Diversity and Endangerment of Languages in Nepal

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Sueyoshi and Ingrid Toba Novel Kishor Rai

Translation into Nepali by Lekhnath Sharma Pathak

UNESCO Kathmandu Series of Monographs and Working Papers: No 7

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This paper was prepared by Sueyoshi and Ingrid Toba and Novel Kishor Rai, for the promotion of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, as a follow up to the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity and to the proclamation of 21 May as the World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development in the 31st Session of the UNESCO General Conference in November 2001. The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this publication and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of UNESCO concerning legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Published in 2005 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Kathmandu Office KAT-CLT-2005/02 Front page photo © UNESCO Kathmandu/SELTER E. Printed by Office Support Service Center Chhapakhana P. Ltd., Teku, Kathmandu, Nepal For more information please contact: UNESCO Kathmandu Jawalakhel, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 14391 Kathmandu NEPAL E-mail: kathmandu@unesco.org Tel: +977-1-5554-396/769 Fax: +977-1-5554-450 http://www.unesco.org/kathmandu

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Diversity and Endangerment of Languages in Nepal

Sueyoshi and Ingrid Toba Novel Kishor Rai

UNESCO Kathmandu Office

Jawalakhel • Lalitpur • PO Box 14391 • Kathmandu • Nepal Phone +977-1-5554-396/769 • Fax +977-1-5554-450

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7 1. Geography..................................................................................................................................... 8

1.1. THE PHYSICAL TERRAIN AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN NEPAL................. 8 1.2. CHANGES IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE LANGUAGES IN NEPAL........... 8 1.3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL.................................... 8

1.3.1. Nepali.......................................................................................................................... 8 1.3.2. Other languages......................................................................................................... 9

1.4. The Residential Situation of the Language Communities of Nepal. .............................. 9 1.5. Internal and External Movement ....................................................................................... 10 1.6. Distribution of the Languages of Nepal in Other Countries ......................................... 11

2. The Languages and Dialects of Nepal..................................................................................... 11

2.1. OFFICIAL STATUS OF LANGUAGES .............................................................................. 11 2.2. LANGUAGE AND DIALECT ........................................................................................... 11 2.3.NEPALI DIALECTS. ....................................................................................................... 12 2.4 DIALECTS OF OTHER LANGUAGES OF NEPAL................................................................ 12 2.5. SPOKEN LANGUAGE .................................................................................................... 13

2.5.1. Nepali........................................................................................................................ 13 2.5.2. Other languages....................................................................................................... 13 2.5.3. Monolingual Speakers ............................................................................................ 14 2.5.4. Bilingual Speakers ................................................................................................... 14 2.5.5. Multilingual Speakers............................................................................................. 14 2.5.6. Language Shift. ........................................................................................................ 15

2.6. WRITTEN LANGUAGE. ................................................................................................ 16 2.6.1. The Writing Systems of the Languages of Nepal ............................................... 16 2.6.2. Standardization of Languages of Nepal............................................................... 16 2.6.3. Literacy rate.............................................................................................................. 17 2.6.4. Literary Traditions .................................................................................................. 17

3. Language Use.............................................................................................................................. 18

3.1. INFORMAL SITUATIONS............................................................................................... 18 3.2. USE BY SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES ................................................................. 18 3.3. USE IN ADMINISTRATION............................................................................................ 18 3.4. USE IN EDUCATION ................................................................................................... 19 3.5. USE OF LANGUAGES IN THE MEDIA ........................................................................ 19 3.6. USE IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES .................................................................................. 19 3.7. USE IN BUSINESS AND LABOR RELATIONS.................................................................. 20

4. Social and cultural Factors Affecting Speech Communities ................................................ 20

4.1. HISTORICAL FACTORS................................................................................................. 20 4.2. POLITICAL FACTORS ................................................................................................... 20

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4.3. ECONOMIC FACTORS.................................................................................................. 21 4.4. EDUCATION. ............................................................................................................... 22 4.5. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES .......................................................................................... 22

5. Language Attitude. .................................................................................................................... 22

5.1. NEPALI MOTHER TONGUE SPEAKERS........................................................................... 22 5.2. INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES ........................................................................................... 23 5.3. ATTITUDE OF MEMBERS OF NEIGHBORING COMMUNITIES ......................................... 23

6. Endangerment of Language...................................................................................................... 23

6.1. STATE OF ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGES OF NEPAL............................................... 23 6.2. ENDANGERMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN NEPAL.................................. 24

7. Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 25 Appendixes ..................................................................................................................................... 58

APPENDIX 1. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL .......................................................................... 58 APPENDIX 2. CBS REPORT ON LANGUAGES (2001)........................................................... 60 APPENDIX 3. CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION ............................................................... 62

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 63

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Introduction The purpose of this monograph is to disseminate among a wider public insights gained from the UNESCO Language Survey Report (2002) for Nepal. The emphasis is put on the linguistic diversity of Nepal on the one hand, and on the reasons for and the status of endangerment for some languages of Nepal on the other hand. Nepal is well known as a country of rich diversity geographically and culturally. That it is equally rich in linguistic diversity is less known. For a small country like Nepal to have (at least) 90 languages is often perceived incredible. A frequently met opinion is that this number must be including dialects. Yet we are referring only to such languages as are spoken by indigenous peoples of Nepal, excluding the numerous dialects especially of the larger languages. Also excluded are a number of languages spoken in neighbouring countries by people groups spilling over into Nepal. The national language Nepali is the mother tongue of only about half of the total population. At present (and at the time the Survey was undertaken), almost all of the language groups of Nepal are represented in the capital Kathmandu. This facilitates easy access to languages for the researcher, but it means danger for languages with a small number of speakers as it hastens language loss due to the necessity of daily communication with speakers of other languages using the Nepali language. This monograph looks at languages spoken in Nepal in the context of Nepal’s geographical, socio-linguistic and multi-cultural situation. In the first chapter, language and geography is described. Chapter two deals with languages and dialects, including monolingualism, bilingualism and multilingualism. In chapter three, language use is discussed. Chapter four deals with the social and cultural situation in relation to language. Chapter five deals with language attitudes and their consequences. Chapter six focuses on endangerment of languages in Nepal. In conclusion, some counter measures are suggested for endangered languages, including institutions and organizations that are concerned with description and preservation of languages. There is great urgency to act before it is too late for some of the endangered languages in Nepal.

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1. GEOGRAPHY 1.1. THE PHYSICAL TERRAIN AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN NEPAL For maps showing the distribution of the languages spoken in Nepal, see Appendix 3. Geographically, Nepal consists of three distinct and major geographical areas stretching out from the west to the east: In the north, the high Himalayan mountain range, in the center, the mid-hills, and in the south, the sub-tropical lowland of the Terai plains. This geographic diversity is reflected in a rich biodiversity. Correspondingly, there is also a rich diversity among the peoples, cultures and languages. The bulk of mother tongues other than Nepali are Tibeto-Burman. The high altitude areas belong to linguistic communities speaking Central Bodish, West Himalayan, and West Bodish languages. In the mid-hills we find linguistic communities speaking Central Himalayan and Kirati languages. In the lowland of the Terai, Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Munda, and Northern Dravidian languages are spoken (Appendix 1). In addition, as mentioned above, the national language Nepali is spoken throughout the country as it serves as the lingua franca for all the people. 1.2. CHANGES IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE LANGUAGES IN NEPAL The kingdom of Nepal was established by Prithiwi Narayan Shah in the 18th century. With the establishment and the eastward expansion of the kingdom, the area where Nepali is spoken, also expanded from west to east. Nepali, the language of the founder of modern Nepal, became the national language of the kingdom. As the Nepali language moved east and the number of Nepali mother tongue speakers increased, some of the indigenous linguistic communities also moved eastward. It is, for example, believed that the speakers of the Kirati languages were pushed eastward at that time. Later on, several communities speaking Tibetan languages moved south into Nepal from their original habitat beyond the Himalayan mountain range. 1.3. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL 1.3.1. Nepali As the national language, Nepali (alternatively called Khas Kura, Ghorkhali or Parbate) is spoken all over Nepal as the mother tongue of slightly more than half of the total population. However, Nepali is prevalent in the western part of the country where it is spoken in an area uninterrupted by areas of other linguistic communities. Throughout the southern plains of the Terai, both mother tongue speakers and settlers from all over Nepal speak a “neutral” variety of Nepali. Nepali is also generally used as the lingua franca for communication among different language groups.

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1.3.2. Other languages. Languages other than Nepali are called the “national languages” of Nepal. This term corresponds with the term “minority language” or “indigenous language” used in other countries. These languages are spoken in areas inhabited by specific ethnic groups. But even there, Nepali dominates as a mean of communication with Nepali mother tongue speakers and with members of other linguistic communities. In contrast to the widespread use of Nepali by not only mother tongue speakers, the indigenous languages are spoken only by mother tongue speakers among themselves and within the area where they live. In the high mountainous areas in northwest Nepal: Mugu, Dolpo, Mustang and Manang, Tibetan languages are spoken. Similarly in the northern, high mountain areas of east Nepal, we find smaller Tibetan-speaking groups, namely, Yohlmo, Jirel, and Sherpa. The Sherpas arrived from the north and settled there in recent history. From central Nepal (Palpa) going east in the mid-hills, we find an increasing number of other linguistic communities interspersed with Nepali speaking communities. In many cases, towns and villages are comprised of different language groups, each one settling in one section of the town or village. Large language groups, such as Magar, Gurung and Tamang live in the hilly regions of central Nepal. They speak Tibeto-Burman languages. In the southern lowland of the Terai, Indo-Aryan, Tibeto-Burman, Munda and North Dravidian languages are spoken. 1.4. The Residential Situation of the Language Communities of Nepal. Compact communities of Nepali mother-tongue speakers are found throughout Nepal. Most of these are in west Nepal. Some names of these compact settlements of Nepali speakers are indicative of the section of society that is predominant there: place names like “Chetrigaun”, “Basnetgaun”, “Bahunepati” are examples. However, in indigenous language areas such compact communities are not the rule. Instead, there may be sections of villages or towns that are predominantly ethnically and linguistically Nepali speaking communities. Villages of the mid-hills, where people speaking Tibeto-Burman languages are settled, frequently consist of communities of indigenous peoples belonging to one linguistic community. At the edge of these villages, there may be a row of houses belonging to the Nepali speaking occupational castes such as blacksmiths, coppersmiths, silversmiths and tailors whose services are needed by the villagers. In some places, these people may speak the language of the predominant linguistic community as a second language. In recently settled areas like the Terai, settlers belonging to all the different ethnic and linguistic groups including Nepali mother-tongue speakers are living side by side. The traditional villages of the original inhabitants are often removed from recent modern settlements that are more easily accessible.

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1.5. Internal and External Movement Since the establishment of modern Nepal, population movement in Nepal has been eastward. In later waves of migration, people, originally settled in Nepal, continued to move east, even across the border into what is now West Bengal. When Darjeeling, India, was developed as a “hill station” by the British and tea gardens were established, Nepali people migrated there. They found work not only in the teagardens but also had various other occupations as house servants or servants in the restaurants and they worked as tailors, blacksmiths or merchants. When teagardens were further established towards the east, even as far as Bhutan, Nepali workers were invited over there. Another wave of migration brought Nepali to help in road construction in that area. When the roads had been built, the migration continued, extending into Assam and states of northeast India. A southward movement began more recently, after the Terai, the southern lowlands of Nepal, was opened in the 1960’s. Vast tracts of forested areas were cleared and malaria was eradicated, and so this area became available for settlement. People from the mid-hills moved south to settle there because the population in some of the hill villages had increased beyond sustainability. It must be noted, that these waves of migration consisted of individuals, not of whole communities. Such individuals who left their home, left their cultural environment, and with it, their mother tongue to blend into the new community of settlers from all the different language groups of the mid–hill communities. The most recent movement is directed towards urban centers, in particular the Kathmandu Valley, for work and higher education. The fact that speakers of just about all the languages of Nepal can now be found in Kathmandu shows how widespread and massive the migration to urban areas has become in recent years. It must be noted that in many, if not most cases, those who finish their education or find work in Kathmandu will not return to their homes for various reasons. First of all, those who come to Kathmandu in search for work or for higher education do so because they do not find enough arable land in their home community to sustain them and their families. Secondly, the education and the professional training they received in the city is generally not of any use in their rural community unless it is medical or educational. Often these migrants lose their mother tongue simply because they find little contact with members of their own linguistic community or because of marriage to a member from another linguistic community. The most recent massive wave of migration is also partially due to the threat from the insurgency in the countryside. People do not only migrate to Kathmandu, but also to other Nepali towns as well as to other South Asian countries. Other destinations are countries in the Middle East, such as Qatar, Kuwait, Iraq, as well as the Far East, such as, Thailand, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Brunei, Korea and Japan. Still others move to the USA, Australia and Europe. These migrations are accelerating the abandonment and loss of indigenous mother tongues.

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1.6. Distribution of the Languages of Nepal in Other Countries Nepali is spoken outside Nepal for several reasons. It is spoken in areas outside Nepal’s present day borders because Nepali speakers have been living in those areas or migrated there before the borders were fixed. Nepali speaking communities in Northeast India and even as far away as Burma (Myanmar) are found there because of the settling of Gurkha soldiers after their retirement. The extensive use of Nepali in Darjeeling is a result of the massive migration mentioned above. As mentioned above, communities speaking Tibetan languages or dialects moved from the north into the high mountainous area of Nepal, the most recent ones being the Sherpa in east Nepal. Some of the large language groups such as the Rajbansi in the Terai originated in India and moved north into present-day Nepal. On the other hand, the linguistic community of Maithili speakers historically lived in the area that nowadays is divided by the international border with India. This is also the case for the Byansi who live on both sides of the border with India in the far north west of Nepal. 2. THE LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS OF NEPAL 2.1. OFFICIAL STATUS OF LANGUAGES Nepali is the national language and the lingua franca in Nepal, the language used by government, banks, businesses, media, and all educational institutions throughout the country. According to the Nepali constitution of 1990, the indigenous languages are recognized as “languages of the nation”, but not for official use. 2.2. LANGUAGE AND DIALECT The term “language”, as opposed to “dialect”, may be described here as the mother tongue and means of communication among a specific group of people. A specific language is unintelligible to others not belonging to that specific group. Dialect may be described as a variation within a certain language. There may be variations of the lexicon or grammar or both, but these variations do not hinder the intelligibility. Languages may have dialectical differences to a greater or smaller extent. Such differences stand out for languages that have a large number of speakers or that are spread out over a large area or over an area divided by rivers or mountains separating the different settlements. Areas at the edge of a linguistic community may be prone to not only be bilingual but also to speak a particular dialect containing vocabulary or grammatical items from both languages. In addition, a kind of dialect might be created, when a certain section of a language group has a specialized occupation. Many times several of these factors work together in creating a dialect.

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2.3.NEPALI DIALECTS. “Kathmandu-Nepali” can be considered the standard form of spoken Nepali, but we can observe many other spoken forms or dialects. These dialects of Nepali may differ considerably due to the isolation and inaccessibility of the different locations. But still, they are mutually intelligible dialects of one language (see appendix for examples). We distinguish Western, Central and Eastern dialects of Nepali. The largest number of dialects of Nepali is found in west Nepal. These dialects of Nepali are named after the regions where they are spoken. Starting from the northwest there are the Dandeldhura, Baitadi, Bajhangi, Bajurali, Acchami, and Jumli (or Jumleli) and Doteli dialects. For Doteli a dictionary is available. In Central Nepal, Palpali is another distinct dialect. Moving east, Kathmandu has its distinct and prestigious dialect and finally, in the far east of Nepal, Ilam has a distinct dialect. Some examples may illustrate the differences of Nepali dialects (approximate Roman transliteration. Nasalization is indicated with ‘n’ preceding a consonant or word final):

Dandeldhura: /ham aunya hunu/ “we don’t come” BaitaDi: /ham nain auna/ “we don’t come” Dhoti: /ham naiaunya hun/ “we don’t come” Palpa: /hami aunnam/ “we don’t come” Kathmandu: /hami aundainnaun/ “we don’t come” Ilam: /hami aundouna / “we don’t come”

(Source: Dr C.M. Bandhu, 2060 B.S.) As we move east, the solid block of Nepali speaking communities is interrupted by areas where Tibeto-Burman languages are predominant in informal situations while Nepali is used for business and education. 2.4 DIALECTS OF OTHER LANGUAGES OF NEPAL. The other indigenous languages of Nepal also show dialectical differences. But to distinguish language from dialect is sometimes difficult. In the absence of a recognized standard or prestige dialect, mutual intelligibility and acceptance are not always helpful criteria to decide a complex question. Among the large linguistic communities in Central Nepal, Eastern and Western Gurung as well as Eastern and Western Tamang are cases in point for languages grouped together under one name, rather than mere dialects. Similarly, the Rai languages in East Nepal are often mistakenly thought to be dialects. But while it is true that Bantawa “Rai” and Chamling “Rai” are very closely related, the few examples below can easily prove that the majority of Rai languages are mutually unintelligible. They live in close proximity, yet are isolated from each other by steep mountains and rivers, which are difficult to cross.

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Khaling ‘tya maang?’ “What is this?” Thulung ‘oram ham?’ “What is this?” Kulung ‘angki ui sez?’ “What is this?”

Bantawa ‘oo Di?’ “What is this?” Chintang ‘bangoThen?’ “What is this?” The different dialects (their mutual intelligibility yet to be established) of Magar and Kham in Central Nepal and Limbu in East Nepal are likely to be the result of a large number of settlements scattered widely over inaccessible terrain. The dialects within the language are accepted, but a prestige or standard dialect is not recognized. The definition of Kagate (listed in the National Census 2001 as a language) as a dialect of Yohlmo is based on the occupation of these people as producers of paper and their geographical proximity to the Yohlmo. At the same time, the Kagate, while affirming their linguistic differences, also affirm their ethnic identity as different from that of the large group they are perceived to belong to. Yet another situation is that of small linguistic communities who, though speaking their own language, give themselves the name of a large ethnic group they live close to. This can be illustrated by the Ghale and Baram who often identify themselves as Gurung, while their languages are completely different from Gurung. A shift towards the language of an adjacent larger language group has, for example, been observed in the case of the Dhimal who live in the neighborhood of the Rajbansi. The two dialects of Dhimal, eastern and western Dhimal are distinct in that the eastern dialect contains many loans from Rajbansi while retaining Dhimal grammar. 2.5. SPOKEN LANGUAGE 2.5.1. Nepali. Nepali is the language of government, business, media, education and literature. Moreover, as mentioned above, Nepali plays an important role as the lingua franca for communication among people of different linguistic communities. Therefore, apart from very remote villages in areas traditionally belonging to speakers of languages other than Nepali, we find that most people in Nepal have some command of Nepali to be able to communicate to a certain degree. It goes without saying that the use of Nepali is more prevalent in urban areas such as Kathmandu, Pokhara, and other towns especially in the Terai such as Nepalganj, Butwal, Birganj and Biratnagar. 2.5.2. Other languages The languages spoken by indigenous people in Nepal, mostly Tibeto-Burman languages, but also some Indo-Aryan, Munda and Northern Dravidian languages are confined to specific areas. Their speakers belong to one particular ethnic group and in general, outsiders do not speak these languages.

