to use
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processors that are not just efficient but as transparent as possible (Mimilakis, et al, 2013, pp.1-‐7) as using EQ over an entire mix means that “changing anything affects everything” (Katz, 2007, p.103). However, Bob Katz (2007, p.215) believes that there is no such thing as a completely transparent audio processor and that some mastering processors are used because of what they add to the signal. Two common EQs used by mastering engineers’ are the Weiss ‘EQ1-‐LP’ and Manley’s ‘Massive Passive Stereo Equalizer’. The Weiss is a digital outboard EQ that is fairly transparent with superb sound qualities, while the Manley tube EQ has ‘just the right amount of tube distortion’ (Katz, 2007, p.152). This suggests that there is not one single EQ perfect for the job of mastering as different processors may affect different pieces of music differently. Compression used during mastering should be used subtly and to simply reduce peak levels of the audio. This is due to the compression been added over the entire track and not individual instruments. This means using hard compression settings are more audible to the listener resulting in an unnatural sound that pumps when the compressor is working. Adjusting the attack, release and knee controls of the compressor to softer settings allows a more pleasant result that is more spacious allowing the listener to identify individual instruments (Hjortkjaer & Walter-‐Hansen, 2014, pp.37-‐41). It is also important to pay attention to the tonal balance of the track when using compression as some compressors “affect lower frequencies more than higher ones, shifting the tonal balance of the track” (Senior, 2009). This can have an unwanted affect changing the whole balance of the track essentially destroying the mix performed by the mix engineer. The final stage mastering processing usually involves brick wall limiting. This is a form of dynamic range compression that not only reduces the peaks above the threshold setting, but completely cuts them off allowing the signal to be turned up without clipping. This process while being a great way of achieving ‘loudness’ without clipping, significantly reduces the dynamic range of the audio and can be fatiguing to the ears due to the constant high level of audio (Vickers, 2010, pp.1-‐27). The ‘loudness war’ has seen the on going increase in the ‘loudness’ of recorded music over recent years. Although many people believe that this is due to the competitiveness of the music industry with artists’ wanting their music to be louder than their competitors’ (Holmes, 2013, p.27). This may be due to the way in which people listen to music. With more people now listening to music through headphones and portable speaker systems in noisy environments. Engineers’ apply heavy compression and limiting to try and increase the ‘loudness’ of their music allowing their music to be heard consistently over external noise sources (Vickers, 2010, pp.1-‐27). While studies have shown this to be true, end users have no control over the amount of dynamics processing applied to a track, but they do have the use of the volume control on their chosen playback system. This allows the user to increase the playback level allowing the mastering engineer to apply less
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dynamic processing preserving the dynamic range and creative vision of the artist (Sturmel, et al, 2012, pp.2-‐10). This, however raises another issue, at what level will the music be played back? As the mastering engineer has no control over the listening level that the music is played back, the mastering engineer must ensure that the amount of processing applied will translate well through as many playback systems as possible. This can be done through referencing the track through different playback systems in different listening environments that replicate common listening methods. This can also help keep the dynamics of the track in perspective to a track that is known to be popular with listeners’ of the genre (Johnston & Spors, 2012, pp.105-‐106). It is suggested that calibrating the monitors to a level of 83dB allows sufficient dynamic range reproduction on most systems and allows the engineer to have a reference level for monitoring purposes (Mimilakis, et al, 2013, pp.1-‐7). The ‘K-‐System’ developed by Bob Katz allows three settings for calibrating systems by using three test signals known as ‘K20’, ‘K14’ and ‘K12’. By deciding which system the reference track came under by using the integrated ‘K-‐system’ within the Voxengo ‘SPAN’ plugin. The playback system was calibrated to the ‘K20’. This allowed the mastering process to be as efficient as possible using a reference track as a guide to the dynamics, tonal balance and perceived ‘loudness’ of the track. As the track will be written to a compact disc (CD) the file was exported as a 16Bit 44.1kHz WAVE stereo file adhering to the ‘Red Book’ standard devised by Philips and Sony (1980). In the commercial environment mastering is also the stage that prepares the track for distribution and can include priority queuing (PQ), adding CD text and the international standard recording code (ISRC) allowing each track to be identified allowing ownership to be traced. However, as this project is focusing on the signal processing methods used during these stages, these stages will not be considered or performed.
