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AYOGU, DEBORAH UCHE
PG/PH.D/12/61475
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND IMPLICATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED FEDERAL
UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH EAST, NIGERIA.
FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
Paul Okeke
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND IMPLICATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED
FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH EAST, NIGERIA.
AYOGU, DEBORAH UCHE PG/PH.D/12/61475
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS
ENUGU
JUNE, 2015
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND IMPLICATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT IN SELECTED FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES IN SOUTH EAST ,
NIGERIA
AYOGU, Deborah Uche PG/Ph.D/12/61475
BEING THESIS SUBMITTED IN HE DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT FACU LTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CA MPUS IN
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN MANAGEMENT,
SUPERVISOR: DR. C.A EZENWAKWELU
JUNE, 2015
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DECLARATION
I, AYOGU, Deborah Uche a postgraduate student in the Department of Management with
Registration number PG/PhD/12/61475 do hereby declare that this thesis is original and has not,
to the best of my knowledge been submitted in part or in full for any other Diploma or Degree of
this or any other University.
________________________ STUDENT AYOGU, Deborah Uche
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APPROVAL
This Thesis has been approved by the Department of Management, Faculty of Business
Administration, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, by
By
__________________________ _______________ Supervisor DR. C.A EZENWAKWELU Date _________________________ _______________ Head of Department Dr. O.C UGBAM Date
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I begin with immeasurable gratitude to Almighty God who has sustained me, throughout the course of this study.
A work of this nature could not have been completed without the invaluable assistance of my supervisor Dr. C.A Ezenwakwelu, who set the tone and constantly challenged me in the course of my academic program by never accepting anything less than my best efforts. Words cannot express my appreciation; all I have to say is thank you.
Special thanks go to Dr. O.C Ugbam, the Head of Department for his constructive criticisms and materials. This work is richer for your sake. I would equally like to thank members of Staff, Department of Management, University of Nigeria especially Prof. U.J.F Ewurum, Prof. Jonny Eluka, Dr. E.K Agbaeze, Dr. V.A Onodugo, Dr. Ann Ogbo, Dr. I. Mba, Dr. B.I. Chukwu, Rev.Dr.Anthony Igwe and the Secretary (Mrs.N.Ofordile) for their inputs, valuable discussions and accessibility. You all provided me with the rare privilege of gaining a wider breadth of experience in the course of my program and work.
With profound appreciation and gratitude to God, I appreciate the role of my elder brother and wife Dr.and Pharm.(Mrs) B.O Ayogu, Consultant Urologist University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital Ituku-Ozalla, for his Love and kindness throughout the period of this work, You have been very wonderful, Thank you.
I also sincerely and deeply appreciate all my close friends- Chukwuemeka Nnam,Cyril Ukwueze, Dr.Ibe Imo, Agu O Agu, Agu Ogadinma, Fr. Nnadozie Emmanuel, Mr. Afolabi, Mr. Felix, Mrs. J. Oga, Mrs. Anuli, Mr Anthony Nwali, Victor Ogbu, Chime Arinze , Charles Ubagwu, Mrs.Obi- Anike and Chioma Atuogu.
I also appreciate close friends in my work place- Dr. O.G Agbo, Dr.Emerole G.A, Dr.Emerole Okwudili, Dr. Okebaram Sunday, Dr. Maxwell Amobi, Agbo Melletus, Dr. Anichebe, Dr.(Mrs) J.C Ihemeje Pastor. S Alaba Bar.(Mrs) Priscillia Enodinmuo, Bar.(Mrs) Nneoma Nnochiri, Juliet, Mr. Obochi Charles, Ugo, Mrs.Olatuji, Mrs Victoria and Nse Sunday.