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Basically and traditionally, the languages of Nepal have been passed down orally from one generation to the next within the areas where indigenous people have been living without contacts with the outside world. Today this state of isolation is changing dramatically. Schools are now found in every village, providing education in Nepali. Since the teachers mostly come from the urban areas, the awareness of other places outside of their community is growing and the desire to see other places is increasing. Even in difficult to access areas people are now traveling much more than in earlier times, meeting and mixing with members of other linguistic groups and using Nepali as the medium of communication. 2.5.3. Monolingual Speakers Monolingual speakers of the national language, Nepali, are those whose mother tongue is Nepali. They are distributed over the whole country. Among the indigenous peoples, monolingual speakers are mostly found among people of the older generation and among those living in remote villages without contact with outsiders. 2.5.4. Bilingual Speakers Bilingualism is prevailing all over the country. In urban areas and wherever there is access to schools, bilingualism is prevalent among young people of all ethnic groups who acquire knowledge of Nepali in school or through work. It must be said, however, that bilingualism for Nepali mother-tongue speakers refers to their bilingualism in Nepali and Hindi or English, whereas bilingualism for members of indigenous language groups refers to bilingualism in the indigenous language and Nepali. In areas along the border between two linguistic communities, bilingualism in the two languages may be found, though it is by no means the rule. If one of the two languages enjoys a higher prestige, for example because it has a greater number of speakers, members of this group tend to remain monolingual. However, those speaking the language of lesser status will tend to be bilingual. But it is also common that in such border areas, members of both communities communicate in Nepali rather than in one of the indigenous languages. For the Terai, bilingualism is very common, as many mother tongue speakers of Nepali speak Hindi with equal competence. Speakers of other languages, who came from the hills to settle in the Terai, have also become bilingual. It can be observed, however, that bilinguals of Nepali and Hindi continue to be using both these languages with equal competence while those who came from the hill areas gradually lose their mother tongue and are bilingual only during a transitional period. In many, if not most cases, parents do not teach their mother tongue to their children with the consequence that these children grow up as monolingual Nepali speakers. It can therefore be said that the Terai is a real linguistic melting pot. 2.5.5. Multilingual Speakers Multilingualism is frequent among the educated elite in the urban areas, especially in Kathmandu. Multilingual Nepali mother-tongue speakers are mostly competent in Nepali, Sanskrit, English and Hindi. Nepali who studied abroad, mostly in Anglophone countries,

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but sometimes also in Russia, Germany or Japan, are fluent and literate in both Nepali and English or in Russian, German or Japanese. Multilingualism is also frequently observed along trekking routes of the hills and mountains where tourists move and interact with Nepali people involved in the tourism industry as lodge keepers, hoteliers and restaurateurs, porters, guides, cooks, as well as the general populace of these areas. Those who are employed in the tourism industry and in mountaineering speak a number of languages used by expeditions and trekking groups. Most frequently needed is English, followed by Japanese, German, French, Italian and Spanish, but also other languages are used, since some trekking agencies specialize in providing services for foreigners other than English speakers. Trekking guides may learn these languages from their clients or through attending one of the many language schools in Kathmandu. Multilingualism in diverse languages of indigenous people is not found as a rule, but in a small number of individuals who acquired competence in several languages due to their personal circumstances. For instance, some women who are married to a man from a different language group may decide to acquire their husband’s language. Some, however, decide that they can communicate sufficiently in Nepali. Others may themselves learn their husband’s language and at the same time teach their own mother tongue to their children so that they grow up bilingually or even multilingually through their schooling in Nepali. Due to service in the Gurkha Regiments of the British and Indian armies, multilingual speakers can be found not only in the urban areas, but also in rural areas all over the country. Retired Gurkha soldiers may be multilingual speakers of their mother tongue (in many cases a Tibeto-Burman language), Nepali, Hindi and English. 2.5.6. Language Shift. The number of Nepali speakers has been increasing not only because of population growth, but also because of education, urbanization, migration and intermarriage. Individuals moving to the urban areas for educational or professional motives go through a transitional stage of bilingualism with Nepali increasingly replacing their mother tongue. This trend leads to a decrease in the number of speakers of several indigenous languages (e.g., Thakali, Gurung, Magar, Sherpa, some Rai languages). In other cases, the decrease is upset because of a population increase in the indigenous language areas. Intermarriage outside one’s own linguistic group is much more common now than even one generation ago. Often both partners end up speaking Nepali rather than opting for the language of one of them, since Nepali carries more prestige and seems more useful, or when the family settles outside the indigenous language area. Very small linguistic communities are most threatened in this respect. Kusunda is a primary example (D.Watters, 2005). The Terai area contributes particularly to the increase of Nepali speakers. Hill people who moved there to settle must use Nepali as the language of communication. In the same way, the original inhabitants feel more and more compelled to adopt Nepali as a means of communication.

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A very small number of foreign educated Nepalese from different linguistic groups are speaking English to their children because of their intention to send their children to English schools. This practice may in the end also contribute to the decrease in the number of Nepali mother tongue speakers. 2.6. WRITTEN LANGUAGE 2.6.1. The Writing Systems of the Languages of Nepal Unlike in countries as India or China, where there are large groups of indigenous peoples whose languages have a written form; the languages of Nepal’s indigenous peoples are for the most part unwritten ones. The Devanagari script is used for the major Indo-Aryan languages, such as Nepali, Maithili, Awadhi, Bhojpuri as well as for Newari (the latter is a Tibeto-Burman language). The Limbu, have their Kirati “Srijanga” script which is also used by other Kirati (e.g. Sampang). Lepcha has its own script, the “Rong” script. For Tamang and Sherpa, the Lamas use the Tibetan script for religious texts. Magar are trying to use a script of their own: “Akkha” and the Sunuwar have also developed their script (used by Sunwar in Sikkim, India). Finally, the Satar brought the Roman alphabet from India to write their language. However, since the national language Nepali, has been considered a unifying factor for the country, indigenous peoples have received little encouragement to develop their own writing systems. Instead, they have been encouraged to become competent in the national language in both speaking and writing. Thus, all of these people, including those having their own scripts, have been using the Devanagari script as well. Some individuals have tried to make the necessary adaptations, even creating new letters to accommodate a sound and tone system not represented in Nepali. The absence of writing systems and literature in the indigenous languages also contributes to decreasing use of indigenous languages while those languages that are written and have literature are stable. The example of Newari is an exception because the majority of the Newar live in urban areas, especially the Kathmandu valley, where the influence and use of Nepali is all pervasive in daily life, through education and the media. 2.6.2. Standardization of Languages of Nepal Standardization of both spoken and written language can always be challenged since language is not static but lives and changes naturally. Thus, even though the Nepali language has considerable advantage over the indigenous mother tongues as a written language, even for Nepali, the process of standardization is still ongoing. Most of the indigenous languages in Nepal have not developed their own spoken as well as written standard forms yet. Only recently, linguistic studies have been conducted and these have prepared the way for standardization. “Prestige” or “standard” dialects have been identified and grammars, dictionaries, orthographical studies and literacy materials have been published. Even more recently, minority groups themselves have begun to make dictionaries and mother tongue authors write and publish in their own languages.

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But there is still a long way to go to achieve standardization of orthographies for indigenous languages. 2.6.3. Literacy rate The lack of standardization of languages apart from Nepali, both of spoken and written forms, contributes to the distorted and inaccurate numbers of Nepali literacy rates. For if there is no written form of a language, the literacy rate is considered zero. The low literacy rates in Nepal reflect the fact that mother-tongue education is yet to be put into practice, although the right to mother tongue education has been granted in the constitution of 1990. Even for Limbu, Lepcha, Magar and Sunuwar, languages having their own script, the literacy rate in that script is considerably less than the literacy rate in Nepali. There is, however, a small number of pioneers who have tried to write in their own languages using the Devanagari script. Sadly, in most cases, they gave up because their languages contained sounds not represented in the Devanagari script. This may now change for the better, since there is more general interest in indigenous languages and their documentation and preservation as well as an awareness of endangerment of unwritten languages. 2.6.4. Literary Traditions Nepali has a rich literary tradition beginning with Bhanubhakta who wrote and translated many works from Sanskrit (notably the Ramayana). He was followed by many other writers who wrote in different genres and on a great variety of topics. Present day Nepali literature also is very much alive and newspapers and magazines abound since 1990. In addition to Sanskrit, Maithili and other Indo-Aryan languages have their own literatures. Newari, among the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal, has its own literature of various genres, reaching back over a period of several hundred years. Other indigenous peoples have oral traditional literature that is only now being published. The Limbu Mundum, the Bantawa Dowong Dum Samkaling, and the Tamang Tambakaiten are a few examples. The Royal Nepal Academy has published many folk stories from different linguistic groups, translated into Nepali. There is also a wealth of folk songs among a number of indigenous linguistic groups. Such songs are often created on the spot during contests or just as entertainment. The Gurung “Rodi” and the Tamang song contests are examples. Dance accompanied by singing, such as the Limbu ‘Palam’ and the paddy dance, the Rai “Chandi” are examples of traditional oral literature alive and practiced in the present. Drama is another literary genre that is orally transmitted and very much alive in the Nepali literary scene of today. In many cases indigenous languages still do not have a written form. With few exceptions, it is only since 1990, since the advent of democracy in Nepal, that research has been done on the kingdom’s indigenous languages. Much is yet to be done to produce grammatical descriptions, dictionaries, and collections of folk tales and ritual literature, as well as for spreading the use of the written indigenous languages among their mother tongue speakers through literacy classes.

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3. LANGUAGE USE In Nepal, Nepali is generally used for all official purposes as well as for business and educational goals. Since most of the indigenous languages do not have written forms, they cannot be used for these purposes. However, where spoken language is concerned and sufficient, many of the linguistic communities in Nepal use their mother tongue efficiently and enthusiastically. 3.1. INFORMAL SITUATIONS In the villages where the indigenous people live in compact communities, the mother tongue is used consistently within the family and among the older generation. Young adults also use their mother tongue with their elders as a sign of respect. Generally, women are more regularly using the mother tongue then men because they are less exposed to Nepali. Only recently girls have been regularly attending school and thus became competent in Nepali. Traditionally, women have been staying in the village while the men traveled for trade or lived away from their homes working abroad or in the capital where they had to communicate in Nepali. School age children and young people among themselves tend to use Nepali in varying degrees according to the situation and the depth of their education. In urban areas where people of different ethnicity live together the use of the (non-Nepali) mother tongue decreases greatly. The longer the stay in such urban areas, the greater the possibility that the mother tongue is abandoned completely. In cases where marital partners are from different language groups, or a husband served over a long time in a Gurkha regiment or because of other long absence from the village area, families may choose Nepali as their means of communication even in their home village. 3.2. USE BY SPEAKERS OF OTHER LANGUAGES In general, indigenous languages are spoken only by members of an indigenous linguistic community. Exceptions are work relationships (Nepali mother-tongue speakers working for members of an indigenous group as agricultural day labourers), marriage between members of different language groups and a mixed population living in villages that straddle a language border. (See also above, 3.1.4. and 3.1.5.) 3.3. USE IN ADMINISTRATION Nepali is the language for official use. The indigenous languages may not be used in any government offices. In recent years, two linguistic communities, namely the Newar and the Maithili requested use of their respective languages in city offices, but the Supreme Court rejected their request.

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3.4. USE IN EDUCATION Nepali is used for education. Only recently, English schools have sprung up, first in the Kathmandu Valley and later also in other towns of the more outlying districts. Indigenous languages have been the medium of education only in a very few cases, that is, Newari (one school in the Kathmandu valley), some of the Kirati languages, namely Bantawa, Limbu (formal education), and Khaling (adult literacy, non-formal education). Though the use of indigenous languages as a medium for education has been granted, it has not been put into practice. Textbooks in a number of languages of Nepal have been produced but they are for the most part not distributed due to the lack of teachers trained to use them. Though the number of teachers from indigenous language groups has increased as the result of increasing access to education, these teachers are rarely sent back to their mother tongue community after graduating. Therefore, and because of the continued use of Nepali as the medium of instruction, there is a high dropout rate in village schools. 3.5. USE OF LANGUAGES IN THE MEDIA In addition to Nepali, Radio Nepal broadcasts news in Newari, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Sherpa, Limbu, Bantawa, Tamang, Gurung, Magar and Kham. Some of these broadcasts are done from regional stations in the areas where these indigenous people live. Radio Nepal has also broadcast folk songs from various indigenous language groups. Some FM stations have programs in some of the local languages. Newari, Limbu, and a few other languages produce newspapers, newsletters and magazines either monolingual in the indigenous language or in diglot with Nepali. A private TV station in Nepal recently produced an excellent film on life in a Limbu village, using the Limbu language exclusively. Private producers have produced similar films in Newari, Maithili, and Bantawa. On the other hand, an increasing number of news publications are in English and these are read not only by foreigners but also by bilingual and educated Nepalese, some Nepali authors also write literary works in English. 3.6. USE IN RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES Hindu religious scriptures are available in Sanskrit and have been translated into Nepali. The translation of the Ramayana done by Bhanubhakta is the most famous one and read by many to this day. Other Indo-Aryan mother tongues (such as Nepali, Maithili, Rajbansi) may also be used in Hindu ceremonies. Buddhist scriptures are mainly in Tibetan and Pali. Recently, some Buddhist texts were translated into Nepali from Japanese. Indigenous people who follow Islam now have a translation of the Koran in Nepali. This translation also contains the Arabic original in a diglot edition.

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A portion of the Bible was first translated into Nepali in 1822 in India. This was the first printed book in the Nepali language. The New Testament and hymnbooks are available in Nepali as well as in several other languages. Religious rites of indigenous peoples, such as the Bantawa, “Dowong Dum Samkaling” (Rites of Passage) are conducted in ritual forms of the mother tongue. 3.7. USE IN BUSINESS AND LABOR RELATIONS In general, the Nepali language is used for economic activities in Nepal. Business activities between members of an indigenous language group may be conducted in their own language. But where written documents are required they are in Nepali unless the language has a written form. 4. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS AFFECTING SPEECH COMMUNITIES 4.1. HISTORICAL FACTORS From the unification of Nepal in the 18th century, the spread of the Nepali language was actively promoted by the rulers. In order to achieve this, Nepali mother-tongue speakers were sent into indigenous areas as schoolteachers or miners and often, retired soldiers were given land in those areas. Therefore, in some of the large language groups such as Gurung and Magar, abandonment and loss of the mother tongue began early. Today, Gurung and Magar are found outside their original area, especially in the east of Nepal, more than other non-Nepali mother-tongue speakers. Concentrated Nepali speaking settlements of Gurung such as in Rumjatar (Okhaldhunga) and Magar miners in Wapsa (Solu-Khumbu) are examples for early loss of the mother tongue. 4.2. POLITICAL FACTORS Under the Panchayat System (1961 – 1990) the use of indigenous languages was actively discouraged under the policy of “One Nation, One Language”. Still, a few organizations tried to promote indigenous languages and cultures. But because of this policy, they had to work largely underground and therefore were not successful on a large scale. The government did not recognize the existence and uniqueness of the many indigenous groups, each with their own language and culture that constitute the Nepali nation. The 1990 constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal finally recognized the multi-lingual reality of the country: “All languages spoken as the mother tongue in the various parts of Nepal are the languages of this nation” (Article 6.2). This constitution also states that: “Every community residing within the kingdom of Nepal shall have the right to protect and

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develop its language, script and culture. Each community shall have the right to establish schools for providing education to the children up to primary level in their mother tongue.” (Article 18.1 and 18. 2). For the first time since the existence of the state of Nepal, the right to primary education in the mother tongue was granted. It is, however, still a long way to implementation. 4.3. ECONOMIC FACTORS Maintaining the mother tongue, whether within the indigenous area or outside of it, involves an extra effort, yet brings no economic advantage. In fact, it may even be a hindrance to fluency and mastery of the prestigious national language. Thus, mother tongue speakers of indigenous languages may feel compelled to abandon their mother tongue in order to succeed economically. For the same reason, they do not see any advantage in teaching it to their children. Most of the indigenous people live in the countryside working as peasant farmers, producing more or less enough to live but no cash crops. In many places in Nepal, the environment has been increasingly deteriorating through landslides, floods and deforestation. Together with the steady increase in the population, the situation in the majority of the villages is now such that the arable land is not enough to support the population. Thus, migration for economic reasons has become prevalent. Migration to the Terai in search of land, or to the cities in search of work has drastically changed the language use, that is, from the indigenous languages to Nepali by necessity. Because of their occupation, speakers of some indigenous languages are more prone to abandon their mother tongue than others. The Raji are fishermen, while the Majhi and Bote used to ferry people across the rivers as long as there were no bridges. These occupations for a long time have brought them into contact with members from other linguistic communities with the result that these languages are now seriously endangered. The Newar have traditionally been merchants and artisans, especially those living in the Kathmandu Valley. Through their occupations, they have a long tradition of living in urban areas. This has negatively influenced their appreciation and retention of their mother tongue in spite of having a long literary tradition. Speakers of Byansi, and Thakali are farmers as well as traders. For these people, there has been a linguistic shift from Tibetan (needed as a second language for trade with the areas north of their settlements) to Hindi and Nepali (needed nowadays for trade with the south). In addition, those Thakali speakers, who live along a pilgrimage route, have been interacting a lot with outsiders. This resulted not only in an early acquisition of Nepali, but also in an early on-set of language loss. The Sherpa traditionally were traders, herders and farmers. Nowadays, they are mainly occupied as trekking guides, where they are constantly conversing with members of other linguistic communities as well as foreigners. Thus, there is great danger of accelerated loss of their mother tongue.

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4.4. EDUCATION Education still is conducted exclusively in Nepali, which affects the use of the indigenous mother tongue and is leading parents to teach Nepali to their children in order to make them academically successful as well as to ensure their smooth interaction with their peers at school. This way the lack of education in the mother tongue is partially responsible for language loss among indigenous peoples. The absence of a written form and literature in the indigenous languages also negatively affects the growth and future of the indigenous languages. 4.5. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES In general, the Indo-Aryan people follow the Hindu religion wherever they live in Nepal and the Hindu religious ceremonies use religious texts written in Sanskrit. Although it is not a language of general use, Sanskrit has been taught at schools in order to enable those who attend rites conducted in Sanskrit to understand the proceedings. Some among the Tibeto-Burman people groups practice Lamaistic Buddhism that permeates all spheres of their lives. The Buddhist scriptures read by the lama are in Tibetan although the listeners may not understand. For literary materials, the question of script – whether it should be Tibetan in accordance to the religious texts or Devanagari to be useful in everyday life – may become a problem. In the mid-hills the indigenous people practice forms of animism that include nature and ancestor worship. Religious literature in the mother tongue is orally transmitted and the relevant parts are recited at various religious observances among the indigenous communities. To some extent the Limbu have a written form of their religious texts called “Mundum”. Other languages have started to record their orally transmitted sacred texts. In communities of mixed population, animism together with Hindu rites (especially those connected with festivals) is practiced. In those cases, rites are frequently conducted in Nepali rather than the mother tongue. 5. LANGUAGE ATTITUDE 5.1. NEPALI MOTHER TONGUE SPEAKERS The majority of Nepali mother-tongue speakers is monolingual. Though there are many dialects from west to east, they are still mutually intelligible. Because of the prestige the Nepali language enjoys as the national language and lingua franca for all of Nepal, Nepali mother tongue speakers of any dialect have pride in it.