3.3.1 -‐ Digital Master. Using the processors provided with ‘Logic’, mastering was fairly simple and required several small sessions to be completed, each time referencing the track through different playback systems in different environments. The ability to change processors and settings with a few mouse clicks as well as saving the project meant that once flaws were heard during referencing it was a simple case of opening the project and adjusting the settings.
3.3.2 -‐ Analogue Master. Performing the analogue master required more time and concentration. Having not used the environment and system used for the process (room E2 at Staffordshire University). It took several sessions to achieve a master that was
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adequate. The equipment used seemed fairly transparent and for the first few sessions were overused resulting in overly heavy EQ and compression causing a final product that lacked dynamics and was biased towards the higher frequencies. After several sessions with more experience of the equipment and the environment the settings were adjusted and the final product had a similar tonal balance to the chosen reference track. The equipment used during both the digital and analogue mixing and mastering
process can be found in ‘Appendices 8.2’.
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4 -‐ Testing Methodology
Producing conclusive results that are able to provide artists’ with a definitive answer as to when and at what stage the different technologies are best used will be the key to it’s success. However, as music and it’s sonic qualities are a matter of personal preference and rely more upon the personality and social experiences of the listener (Swami, et al, 2013, pp.377-‐383). The test should be performed on subjects’ chosen at random. This will help ensure that the data collected will be a reflection of the general public and not a targeted cultural sector of the public (Pickering, 2008, p.19). This will allow the conclusions made to help the artists’ future decisions about signal processing to appeal to a wider sector of the public.
4.1 -‐ Research. The listening test produced will be based on several research methods to ensure that the data collected will provide the artist with as much information as possible.
4.1.1 -‐ ‘ABX’ Testing. The ‘ABX’ testing method is designed to “provide a simple, intuitive means to determine if there is an audible difference between two audio signals” (Boley & Letser, 2009, p.1). It relies on the listener detecting the differences between two audio signals played through a piece of equipment such as the ‘ABX Comparator’ produced by ‘QSC Audio’ (1980). The advantage of this method is that the test can be carried out using an automatic switcher allowing the audio played to alternate between two signals without interference by the research conductor. This helps remove unconscious bias on the test subject by the research conductor (QSC Audio, 1998, p.3). This method could be used to incorporate several pieces of audio producing statistical results revealing which piece of audio that the subjects’ prefer. However, as the results of this testing method will produce simple statistics, it will not provide information as to why they prefer the piece. The results will be rather vague and will not provide artists’ with informative feedback that could be helpful for future productions.
4.1.2 -‐ Qualitative Research. While ‘ABX’ testing alone doesn’t allow for information to be gathered concerning the reasons for the listeners’ choices. Qualitative research methods will allow a more informed answer to be provided by the test subjects’ by providing questionnaires and unstructured interviews to allow more in-‐depth
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answers to be obtained allowing more informative conclusions to be made that are able to explain why the piece of music appeals to the listener (McLeod, 2008). This will be time consuming and require a written survey to be produced that can allow answers related to the sample clips to be collated and analysed. This will provide personal preference as to which clip is preferred to be recorded and analysed.
4.1.3 -‐ Quantitative Research. As the results of the listening test will be based on a number of subjects’ opinions, it is important that the results can be measured. Quantitative research relies on gathering data in numerical form that can be categorised allowing the results to be measured (McLeod, 2008). This method allows the results of simple ‘yes/no’ answers or rating systems to be collated into a table or graph that can show the most and least popular choices of the survey. This method relies on the involvement of as many subjects’ as possible from as many cultural backgrounds as possible to form conclusions based on numerical data. While this testing method allows the analysis of simple numerical data to be performed. The results, like the ‘ABX’ testing method, will not provide information as to why the test subjects’ decisions were made. This will result in an uninformative conclusion that will not provide enough information to inform artists’ on their future productions.
4.2 -‐ Chosen Testing Method. As the advantages and disadvantages of several testing methods have now been assessed, the testing method for this investigation can now be made with consideration of the research conducted. It is suggested that the most effective testing method for any research is to incorporate several testing methods to produce a hybrid method that can provide as much accurate information as possible that is based on the material being tested and the aim of the investigation (Silverman, 2008, p.8).
4.2.1 -‐ Producing the Listening Test. Utilising the ‘ABX’ testing method that helps provide a test unbiased by the conductor or outside influence will help provide results based on the opinions of the test subjects’ perceptions of the audio alone. This will provide the best method for a listening test as “the only sufficient method of assessing the quality of audio is by listening” (Hoeg, et al, 1997, p.40).
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This method will be implemented by selecting the same small section of audio from each version and playing it to the test subjects’ without informing them of which version they are listening to. This will allow blind testing to take place that is unaffected by having previous knowledge of how the audio was processed. This helps produce unbiased results, as if the test subject has prior knowledge of which processing method was used. They may be inclined to make their decisions based on their own personal opinion of the processing method used, and not on how the audio clips appeal to them through listening alone. This will be performed by loading the audio clips into a ‘Logic’ project and soloing one clip, playing it for the listener and repeating this process for the rest of the sample clips. The clips will be played in random order to minimise the effects of listening fatigue and a bias towards the first or last sample been played (Vickers, 2010, pp.1-‐27). The order in which the clips are played will be noted down for use when collating the data and the test subject will not be made aware of the playing order. This will allow the test subject to listen to the audio clips and answer the survey questions referring to the order that they heard them. Recording the order in which the test subject heard the clips along with what number the test subject has given will allow the data collected to be broken down into statistical information that will show the outcome of the most and least preferred clips. Care will be taken to not bias the subjects’ in any way. This will include minimal eye contact, no discussion as the ‘Front Sheet’ provided will cover the information needed for the subjects’, and not facing the subjects’ during the test to minimise influence of the researcher over the test subjects’. Each track, while been processed separately will all peak at 0dBFS. This will allow a certain amount of consistency through all four clips (Vickers, 2010, pp.1-‐27). However, this will not allow for the difference of the dynamics of each clip, but as each clip has been produced using the same reference track and monitored to ensure that each version has the same average level using the Voxengo ‘SPAN’ plugin using the ‘K20’ setting, the overall perceived ‘loudness’ should be consistent through all clips. The playback volume of the test should be consistent for all test subjects’ and will be measured using the average rating of 83dB using a sound pressure level (SPL) meter. The volume level of the internal soundcard (Apple ‘MacBook Pro’) will be noted and remain static through all listening tests performed. This calibration stage will be introduced in order to prevent the biasing effect of difference in perceived ‘loudness’ (Mimilakis, et al, 2013, pp.1-‐7). As the aim of the test is to collect the opinions of the general public, the environment in which the subjects’ will be tested may vary. While a quiet studio environment with an accurate playback system and as little outside noise as possible would be ideal. Practically this will be difficult to execute and will not replicate the natural listening environment of the general public.
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Recent years have seen the shift towards mobile listening devices and an increasing number of people are now listening to the majority of their music through headphones (Johnston & Spors, 2012, pp.105-‐106). For this reason headphones will be used during the listening tests. This method will help replicate the natural listening environment of the general public according to Johnston and Spors (2012), and also help minimise outside noise that has the ability corrupt any listening test. While this method will be quite time consuming, AES member Linkwitz (2009) believes that listening to music through headphones is equivalent to listening to studio monitors in a near anechoic environment allowing for critical listening to take place. This will aid the results of the evaluation and reduce the effects that the environment can have on the listener. The amount and position of people in a room along with the equipment and surfaces will affect the reflections and direct sound heard by the listener (Lockwood, White & Robjohns, 2013, p.217). This will affect the stereo image, frequency intensity and tonal balance of the track heard, all of which will be minimised by listening to the clips through headphones (Linkwitz, 2009, pp.1-‐11). The headphones used will be KRK ‘KNS-‐8400’ studio monitoring headphones (see ‘Appendices 8.2’). Produced by a company who are well established in the world of studio monitors. They are designed to “reproduce the experience of listening on studio monitors as closely as possible” (Inglis, 2011). One criticism that is made about the headphones is that they are described as being fatiguing when listening for long periods of time. This should not affect the outcome of the listening tests as the total listening time for the test will be under three minutes. This will also ensure that the listening environment for each test subject is consistent and unbiased by the characteristics of different playback systems as described by Breshears (2001).
4.2.2 -‐ Producing the Survey. “It is not possible to develop a questionnaire that can be analysed properly unless
you first understand methods of analysis” (Vaus, 2002, p.94).