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5.2. INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES As many of the indigenous languages were suppressed under the Rana and Panchayat period’s actively pursued “One-Nation-One-Language” policy, indigenous people have come to consider their languages not only unsuitable for education and business, but also inferior to Nepali in general. Therefore, they tried to improve their competence in Nepali rather than cultivating and preserving their own mother tongue, thus developing a strongly negative attitude towards the mother tongue. For small linguistic communities, this attitude has had dire consequences. Kusunda is one example for language loss due in part to attitude. The Kusunda probably always were a small linguistic community. Because their language and their way of life in the jungle as hunters and gatherers was looked down upon by others, the Kusunda speakers themselves acquired a negative language attitude. This, combined with the increasing destruction of their habitat and intermarriage, has brought the language close to extinction. Other large communities again, who have enjoyed access to education and economic progress over a long time neglected their mother tongue in favor of the national language. It is only now, when the number of competent speakers has become quite low, that they become aware of the treasure they have in their mother tongue and through it, their ethnic identity. This is the case of some of those who have for a long time served in the Nepalese, British and Indian Armies, thus interacting with members from other speech communities, using Nepali as the means of communication exclusively. Larger groups such as the Limbu, however, never lost pride in using their own language. Although they, too, were harassed by non-Limbu speakers around them, the Limbu continued to use their mother tongue and developed the Srijanga writing system. 5.3. ATTITUDE OF MEMBERS OF NEIGHBORING COMMUNITIES Nepali mother-tongue speakers have little knowledge of, and regard for the languages of the indigenous people of Nepal. Thus, speakers of indigenous language groups feel discriminated. On the other hand, many speakers of local languages have only recently become concerned about the inroads Nepali has made upon their mother tongues, a trend that has led to the neglect of their mother tongues in favor of Nepali. 6. ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGE 6.1. STATE OF ENDANGERMENT OF LANGUAGES OF NEPAL What is endangerment of language? The term refers to a process that begins subtly by decreasing use of a language, yet ultimately leading to the “death” of that language. The

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causes of endangerment are varied and not “bad” in themselves: In the course of this monograph, various causes for such endangerment were touched upon. The state of endangerment of languages in Nepal varies greatly. There are some languages that are near to extinction because of the small number of speakers - a prime example is Kusunda. But there are other small groups - a number of the Rai languages - that thrive and have a healthy appreciation for their mother tongue, while at the same time, young people study at the village schools and also become competent in Nepali. The size and location of the group, the availability and quality of education and the frequency of contact with outsiders, especially Nepali mother-tongue speakers, influence the attitude towards the mother tongue and the consciousness of linguistic identity. Moreover, many occupations that are only available in urban areas require literacy in Nepali and this also has a negative influence on the continued use and preservation of the indigenous languages. There are large linguistic communities where there is not much interest in using the mother tongue, very likely due to early access to education. Schools are teaching in the Nepali language and teachers are from other speech communities. Those who are successful in school and go on to study at the university are also integrated into the mainstream of the Nepali speaking society with the cost of loss of the mother tongue. Other linguistic communities, where the use of mother tongue has decreased, show an awakening interest to preserve and cultivate the mother tongue before it is too late. Movements to preserve or even revive the mother tongue often start with those who live outside their linguistic community. Yet some languages continue to thrive because of a general unconditional loyalty to the mother tongue. In order to accurately assess the situation of endangerment, an in-depth study is needed as well as practical steps taken. At present, only a rough guess can be made. A list of endangered languages may contain the following languages: among the Indo-Aryan group: Kumal, Majhi, Bote. Among the Tibeto-Burman group: Bramu, Dura (by some considered a dead language), Pahari, Raute, Raji, Sunuwar, and Kirati languages of small size such as Mewahang, Koi, Puma, Hayu and Tilung, in addition, Kusunda (un-classified). 6.2. ENDANGERMENT OF THE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN NEPAL The reasons for endangerment of indigenous language communities are various. There may be destruction of traditional habitat through deforestation (as in the case of the Raute and Kusunda), or landslides (which wiped out almost completely the only two villages where the Koi are located). Also due to steady growth of population, arable land may get scarce and people lose their livelihoods. This forces them to leave their original settlements and to disperse among speakers of other languages, thus being obliged to communicate in Nepali. The situation in the Terai is somewhat different. Here, indigenous communities that used to be isolated are becoming communities of mixed population as newcomers from other linguistic communities settle next door to the original population of Tharu, Dhimal and

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Rajbansi. Since communication will have to be in Nepali, the use of the mother tongue of the original population of the Terai decreases and even small children are compelled to know Nepali in order to play with their friends. 7. CONCLUSION A language is a living organism. It is, therefore, natural for languages to change (We speak of language development and language growth). Changes in all areas of life find expression in the language. If languages have a written form, their preservation and spread is facilitated and their prestige is rising. Language is intricately connected with the people that speak it and inseparable from society and culture. In this limited monograph we have considered the actual situation of linguistic diversity and the geographical distribution of languages in Nepal, based on the results of the UNESCO 2002 Survey. To conclude, we see the urgency to work towards the preservation of the indeginous languages before it is too late. “Language death” is a recent term that denotes the end of a language – no more speakers that use it; no more literature is created in it. In such cases, written languages are at least preserved by a written testimony. What about unwritten languages? They disappear, leaving no traces, except perhaps for names of people and places. What practical steps can be taken to reverse or at least, arrest the endangerment of languages in Nepal? Education is a prime domain for action. While education in Nepali is a prerogative, it is also equally important to enhance positive language attitudes to the mother tongue with speakers of other languages. Bilingual education at the primary level that bridges into the national language seems to be the best measure. Needed are not only primary school textbooks, but also mother tongue teachers and villages leaders who are convinced of the value of their mother tongue. Primary education in the mother tongue would reverse the high dropout rate in the villages. Mother tongue literacy classes of a non-formal nature for adults, together with primary education in the mother tongue would result in a functionally literate society that could easily make the transition to become literate in the national language. Such a society would take the initiative to preserve their mother tongue and culture, thus contributing to the wealth of language and culture in Nepal. Other counter measures to meet the imminent demise of languages exist in several institutions and organizations dealing with linguistic planning and policy on the national level. A government-sponsored venture on the languages of Nepal was the formation of a National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission. The Commission submitted its

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report to the Minister of Education, Culture and Social Welfare in 1994. The main recommendations in the report were the following:

• Conduct a linguistic survey of Nepal in order to identify and determine the actual number of languages spoken in Nepal.

• Identify endangered languages in Nepal. • Promote monolingual or bilingual education in the mother tongues and/or Nepali. • Establish a language academy.

The Linguistic Society of Nepal has been existing for the past 25 years. Each year the Society publishes a linguistic journal and meets for their annual conference where papers on various linguistic topics are presented and discussed. Indigenous languages provide the majority of topics. The Central Department of Linguistics at Tribhuvan University was established in 1999 to teach linguistic theory and to train Nepali linguists to do research on the languages of Nepal. The Royal Nepal Academy was established by King Mahendra for the preservation and development of the Nepalese cultures. The study of languages of Nepal was added to the Academy’s program for a while. The Academy published Nepali translations of folk stories of some ethnic groups of Nepal as well as a comprehensive dictionary of the Limbu language. The National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities sponsored a project of “Basic Dictionaries” for several languages in cooperation with the Central Department of Linguistics and the Center for Nepal and Asian Studies. Among the indigenous peoples have now created several organizations concerned with the preservation and cultivation of their culture, especially related to the preservation of costumes, dances and singing. Recently, some of these societies have produced small dictionaries to stop language-loss among their linguistic community. In some cases, texts have been collected and published. This kind of initiatives only exists since the last decade. They are signs that indigenous language groups have begun to consider their mother tongues as an asset worth to be preserved and cultivated. It is now imperative to affirm them and assist them in this endeavour.

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g]kfndf efiffx?sf] ljljwtf tyf nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt

Sueyoshi and Ingrid Toba Novel Kishor Rai

Translated into Nepali by Lekhnath Sharma Pathak

UNESCO Kathmandu Office

Jawalakhel • Lalitpur • PO Box 14391 • Kathmandu • Nepal Phone +977-1-5554-396/769 • Fax +977-1-5554-450

29

ljifo–;"rL

kl/ro

!= e"uf]n ........................................................................................................................................ 31

!=! g]kfnsf] ef}uf]lns l:ylt tyf efiffx?sf] ljt/0f ............................................................ 32

!=@ g]kfndf efiffsf ef}uf]lns ;Ldfx?df kl/jt{g ............................................................... 32

!=# g]kfnsf efiffsf] ef}uf]lns ljt/0f .................................................................................... 33

!=#=! g]kfnL ......................................................................................................................... 33

!=#=@ cGo efiffx? .............................................................................................................. 33

!=$ g]kfnsf efiff ;d'bfox?sf] cfjf;Lo l:ylt ................................................................... 34

!=% cfGtl/s / afXo cfjfudg .............................................................................................. 34

!=^ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] cGo b]zx?df ljt/0f ....................................................................... 35

@= g]kfnsf efiff tyf eflifsfx? ................................................................................................... 36

@=! efiffx?sf] sfof{noLo cj:yf ............................................................................................ 36

@=@ efiff / eflifsf ................................................................................................................... 36

@=# g]kfnL eflifsfx? ................................................................................................................ 37

@=$ g]kfnsf cGo efiffsf eflifsfx? ..................................................................................... 38

@=% sYo efiff ........................................................................................................................... 39

@=%=! g]kfnL ........................................................................................................................ 39

@=%=@ cGo efiffx? ............................................................................................................. 39

@=%=# PsefifL jQmfx? .......................................................................................................40

@=%=$ låefifL jQmfx? .........................................................................................................40

@=%=% ax'efifL jQmfx? .......................................................................................................41

@=%=^ efiff cle;/0f ..........................................................................................................42

@=^ n]Vo efiff ...........................................................................................................................42

@=^=! g]kfnsf efiffsf n]vg k4ltx? ..............................................................................42

@=^=@ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] dfgsLs/0f ..............................................................................43

@=^=# ;fIf/tf b/ ................................................................................................................44

30

@=^=$ ;flxlTos k/Dk/fx? ................................................................................................44

#= efiff k|of]u ..................................................................................................................................45

#=! cgf}krfl/s cj:yfx?df ....................................................................................................45

#=@ cGo efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f k|of]u ........................................................................................46

#=# k|zf;gdf k|of]u ..................................................................................................................46

#=$ lzIffdf k|of]u .....................................................................................................................46

#=% cfd;~rf/ dfWodx?df efiffsf] k|of]u ............................................................................47

#=^ wfld{s ultljlwx?df k|of]u ...............................................................................................48

#=& Jofkf/ tyf >d ;DjGwx?df k|of]u .................................................................................48

$= jfs\ ;d'bfox?nfO{ c;/ kfg{] ;fdflhs / ;f+:s[lts sf/s tTjx? ....................................49

$=! P]ltxfl;s sf/s tTjx? ...................................................................................................49

$=@ /fhg}lts sf/s tTjx? ....................................................................................................49

$=# cfly{s sf/s tTjx? ........................................................................................................ 50

$=$ lzIff .................................................................................................................................. 51

$=% wfld{s ;d'bfox? .............................................................................................................. 51

%= eflifs cjwf/0ff ......................................................................................................................... 52

%=! g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? .................................................................................................... 52

%=@ hghftLo efiffx? ............................................................................................................. 52

%=# l5d]sL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf] cjwf/0ff .......................................................................... 53

^= efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt ........................................................................................................ 53

^=! g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt ................................................................................. 53

^=@ g]kfndf hghftLo ;d'bfox?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt ........................................................... 55

&= lgrf]8 .......................................................................................................................................... 55

31

kl/ro

o; k'l:tsfsf] p2]Zo g]kfnsf nflu ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo z}lIfs j}1flgs tyf ;f+:s[lts ;+u7g -o'g]:sf]_

k|ltj]bg -;g\ @))@_ af6 k|fKt ePsf 1fgx?nfO{ j[xQ/ hgtf ;fd" k'¥ofpg' xf] . o;df ljz]if hf]8

Psflt/ g]kfnsf] eflifs ljljwtfnfO{ lbOPsf] 5 eg] csf{lt/ g]kfnsf sltko efiffx?sf nf]kf]Gd'v

l:yltsf sf/0f / ltgsf] l:ylt af/] hfgsf/L lbOPsf] 5 .

g]kfn ef}uf]lns tyf ;f+:s[lts ljljwtfn] wgL b]zsf] ?kdf lrlgG5 . of] b]z eflifs ljljwtfdf klg

TolQs} wgL 5 eGg] s'/f ;j{ljlbt} 5 . g]kfn h:tf] ;fgf] b]zdf slDtdf () efiffx? x'g'df ;fdfGotof

cljZj;lgo dflgG5 . w]/} h;f]sf] ljrf/ ;fdfGotof s] 5 eg] of] ;+Vof eflifsfx? nufotsf] x'g'kb{5 .

t/ xfdLx? o; cWoogdf /fli6«o efiffx?nfO{ dfq} O+lut ub}{5f}+ h'g g]kfnsf hghfltx? dfq af]Nb5g\ .

o; afx]s g]kfnsf l5d]sL b]zx?df af]lng] w]/} efiffx? klg o; cWoogdf ;fd]n ul/Psf 5}gg\ .

/fi6«efiff g]kfnL o; b]zsf ;Dk"0f{ hg;+Vofsf] cfwf hltsf] dft[efiff xf] . xfn;Dd -of] ;j{]If0f ubf{sf]

a]nfdf_ /fhwfgL sf7df8f}+df a;f]af; ug{]x?n] g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] efiff ;d"xx?sf] k|ltlglwTj ub{5g\ .

o;n] cg';GWffg stf{x?sf] efiff;Ddsf] kx'FrnfO{ ;lhnf] agfpF5 . t/ o;n] cGo efiffsf jQmfx?;Fu

b}lgs ;Dks{sf] qmddf g]kfnL efiff k|of]u ug{'kg{] ePsfn] / cfˆgf] dft[efiff sd k|of]u x'g] x'bf yf]/}

jQmfx? ePsf efiffx?nfO{ nf]k u/fpg ;S5 .

o; k'l:tsfn] g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?nfO{ g]kfnsf] ef}uf]lns ;fdflhs efiff a}1flgs tyf jx';f+:s[lts

l:yltsf] ;Gbe{df bzf{Psf] 5 . klxnf] cWofodf efiff / e"uf]nsf] ljj/0f lbOPsf] 5 . bf];|f] cWofo

PsefifLotf, låefifLotf tyf ax'efifLotf nufot cGo efiff / eflifsfx?;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . t];|f]

cWofodf efiff k|of]u af/] 5nkmn ul/Psf] 5 . rf}yf] cWofo efiffsf] ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts l:ylt;Fu

;DalGwt 5 . kfFrf} cWofo eflifs cjwf/0ffx? / ltgsf kl/0ffdx? af/] 5 . 5}7f}+ cWofosf] Wofg

g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltdf s]lGb| 5 . cGTodf efiffx?sf] ljj/0f n]Vg] tyf ;+/If0f ug{] ;+3

;+:yfx? nufot nf]kf]Gd'v efiffx?nfO{ hf]ufpg] pkfox? ;'emfOPsf] 5 . g]kfndf /x]sf s]xL nf]kf]Gd'v

efiffx?nfO{ hf]ufpg w]/} l9nf x'g'eGbf cufj} xfdLx?n] s]xL u/L xfNg'kg{] 68\sf/f] cfjZostf 5 .

32

!= e"uf]n

!=! g]kfnsf] ef}uf]lns l:ylt tyf efiffx?sf] ljt/0f

g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?sf] gS;fx?sf nfuL kl/lzi6 # x]g{'xf];\ .

ef}uf]lns b[li6n], klZrd b]vL k"j{;Ddj g]kfn tLg ljz]if ef}uf]lns If]qx?df km}lnPsf] 5 M pQ/df

cUnf lxdfnL kj{t >[+vnf, dWodf dWo–kj{tx? tyf blIf0fdf pk–cIf+zLo (Sub-tropical) ;dy/ t/fO{

a]+zL . o:tf] ef}uf]lns ljljwtf oxfFsf] cd"No h}ljs ljljwtfdf klg kl/nlIft ePsf] 5 . o;} u/L

oxfFsf dflg;x?df, ;+:s[ltx?df tyf efiffx?df klg To:tf] ljljwtf kfOG5 .

g]kfnL afx]ssf w]/}h;f] dft[efiffx? ef]6–ad{]nL kl/jf/sf 5g\ . clt prfO{sf If]qx?df s]Gb|Lo af]b]nL,

klZrdL lxdfnL tyf klZrdL af]b]nL efiffx? af]Ng] eflifs ;d'bfox? kb{5g\ . dWo–kj{tx?df xfdL

lxdfnL tyf ls+/ftL efiffx? af]Ng] eflifs ;d'bfox? kfpF5f}+ . t/fO{ a];Ldf ef/tLo–cfo{, ef]6–ad{]nL,

d'08f -cfUg]nL_ tyf pQ/L b|lj8 efiffx? af]lnG5g\ -kl/lzi6 !_ . o; afx]s, dfyL pNn]v ul/Pem}+

;Dk"0f{ b]zdf /fi6«efiff g]kfnL af]lnG5 lsgeg] o;n] ;a} JolStx?sf] lglDt ;Dks{ efiffsf] sfd u5{ .

!=@ g]kfndf efiffsf ef}uf]lns ;Ldfx?df kl/jt{g

g]kfn clw/fHosf] :yfkgf c7f/f}+ ztfJbLdf >L % k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxaf6 ul/aS;]sf] lyof] . clw/fHosf]

:yfkgf / k"j{sf] lj:tf/;Fu}, g]kfnL af]lng] If]q klg klZrd b]lv k"j{lt/ lj:tf/ x'Fb} uof] . cfw'lgs

g]kfnsf ;+:yfkssf] efiff g]kfnL clw/fHosf] /fi6«efiff aGof] . g]kfnL efiffsf] k"j{ tkmL{ lj:tf/ / g]kfnL

dft[efifLsf] ;+Vofdf j[l4 ;Fu}, s]xL hghftLo eflifs ;d'bfox? klg To;}a]nf k"j{lt/ ws]lnPsf lyP .

kl5 uP/, ltAatL efiffx? af]Ng] s}of}+ ;d'bfox? cfˆgf] d"n ynf] lxdfnL kj{t >[+vnf kf/Laf6 blIf0fdf

g]kfnlt/ emg{ yfn] .

33

!=# g]kfnsf efiffsf] ef}uf]lns ljt/0f

!=#=! g]kfnL

/fi6«efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL -v; s'/f, uf]vf{nL, kj{t] gfdaf6 klg lrlgg]_ g]kfnsf] hg;+Vofsf] cfwf eGbf

s]xL a9L dflg;af6 dft[efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfne/ af]lnG5 . oBlk of] g]kfnL vf;u/L b]zsf] klZrdL

efudf a9L k|rlnt 5 hxfF of] efiff cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf If]qx?af6 c;/ gkg{] :yfgdf af]lnG5 .

;dy/ t/fO{ e]usf ;Dk"0f{ If]qx?df dft[efifL jQmfx? tyf g]kfn e/Laf6 cfP/ a;f]af; ug{]x? b'j} y/L

g]kfnLsf] Ps lsl;dsf] æt6:yÆ :j?k k|of]u u5{g . ;fwf/0ftof cGo efiffefifLx? aLr klg g]kfnL

cfd ;Dks{sf] efiffsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/G5 .

!=#=@ cGo efiffx?

g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffx?nfO{ g]kfnsf æ/fli6«o efiffx?Æ elgG5 . of] zAb sf] cy{ cGo b]zx?df

æcNk;+Vos efiffÆ cyjf æhghflto efiffÆ nfO{ k|of]u x'g] cy{;Fu nfU5 . oL efiffx? hghftLo ;d"x

ljz]ifdf af]lnG5g\ . t/ ToxfF klg g]kfnL dft[efifLx? tyf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf ;b:ox? lar cfd

;+rf/sf] efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnLs} k|e'Tj 5 . g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? afx]s cGo efifLx? aLr klg

g]kfnLsf] Jofks k|of]usf] 7Ls ljkl/t hghftLo efiffx? tL efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f dfq} af]lnG5g\ / Tof]

klg To;} If]qleq dfq} hxfF ltgLx? a;f]af; u5{g . pQ/klZrd g]kfnsf pRr kxf8L If]qx?M d'u',

8f]Nkf], d':tfª / dgfªdf ltAatL efiffx? af]lnG5g\ . To;}u/L k"jL{ g]kfnsf pQ/L pRr kxf8L If]qx?df,

xfdL s]xL ;fgf ltJjtL efifL ;d"xx? kfpF5f}+ h:t} of]NXdf], lh/]n / z]kf{ . z]kf{x? pQ/af6 cfPsf x'g\

/ pgLx?sf] To; If]qdf a;f]af;sf] Oltxf; Tolt nfdf] 5}g .

ef}uf]lns ?kdf g]kfnsf] dWo efu -kfNkf_ b]lv k"j{lt/ nfUbf xfdL g]kfnL efifLx?aLr 5l/P/ /x]sf

cGo eflifs ;d'bfox? a9\b} uPsf] kfpF5f}+ . w]/}h;f] ufpF / zx/sf 7fpFx? ljleGg efiffefifL ;d"xaf6

ag]sf x'G5g\ / k|To]s ;d"x ufpF cyjf zx/sf] s'g} Ps efudf a;f]af; u/]sf x'G5g\ .

7"nf efiff ;d"xx? h:t} du/, u'?ª / tfdfË dWo g]kfnsf] kxf8L If]qx?df a;f]af; ub{5g\ . ltgLx?

ef]6–ad{]nL efiffx? af]N5g\ . blIf0fsf] t/fO{a];Ldf ef/tLo–cfo{, ef]6–ad{]nL, d'08f tyf pQ/L b|lj8

efiffx? af]lnG5g\ .

34

!=$ g]kfnsf efiff ;d'bfox?sf] cfjf;Lo l:ylt

7f]; ;d'bfodf /x]sf g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? ;Dk"0f{ g]kfne/L kfO{G5g\ . clwsf+z rfFxL klZrd

g]kfndf 5g\ . g]kfnL efifLsf o:tf 7f]; a;f]af;sf gfdx?n] klg To; If]qdf ;dfhsf] s'g rfFxL

;d"xsf] afx'Notf 5 eGg] s'/f tkm{ ;+s]t u5{, 7fpFsf gfdx? h:t} æ5]qLufpFÆ, æa:g]tufpFÆ,

æafx'g]kf6LÆ o:tf pbfx/0fx? x'g\ . t/ hghftLo efiff If]qx?df eg] o:tf] 7f]; ;d'bfosf] h:tf] s'/f

eg] nfu' x'Fb}g . pN6} ufpF–zx/sf To:tf 7fpFdf o:tf pkIf]q x'g ;S5g\ hxfF hftLo tyf eflifs ?kdf

g]kfnL efifL ;d'bfox?sf] afx'Notf x'g ;S5 .

dWo kxf8L ufpFx?df hxfF ef]6–ad{]nL efiffx? af]Ng] dflg; a;f]af; u5{g\, To:tf 7fpFx?df k|foh;f]

o:tf hghftLo ;d'bfox? x'G5g\ hxfFsf dflg; Pp6} efiff ;d'bfosf x'G5g\ . o:tf ufpFx?sf 5]pdf

nx/} g]kfnL efifL k]zfut hftx? h:t} sfdL, bdfO{, ;'gf/sf 3/sf x'g ;S5g\ h;sf] k]zfut ;]jfsf]

ufpFsf jfl;Gbfx?nfO{ vfFrf] kg{ ;S5 . s'g} s'g} 7fpFx?df oL JolQmx? To; If]qsf] afx'Notf ePsf

eflifs ;d'bfosf] efiff bf];|f] efiffsf] ?kdf af]Ng ;S5g\ . t/fO{ h:tf xfn}df a;f]af; ePsf If]qx?df

g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? nufotsf ;Dk"0f{ ljleGg hflt tyf eflifs ;d"xx? ;Fu;Fu} a;f]af; u/]sf

5g\ . k'/fgf jfl;Gbfsf k/Dk/fut ufpFx? xfn}sf cfw'lgs a;f]af;sf ;lhnf] kx'Fr ePsf 7fpFx?eGbf

k|foM h;f] s]xL 6f9f x'G5g\ .

!=% cfGtl/s / afXo cfjfudg

cfw'lgs g]kfnsf] :yfkgf b]lv g} g]kfndf w]/}h;f] hg;+Vofsf] a;fO;/fO k"j{lt/} x'Fb} uPsf] 5 .

a;fO;/fOsf] kl5Nnf qmddf d"ntM g]kfndf a;f]af; ug{]x? xfnsf] klZrd a+ufn ;Dd ;Ldfkf/L

k"j{lt/ ;b{} uP . ha ef/tsf] bflh{lnË c+u|]hx?åf/f ælxn :6]zgÆ sf] ?kdf ljsl;t x'Fb} lyof] / lrof

sdfgx? :yflkt eP, g]kfnLx? a;fO;/fO u/]/ Totf uP . ltgLx?n] lrof sdfgdf sfd dfq kfPgg\

cGo k]zfx? h:t} 3/]n' sfdbf/ / /]i6'/]06x?df sfdbf/sf] ?kdf tyf bdfO{÷bhL{, nf]xf/ / Jofkf/Lsf

?kdf klg sfd ug{ yfn] . ha lrof sdfgx? cem} k"j{lt/ lj:tfl/t x'Fb} uP, oxfF ;Dd ls e'6fgdf

klg, g]kfnL sfdbf/x? ToxfF lgDTofOP . a;fO;/fOsf] csf{] r/0fn] g]kfnLnfO{ ;8s lgdf{0fsf] sfddf

To; If]qdf k'¥ofof] . af6fx? agL ;s]kl5 klg a;fO;/fO eg] lg/Gt/ rlng} /Xof] / o;sf] lj:tf/

cf;fd / ef/tsf k"jf{]Q/ /fHox? ;Dd eof] . blIf0flt/sf] ;/fO eg] s]xL k5L cf/De eof], t/fO{ k5L

35

g]kfnsf blIf0fL a];Lx?nfO{ O{:jL ;g\ !(^) sf] bzslt/ v'nf ul/of] . ToxfFsf] If]qnfO{ a;f]af; of]Uo

agfpg y'k|} ag If]qx? kmfFl8P / cf}nf] pGd'ng ul/of] . kxf8sf s'g}–s'g} ufpFx?sf] hg;+Vof y]Ug}

g;Sg] l:yltdf k'u]sfn] dWo–kxf8x?af6 dflg;x? a;f]af; ug{ t/fO{lt/ emg{ yfn] . oxfF s] pNn]v

ug'{ kg]{ x'G5 eg] ;fO;/fOsf oL r/0fx?df ;Dk"0f{ ;d'bfox? xf]Og, JolStx? lyP . 3/ 5f]8]/ lx8\g]

o:tf JolQmx?n] ljleGg vfn] ;a} efiff ;d"xx?sf dWo–kxf8L ;d'bfo;Fu ldn]/ a:g cfˆgf] ;+f:s[lts

kl/j]z / o;;Fu} cfˆgf dft[efiffnfO{ k5f8L 5f8]/ cfPsf lyP . xfnsf] kl5NNf] j]u sfd tyf pRr

lzIffsf nflu zx/L s]Gb|x?lt/ ljz]ifu/L sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf nlIft 5 . g]kfnsf nueu ;j} h;f]

efiffsf jQmfx? sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf kfOgfn] xfnsf ;dodf zx/L If]qx?df a;fO;/fO{ Jofks /

lj:t[t ePsf] b]vfpF5 . ;a} h;f] gePklg, cfˆgf] cWoog k"/f ul/;s]sf / sf7df8f}+df hflu/ kfpg]x?

sltko sf/0fx?n] 3/ gkms{g] qmd pNn]vgLo 5 . ;jeGbf klxnf t sf7df8f}+df hflu/sf nflu cyjf

pRr lzIffsf nflu cfpg]x? ot} a:5g\ . lsgeg] pgLx? cfˆgf] 7fpFdf cfkm"nfO{ tyf cfˆgf kl/jf/

kfNgsf nflu rflxP hlt v]tL of]Uo hldg kfpFb}gg\ . bf];|f], pgLx?n] zx/df k|fKt u/]sf] lzIff tyf

Joj;flos tflnd lrlsT;f ;DaGwL cyjf z}lIfs afx]s cGo ;fwf/0ftof ltgsf u|fdL0f ;d'bfox?df

s'g} sfd nfUb}gg\ . ;fdfGotof o;/L a;fO;/fO ug{]x?n] cfˆgf dft[efiff la;{G5g\ lsgeg] pgLx?sf]

cfˆg} dft[efifL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?;Fu vf;} e]63f6 x'Fb}g cyjf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf] ;b:o;Fu

j}jflxs ;DjGw ePsf] x'G5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ a;fO;/fOsf] Jofks nx/sf] sf/0f rfFxL s]xL

xb;Dd u|fdL0f If]qdf åGåsf] qf;n] klg xf] . dflg;x? sf7df8f}+df dfq} xf]Og cGo g]kfnL zx/x?df

tyf blIf0f Pl;ofsf cGo d'n'sx?df klg ;b{}5g\ . cGo uGtJo :ynx? rfFxL dWo k"j{sf b]zx? h:t}M

stf/, s'j}t, O{/fs tyf ;'b"/ k"j{sf b]zx? h:t} yfONof08, dn]l;of, xªsª, a|'g]O{, sf]l/of / hfkfg

x'g\ . s]xL eg] cd]l/sf, ci6«]lnof / o'/f]k hfG5g\ . o:tf a;fO;/fOn] hghftLo dft[efiffx?nfO{ TofUg]

tyf ltgLx?sf] nf]k x'g] qmdnfO{ ltj|tf lbO{/x]sf 5g\ .

!=^ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] cGo b]zx?df ljt/0f

g]kfnb]lv aflx/ g]kfnL w]/} sf/0fn] af]lnG5 . of] efiff g]kfnsf] jt{dfg ;Ldf eGbf aflx/ af]lng'sf] d'Vo

sf/0f g]kfnL efifLx? tL If]qdf ;Ldfx? lglZrt x'g'eGbf klxNo} b]lv a;f]af; u/L /x]sf lyP cyjf

ToxfF a;fO;/fO u/]/ uP . hflu/af6 lgj[Q ePkl5 uf]/vf ;}lgsx? pt} a;f]af; u/]sfn] g]kfnL efifL

36

;d'bfox? k"jf{]Q/ ef/tdf tyf adf{ -Dofgdf/_ ;Dd kfOG5g\ . bflh{lnËdf g]kfnLsf] Jofks k|of]u

x'g'sf] sf/0f dfly pNn]v ul/Pem}+ Jofks a;fO;/fOsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ xf] .

dfly pNn]v ul/Pem}+ ltAatL efiff cyjf eflifsf af]Ng] ;d'bfox? pQ/lt/af6 g]kfnsf pRr kxf8L

If]qx?df hfg yfn], o:tf kl5Nnf ;d'bfox?df k"jL{ g]kfnsf z]kf{ x'g\ . t/fO{df /fhj+zLem}+ s]xL 7"nf

efiff ;d"xx? ef/tdf hGd] / pQ/df jt{dfg g]kfnlt/ ;/] . csf{lt/, d}lynL efifLx?sf] eflifs ;d'bfo

P]ltxfl;s ?kdf To; If]qdf a;f]af; ub{} cfPsf] lyof] h'g xfndf ef/t;Fu cGt/f{li6«o ;Ldfn] ljeflht

5 . ef/t / ;'b"/ klZrdf]Q/ g]kfnsf] ;Ldfsf b'j}lt/ a:g] Aof;Lx?sf] syf klg o:t} 5 .

@= g]kfnsf efiff tyf eflifsfx?

@=! efiffx?sf] sfof{noLo cj:yf

g]kfnL g]kfnsf] /fi6«efiff tyf – ;/sf/L lgsfox?df, a}+sx?df, Jofkfl/s If]qdf cfd ;~rf/df tyf

g]kfnel/sf ;Dk"0f{ z}lIfs ;+:yfx?df k|of]u x'g] hg;Dks{sf] efiff xf] . ;g\ !(() -lj=;+= @)$&_ sf]

g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg cg';f/, g]kfnL afx]s cGo hghftLo efiffx?nfO{ æ/fi6«sf efiffÆ -/fli6«o efiff_Æ

elgPsf] 5 t/ ltgsf] ;/sf/L sfdsfhdf k|of]u ePsf] 5}g .

@=@ efiff / eflifsf

eflifsfsf] ljkl/t æefiffÆ nfO{ s]xL ljz]if ;d"xsf dflg;x?sf] dft[efiff tyf ltgLx?aLrsf] ;Dks{sf]

dfWod eGg ;lsG5 . s'g}klg efiff ljz]if To; ;d"x ljz]if b]lv aflx/sf JolQmx?nfO{ a'‰g ufx|f] x'G5 .

eflifsfnfO{ s'g} efiff leqsf] Ps e]b eGg ;lsG5 . o:tf e]bx?n] af]wuDotfnfO{ c;/ kfb{}gg\ .

efiffx?df w]/}–yf]/} s]xL xb;Dd eflifsfut ljleGgtfx? x'g ;S5g\ . o:tf ljleGgtfx? tL efiffx?df

x'G5g\ h;df w]/} ;+Vofdf jQmfx? 5g\ cyjf h'g w]/} 7"nf If]qdf km}lnPsf 5g\ cyjf o:tf If]qdf hxfF

ljleGg a;f]af;sf 7fpFx?nfO{ gbLx? tyf kxf8x?n] 5'6\ofPsf x'G5g\ . s'g} eflifs ;d'bfosf 5]psf

37

If]qsf JolQmx? låeflifs dfq xf]Og s'g} o:tf] ljz]if eflifsf klg af]Ng ;S5g\ h;df b'j} efiffsf

zAbx? tyf Jofs/0fLo k|efj k/]sf] x'G5 . o; afx]s, olb s'g} efiff ;d"xdf s'g} ;d"xsf] ljlzi6 k]zf

5 eg] To;n] klg s'g} Ps lsl;dsf] eflifsf lgdf{0f ug{ ;S5 . w]/} h;f] ;dodf o:tf w]/} sf/s

tTjx? ;Fu} ldn]df Pp6f eflifsfsf] lgdf{0f x'g ;S5 .

@=# g]kfnL eflifsfx?

æsf7df8f}+sf] g]kfnLÆ nfO{ sYo g]kfnLsf] dfgs ?k eGg ;lsG5 t/ xfdL cGo sYo?k cyjf

eflifsfx? klg kfpF5f}+ . g]kfnLsf oL eflifsfx? cGtaf6 5'l§Psfn] tyf tL ljleGg If]qx? b'u{d ePsfn]

pNn]Vo ?kdf km/s x'g ;S5g\ . t}klg, tL ;a} Pp6} efiffsf Ps cfk;df a'lemg] eflifsfx? x'g\ .

pbfx/0fsf nflu kl/lzi6 x]g{'xf];\ . xfdLx? klZrdL, dWo tyf k"j{]nL eflifsfx? 5'6\ofpg ;S5f}+ .

g]kfnLsf eflifsfx? w]/} ;+Vofdf klZrd g]kfndf kfO{G5g\ . g]kfnLsf oL eflifsfx?sf] gfdfs/0f tL

efiffx? af]lng] If]qsf gfdsf] cfwf/df ePsf] 5 . klZrdf]Q/af6 cf/De ubf{ 8F8]nw'/f, a}t8L, aemfËL,

afh'/fnL, c5fdL, h'DnL tyf 8f]6]nL eflifsfx? 5g\ . 8f]6]nLdf t Pp6f zAbsf]z klg pknAw 5 . dWo

g]kfndf kfNkfnL Pp6f csf{] ljlzi6 eflifsf xf] . k"j{lt/ nfUbf sf7df8f}+sf] cfˆgf] ljlzi6 tyf vf;

k|lti7f ePsf] eflifsf 5 / cGTodf g]kfnsf] ;'b"/ k"j{df Onfdsf] cfˆg} ljlzi6 eflifsf 5 . tnsf s]xL

pbfx/0fx?n] g]kfnL eflifsfsf leGgtfnfO{ k|i6\ofPsf 5g\ .

8F8]Nw'/fdf xd\ cpGof x'g' .

a}t8Ldf xd\ gfOF cfpgf .

8f]6Ldf xd\ gOcpGof x'F .

kfNkfdf xfdL cfpGgd\ .

sf7df8f}+df xfdL cfpFb}gf}+ .

Onfddf xfdL cfpFbf}+g .

-;|f]tM 8f= r'8fd0fL aGw', @)^)_

38

xfdL k"j{lt/ a9\b} hfFbf g]kfnL efifL ;d'bfosf] afx'Notf ePsf] jl/kl/sf] If]qdf cgf}klrf/s

cj:yfx?df ef]6–ad{]nL efiff / Jofkf/ / lzIffdf g]kfnL k|of]u eO{ /x]sf] kfpF5f} .

@=$ g]kfnsf cGo efiffsf eflifsfx?

g]kfnsf cGo hghftLo efiffx?df klg eflifsfut leGgtfx? b]vf k5{g . s'g} Ps dfGotf k|fKt dfgs

cyjf k|ltli7t eflifsfsf] cefjdf, h6Ln ;d:ofaf/] lg0f{o lngsf nflu dfq kf/:kl/s af]wuDotf

tyf ;j{:jLsfo{tf Tolt ;xof]uL dfkb08 x'g ;Sb}gg\ . dWo g]kfnsf 7"nf eflifs ;d'bfox?dWo], k"j{]nL

/ klZrdL u'?Ë ;fy;fy} k"j{]nL / klZrdL tfdfË 5'§f–5'§} efiff x'g\ t/ tL efiffsf k"j]{nL / klZrdL

e]bnfO{ eflifsfsf] ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 . To;}u/L k"jL{ g]kfnsf /fO{ efiffx? k|foM e"njz eflifsfx?

dflgG5g\ . t/ oBlk jfGtjf æ/fO{Æ tyf rfdlnË æ/fO{Æ df w]/} ;dfgtf eP klg tnsf s]xL

pbfx/0fx?n] ;lhn} k|dfl0ft ub{5g\ ls w]/} h;f] /fO{ efiffx? Ps cfk;df a'lem+b}gg\ . pgLx? glhs–

glhs a:5g\ t}klg r9\g} g;lsg] kxf8 tyf kf/ ug{ g;lsg] gbLx?af6 Ps csf{af6 sfl§Psf 5g\ .

s'n'Ë …ªsf] pjL<Ú æof] s] xf]<Æ

vflnË …Tof dfª<Ú æof] s] xf] <Æ

l5Gtfª …afuf] 7]d\Ú æof] s] xf] <Æ

y'n'Ë …cf]/fd xfd\ <Ú æof] s] xf] <Æ

afGtfjf …cf]sf] 8LÚ æof] s] xf] <Æ

dWo g]kfndf du/ tyf vfd clg k"jL{ g]kfndf lnDa'sf eflifsfx? -ltgLx?sf] kf/:kl/s af]wuDotfsf]

:t/ :yflkt x'g cem} afFsL_ x'g'sf] sf/0f clt b'u{d If]qx?df ltgsf jStf Jofks ?kdf 5l/P/

a;f]af; u/]sf sf/0f x'g ;S5 . oL efiffleqsf eflifsfx? :jLsf/ ul/Psf 5g\, t/ s'g} k|ltli7t cyjf

dfgs eflifsfn] dfGotf k|fKt u/]sf] eg] 5}g . sfut]sf] -/fli6«o hgu0fgf ;g\ @))! df efiffsf] ?kdf

pNn]lvt_ kl/efiff of]NXdf]sf] Ps eflifsfsf] ?kdf tL dflg;x?sf] sfuh pTkfbgsf] k]zf / ef}uf]lns

?kdf of]NXdf] ;Fusf] glhstfdf cfwfl/t 5 . o;;Fu} sfut]x? cfˆgf eflifs cGt/x?nfO{ cf}+NofpFb}

cfkm" ePsf] dflg;sf] 7"nf] ;d"xeGbf 5'§} hflto klxrfg ePsf] 7fpFsf dflg/x]sf 5g\ .