The information needed for this investigation to be successful relies on statistical data that can show which version people least and most prefer, along with information for why people prefer the version they choose. This will allow reasoning as to why the most popular version is preferred based on data analysis and research. The survey requires a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods to quire sufficient information that will aid the objective of the project (Sale, et al, 2002, pp.43-‐53). Quantitative data will provide statistical information that can be analysed and shown as numerical information that will indicate which processing method the
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test subjects’ prefer. “The goal is to measure and analyse casual relationships between variables within a value-‐free framework” (Sale, et al, 2002, pp.43-‐53). It is important that the information gained from the subjects’ is free from influence by the investigator. This requires the questions asked to not ‘lead’ the subject in any way as this would taint the results leading to conclusions been made that do not represent the thoughts and feelings of the general public. This requires that the investigator remains separate from the subject during the completion of the survey (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, pp.14-‐26). This will be implemented by leaving the room while the subject completes the survey so that no discussion, eye contact or emotional response can be made between the subject and investigator. This should ensure that no bias is made towards any one part of the listening test and survey. This hypothesis may be hindered by the presence of the investigator during the listening test, but can be combatted by having minimal engagement with the subject and insisting that the subject faces away from the investigator during the test. The questions that will be included in the survey should anticipate what information is needed from the subjects’ to ensure that the data collected is able to provide definitive answers to the aims of the project (Vaus, 2002, p.94). The questions chosen for this investigation are as follows:
• Gender? • Age? • Which version do you prefer most? • Pick four words from the selection provided below that best describe
why you prefer the version that you selected in the previous question. • Which version do you least prefer? • Pick four words from the selection provided below that best describe
why you least prefer the version that you selected in the previous question.
The questions chosen for the survey were constructed to ensure that the information collected is based solely on the subjects’ personal preference and are not designed to ‘lead’ the subject by introducing bias towards any one version. Not providing a rating scale for each version allows the statistical data collected to provide answers as to which processing method is preferred based on listening alone. Choosing descriptive words that can describe the sonic qualities of a piece of music is difficult, often vague and varies from person to person. Often referring to the frequency content of instruments, descriptive words can describe the tonal balance of an instrument. Mixing engineer and lecturer Roey Izhaki (2008) shows this in the form of a table:
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However, these descriptions are associated with the frequency content of individual instruments and not an entire track. Contrary to Izhaki’s method, composer Paul Nelson (2005) has devised a table of positive and negative descriptive words that was “originally intended for non-‐musicians who need to communicate with music professionals” (Nelson, 2005) and are as follows:
Negative Positive Dark Bright Muddy Clean Cold Warm Harsh Smooth
These provide a means for the test subjects’ to describe why they prefer the tracks they choose. However, as there is no standardized format for descriptive words for music (Izhaki, 2008, p.231). The positive and negative connotations of these words could vary from person to person and as such will be grouped together without any connotations made towards there meanings. This will allow a relationship between the statistical and descriptive data to be made that may help the conclusion of the analysis carried out.
Figure 1.1 -‐ Table showing some descriptive words for musical instruments (Izhaki, 2008, p.232).
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5 -‐ Results
With the listening test and surveys completed, analysis of the data collected can now be performed. For the purpose of the survey the four different signal processing methods were referred to as ‘Versions’ to not lead the subject. The following is a description of each version:
• Version 1 – Digital Mix/Digital Master • Version 2 – Digital Mix/Analogue Master • Version 3 – Analogue Mix/Analogue Master • Version 4 – Analogue Mix/Digital Master
5.1 -‐ Analysis of the Data Collected. From the initial analysis of the data the graph below shows the versions most preferred and least preferred by the test subjects’.
Figure 2.1 – Graph showing the versions that are most and least preferred by the test subjects’.
This shows that 38% of the subjects’ preferred version 1 and 38% of the subjects’ least preferred version 3. When compared to the 32% of subjects’ who preferred version 2, and the 16% and 14% of subjects’ who preferred versions 3
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and 4. It shows that the digital signal processing method is the most preferred method for processing audio according to the subjects’ tested. This could be due to the way in which the test was administered. As each subject will have differently shaped ears that will affect the sound leakage of the headphones on the subjects’. This suggests that what the subjects’ hear “is a summation of the sound transmitted through the headset, leaked sound, and tissue conducted sound” (Riikonen, et al, 2008, pp.1-‐8). This means that the sound heard by each test subject will be slightly different, and could affect the data collected.
Figure 2.2 – Graph showing the age range and gender of subjects’ that choose versions 1 and 3.