39

o; ljkl/t csf{] l:ylt s] klg 5 eg] ;fgf eflifs ;d'bfox? cfˆg} efiff af]n] klg pgLx? cfkm"nfO{

cfkm" h'g 7"nf] ;d'bfo glhs a:5g\ ToxL gfd lbG5g\ . o; s'/fsf] k'li6 3n] / a/fdaf6 ug{ ;lsG5

hf] cfkm"nfO{ u'?Ë eg]/ lrgfpF5g\, hals ltgLx?sf efiff u'?ËeGbf k"0f{ ?kdf leGg 5g\ .

cfˆgf] 5]j}sf] cfkm"eGbf 7"nf] ;d"xsf] efifflt/ cle;/0f x'g] qmdsf] pbfx/0f /fhj+zLsf] l5d]sdf a:g]

lwdfndf kfOG5 . lwdfnsf b'O{ k"j{]nL / klZrdL eflifsfx? cfkm}df ljlzi6 5g\ lsgeg] k"j{]nL

eflifsfdf lwdfn Jofs/0fnfO{ oyfjt /fVb} /fhj+zLaf6 lgs} zAb ;fk6L lnOPsf kfOG5g\ .

@=% sYo efiff

@=%=! g]kfnL

g]kfnL ;/sf/L sfdsfhsf], Jofkf/sf], cfd;~rf/sf], lzIff tyf ;flxTosf] efiff xf] . o;eGbf klg dfly

pNn]v ul/Pem}+, g]kfnLn] ljleGg eflifs ;d'bfox? aLr ;~rf/sf lglDt ;Dks{ efiffsf] e"ldsf v]n]sf]

5 . To;y{, k/Dk/fut ?kdf g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffefifLsf If]qsf clt b'u{d ufpFx? afx]sdf, xfdL s]

kfpF5f}+ eg] s]xL xb;Dd ;~rf/sf lglDt ePklg g]kfndf w]/} h;f] dflg;x? g]kfnLdf s]xL g s]xL

?kdf kf]Vt x'G5g\ . :jfefljs ?kdf g]kfnLsf] cTolws k|of]u sf7df8f}+, kf]v/f h:tf zx/L If]qx?df

tyf t/fO{sf g]kfnu+h, lj/u~h / lj/f6gu/ h:tf zx/x?df x'G5 .

@=%=@ cGo efiffx?

hghfltx?n] af]Ng] efiff vf;u/L ef]6–ad{]nL efiffx? tyf s]xL ef/tLo–cfo{, d'08f / pQ/L b|lj8

efiffx? s]xL If]q ljz]ifx?df ;Lldt 5g\ . ltgsf jQmfx? s'g} Ps vf; hftLo ;d"x;Fu ;Da4 x'G5g\ /

;fwf/0ftof aflxl/ofx? tL efiffx? af]Nb}gg\ .

cfwf/e"t tyf k/Dk/fut ?kdf h'g If]qdf hghfltx? aflx/L ;+;f/;Fu ;Dks{ ljxLg cj:yfdf /xL

a;f]af; ub{} cfPsf 5g\ tL If]qx? leq} ltgsf efiffx? Pp6f k':tf b]lv csf{] k':tf;Dd df}lvs ?kd}

x:tfGtl/t x'Fb} cfPsf 5g\ .

cfh of] cnluP/ /xg] cj:yf gf6sLo ?kdf kl/jt{g eO/x]5 . lxhf]cfh k|To]s ufpFdf g]kfnLdf lzIff

k|bfg ug{] ljBfnox? kfOG5g\ . w]/}h;f] lzIfsx? zx/L If]qaf6 cfpg] ePsfn] pgLx? cfˆgf]

40

;d'bfob]lv aflx/sf ufpFx?af/] ;r]t ePsf 5g\ / pgLx?df cGo 7fpFx? x]g{ rfxg] OR5f klg hfu[t

x'Fb} uO{/x]sf] 5 . kx'Frsf b[li6n] s7Lg ePsf 7fpFx?df klg dflg;x?sf] cfjfudg aflx/sf eflifs

;d'bfosf JolQmx?;Fu e]63f6 ug]{ / s'/fsfgLsf dfWodsf] ?kdf g]kfnLsf] k|of]u ug{] qmd klxn] eGbf

a9\bf] 5 .

@=%=# PsefifL jQmfx?

/fi6«efiff g]kfnL dft[efiff ePsf jQmfx? PsefifL 5g\ . pgLx? g]kfnsf ;Dk"0f{ efudf 5l/Psf 5g\ .

hghfltx?df eg] PsefifL jQmfx? w]/}h;f] aflx/sf dflg;x?;Fu ;Dks{ gePsf clt b'u{d u|fdL0f

e]sdf a;f]af; ug{] a[4fj:yfsf k':tfx?df dfq kfOG5 .

@=%=$ låefifL jQmfx?

låeflifstf ;Dk"0f{ b]zdf JofKt 5 . zx/L tyf ljBfnodf kx'Fr ePsf If]qx?df ljBfnodf cyjf sfd

dfkm{t g]kfnLsf] 1fg cfh{g u/]sf ;Dk"0f{ hftLo ;d"xsf o'jf dflg;x?df låeflifstf kfO{G5 .

pNn]vgLo s'/f s] 5 eg] g]kfnLefifLsf] låeflifstfn] ltgLx?sf] g]kfnL tyf lxGbL cyjf c+u|]hLdf

låeflifstfnfO{ ;+s]t u5{ t/ hghftLo efiff ;d"xsf ;b:ox?sf] låeflifstf hghftLo efiffdf tyf

g]kfnLdf x'g] ub{5 .

b'O{j6f eflifs ;d'bfox?sf] ;Ldf ePsf If]qx?df tL b'O{j6f efiffx?df låeflifstf kfOG5 t/ of] rng

g} eg] xf]Og . olb b'O{ efiffx? dWo] Ps a9L k|ltli7t 5 eg], pbfx/0fsf nfuL w]/} jQmfx? ePsf

sf/0f, To:tf] cj:yfdf o; ;d"xsf ;b:ox? PsefifL g} /xg] u5{g\ . cfˆgf] efiff eGbf sd Jofkstf

ePsf] efiff klg af]Ng]x? låefifL g} x'g] u5{g . t/ o:tf ;LdfIf]qx?df ;fdfGotof b'j} eflifs

;d'bfosf ;b:ox? tL b'O{ dWo Ps hfghftLo efiffeGbf g]kfnLdf g} s'/fsfgL u5{g .

t/fO{df rfFxL låeflifstf cfd ?kdf 5, lsgeg] w]/} h;f] g]kfnLsf dft[efifL jQmfx? plQs} ;dfg

bIftfsf ;fy lxGbL af]N5g\ . kxf8x?af6 t/fO{df a;f]af; ug{ cfPsf cGo efiffsf jQmfx? klg

låeflifs ePsf 5g\ . oxfF s] klg b]lvG5 eg] g]kfnL / lxGbLsf låefifLx? b'j} efiff a/fa/ bIftfsf ;fy

k|of]u u/L g} /xG5g\ t/ kxf8L e]saf6 cfpg]x? ;+qmd0fsfnLg a]nfdf dfq} låefifL x'G5g\ / kl5

lj:tf/} cfˆgf] dft[efiff u'dfpFb} hfG5g\ . ;a}h;f] cj:yfdf gePklg w]/} h;f]df afa'cfdfx?n] cfˆgf

5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ cfˆgf] dft[efiff l;sfpFb}gg\ . kl/0ffd:j?k o:tf aRrfx? g]kfnL PsefifL jQmfsf

41

?kdf x'ls{G5g\ . t;y{ of] eGg ;lsG5 ls t/fO{ jf:tjd} eflifs b[li6sf]0faf6 Pp6f ;+ud :yn -d]lN6ª

k6_ xf] .

@=%=% ax'efifL jQmfx?

ax'eflifstf zx/L If]qx?df ljz]ifu/L sf7df8f}+df a:g] lzlIft pRr ju{aLr JofKt 5 . g]kfnL dft[efifL

ax'efifL jQmfx? w]/}h;f] g]kfnL, ;+:s[t, c+u|]hL / lxGbLdf bIf 5g\ . ljb]zdf w]/} h;f] c+u|]hL efifL

b]zx?df / slxn]sfFxL ?;, hd{gL cyjf hfkfgdf uO{ cWoog u/]sf g]kfnLx? g]kfnL tyf cfkm"n]

cWoog u/]sf] b]zsf] efiff c+u|]hL, ?;L, hd{g cyjf hfkfgLdf kf]Vt / lzlIft 5g\ . ax'eflifstf kxf8

kj{tx?sf 6]«lsªdf lx8\g] dfu{x?df klg lgs} b]Vg kfOG5 hxfF ko{6sx? cfjt hfjt u5{g tyf nh,

xf]6n tyf /]i6'/]06 rnfpg] g]kfnLx? el/of, ufO{8, efG;] tyf o;sf ;fy} tL If]qsf cfd g]kfnL

hgtf;Fu cGtlqm{of u5{g\ . ko{6g pBf]u tyf kj{tf/f]x0fdf ;]jf/t dflg;x? 6]«lsª tyf e|d0fdf hfg]

;d"xx?åf/f k|of]u x'g] y'k|} efiffx? af]N5g\ . cTolws ?kdf rflxg] efiffrfFxL c+u|]hL xf], o; k5L

hfkfgL, hd{g, k|m]Gr, O6fnL / :k]gL x'g\ t/ cGo efiffx? klg k|of]u x'G5g\ lsgeg] sltko 6]«lsË

Ph]G;Lx? oL jQmfx? afx]s cGonfO{ klg ;]jf k|bfg ug{df ljz]iftf xfl;n u/]sf x'G5g\ . 6]«lsª

ufO{8x? oL efiffx? ls t cfˆgf u|fxsx?af6 l;S5g\ ls t sf7df8f}+df v'n]sf y'k|} efiff l;sfpg]

ljBfnox?dWo] s'g} Psaf6 .

hghftLo efiffsf dflg;x?df ax'eflifstf s'g} lgod;+ut ?kdf eGbf klg JolQmut sf/0fx?n] ubf{

x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu, cGo efiff ;d"xsf] dflg;;Fu ljjfx ePsf s]xL dlxnfx?n] cfˆgf >Ldfgsf]

efiff cfh{g ug{ ;S5g\ . s]lxn] eg] g]kfnL d} kof{Kt dfqfdf s'/fsfgL ug{] x'g ;S5g\ . cGo s]xLn]

cfˆgf kltsf] efiff l;Sg] / cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/LnfO{ klg cfˆgf] dft[efiff l;sfpg ;S5g\, kmn:j?k ltgLx?

låeflifs ?kdf cyjf k7gkf7g g]kfnLdf ePsfn] ax'eflifs ?kdf x'ls{g ;S5g\ . a]nfotL tyf ef/tLo

;]gfsf uf]/vf /]lhd]G6x?sf] hflu/n] klg ax'efifL jQmfx? zx/L If]qx?df dfq geO{ b]zel/sf u|fdL0f

If]qx?df kfOg ;S5g\ . ;]jflgj[Q uf]/vf ;}lgsx? cfˆgf] dft[ efiffdf -w]/} h;f] cj:yfdf s'g} Ps

ef]6–ad{]nL efiff_ g]kfnLdf, lxGbL tyf c+u|]hLdf ax'efifL x'g ;S5g\ .

42

@=%=^ efiff cle;/0f

g]kfnL efifLx?sf] ;+Vof a9\g'df hg;+Vofsf] a[l4 dfq} xf]Og, lzIff, zx/Ls/0f, a;fO;/fO tyf

cGt{hflto ljjfx klg xf] . cWoog cyjf k]zfut p2]Zon] zx/LIf]qx? lt/ nfUg] dflg;x? Ps

lsl;dsf] låeflifs ;+qmd0fsflng cj:yfaf6 kf/ ug'{ kg]{ x'G5 . h;df g]kfnLsf] a9\bf] k|of]un] lj:tf/}

ltgLx?sf] dft[efiffsf] 7fpF lnFb} hfG5 . o:tf] em'sfjn] s}of}+ hghflt efiffsf jQmfx?sf] ;+Vof 36fpFb}

nfG5 . pbfx/0fsf lglDt ysfnL, u'?Ë, du/, z]kf{, tyf s]xL /fO{ ;d"xsf s]xL efiffx?nfO{ lng

;lsG5 . cGo cj:yfx?df rfFlx, ;+Vof 36\g] o:tf qmdnfO{ hghftLo efiffIf]qx?df hg;+Vof a9\gfn]

c;/ kf5{ .

lxhf]cfh cfˆg} eflifs ;d'bfo b]lv aflx/ cGthf{tLo ljjfx ug{] qmd Ps k':tf cufl8 eGbf clxn]

;fdfGo eO{;s]sf] 5 . g]kfnLn] w]/} k|lti7f af]s]sf] x'gfn] a9L pkof]uL b]lvPsfn] cyjf kl/jf/ cfˆgf]

hghftLo efiff If]qb]lv aflx/ a;f]af; u/]sfn] k|foMh;f] b'j} bDktL s'g} Pssf] efiff /f]Hg'eGbf

cGttf]uTjf g]kfnL g} af]Ng yfN5g\ . o; cj:yfdf lgs} ;fgf eflifs ;d"xx? cTolws vt/fo'St 5g\ .

s';'08f o;sf] 7"nf] pbfx/0f xf] -8]lj8 jf6;{, @))%_ . g]kfnL efifL jQmfx? a9fpg'df vf;u/L t/fO{n]

of]ubfg k'¥ofPsf] 5 . ToxfF a;f]af; ug{ hfg] kxf8sf dflg;x?n] s'/fsfgLsf lglDt g]kfnL af]Ng} k5{ .

To;}u/L, ToxfFsf :yfoL jfl;Gbfx? klg g]kfnLnfO{ ;~rf/sf] dfWodsf] ?kdf cfTd;ft ug{ kg]{ cj:yf

a9L eGbf a9L dx;"; ub{} hfG5g\ .

cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ c+u|hL ljBfnox?df k9fpg] O{R5fn] ljleGg eflifs ;d"xsf ljb]zdf lzlIft

Pp6f ;fgf] ;+Vofsf g]kfnLx? cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?;Fu c+u|]hLd} af]N5g\ . o:tf] cEof;n] cGttf]uTjf

g]kfnLs} klg dft[efifL jQmfx? 36fpg ;S5 .

@=^ n]Vo efiff

@=^=! g]kfnsf efiffsf n]vg k4ltx?

ef/t cyjf rLg h:tf b]zx?df y'k|} hghftL efiffx? 5l/Psf 5g\ / ltgsf efiffx?sf lnlvt ?k 5g\,

g]kfnsf hghfltsf efiffx? eg] w]/} h;f] clnlvt 5g\ . d'Vo ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx? h:t} g]kfnL,

d}lynL, cjlw, ef]hk'/L / o;sf ;fy} g]jf/L -kl5Nnf] rfFxL ef]6–ad{]nL efiff xf] h;sf] cfˆg} lnkL klg

5_ sf nflu eg] b]jgfu/L lnkL k|of]u ul/G5 . lnDa'x?sf] cfˆg} ls/fFtL æ>[h+ufÆ lnkL 5 h;nfO{ cGo

43

ls/fFtLx? klg k|of]u u5{g . n]Krfsf] cfˆg} æ/f]ªÆ lnkL 5 eg] tfdfª tyf z]kf{ wfld{s kf7x?sf nflu

ltAatL lnkL k|of]u u5{g\ . du/x? cfˆg} æcfSvfÆ lnkL k|of]u ug{] k|of; u/L /x]sf 5g\ tyf

;'g'jf/x?n] klg cfˆg} lnkL ljsf; u/]sf 5g\ -l;lSsd ef/tdf ;'g'jf/x?n] k|of]u u/]sf_ To:t} u/L

;tf/x?n] cfˆgf] efiff n]Vg ef/taf6 /f]dg j0f{dfnf NofPsf 5g\ . t}klg, /fi6«efiff g]kfnL /fi6«nfO{ Ps

;"qdf afFWg] efiffsf] ?kdf x]l/Psfn], hghftLx?n] cfˆg} efiffdf n]vg k4ltx? ljsf; ug{] vf;}

k|f]T;fxg kfPsf 5}gg\ . pN6} pgLx?nfO{ n]vg / af]nLrfnL b'j} ?kdf g]kfnLdf bIftf xfl;n ug{

k|f]T;fxg ul/Psf] 5 . To;y{ oL ;a} dflg;x?n] cfˆg} lnkL eP nufotsfn], b]jgfu/L lnkL klg k|of]u

ul//x]sf 5g\ . s]xL JolQmx?n] g]kfnLdf k|ltlglwTj gePsf WjgL tyf no k4ltnfO{ ;dfj]z ug{ gofF

j0f{x?sf /rgf ug{] ;Ddsf cfjZos kl/dfh{gx? ul//x]sf 5g\ .

n]vg k4ltx? tyf ;flxTosf] cefjn] klg hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]u 36\g] sf/s ag]sf] 5 t/ n]Vo

efiffx? / h;sf] ;flxTo 5 tL l:y/ x'G5g\ . g]jf/Lsf] pbfx/0f rfFxL ckjfbsf] ?kdf 5 lsgeg]

ax';+Vos g]jf/x? zx/L If]qx?df ljz]if u/L sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf a:5g\ hxfF lzIff / cfd;~rf/sf]

dfWodaf6 g]kfnLsf] k|efj / k|of]u b}lgs hLjgdf ;j{JofkL 5 .

@=^=@ g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] dfgsLs/0f

n]Vo / sYo b'j} lsl;dsf] efiffsf] dfgsLs/0fn] ;+w} r'gf}ltsf] ;fdgf ug'{ k5{ lsgeg] efiff ;w}

hLjGt x'G5 / :jfefljs ?kdf kl/jlt{t x'Fb} hfG5 . n]Vo efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL cGo hghftLo

dft[efiffx?eGbf s]xL a9L efUozfnL ePklg o;sf] k|lqmof eg] rnL g} /x]sf] 5 .

g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] hghftLo efiffx?n] klg cfˆgf] 5'§} sYo ;fy;fy} n]Vo efiffsf] ljsf; ul//x]sf

5g\ . xfn}df tL efiffdf cWoogx? ul/Psf 5g\ . log}n] dfgsLs/0fsf] dfu{ k|z:t u/]sf 5g\ . s]xL

hghftLo efiffsf æk|ltli7tÆ cyjf æ:t/LoÆ eflifsfx?sf] klxrfg klg ul/Psf] 5 / Jofs/0fx?,

zAbsf]zx?, j0f{ljGof; ;DjGwL cWoogx? tyf ;fIf/tf ;DjGwL ;fdu|Lx? k|sflzt ePsf 5g\ . emg\

xfn}df t, cNk;+Vos ;d"xx? cfkm}n] zAbsf]zx? lgdf{0f ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ tyf dft[efifL n]vsx?n]

cfˆg} efiffdf n]Vg] / k|sfzg ug{] nufotsf sfdx? ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ t/ hghftLo efiffsf

j0f{ljGof;x?n]] dfgsLs/0f k|fKt ug{sf lglDt dfg{ kg{] km8\sf] lgs} nfdf] 5 .

44

@=^=# ;fIf/tf b/

g]kfnL afx]s cGo efiffx?df sYo / n]Vo b'j} ?kdf dfgsLs/0fsf] cefjn] g]kfnL ;fIf/tf b/nfO{

aªUofpg] / unt ;+Vofdf b]vfpg] sfd u5{ . lsgeg] olb s'g} efiffsf] lnlvt ?k 5}g eg] To;df

;fIf/tf b/ z"Go dflgG5 . lj=;+= @)$& -O{=;= !(()_ sf] ;+ljwfgn] dft[efiffdf lzIffsf] clwsf/

;'lglZrt u/]tfklg g]kfndf Go"g ;fIf/tf b/x?n] s] k|ltljlDat u5{g eg] dft[efiff lzIffnfO{ k|of]udf

Nofpg cem} afFsL 5 . cfˆg} lnkL ePsf lnDa', n]Krf, du/ tyf ;'g'jf/ efiffx?df klg To; lnkLdf

;fIf/tf b/ g]kfnLdf eGbf lgs} sd 5 .

oBlk cu'jfx?sf] Pp6f ;fgf] ;+Vofn] eg] b]jgfu/L lnkL k|of]u u/]/ cfˆg} efiffdf n]Vg] k|of; u/]sf

5g\ b'ef{Uojz, w]/}h;f] cj:yfx?df pgLx?n] n]Vg 5f8LlbP lsgeg] ltgLx?sf efiffdf o:tf Wjlgx?

lyP h'g b]jgfu/L lnkLdf k|ltlglwTj ePsf 5}gg\ . t/ ca eg] Pp6f /fd|f] kl/jt{g cfpg ;S5

lsgeg] ;fwf/0ftof hghftLo efiffx?df w]/} rf;f] a9L /x]sf] 5 tyf ltgsf] clen]vLs/0f / ;+j4{gsf

;fy ;fy} clnlvt efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltk|lt klg hfu?stf al9/x]sf] 5 .

@=^=$ ;flxlTos k/Dk/fx?

efg'eQmn] y'k|} s[ltx? ;+:s[taf6 g]kfnLdf cg'jfb -ljz]ifu/L /fdfo0f_ u/] b]lv g} g]kfnL efiff

;flxlTos k/Dk/fdf lgs} wgL 5 . efg'eQm kl5 y'k|} n]vsx? eP h;n] ljleGg ljwfx? tyf cg]sf}+

ljifox?df n]v] . jt{dfg g]kfnL klg lgs} hLjGt 5 tyf lj=;++=@)$& -O=;+= !(()_ b]lv k|z:t dfqfdf

kq–klqsfx? lgl:s/x]sf 5g\ . o;afx]s ;+:s[t, d}lynL tyf cGo ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx?sf cfˆg}

;flxTox? 5g\ .

g]kfnsf ef]6–ad{]nL efiffx? dWo] g]jf/Lsf] ;}of}+ jif{b]lvsf] y'k|} ljwfx? ePsf] cfˆg} ;flxTo 5 . cGo

hghftLo efiffx?sf >'ltk/Dk/fsf k/Dk/fut ;flxTo 5g\ h'g lxhf]cfh k|sflzt x'b}5g\ . lnDa' d'Gb'd,

afGtjf, bf]jf]Ë b'd ;fdsflnË tyf tfdfË tfDafsfOt]g s]xL pbfx/0fx? x'g\ .

/fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fgn] g]kfnLdf cg'jfb u/fP/ ljleGg eflifs ;d"xx?sf y'k|} nf]s syfx? k|sflzt

u/]sf] 5 . hghftL eflifs ;d"xx?sf] lgs} 7"nf] ;+Vofdf nf]suLtx?sf] vfgL g} 5 . o:tf uLtx?

k|ltof]lutfsf a]nf cyjf dgf]/~hgsf lglDt hlta]nf ufOG5g\ plQs} a]nf /lr+b} hfG5g\ . o;sf

45

pbfx/0fx? u'?Ë æ/f]bLÆ, tfdfË uLlt k|ltof]lutfx? x'g\ . ufpFb} gflrFb} ul/g] gfFrx? h:t} lnDa'sf]

…kfndÚ / wfg g[To, /fO{sf] ær08LgfrÆ hLljt /x]sf / cEof; ul/Psf k/Dk/fut >'lt ;flxTosf

pbfx/0fx? x'g\ . df}lvs ?kdf ;Dk|]lift eO{/x]sf] / g]kfnL ;flxlTos d~rdf cToGt hLjGt /x]sf] csf{]

;flxlTos ljwf xf] gf6s .

w]/} h;f] cj:yfx?df hghftLo efiffx?sf cem} klg lnlvt ?k 5}gg\ . s]xL ckjfb afx]s, ;g\ !(()

b]vL g]kfndf k|hftGq k|flKt kZrft\ dfq} clw/fHosf hghftLo efiffx?df cg';Gwfg ug{ yflnPsf

5g\ . Jofs/0fut ljj/0fx?, zAbsf]zx?, tyf nf]ssyfx? / ;+:sf/hGo ;flxTosf ;+sngx? tof/

kfg{'sf ;fy} ;fIf/tf sIffx?sf dfWodaf6 dft[efifL jQmfx? dfem n]Vo hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]usf]

lj:tf/ ug{sf lglDt w]/} sfdx? ug{ afFsL 5g\ .

#= efiff k|of]u

g]kfndf ;fdfGotof g]kfnL g} ;Dk"0f{ ;/sf/L sfdsfhsf ;fy} Jofkf/ / z}lIfs p2]Zosf nflu k|of]u

ul/G5 . w]/} h;f] hghftLo efiffx?sf lnlvt ?k gePsfn] o:tf k|of]hgsf nfuL tL efiffx? k|of]u

ug{ ;lsb}gg\ . oBlk hxfF;Dd sYo efiffsf] ;Gbe{ 5 / n]Vo?k lagf o;n] g} sfd rN5 eg] g]kfnsf

w]/} h;f] eflifs ;d'bfox? cfˆg} dft[efiff bIftf / pT;fxsf ;fy k|of]u u5{g\ .

#=! cgf}krfl/s cj:yfx?df

ufpFx?df hxfF hghfltx?sf] hg3gTj 5 ToxfF dft[efiffsf] k|of]u kl/jf/leq / k'/fgf -j[4_ k':tf dfem

lg/Gt/ ?kdf g} /lx /x]sf] 5 . gofF k':tf klg a'9fkfsf;Fu s'/f ubf{ cfb/sf] k|ltssf] ?kdf cfˆg}

dft[efiff k|of]u u5{g\ . ;fwf/0ftof g]kfnL efiffdf Tolt gleh]sfn] dlxnfx? k'?ifx?eGbf a9L

dft[efiffsf] k|of]u u/L /x]sf x'G5g\ . xfn}b]lv dfq} afnaflnsfx? lgoldt ?kdf ljBfno uO{/x]sf 5g\ /

g]kfnLdf bIftf xfl;n ub}{ 5g\ . k/Dk/fut ?kdf, dlxnfx? ufpFd} a:b5g\ eg] k'?ifx?n] Jofkf/sf]

l;nl;nfdf ofqf ul//xg' kg]{ x'G5 / ljb]zdf jf /fhwfgLdf sfd ug{ 3/b]lv 6f9f a:g' kg]{ x'G5 . o;

cj:yfdf pgLx?n] g]kfnLd} s'/fsfgL ug'{ kg]{ afWotf x'G5 . cj:yf x]/L tyf cfˆgf] lzIffsf] :t/

46

cg';f/ ljleGg txdf ljBfno hfg] pd]/sf afnaflnsfx? tyf o'jf ju{x? Ps cfk;df g]kfnL efiff

k|of]u ug{] u5{g .

zx/L If]qx?df hxfF ljleGg hfltsf dflg;x? ;Fu} ldn]/ a:5g\ cg]kfnL dft[efiffsf] k|of]u cTolws

?kdf 36]/ hfG5 . hlt w]/} o:tf zx/L If]qx?df a:of] cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ k"0f{?kdf kl/Tofu ug{]

;Defjgf klg plQs} a9]/ hfG5 . j}jflxs bDklQx? leGg leGg efiff ;d"xaf6 ePsf] cj:yfdf cyjf

kltn] nfdf] ;do;Dd uf]/vf /]lhd]G6df hflu/ vfPsf] eP cyjf u|fdL0f If]qaf6 cGo s'g} sf/0fjz

nfdf] ;do ;Dd aflx/ ePsf] cj:yfdf kl/jf/x?n] cfˆg} ufpF–3/df klg cfk;L s'/fsfgLsf] dfWodsf]

?kdf g]kfnL g} 5gf}6 ug{ ;S5g\ .

#=@ cGo efiffsf jQmfx?åf/f k|of]u

;fwf/0ftof hghftLo efiffx? tL eflifs ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?åf/f dfq} af]lng] ul/Ptf klg ckjfbsf]

?kdf sfdsfhL ;DaGwx? -g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? b}lgs s[lif Hofnfbf/L dhb'/x?sf] ?kdf s'g}

hghftLo ;d'xsf] ;b:osxfF sfd ubf{_, leGg leGg eflifs ;d"xx?sf ;b:ox? aLr j}jflxs ;DjGw

tyf s'g} eflifs ;Ldfsf b'j}lt/ kg{] ufpFx?df a:g] ldl>t hg;+Vof kb{5g\ . -dfly #=!=$ tyf #=!=%

klg x]g{'xf];\_

#=# k|zf;gdf k|of]u

g]kfndf ;/sf/L sfo{fnosf] sfdsfhsf] efiff g]kfnL xf] . s'g} klg ;/sf/L sfof{nodf hghftLo

efiffx? k|of]u x'Fb}gg\ . xfn;fn} g]jf/ / d}lynL b'O{ eflifs ;d'bfox?n] zx/L sfof{nox?df cf–cfˆgf

efiffx? k|of]usf] lglDt cg'/f]w u/]sf lyP, t/ ;jf{]Rr cbfntn] pgLx?sf] cg'/f]w dfg]g .

#=$ lzIffdf k|of]u

g]kfndf g]kfnL efiff lzIffsf nflu k|of]u x'G5 . xfn}df dfq, cf/Dedf sf7df8f}+df clg To;kl5 aflx/L

lhNnfx?sf cGo zx/x?df klg c+u|]hL ljBfnox? k|z:t} v'n]sf 5g\ . clt sd cj:yfdf dfq}

47

hghftLo efiffx? lzIffsf dfWod ag]sf 5g\ . tL x'g\ g]jf/L -sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf Pp6f ljBfno_ s]xL

ls/fFtL efiffx? h:t} afGtjf, lnDa' -cf}krfl/s lzIff_, tyf vflnË -k|f}9 ;fIf/tf, cgf}krf/s lzIff_ .

hghftLo efiffx?nfO{ lzIffsf] dfWodsf ?kdf :jLs[lt lbOPtf klg o;nfO{ /fd|/L Jojxf/df ptfl/Psf]

5}g . g]kfnsf y'k|} efiffx?df kf7\ok':tsx? t}of/ ul/Psf 5g\ t/ ltgLx?sf] k|of]uaf/] tflnd k|fKt

lzIfsx?sf] cefjdf ltgsf] pNn]Vo ?kdf ljt/0f ePsf] 5}g . lzIffdf a9\bf] kx'Frn] ubf{ hghftLo

efiff ;d"xx?af6 lzIfssf] ;+Vofdf j[l4 ePtfklg, oL lzIfsx?n] lzIff xfl;n u/L ;s]kl5 ltgsf

cfˆg} dft[efifL ;d'bfodf sd} k7fOG5g\ . To;}n] / cljlR5Gg ?kdf lzIffsf] dfWodsf ?kdf g]kfnLsf]

k|of]un] u|fdL0f ljBfnox?df k9fO{ ck"/} 5f8\g]x?sf] ;+Vof lgs} w]/} 5 .

#=% cfd;~rf/ dfWodx?df efiffsf] k|of]u

/]l8of] g]kfnn] g]kfnLdf afx]s, g]jf/L, d}lynL, ef]hk'/L, cjwL, z]kf{, lnDa', afGtjf, tfdfË, u'?Ë, du/ /

vfd efiffdf ;dfrf/ k|;f/0f u5{ . oL dWo] s]xL k|;f/0fx? If]qLo :6]zgx?af6 ul/G5g\ h'g If]qx?df

oL hghftLx? a;f]af; u5{g\ . /]l8of] g]kfnn] ljleGg hghftLo efiffsf nf]s uLtx? klg k|;f/0f

u/]sf] 5 . s]xL Pkm=Pd= :6]zgx?n] s'g} s'g} :yfgLo efiffx?df ;d]t sfo{qmd agfPsf 5g\ . g]jf/L

lnDa' tyf s]xL cGo efiffx?n] hghftLo efiff cyjf g]kfnL ;Fu} låefifL ;dfrf/kq, va/klqsf tyf

cGo klqsfx? lgsfn]sf 5g\ .

xfn}df g]kfndf Pp6f lghL 6L=eL :6]zgn] lnDa' efiffsf] ljz]if k|of]u u/L Pp6f lnDa' ufpFsf] hLjg

dfyL Pp6f clt pQd lkmNd agfPsf] 5 . g]jf/L, d}lynL, afGtjf efiffdf klg o:t} lkmNdx? lghL

lgdf{tfx?n] lgdf{0f u/]sf 5g\ .

csf{lt/, a9\bf] ;+Vofdf c+u|]hLdf ;dfrf/ k|sfzg eO{ /x]sf 5g\ / oL k|sfzgx? ljb]zLx? dfq} xf]Og

låefifL lzlIft g]kfnLx?åf/f klg kl9G5g\, s]xL g]kfnL n]vs t c+u|]hLdf ;flxlTos s[ltx? ;d]t

n]V5g\ .

48

#=^ wfld{s ultljlwx?df k|of]u

lxGb' wfld{s u|Gyx? ;+:s[tdf pknAw 5g\ / tL g]kfnLdf cg'jfb ul/Psf 5g\ . o;df ;a}eGbf Voflt

k|fKt efg'eQmaf6 ePsf] /fdfo0fsf] cg'jfb xf] / cfh;Dd of] w]/}hgfaf6 kl9Psf] 5 . cGo ef/tLo–

cfo{ efiffx? -h:t} g]kfnL, d}lynL, /fhj+zL_ klg lxGb' cg'i7fgx?df k|of]u x'g ;S5g\ . af}4 u|Gyx? w]/}

ltAatL / kfnLdf 5g\ . xfn}df s]xL af}4 k':tsx? hfkfgLaf6 g]kfnLdf cg'jfb ePsf 5g\ .

O:nfd wd{ dfGg] hghftLx?sf nflu lxhf]cfh g]kfnLdf cg'lbt s'/fg pknAw 5 . o; cg'lbt låefifL

;+:s/0fdf c/aL efiffdf d"nkf7 klg ;dfj]z 5 .

afOansf] Ps c+z k|yd k6s g]kfnLdf ;g\ !*@@ df ef/tdf cg'jfb ul/Psf] lyof] . of] g} g]kfnL

efiffsf] klxnf] d'lb|t k':ts lyof] . æGo" 6]:6fd]G6Æ -gofF lgod_ / ehg;+lxtfx? g]kfnL ;fy;fy} cGo

y'k|} efiffx?df pknAw 5g\ .

hghftLx?sf wfld{s ;+:sf/x? h:t} afGtjfsf æbf]jf]Ë b'd ;fdsflnËÆ -;+:sf/sd{x?_ x? dft[efiffs}

wfld{s tj/af6 ;DkGg ul/G5g\ .

#=& Jofkf/ tyf >d ;DjGwx?df k|of]u

;fwf/0ftof g]kfndf cfly{s ultljlwx?df g]kfnL efiffg} k|of]u ul/G5 . hghftL efiff ;d"xsf ;b:ox?

aLr Jofkfl/s ultljlwx? cfˆg} efiffdf ;~rfng x'g ;S5g\ t/ hxfF lnlvt b:tfj]hx?sf] cfjZostf

k5{ ToxfF hghftLo efiffsf] n]Vo ?k gePsf] v08df g]kfnL d} x'G5g\ .

49

$= efiffefifL ;d'bfox?nfO{ c;/ kfg{] ;fdflhs / ;f+:s[lts sf/s tTjx?

$=! P]ltxfl;s sf/s tTjx?

c7f/f}+ ztfJbLdf g]kfnsf] PsLs/0f eP b]lv, zf;sx?åf/f g} lqmofzLn?kdf g]kfnLsf] lj:tf/nfO{

k|j4{g ul/of] . of] s'/f xfl;n ug{sf nflu g]kfnL dft[efifL hghftLo If]qx?df lzIfs cyjf vfgL

dhb"/sf ?kdf k7fOof] . k|foM ;]jf lgj[Q ;}lgsx?nfO{ tL If]qx?df hUuf lbOof] . To;}n], s]xL 7"nf

efiff ;d"xx?df h:t} u'?Ë / du/df cfˆgf] dft[efiff kl/Tofu ug]{ / nf]k x'g] qmd cl3 b]lv g} cf/De

eof] . cGo cg]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx?eGbf clxn] u'?Ë / du/ cfˆgf] d"n ynf] eGbf aflx/, ljz]ifu/L

g]kfnsf] k"j{df kfOG5g\ . dft[efiff l56} nf]k ePsf pbfx/0f dWo] jfK;f -;f]n'v'Da'_ df du/ vfgL

dhb"/x?sf / ?Dhf6f/ -cf]vn9'Ëf_ df u'?Ësf g]kfnL af]lng] 3gf a;f]af;sf If]q x'g\ .