The age group and gender of the subjects’ that choose versions 1 and 3 also show that the majority of these choices are made by people between the ages of 16-‐35 and are male. However from all the subjects’ tested 66% were male which shows the gender of test subjects’ who selected both versions 1 and 3 are more equal than they appear in the data. An important factor to remember from these results is the age group. As research shows, the perceived intensity of higher frequencies reduces with age (Munro, et al, 2013, pp.1-‐17). This suggests that one possible reason why the test subjects’ aged between 16-‐35 least preferred version 3 is due to an increased perception of high frequency content resulting in version 3 sounding ‘Harsh’.
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However, with the data showing that the test subjects’ who preferred version 1 describing the track as ‘Bright’ and version 3 as ‘Muddy’ and ‘Dark’, the results cannot be backed up by the research conducted into age related hearing loss and instead must be assumed to be personal preference. It could mean that the 16-‐35 age group who have a better perception of higher frequencies prefer the higher frequency detail in version 1 while the 36-‐65 age group who have grown used to not perceiving higher frequencies with as much intensity prefer a different tonal balance in music (Capra, et al, 2006, pp.1-‐10).
Figure 2.3 – Graph showing the descriptive words used when describing both versions 1 and 3.
The qualitative data collected from the descriptive words provided show that although the descriptive words were not labelled as positive and negative, the majority of subjects’ did choose the positive descriptive words for the version they most preferred and the negative descriptive words for the version that they least preferred. While the data collected correlates with the connotations of the descriptive words, several people also choose to describe the version they most preferred with the negative descriptive words. This shows that the words people use to describe music vary and is a case of personal preference and shows that there is no standard. Descriptive words have different meanings to different people and could possibly be decided upon through cultural backgrounds and social standings (Swami, et al, 2013, pp.377-‐383), which could provide a reason for the data collected.
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5.2 -‐ Conclusion. While the data shows evidence that more people preferred the digital mixing and mastering method, it does not provide a wide enough spectrum of test subjects’ to conclusively show that the majority of the general public prefer this method. This is due to the fact that the listening test and survey was only carried out on 50 test subjects’ due to the controls that had to be in place to ensure a fair experiment. 50 test subjects of whom the majority were male and aged between 16-‐35 biases the evidence towards a specific cultural sector. However, according to a Nielsen report (2011) the largest sector of people who purchase music (at 22%) are aged between 25-‐29 (Peoples, 2011). So although the survey is seemingly biased towards a certain group, it does represent the largest sector of music consumers’. During the processing methods performed it became obvious that using DSPs provided more flexibility and allowed more processing to be added easily. While during the analogue processing each signal had to be processed separately and re-‐recorded resulting in only one EQ and one compression stage being used, the digital method allowed several EQs and compressors to be added at the touch of a button. This allowed more effective negative EQ techniques to be used by using several EQs to remove unwanted frequencies to a greater effect than when removing frequencies during analogue processing (Morrell & Reiss, 2009, pp.1-‐20). Although the tracks could have been processed several times through the analogue EQ, time constraints left less time for the processing to be performed. This corresponds to the qualitative data collected with subjects’ feeling that version 1 sounded ‘cleaner’ and ‘smoother’ than version 3 (Perez-‐Gonzalez & Reiss, 2009, pp.1-‐7). Although there is widespread belief that the increasing use of compression on music is deteriorating the sound quality of music (Hjortkjaer & Walter-‐Hansen, 2014, pp.37-‐41). The evidence form the data collected showing version 1 to be the most preferred version suggests that this isn’t the case. As version 1 had more dynamic range compression added to individual tracks and over the entire mix, due to the ease of simply adding a compressor at the touch of a button. It suggests that the amount of compression added to a piece of music does not deteriorate music’s sonic qualities. This is also supported by tests carried out by Hjortkjaer and Walter-‐Hansen (2014) where they performed listening tests using several tracks that had been re-‐mastered. By playing the original mastered tracks and the re-‐mastered track to test subjects’ the results showed that there was “no evidence of preference for the less compressed music” (Hjortkjaer & Walter-‐Hansen, 2014, pp.37-‐41). Another reason why the results have turned out the way they did may be due to the environments in which they were performed. While version 1 was processed in a familiar environment using familiar equipment, version 3 was produced in an unfamiliar environment on equipment that the candidate had very little experience of. This may result in over or under processing sounds due to the lack of experience of the listening environment and its characteristics (Linkwitz, 2009, pp.1-‐11). This could have been overcome by spending more time using the
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equipment in the environment or using the analogue equipment in the same environment as the one in which the DSP was performed. This would eliminate variations in room characteristics and provide a more even platform for the processing to be performed. Although the way in which the test was administered may have affected the outcome of the test, through biasing frequencies through the headphones used and listening in the unnatural environment of headphones, which according to Linkwitz (2009) replicates a near anechoic environment for the listener from reducing natural reflections. The test was administered in the same way for each test subject, so although external noise may have differed, the frequency balance of the playback system remained the same and it does replicate the normal listening environment of many music listeners’ as there is “an increasing number of individuals who use headphones when listening to audio” (Johnston & Spors, 2012, pp.105-‐106). However, perhaps this could have been helped further by conducting the listening test in a more sterile environment like a studio. Although the test would still be administered using headphones, the environment would then remain the same for each test subject, helping control the test further. The outcome of the test could have also been affected by the mood and preference of the listener (Swami, et al, 2013, pp.377-‐383). Although the test stated that there should be no consideration for whether the subject likes the piece or not, as the track was of a certain genre it may have affected the decisions made by the test subjects’. Different genres of music tend to have different traits such as varying tonal balance and emphasis on different elements of a musical piece, and if the test subject does not have prior knowledge of these traits, they could judge the piece on the traits of the genre that they personally prefer (Vickers, 2010, pp.1-‐27). Future investigations should take this into account performing the experiment using several pieces of music from different genres, or target a genre specific audience for testing allowing experience to play a part in the results, although they may still not like the piece, they would have a better knowledge of the musical traits of the genre. Based on the subjects’ tested the results show that people least prefer the analogue mixing and mastering method. This may be due to the nature of how analogue technology works. While been seen as a more accurate method of processing audio due to the sound waves been replicated using voltage variations rather than having a digital representation made with varying accuracy dependant on the bit depth and sample rate. Analogue equipment, as discussed previously, is susceptible to variations in signal quality by outside interference as well as the components used within the equipment (Floru, 2005, pp.1-‐16). The qualitative data collected shows that the test subjects’ felt that version 3 sounded less ‘clean’, ‘muddier’ and ‘harsher’ than version 1. This may be due to the components of the equipment used affecting the low frequencies in an
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undesirable way resulting in an unbalanced frequency spectrum where the high frequencies become more prominent resulting in a harsh sound. EMI and RFI could also have affected the overall sound of the piece by introducing noise making the piece sound muddy and undefined by adding unwanted frequency content. This could also have been caused by inaccurate representation of the frequency content caused by printed circuit board (PCB) effects such as, atmospheric moisture absorption, leakage in resistors and voltage drops in trace foils (Jung, 2005). Performing the processing again using the same equipment may produce different results due to differing outside interference and varying equipment performance.
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6 -‐ Evaluation
Based on the data collected and contrary to the popular belief that “digitally reproduced music, is said to sound sterile, dry, or cold” (Evens, 2005, p.30). The subjects’ tested actually preferred the digitally processed version. While in the context of this investigation the results can be used to produce a conclusion, the analysis of the data shows that there are many factors that could have affected the outcome of the test. The material, equipment used, subjects’ tested and techniques performed could all have affected the results. While the results are positive and have fulfilled the desired outcome of the investigation by been able to advise artists’ in which signal processing technology to choose for future productions. The many varying factors that could affect the outcome of the results suggest that further investigations are needed in order to gain further knowledge into which processing methods listeners’ prefer. Different genres, specific targeting of test subjects’, different equipment, different testing methods and production techniques specific to the genre should all be investigated further and may provide a more detailed outcome for future investigations. Quantitative and qualitative data collection as discussed previously relies on the perception of the test subjects’ and is often formed by the society and cultural surroundings of which they live (Sale, et al, 2002, pp.43-‐53). Considering these further investigations should also be performed on a regular basis to take into account the perceptions of a changing society. Carrying out the investigations on a wider scale and specific subject targeting would also be beneficial but would narrow the target audience of the investigation. With recent advancements in technology the processing methods available to artists’ have become more complex and artists’ who prefer tactile feedback when processing audio, utilising more senses such as muscular memory, and positive recognition through physical feedback now have more options available (Altinsoy, et al, 2010, pp.1-‐7). With the introduction of DSPs into hardware equipment that act as an interface for signal processing such as the Focusrite ‘Liquid Channel’ and the Lexicon ‘MPX’ series. It is now possible to have the tactile feedback of an analogue unit with the advantages of digital processing such as been able to save and recall settings as well as emulating some of the characteristics of analogue circuitry without the sometimes unpredictability of the components. However, should future investigations results show that test subjects’ prefer the sound of analogue circuitry but artists’ do not have access to such equipment. Many manufacturers’ now produce emulations of many analogue signal processors in the form of DSP plugins compatible with many DAWs. This allows artists’ to recreate the sound characteristics of analogue processors at the touch
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of a button with the added advantage of been able to save and recall settings as well as using several instances of the same plugin simultaneously. The ‘Raven MTX’ created by Steven Slate of ‘Slate Pro Audio’ is a touchscreen controller compatible with Avid’s ‘Pro Tools’ and Apple’s ‘Logic Pro’ and bridges the gap between analogue and digital platforms allowing the user the advantages of digital processors and the working methods of analogue setups with it’s touchscreen technology (Robjohns, 2013, p.27). Further investigations using both DSP/analogue hybrid hardware equipment as well as analogue circuitry emulating DSP plugins may produce results that contradict this investigation ultimately leaving the signal processing decisions up to the artists’ personal preference.