$=@ /fhg}lts sf/s tTjx?

k~rfot Joj:yf -;g\ !(^!–!(()_ cGtu{t hghftLo efiffx?sf] k|of]unfO{ æPs /fi6«, Ps efiffÆ

gLlt cGtu{t lqmofzLn ?kd} xtf]T;fx ul/Psf] lyof] . t}klg, s]xL ;+u7gx?n] hghftLo efiff /

;+:s[ltx?sf] k|j4{g ug{] k|of; u/] t/ /fHo kIfsf] gLltn] ubf{ pgLx?n] d'Vo?kdf e"ldut eO{ sfd

ug{'kYof{] / To;}n] ltgLx? Jofks ?kdf ;kmn x'g ;s]gg\ . cg]s hghftL ;d"xx? h;sf] cfˆg}

df}lns efiff / ;+:s[ltn] g]kfn /fi6« ag]sf] 5 t/ ltgnfO{ ;/sf/n] dfGotf lbPg . lj=;+= @)$& -;g\

!(()_ sf] g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwffgn] cGttM b]zsf] ax'eflifs ;TotfnfO{ :jLsf¥of] M æg]kfnsf

ljleGg efudf dft[efiffsf ?kdf af]lng] ;a} efiffx? g]kfnsf /fli6«o efiff x'gÆ -wf/f ^, pkwf/f @_

o; ;+ljwfgn] cuf8L eG5M æg]kfn clw/fHodf a;f]af; ug{] k|To]s ;d'bfonfO{ cfˆgf] efiff, lnkL /

;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f / ;Da4{g ug{] clwsf/ x'g] 5 . k|To]s ;d'bfon] afnaflnsfnfO{ k|fylds tx;Dd

cfˆgf] dft[efiffdf lzIff lbg] u/L ljBfno ;+rfng ug{ kfpg] 5 .Æ -wf/f !* pkwf/f ! / @_ /fHosf]

?kdf g]kfn cl:tTjdf cfPb]lv klxnf]kN6 dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIffsf] clwsf/ ;'lglZrt ul/of] .

t}klg o;sf] sfof{Gjogsf nfuL eg] lgs} sfd ug{ afFsL g} 5 .

50

$=# cfly{s sf/s tTjx?

hghftLo If]qleq cyjf o;af6 aflx/ dft[efiffnfO{ ;+/If0f ug{ k|of; t lgs} ug{'k5{ t/ o;n] cfly{s

kmfObf eg] s]xL k'¥ofpFb}g . jf:tjdf o;n] k|ltli7t /fi6«efiffdf kf]Vt x'g / To;dfyL k"0f{ clwsf/

k|fKt ug{df pN6} Jojwfg kfg{ ;S5 . To;}n] hghftLo efiffsf dft[efifL jQmfx? cfly{s ?kn] k|ult

ug{sf lglDt cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ kl/Tofu ug{ afWo x'g ;S5g\ . o;} sf/0fn] ubf{, pgLx? cfˆgf

afnaflnsfnfO{ l;sfpg'df klg vf;} kmfObf gb]Vg ;S5g\ .

w]/} h;f] hghfltx? u|fdL0f e]sdf gub] afnL lagfsf] cefjdf ls;fgsf] ?kdf sfd u/]/, h;f] t;f]

cfkm"nfO{ wfGg] nfossf] pTkfbg u/]/ a;]sf x'G5g\ . g]kfnsf w]/} h;f] 7fpFx?df e"–:vng, af9L,

jgIfon] ubf{ jftfj/0fdf x|f; cfpg] qmd a9\bf] 5 . hg;+Vofsf] nuftf/ a[l4 x'g] qmd n] ubf{

ax';+Vos ufpFx?df v]tL of]Uo hdLgn] ToxfFsf] hg;+VofnfO{ wfGg ;ls/x]sf] 5}g . To;}n], cfly{s

sf/0fn] ubf{ a;fO;/fOsf] qmd a9\b} 5 . hdLgsf] vf]hLdf t/fO{lt/ cyjf sfdsf] vf]hLdf zx/lt/

a;fO;/fOn] ubf{ efiffsf] k|of]udf Jofks kl/jt{g NofPsf] 5 Tof] s] eg] afWotfjz hghftLo efiffx?

g]kfnL tkm{ pGd'v eO{ /x]sf 5g\ .

k]zfn] ubf{ s]xL hghftLo efiffsf jQmfx?n] c?n] eGbf a9L cfˆgf] dft[efiff kl/Tofu u5{g\ . /fhLx?

s]j6sf ?kdf, clg dfemL / af]6]x?n] k"nx? gx'Fbf ;Dd dflg;x?nfO{ gbL tfg]{ sfd uy{] . oL k]zfx?n]

logLx?nfO{ nfdf] ;do ;Dd cGo eflifs ;d'bfox?;Fu ;Dks{df NofOlbof] . o;sf] kl/0ffd s] eof] eg]

clxn] oL efiffx? uDeL/ vt/fdf 5g\ .

ljz]if u/L sf7df8f}+ pkTosfdf a:g]x? g]jf/x? k/Dk/fut ?kdf Jofkf/L / snfsf/ x'g\ . pgLx?df

cfˆgf] k]zfn] ubf{ logLx?sf] zx/df a:g] nfdf] k/Dk/f 5 . o;n] ubf{ nfdf] ;flxlTos k/Dk/f eP klg

pgLx?n] cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ k|z+;f ug{] / o;nfO{ cfTd;ft ug{] s'/fdf gsf/fTds k|efj kf/]sf] 5 .

Aof+;L / ysfnLsf jQmfx? ls;fg x'g'sf ;fy} Jofkf/L klg x'g\ . pgLx?df ltAatLaf6 -cfˆgf]

a;f]af;sf] 7fpFaf6 pQ/lt/sf If]qx?df Jofkf/sf nfuL bf];|f] efiffsf] ?kdf rflxg]_ lxGbL / g]kfnL lt/

-lxhf]cfh blIf0f;Fu Jofkf/sf nflu rflxg]_ eflifs cle;/0f eO{/x]sf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} kbofqf /

tLy{ofqfsf dfu{df a:g] ysfnLx? aflx/sf dflg;?;Fu lgs} ;Dks{df cfpF5g\ / cGtlq{mof u5{g .

51

o;sf] kl/0ffd s] eof] eg] ltgLx?n] g]kfnL l56f] dfq} l;s]gg ls, o;n] plgx?sf] efiffsf] nf]k x'g]

qmdnfO{ klg l56} NofOlbof] .

k/Dk/fut ?kdf z]kf{x? Jofkf/L, kz'kfns / ls;fg lyP . lxhf]cfh pgLx? ljz]ifu/L 6]«lsË ufO8sf]

?kdf ;+nUg 5g\ hxfF pgLx? lg/Gt/ ?kdf ljb]zL nufotsf cGo eflifs ;d'bfosf dflg;x?;Fu

s'/fsfgL ul//xG5g\ . To;}n] ToxfF klg ltj|?kdf dft[efiff nf]k x'g] vt/f 5 .

$=$= lzIff

lzIff cem} klg ljz]ifu/L g]kfnLd} lbOG5 h;n] hghftLo dft[efiffsf] k|of]unfO{ c;/ kf5{ /

afa'cfdfx?nfO{ klg cfˆgf 5f]/f5f]/Lx?nfO{ k|fl1s?kdf ;kmn agfpg / ;fy;fy} ljBfnodf cfˆgf

;fyLx?;Fu ;lhnf];Fu cGtlqm{of ug{ ;Sg] agfpgsf nflu pgLx?nfO{ g]kfnL l;sfpg k|]l/t ub{}5 .

o;/L dft[efiffdf lzIffsf] cefj s]xL xb;Dd hghfltx?sf] efiff nf]k u/fpgdf lhDd]jf/ 5 .

hghftLo efiffx?df n]Vo ?k / ;flxTosf] cefjn] klg hghftLo efiffx?sf] ljsf; / eljionfO{

gsf/fTds c;/ kf5{ .

$=% wfld{s ;d'bfox?

;fdfGotof, ef/tLo–cfo{x? g]kfndf hxfF a;]klg lxGb' wd{ dfG5g\ / lxGb' wfld{s cg'i7fgx?df

;+:s[tdf n]lvPsf u|Gyx? k|of]u ul/G5g\ . ;+:s[t ;fdfGo k|of]usf] efiff gePklg, o;df u/fOPsf

;+:sf/ sd{x?df ;fd]n x'g]sf nflu a'‰g ;lhnf] xf];\ elg ;+:s[t ljBfnox?df k9fOb} cfOPsf] 5 .

ef]6–ad{]nL ;d"xsf s]xL dflg;x? af}4 wd{ dfG5g\ h'g pgLx?sf] hLjgsf ;Dk"0f{ efux?df JofKt x'G5 .

>f]tfx?n] ga'em]klg nfdfåf/f kl9g] u|Gyx? ltAatL efiffd} x'G5g\ . ;flxlTos ;fdu|Lsf nfuL lnkLsf]

k|Zg – wfld{s kf7x? cg';f/ ltAatL x'g'k5{ ls b}lgs hLjgdf k|of]u x'g ;Sg] u/L b]jgfu/L x'g'k5{

eGg]s'/f Pp6f ;d:ofsf] ?kdf x'g ;S5 . dWo–kxf8x?df hghftLx? k|s[ltk"hs x'g\ h;df k|s[lt

tyf lkt[x?sf] k"hf ul/G5 . dft[efiffsf wfld{s kf7x? df}lvs ?kdf ;+k|]lift x'G5g\ / logsf pko'Qm

efux? hghftLo ;d'bfox?dfem ljleGg lsl;dsf wfld{s cg'i7fgx?df kf7 ul/G5g\ . s]xL xb;Dd

52

lnDa'x?sf æd'Gb'dÆ elgg] lnlvt wfld{s kf7x? 5g\ . cGo efiffx?n] klg df}lvs ?kdf x:tfGtl/s x'Fb}

cfPsf wfld{s kf7x?nfO{ /]s8{ -cyjf lnkLa4_ ug{ yfn]sf 5g\ . ldl>t ;d'bfox?df k|s[ltk"hgsf

;fy ;fy} lxGb' ;+:sf/x? -ljz]ifu/L rf8–kj{ ;Fu ;DalGwt_ klg dfG5g\ . To:tf cj:yfx?df

;+:sf/sd{x? dft[efiffdf eGbf g]kfnLd} u/fOG5g\ .

%= eflifs cjwf/0ff

%=! g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx?

ax';+Vos g]kfnL dft[efifLx? PsefifL 5g\ . klZrd b]lv k"j{;Dd y'k|} eflifsfx? ePklg ltgLx?

kf/:kl/s ?kdf af]wuDo 5g\ . ;Dk"0f{ g]kfnsf] /fi6«efiff / cfd;Dks{sf] efiffsf] ?kdf g]kfnL efiffn]

k|lti7f xfl;n u/]sfn], s'g} klg eflifsfsf g]kfnL dft[efifL jQmfx? o;df uj{ u5{g\ .

%=@ hghftLo efiffx?

/f0ff / k~rfot cjlwsf] ltj| ?kn] k|ltkflbt æPs–/fi6« Ps–efiffÆ gLltn] ubf{ hghftLo efiffx?

bdg ul/Psfn], ltgsf jQmfx?n] cfˆgf efiffnfO{ lzIff / Jofkf/sf lgldQ cg'ko'Qm dfq xf]Og,

;fdfGotof g]kfnLeGbf sd;n 7fGg yfn]sf 5g\ . To;}n], pgLx?n] cfˆg} dft[efiffsf] ljsf; / ;Dj4{g

ug{'eGbf g]kfnLdf bIftfj[l4 ug{] k|of; u/] / o;/L dft[efiff k|lt ulx/f] gsf/fTds wf/0ff ljsl;t x'Fb}

uof] . ;fgf eflifs ;d'bfox?nfO{ o:tf] wf/0ffn] eofgs kl/0ffd NofPsf] 5 .

s]xL xb;Dd o:t} cjwf/0ffn] ubf{ nf]k x'g] efiffdf s';G8f Pp6f pbfx/0f xf] . s';'G8fx? ;DejtM ;w}

;fgf] eflifs ;d'bfosf] ?kdf /x] . ltgLx?sf] efiff / l;sf/ ug{] tyf sGbd"n a6'Ng] vfnsf] hLjg

k|lqmofnfO{ cGon] x]osf b[li6n] x]g{ yfn]kl5 pgLx? cfkm}df gsf/fTds eflifs cjwf/0ff aGof] . o:tf]

cjwf/0ff ;Fu;Fu} pgLx?sf] af;:yfgsf] a9\bf] ljgfzn] / cGt/hftLo ljjfxn] To; efiffnfO{ nf]k x'g]

;+3f/df NofO{ k'¥ofPsf] 5 .

53

cGo 7"nf ;d'bfox?n] klg /fi6«efiffsf] kIfdf cfˆgf] dft[efiffnfO{ nfdf] ;do;Dd pk]Iff u/] . lxhf]cfh

dfq}, ha bIf jQmfx?sf] ;+Vof lgs} 36]sf] 5 ta dfq} pgLx? cfˆgf] dft[ efiffdf /x]sf] lglwsf] /

o;;Fu} ufFl;Psf] cfˆgf] hftLo klxrfgaf/] ;r]t ePsf 5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf vf;u/L pgLx?sf] 5

h;n] nfdf] ;do;Dd g]kfnL, a]nfotL tyf ef/tLo ;]gfx?df hflu/ vfPsf dflg;x? cGo efiffefifL

;d'bfosf ;b:ox?;Fu cGtlqm{of ubf{ s'/fsfgLsf] dfWodsf] ?kdf g]kfnL dfq} k|of]u u/]sfn] klg o:tf]

l:ylt pTkGg x'g k'u]sf] xf] . oBlk, lnDa' h:tf 7"nf] ;d'bfox?n] cfˆg} efiffsf] k|of]u ug{'df uj{ ug{

slxNo} 5f8]gg\ . pgLx? jl/kl/sf u}/ lnDa' jQmfx?n] pgLx?nfO{ x/]; v'jfP klg lnDa'x?n] cfˆgf]

efiffsf] k|of]u ul/g} /x] / >[h+uf n]vg k4ltsf] ljsf; u/] .

%=# l5d]sL ;d'bfosf ;b:ox?sf] cjwf/0ff

hghftLx?sf] efiff k|lt g]kfnL dft[efiffL jQmfx?sf] 1fg / rf;f] sd 5 . To;}n] hghftLo efiff

;d"xsf jQmfx? cfkm"x? k|lt e]befj ePsf] 7fG5g\ . csf{lt/ :yfgLo efiffsf w]/} jQmfx? g]kfnLn]

cfˆgf] efiffdf kf/]sf] k|efj / pgLx?n] g]kfnLsf] kIfdf cfˆgf] efiffnfO{ pk]Iff ug{] u/]sf] k|j[lQ k|lt

rf;f] b]vfpg yfn]sf 5g\ .

^= efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt

^=! g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt

efiffsf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt eg]sf] s] xf] t < o; zAbn] o:tf] k|lqmof k|lt ;+s]t u5{ h'g clt ;"Id?kdf

efiffsf] 36\bf] k|of]uaf6 cf/De x'G5 / cGttf]uTjf To;efiffnfO{ æd[To'Æ ;Dd k'¥ofpF5 . nf]kf]Gd'v

l:yltsf w]/} sf/0f 5g\ / hf] :jfefljs klg xf] . o; k'l:tsf tof/ kfbf{sf] qmddf nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf

o:tf ljleGg sf/0fx? cf}+NofOPsf 5g\ .

54

g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt Psgf; 5}g . sltko efiffx? jQmfsf] ;+Vof yf]/} ePsf sf/0fn]

d[tk|foM eO{ ;s]sf 5g\ . s';'G8f o;sf] Pp6f 68\sf/f] pbfx/0f xf] . /fO{ efiff ;d"xsf cGo ;fgf

hLjGt efiffx? klg 5g\ / tLgn] cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|lt cfb/efj /fVbf-/fVb} klg ufpF 5f]8\g' kg]{ /

ljBfnodf cWoog ug'{ kg]{ sf/0fn] cfˆgf] dft[efiff ;Fu;Fu} g]kfnLdf klg pgLx?sf] bIftf j[l4 x'g

yfn]sf] kfOG5 .

dft[efifL ;d"xsf] cfsf/, :yfg, lzIffsf] pknAwtf / u'0f:t/ tyf cGo efiffefifL ljz]ifu/L g]kfnL

dft[efifL jQmfx?;Fu ;Dks{sf] s|dx?n], To; ;d"xsf] cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|ltsf] wf/0ff / eflifs klxrfg

k|ltsf] r]tgfnfO{ k|efj kf5{ . o; afx]s zx/L If]qdf dfq} pknAw x'g] sltko k]zfx?df g]kfnLdf

;fIf/tf cfjZos k5{ / o;n] hghftLo efiffx?sf] lg/Gt/ k|of]u / ;+/If0fdf klg gsf/fTds k|efj

kf5{ .

o:tf 7"nf eflifs ;d'bfo w]/} 5g\ h;df cfˆgf] dft[efiff k|lt vf;} rf;f] 5}g, o;sf] sf/0f lzIffdf

l56f] kx'Fr x'gfn] x'g ;S5 . ljBfnox?df g]kfnL efiffdf k9fOG5 tyf lzIfsx? cGo eflifs

;d'bfoaf6 x'G5g . ljBfnodf ;kmn x'g]x? / ljZjljBfnodf cWoog ug{ hfg]x? g]kfnLefifL ;dfhsf]

d"nk|jfxdf ;dflxt x'+bf cfˆgf] dft[efiff nf]k x'g] d"No r'sfO /x]sf x'G5g\ .

cGo eflifs ;d'bfox?df hxfF dft[efiffsf] k|of]u 36]sf] 5 ToxfF w]/} l9nf eO{ ;Sg' eGbf cufj} cfˆgf]

dft[efiffnfO{ hf]ufpg / ljsf; ug{] tkm{ Toxfsf ;b:ox? ;hs ePsf 5g\ / rf;f] klg b]vfO/x]sf

5g\ . dft[efiffnfO{ ;+/If0f ug{] / Ao'pFtfpg] cfGbf]ngx? klg k|foh;f] cfˆgf] eflifs ;d'bfob]lv aflx/

a:g]x?af6 yflnG5g\ . t}klg s]xL efiffx? ;fdfGotof tL efiffsf jStfx?sf] dft[efiffk|ltsf] jkmfbf/Ln]

ubf{ afFrL /x]sf 5g\ .

nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf] ;xL d"Nof+sg ug{] uxg cWoogsf ;fy;fy} Jojxfl/s sbdx? rflng' h?/L 5 .

xfnnfO{ eg] df]6fdf]6L cg'dfg nufpg dfq} ;lsG5 . nf]kf]Gd'v efiffx?sf] ;"lrdf b]xfosf efiffx?

k5{g\M ef/tLo–cfo{ efiffx?dfM s'dfn, dfemL, af]6] / ef]6–ad{]nL ;d"xdfM a|fd', b'/f -s]xLn] d[tefiff

dfg]sf]_, kxf8L, /fp6], /fhL, ;'g'jf/ tyf ;fgf] cfsf/sf ls/ftL efiffx? h:t} d]jfxfª, sf]O{, k"df, /

ltn'ª tyf xfo' / s';'G8fsf] -cjuL{s[t_ klg o:t} l:ylt 5 .