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7 -‐ Bibliography
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Sturmel, N., et al. (2012). ‘Linear Mixing Models for Active Listening of Music Productions in Realistic Studio Conditions.’ In: Audio Engineering Society Convention Paper 8594 Presented at the 132nd Convention, April 26-‐29, 2012. Budapest, Hungary. New York, NY: Audio Engineering Society. pp.2-‐10. Swami, V., et al. (2013). ‘Metalheads: The Influence of Personality and Individual Differences on Preference for Heavy Metal.’ Journal of Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts, 7 (4) July. pp.377-‐383. Thornton, M. (2007). ‘Getting The Most From Your Pro Tools System’. Available: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/dec07/articles/ptworkshop_1207.htm. Last accessed 11/03/14. Tromp, H. (2011). ‘A Basic Guide to Mixing and Mastering.’ Available: http://audio.tutsplus.com/tutorials/mixing-‐mastering/a-‐complete-‐guide-‐to-‐mixing-‐and-‐mastering/. Last accessed 05/11/13. Try, A. (2011). ‘What is the Best DAW for Beginners?’. Available: http://music.tutsplus.com/articles/what-‐is-‐the-‐best-‐daw-‐for-‐beginners-‐-‐audio-‐11773. Last accessed 11/03/14. Vaus, D. (2002). ‘Surveys in Social Research.’ 5th Ed. Crow Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin. p.94. Vickers, E. (2010). ‘The Loudness War: Background, Speculation and Recommendations.’ In: Audio Engineering Society Convention Paper 8175 Presented at the 129th Convention, November 4-‐7, 2010. San Francisco, CA. New York, NY: Audio Engineering Society. pp.1-‐27. White, P. (1996). ‘Fixing The Mix, Part 1: Salvage Techniques.’ Available: https://www.soundonsound.com/sos/1996_articles/jul96/fixthemix.html. Last accessed 05/11/13. White, P. (1998). ‘Choosing A Recording Setup, Part 1.’ Available: http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jul98/articles/recordingopt1.html. Last accessed 30/10/13. Yu, R., et al. (2004). ‘MPEG-‐4 Scalable to Lossless Audio Coding’. In: Audio Engineering Society Convention Paper 6183 Presented at the 117th Convention. October 28-‐31, 2004. San Francisco, CA. New York, NY: Audio Engineering Society. pp.1-‐14.
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8 -‐ Appendices
The following is a link to the portfolio website that will accompany this project and will contain a digital copy of this project under the ‘Final Year Project’ tab in the menu bar. http://myportfolioforaudio.wordpress.com The accompanying digital versatile disc (DVD) also contains a digital copy of this project along with the original project file and the four sample clips played to the test subjects’ and can be found inside the front cover.
8.1 -‐ Further Reading. The following consists of books, journals, and useful website links that may aid any future investigations into the subject area.