55

^=@ g]kfndf hghftLo ;d'bfox?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:ylt

hghftLo efiff ;d'bfox?sf nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltsf sf/0fx? ljleGg 5g\ . h:t} /fp6] / s';'G8fsf]

dfldnfdf ltgsf k/Dk/fut jf;:yfgnfO{ jg kmF8fgLn] Iflt k'¥ofOPsf]n] cyjf e"–:vngn] -h;n]

sf]O{x? ePsf] b'O{ dfq ufpFnfO{ nueu k"0f{?kdf ;vfk kf¥of]_ x'g ;S5 . hg;+Vofsf] lg/Gt/ j[l4n]

v]tL of]Uo hdLgdf sdL cfpg ;S5 / dflg;x? cfˆgf] lhljsf]kfh{gsf] u'dfpg ;S5g\ . o;n]

pgLx?nfO{ pgLx?sf] cfˆgf] d"n a;f]af;sf] ynf] 5f8]/ cGo efiffsf jQmfx? dfem ldl:;g afWo kfg{

;S5 . o;n] pgLx?nfO{ g]kfnLd} s'/fsfgL ug{] afWo t'NofpF5 .

t/fO{sf] cj:yf eg] s]xL km/s 5 . oxfF cGo eflifs ;d'bfo gjfuGt'sx? yf?, lwdfn / /fhj+zL d"n

hg;+Vosf] 9f]s} ghLs a;f]af; ug{] yfn]kl5 cGo ;d'bfoaf6 cnu /x]sf oL hghftLo ;d'bfox?

ldl>t ;d'bfodf kl/0ft eO{ /x]sf 5g\ . cfk;L s'/fsfgL g]kfnLd} x'g'kg{] x'Fbf, t/fO{sf d"n hg;+Vofsf]

dft[efiffsf] k|of]u 36\b5 tyf ;fgf s]6fs]6Lx? klg cfˆgf ;fyLx? ;Fu v]Ng g]kfnL hfGg afWo x'G5g\.

&= lgrf]8

efiff Ps hLljt tTj xf] . To;}n] efiffx?df kl/jt{g x'g' :jfefljs xf] -xfdLx? eflifs ljsf; / eflifs

j[l4sf] s'/f u5f{}+_ hLjgsf ;a} If]qx?df ePsf kl/jt{gn] efiffdf cfˆgf] cleJolQm kfpF5g\ . olb

efiffsf n]Vo ?k 5g\ eg] To;n] ltgsf] ;+/If0f / lj:tf/df ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 clg ltgsf] k|lti7f klg

a9\b} hfG5 . efiff cGof]Gofl>t ?kdf of] af]Ng] dflg;x?;Fu hf]l8Psf] x'G5 / ;dfh tyf ;+:s[ltaf6

cljefHo x'G5 . o; ;fgf] k'l:tsfdf xfdLn] ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo z}lIfs, j}1flgs tyf ;f+:s[lts ;+u7g -

o'g]:sf]_ ;j{]If0f ;g\ @))@ sf] glthfdf cfwfl/t eflifs ljljwtf tyf g]kfndf efiffx?sf] ef}uf]lns

ljt/0f af/] rrf{ u/]sf 5f}+ .

lgrf]8df eGg'kbf{, hghftLo efiffx?sf] ;+/If0fdf w]/} l9nf x'g'eGbf cufj} o; lbzf tkm{ sfd u/L

xfNg'kg{] 68\sf/f] cfjZostf b]Vb5f}+ . æeflifs d[To"æ Pp6f gofF ;+1f xf] h;n] Pp6f efiffsf] cGTo

ePsf] hgfpF5 . of] efiff k|of]u ug{] ca s'g} jQmfx? x'g] 5}gg\, o;df ca s'g} ;flxTosf] ;[hgf x'g]

56

5}g . o:tf cj:yfx?df lnlvt k|df0fåf/f slDtdf n]Vo efiffx? ;+/lIft t x'G5g\ . clnlvt efiffx?sf]

cj:yf s] x'G5 t < tL x/fpF5g\, ;DejtM dflg; / 7fpFx?sf gfd afx]s, s]xL klg k5fl8 g5f8L

x/fpF5g\ .

g]kfndf efiffx?sf] nf]kf]Gd'v l:yltnfO{ pN6\ofpg cyjf s]xL xb;Dd /f]Sg s] s:tf Jojxfl/s sbdx?

rflng' k5{g t < o; sfo{sf] klxnf] If]q t lzIff g} xf] . g]kfnLdf lzIff ljz]iflwsf/ xf] eg], cGo

efiffsf jQmfx?df cfˆgf dft[efiff k|ltsf] ;sf/fTds wf/0ffdf j[l4 u/fpg' klg plQs} cfjZos 5 .

k|fylds txdf, /fi6«efiff ;Fu hf]8\g] låefifL lzIff ;a}eGbf pQd pkfo x'g ;S5 . k|fylds ljBfnosf

kf7\ok':ts dfq geO{ dft[efiffsf] dxTj af/] ljZj:t ePsf dft[efiffsf lzIfsx? tyf ufpFsf

cu'jfx?sf] klg vfFrf] 5 . dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIff lbgfn] ufpFx?df cTolws ljBfno 5f8\g]b/nfO{

36fpg ;SYof] xf]nf . dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIffsf ;fy;fy} jo:sx?sf nfuL cgf}krfl/s k|s[ltsf

;fIf/tf sIffx? dft[efiffd} rnfO{ lbg] xf] eg] To;n] Pp6f k|sfof{Tds ?kdf lzlIft ;dfhsf] lgdf{0f

ug{ ;S5 . h;n] /fi6«efiffdf klg lzlIft x'g] cj:yf ;Dd k'¥ofpg' ;lhnf] kfg{ ;S5 . o:tf] ;dfhn]

cfˆgf dft[efiff tyf ;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f ug{df kxn uYof{] / o;/L g]kfndf efiff / ;+:s[ltsf] lglwdf

;xof]u k'¥ofpFYof] .

efiffx?sf] cjZo+efjL cj;fgsf] ;fdgf ug{] k|lt-pkfox? /fli6«o :t/df eflifs of]hgf tyf lglt

th{'df ug{] ;+3;+:yfx? ;+u 5g\ .

/fli6«o efiff gLlt ;'emfj cfof]usf] u7g ;/sf/åf/f /fli6«o efiff ljsf; af/] yfngL ul/Psf] Pp6f

;sf/fTds k|of; lyof] . o; cfof]un] ;g\ !(($ df cfˆgf] k|ltj]bg lzIff, ;+:s[lt tyf ;dfh sNof0f

dGqL ;dIf k]z u¥of] . o; k|ltj]bgdf lbOPsf ;'emfjx? b]xfo adf]lhd 5g\ M

• g]kfndf af]lng] efiffx?sf] jf:tljs ;+Vof klxrfg / lgwf{/0f ug{ g]kfnsf] eflifs ;j{]If0f u/fpg'

kg{] .

• g]kfndf nf]kf]Gd'v cj:yfdf /x]sf efiffx? klxrfg ug{' kg{] .

• dft[efiffx?df låefifLo cyjf g]kfnLdf PsefifLo lzIff k|j4{g ug{] .

• efiff k|lti7fgsf] :yfkgf ug{] .

57

ljut @% jif{b]lv g]kfn efifflj1fg ;dfh lqmofzLn 5 . k|To]s jif{ o; ;dfhn] æg]kfnL efifflj1fgsf]

hg{nÆ k|sflzt u5{ / jflif{s ;Dd]ngsf] cfof]hgfu5{ h;df ljleGg eflifs ljifox?df sfo{kqx?

k|:t't x'G5g\ / tL k|:t'ltx? af/] 5nkmn ul/G5g\ . cTolws ljifox? hghftLo efiffx?af6 cfpg]

u/]sf 5g\ .

eflifs l;4fGt cWofkg u/fpg tyf g]kfnL efiffljb\÷efiff j}1flgsx?nfO{ g]kfnsf efiffx?af/]

cg';GWfg ug{] tflnd lbgsf lglDt ;g\ !((^ df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf efifflj1fg s]Gb|Lo ljefusf]

:yfkgf ul/of] .

>L % dx]Gb|af6 g]kfnL ;+:s[ltx?sf] ;+/If0f / ljsf;sf nflu g]kfn /fhsLo k|1f k|lti7fgsf] :yfkgf

u/L aS;]sf] lyof] . g]kfnsf efiffx?sf] cWoognfO{ s]xL ;do ;Dd k|1f k|lti7fgsf] sfo{qmddf ;dfj]z

ul/Psf] lyof] . k|1f k|lti7fgn] s]xL hghftL ;d"xsf nf]ssyfx?sf] g]kfnL cg'jfbsf ;fy ;fy} lnDa'

efiffsf] zAbsf]z k|sflzt u/]sf] 5 .

cflbjf;L hghflt pTyfg /fli6«o k|lti7fgn] efifflj1fg s]Gb|Lo ljefu tyf g]kfn / Pl;ofnL cWoog

s]Gb|sf] ;xof]udf ljleGg efiffx?sf æcfwf/e"t zAbsf]zÆ / Jofs/0fx?sf] lgdf{0f ;DaGwL ;+:s[lt

kl/of]hgf k|fof]hg u/]sf] 5 .

hghfltx?n] ljz]ifu/L e]ife"iff, g[To tyf uLt ;+uLtx?;Fu ;DalGwt ;+:s[ltsf] ;+/If0f / ljsf;sf

nflu o; ;Fu ;DalGwt y'k|} ;+u7gx? vf]n]sf 5g\ . lxhf]cfh cfˆgf eflifs ;d'bfox?sf] efiff nf]k

x'g'af6 /f]Sg o:tf s]xL ;dfhx?n] ;–;fgf zAbsf]zx? lgdf{0f ug{] yfn]sf 5g\ . s]xL cj:yfx?df

kf7\o;fdu|L klg ;+sng / k|sfzg ul/Psf 5g\ .

o:tf lsl;dsf kxnx? ljutsf bzsb]lv dfq} cl:tTjdf cfPsf x'g\ . o:tf kxnx?n] hghftLo effiff

;d"xx?df cfˆgf dft[efiffx?nfO{ ;+j4{g / ljsf; ug{'kg{] gLlwsf ?kdf lng yfn]sf] b]vfpF5g\ . ca

o; qmddf plgx?sf] k|of;nfO{ ;dy{g ug{ / pgLx?nfO{ ;xof]u ug{ lgtf+t cfjZos 5 .

58

APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1. THE LANGUAGES OF NEPAL 1. Indo-European Language Family: Indo-Aryan Group Language Subgroup Distribution (by zone) Nepali Eastern Pahari All over the country Awadhi Mid-Eastern Bheri, Lumbini Bhojpuri Mid-Eastern Narayani Maithili Mid-Eastern Janakpur, Koshi, Narayani, Sagarmatha Tharu Mid-Eastern Seti, Lumbini, Narayani, Rapti, Koshi, Janakpur,

Sagarmatha Rajbansi Eastern Mahakali, Mecchi Bote Nepal Group Narayani Danuwar Nepal Group Narayani Darai Nepal Group Narayani Kumal Nepal Group Gandaki Majhi Nepal Group Janakpur, Lumbini, Narayani 2. Sino-Tibetan Language Family: Tibeto Burman Group Language Subgroup Distribution (by zone) Lepcha Mirish Mechi Meche Bodo Mechi Chantyal West Bodish Dhaulagiri Dura West Bodish Lamjung Ghale West Bodish Gandaki Gurung West Bodish Gandaki Tamang West Bodish Bagmati, Narayani Thakali West Bodish Dhaulagiri Dhimal Dhimalish Morang, Jhapa Chepang Central Himalayan Narayani, Gandaki Kham Central Himalayan Rapti Magar Central Himalayan Bheri Newari Central Himalayan Bagmati Pahari Central Himalayan Bagmati Raji Central Himalayan Bheri, Seti Raute Central Himalayan Bheri, Rapti, Seti, Karnali Hayu East Himalayan Janakpur Baramu West Himalayan Gandaki Byansi West Himalayan Mahakali Thami West Himalayan Janakpur Athapaharia Kirati Koshi Bahing Kirati Sagarmatha

59

Bantawa Kirati Koshi, Mechi, Sagarmatha Belhare Kirati Koshi Chamling Kirati Sagarmatha Chintang Kirati Koshi Dumi Kirati Sagarmatha Khaling Kirati Sagarmatha Koyu Kirati Sagarmatha Kulung Kirati Koshi, Sagarmatha Limbu Kirati Koshi, Mechi Lohorung Kirati Koshi Mewahang Kirati Koshi Puma Kirati Sagarmatha Sangpang Kirati Koshi Sunuwar Kirati Janakpur, Sagarmatha Thulung Kirati Sagarmatha Wambule Kirati Sagarmatha Yakkha Kirati Koshi Yamphu Kirati Koshi Dolpike Central Tibetan Dolpa Jirel Central Tibetan Janakpur Lhomi Central Tibetan Koshi Mugali Central Tibetan Karnali Sherpa Central Tibetan Sagarmatha Yohlmo Central Tibetan Bagmati 3. Austro-Asiatic Language Family Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone) Santhali Munda North Munda Koshi, Mechi 4. Dravidian Language Family Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone) Dhangar Northern

Dravidian Northern Dravidian Janakpur

5. Other Language Group Subgroup Distribution (by zone) Kusunda Not known Not known Beri

60

APPENDIX 2. CBS REPORT ON LANGUAGES (2001) The Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), HMG/Nepal has published in 2001 its population census report. According to this report, the following is the list of languages used in Nepal: SN Mother tongue Number % 1 Nepali 11053255 48.98 2 Maithili 2797582 12.40 3 Bhojpuri 1712536 7.59 4 Tharu (Dagauri/Rana) 1331546 5.90 5 Tamang 1179145 5.22 6 Newar 825458 3.66 7 Magar 770116 3.41 8 Awadhi 560744 2.48 9 Bantawa 371056 1.64 10 Gurung 338925 1.50 11 Limbu 333633 1.48 12 Bajjika 237947 1.05 13 Urdu 174840 0.77 14 Rajbansi 129883 0.58 15 Sherpa 129771 0.58 16 Hindi 105765 0.47 17 Chamling 44093 0.20 18 Santhali 40193 0.18 19 Chepang 36807 0.16 20 Danuwar 31849 0.14 21 Dhangar/Jhangar 28615 0.13 22 Sunuwar 26611 0.12 23 Bangala 23602 0.10 24 Marwad (Rajsthani) 22637 0.10 25 Majhi 21841 0.10 26 Thami 18991 0.08 27 Kulung 18686 0.08 28 Dhimal 17308 0.08 29 Angika 15892 0.07 30 Yakkha 14648 0.06 31 Thulung 14034 0.06 32 Sangpang 10810 0.05 33 Bhujel/Khawas 10733 0.05 34 Darai 10210 0.05 35 Khaling 9288 0.04 36 Kumal 6533 0.03 37 Thakali 6441 0.03 38 Chhantyal 5912 0.03

39 Sanketic (Nepali Symbolic sign)

5743 0.03

40 Tibbetan 5277 0.02 41 Dumi 5271 0.02 42 Jirel 4919 0.02 43 Wambule/Umbule 4471 0.02 44 Puma 4310 0.02 45 Yholmo 3986 0.02 46 Nachhiring 3553 0.02 47 Dura 3397 0.02 48 Meche 3301 0.01 49 Pahari 2995 0.01 50 Lepcha/Lapche 2826 0.01 51 Bote 2823 0.01 52 Bahing 2765 0.01 53 Koi/Koyu 2641 0.01 54 Raji 2413 0.01 55 Hayu 1743 0.01 56 Byangshi 1734 0.01 57 Yamphu/Yamphe 1722 0.01 58 Ghale 1649 0.01 59 Khadiya 1575 0.01 60 Chhiling 1314 0.01 61 Lohorung 1207 0.01 62 Punjabi 1165 0.01 63 Chinese 1101 0.00 64 English 1037 0.00 65 Mewahang 904 0.00 66 Sanskrit 823 0.00 67 Kaike 794 0.00 68 Raute 518 0.00 69 Kisan 489 0.00 70 Churauti 408 0.00 71 Baram/Baramu 342 0.00 72 Tilung 310 0.00 73 Jero/Jerung 271 0.00 74 Dungmali 221 0.00 75 Oriya 159 0.00 76 Lingkhim 97 0.00

61

77 Kusunda 87 0.00 78 Sindhi 72 0.00 79 Munda 67 0.00 80 Hariyanwi 33 0.00 81 Magahi 30 0.00 82 Sam 23 0.00 83 Kurmali 13 0.00 84 Kagate 10 0.00 85 Dzonkha 9 0.00

86 Kuki 9 0.00 87 Chhingtang 8 0.00 88 Mizo 8 0.00 89 Nagamise 6 0.00 90 Lhomi 4 0.00 91 Assamise 3 0.00 92 Sadhani 2 0.00 93 Unidentified languages 168340 0.75 Total 22736934

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APPENDIX 3. CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION1

1 Gordon, Raymond G. (ed.). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International.

63

64

REFERENCES Bandhu, C.M., 2060 B.S. Nepali Baal-Biswakosh. New Delhi. UNESCO and Nepali Sahitiya

Samaaj.

Breton, Roland J.- L. 1997. Atlas of the Languages and Ethnic Communities of South Asia. New Delhi: Sage Publications

Ebert, Karen H., 1994. The Structure of Kiranti Languages. Zurich: Universitaet Zurich.

Eppele, John. 2003. Kathmandu Valley Survey: Bahing, Thulung and Wambule Rai (Ms.)

-- , Cho, Kwang-Ju, Rai, Padam Kumar. 2003. Bantawa: A sociolinguistic Survey (Ms.)

Gordon, Raymond G. (ed.). 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas: SIL International.

Gurung, Harka. 1996. Ethnic Demography of Nepal. Kathmandu: Nepal Foundation for Advanced Studies.

-- 1998. Nepal: Social Demography and Expressions. Kathmandu: New ERA

-- 2002. Janganana 2001 Anusar Jatiya Tathyak

Lee, Maureen. 2005. Ba’yung (Bahing) Rai: Socio – Linguistic Survey. Pre-publication Draft

Nembang, Til Bikram (Coordinator). 2050 B.S. National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission Report. Kathmandu: Royal Nepal Academy

Prarambhik Lekhajokha. (First Evaluation of Nationality). Kathmandu:

Rai, Dhan Raj. 2001. Bilingualism and Language Attitude: A Case Study of Bantawa Rai of Phakphok Kolbote VDC in Ilam District. M.A. Thesis, Central Department of Linguistics, T. U. Kirtipur

Rapacha, Lal. 1997. Sunwar as an Endangered Language of Nepal. Nepalese Linguistics 14, 89-102

Toba, Sueyoshi. 1992. Language Issues in Nepal. Kathmandu: Samdan Books and Stationeries

-- 1998. A Bibliography of Nepalese Languages and Linguistics (BNLL). Kathmandu: Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University

-- 2005. Addenda to BNLL

-- Ingrid Toba and N.K. Rai. 2002. UNESCO Language Survey Report Nepal. Kathmandu: UNESCO

65

Von der Heide, Susanne, Thomas Hoffmann, ed., 2001. Aspects of Migration and Mobility in Nepal. Kathmandu

Watters, David E., with the participation of Yogendra P. Yadava, Madhav P. Pokharel, Balaram Prasain. 2005. Notes on Kusunda Grammar: a linguistic isolate of Nepal, Kathmandu: National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities

Watters, Stephen. 2002. Language Death: a Review and an Examination of a Global Issue in the Nepalese Context. Gipan, 2: 39 – 66

Yadav, Yogendra P. 2003. Population Monograph of Nepal. Vol. 1. Chapter 4 Language. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu

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UNESCO Kathmandu Series of Monographs and Working Papers:

No. 1 Democracy, Gender Equality and Women’s Literacy: Experience from Nepal No. 2 Celebrating Diversities Through Policy, Practice, and Research: A Case of Literacy

and Non-Formal Education in Nepal No. 3 Review of Research Literature on Girls’ Education in Nepal No. 4 Girls in Science and Technology Education:

A Study on Access, Participation, and Performance of Girls in Nepal

No. 5 Gender Responsive Non-formal Education in Nepal: a Case Study No. 6 Cultural and Religious Diversity: Dialogue and Developement