8.1.1 – Books. Cousins, M., Hepworth-‐Sawyer, R. (2013). ‘Practical Mastering: A Guide to Mastering in the Modern Studio.’ Oxon: Focal Press. Davis, G., Jones, R. (1990). ‘Sound Reinforcement Handbook.’ 2nd Ed. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation. Gibson, D. (2005). ‘The Art of Mixing.’ 2nd Ed. Boston: Artist Pro Publishing. Huber, D., Runstein, R. (2010). ‘Modern Recording Techniques.’ 7th Ed. Oxford: Focal Press. Izhaki, R. (2008). ‘Mixing Audio: Concepts, Practices and Tools.’ Oxford: Focal Press. Jung, W. (2005). ‘OP Amp Applications Handbook.’ Oxford: Newnes. Katz, B. (2007). ‘Mastering Audio: the art and the science.’ 2nd Ed. Oxford: Focal Press. Lockwood, D., White, P., Robjohns, H. (2013). ‘The Studio SOS Book: Solutions and Techniques for the Project Recording Studio’. Oxon: Focal Press. Pickering, M. (2008). ‘Research Methods for Cultural Studies.’ Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Silverman, D. (2008). ‘Doing Qualitative Research: A comprehensive Guide.’ London: Sage Publications.
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Vaus, D. (2002). ‘Surveys in Social Research.’ 5th Ed. Crow Nest, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
8.1.2 – Journals. ‘American Educational Research Journal’. New York: JSTOR. ‘Health Service Journal’. London: EMAP Publishing Lt ‘International Journal of Methodology: Quality and Quantity’. New York: Springer. ‘Journal of Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts’. Washington, DC :APA Division 10. ‘Journal of Interdisciplinary Science Reviews’. London: Institute of Materials, Minerals & Mining Professionals. ‘Journal of the Audio Engineering Society’. New York: Audio Engineering Society. ‘Organised Sound’. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
8.1.3 – Magazines. ‘Computer Music’. Bath: Future Publishing Ltd. ‘Music Tech’. Bath: Anthem Publishing. ‘Sound On Sound’. Cambridge: SOS Publications Group.
8.1.4 – Websites. www.soundonsound.com www.audio.tutsplus.com www.musicradar.com www.emusician.com www.musicianstools.wordpress.com www.synthtopia.com www.musictech.net
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8.2 -‐ Equipment List.
• AKG ‘C1000S’ condenser microphone. • AKG ‘C3000’ condenser microphone. • Apple ‘Logic Pro 9.1.8’. • Apple ‘Macbook Pro’ with 2.5 GHz Intel Core i5 processor and 8GB of
random access memory (RAM). • Apple ‘Mac Pro’ with 2.8 GHz Intel processor and 16GB of RAM. • Cranesong ‘IBIS’ discrete class A equalizer. • DBX ‘PB-‐48’ patchbay. • Focusrite ‘Saffire Mix Control 3.4’. • Focusrite ‘Saffire Pro 24’ audio interface. • Focusrite ‘Saffire Pro 40’ audio interface. • Genelec ‘2029A’ studio monitors. • KRK ‘KNS-‐8400’ studio monitor headphones. • Mackie ‘MR8’ studio monitors. • Manley ‘Variable MU Stereo Compressor/Limiter’. • SSL ‘Alpha Link MADI AX’ audio converters. • SPL’ Vitalizer MK 2’ stereo enhancer. • TL Audio ‘Ivory 5051 MK2’ mono valve compressor. • Toft ‘ATB 24’ analogue mixing console. • XLR, TRS and TS cables.
The following are links to the user manuals of some of the equipment used in the project: AKG ‘C1000S’ -‐ http://www.akg.com/C1000+S-‐1039.html?pid=978 AKG ‘C3000’ -‐ http://www.akg.com/C3000-‐1039.html?pid=1026 Cranesong ‘IBIS’ -‐ http://www.cranesong.com/ibis_manual_rev1.pdf Focusrite ‘Saffire Mix Control 3.4’ -‐ http://global.focusrite.com/downloads?product=Saffire+PRO+40 Manley ‘Variable MU Stereo Compressor/Limiter’ -‐ http://www.manley.com/content/pdf/PRO_Manuals/Var%20Mu/STEREO%20LIMCOM%20manual.pdf TL Audio ‘Ivory 5051 MK2’ -‐ http://www.tlaudio.co.uk/docs/about/pdf_manuals/ivory_2/5051_Mk-‐2_Manual.pdf
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8.3 -‐ Screenshots.
Figure 3.1 – Screenshot of the edit window of the structured project.
Figure 3.2 – Screenshot of recorded percussion and Rhodes sample.
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Figure 3.3 – Screenshot of the VST used for the creation of one of the bass parts for the project.
8.4 -‐ Completed Questionnaires.
The following pages consists of the completed questionnaires along with the ethics form, front sheet, consent form and playback order of the listening tests conducted.