I am most indebted to my mother Oriefi Chikaanene Ugwu and to my brothers and sisters who in one way or the other contributed immensely towards completion of my thesis, among them are Mrs. Patience Ugwoke, Mr. August Ayogu, Mrs. Evelyn Dimanyi, Engr. Anayo Ayogu, Mr. Pius Ugwoke, Mr. Dimanyi Michael, Mrs. Chimezie Ayogu and Mrs. Chinyere Ayogu
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ABSTRACT
This study is on emotional intelligence and implication for career development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. The study sought to assess the significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria; assess the implication of emotional intelligence on the non-academic staff; ascertain the attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development; determine the extent of the relationship between motivation and training and examine the extent to which emotional intelligence affect career development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. The study adopted the survey research design and data were collected from primary source through questionnaire and oral interview. Data were also obtained from secondary sources. The target population of the study comprised both academic and non-academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. A sample size of six hundred and fifty one (651) respondents was determined using the Finite population formula of Godden (2004). The chi-square statistics, Z-test, linear regression and the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient through the application of statistics package for social science (SPSS 17.0 windows) were used to test the hypotheses stated. The findings indicated that leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria; the implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress; self-regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development; there is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training and emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. The study concluded that emotional intelligence has tremendous implication on career development of staff. The study recommended that management should ensure that the concept of emotional intelligence is developed over the life span of staff through enhanced training, and also organizations should map out strategies to manage worker’s stress, which will help in career success.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration. . . . . . . . . . . i
Approval. . . . . . . . . . . ii
Dedication. . . . . . . . . . . iii
Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . iv
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . v
List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . vi
Chapter One Introduction. . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background to the Study. . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Objectives of the Study. . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Research Questions. . . . . . . . . 8
1. 5 Research Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Significance of the Study. . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Scope of the Study. . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Profile of Selected Federal Tertiary Institutions in the South East. . 11
References
Chapter Two Review of Related Literature. . . . . . 30
2.1 Conceptual Framework. . . . . . . . 30
2.2 Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence - - - - - 36
2.3 Benefits of Emotional Intelligence . . . . . . 37
2.4 Reasons for Emotional Intelligence . . . . . . 38
2.5 Theoretical Review . . . . . . . - 41
2.6 Training . . . . . . . . 51
2. 7 Emotional Intelligence And Learning . . . . . . 55
2.8 Motivation . . . . . . . . 56
2.9 The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Occupational Stress - 58
2.10 Recognition and Reward and Career Development . . . 58
2.11 Emotional Competencies Applicable to Workplace Situation . . 59
2.12 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership . . . . . 62
2.13 Emotional Intelligence and Success . . . . . . 64
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2.14 Emotional Intelligence and Gender . . . . . . 66
2.15 Emotional Intelligence and Academic Achievement in Tertiary Institutions . 68
2.16 Management Approaches to Emotional Intelligence . . . . 71
2.17 Organizational Support for Career Development . . . . 75
2.18 Contribution of Career Development to the Organisation . . . 76
2.19 Emotional Intelligence and Employability Satisfaction . . . 81
2.20 Factors that affect Career Development . . . . . 88
2.21 Career Development and Job Satisfaction - - - - - 91
2.22 Emotional Intelligence and Career Development of Employees . . 92
2.23 Empirical Review . . . . . . - . 95
2.24 Summary of the Review of Literature . . . . . 97
References
Chapter Three: Methodology . . . . . . . 108
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 108
3.2 Research Design . . . . . . . . 108
3.3 Sources of Data . . . . . . . . 108
3.4 Area of the Study . . . . . . . . 109
3.5 Population of the Study . . . . . . - 109
3.6 Determination of Sample Size . . . . . . 109
3.7 Description of Research Instrument . . . . . . 112
3.8 Data Analysis Techniques . . . . . . - 113
3.9 Validity of the Research Instrument . . . . . . 114
3.10 Reliability of the Research Instrument . . . . . 114
References
Chapter Four: Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data . . 118
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 118
4.2 Test of Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 123
4.3 Discussion of Results . . . . . . . . 123
References
Chapter Five: Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations - 135
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 135
5.2 Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . - 135
5.3 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . - 135
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5.4 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . 136
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge. . . . . . . . 136
5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies. . . . . . . 137
Bibliography
Appendix I
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Breakdown of the Population.. . . . . . 109
Table 3.2 Breakdown of the Sample Size. . . . . . 112
Table 3.3 Reliability test using Spear man rank order correlation coefficient. . 115
Table 4.1 Distribution and Return of the Questionnaire. . . . 118
Table 4.2 The significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the
management of Nigerian federal universities sector? . . . 119
Table 4.3 The implication of emotional intelligence on non academic
staff of Nigeria federal universities? . . . . . . 120
Table 4.4 Attributes of emotional intelligence enhance academic staff career
development in Nigeria federal universities. . . . . 121
Table 4.5 The extent of the relationship between motivation and training . 122
Table 4.6 The extent to which emotional intelligence affect career development in
Nigeria federal universities. . . . . . . 122
Table 4.7 Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis. . . . . 123
Table 4.8 Chi-Square Tests. . . . . . . . 124
Table 4.9 Contingency Table for Testing Hypothesis . . . . . 125
Table 4.10 Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . . . 125
Table 4.11 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test. . . . . 126
Table 4.12 Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis. . . . . 127
Table 4.13 Chi-Square Tests from the frequency cross tabulation. . . 127
Table 4.14 Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis . . . . . 128
Table 4.15 Correlations. . . . . . . . . 129
Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . . . 129
Table 4.17 Correlations. . . . . . . . . 129
Table 4.18 Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis . . . . . 130
Table 4.19 Descriptive Statistics. . . . . . . . 130
Table 4.20 Model Summary (b) . . . . . . . 130 Table 4.21 Anova (b) . . . . . . . . 131 Table 4.22 Coefficients (a) . . . . . . . . 131
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The origin of emotional intelligence could be traced back to Charles Darwin's work on the
importance of emotional expression to survival and successful adaptation. In the 1900 even
though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as memory and
problem- solving, several influential researchers in the intelligence field of study had begun to
recognize the importance of non-cognitive aspects. For instance, as early as 1920, R. K.
Thorndike used the term social intelligence to describe the skill of understanding and managing
other people (Hein, 2005).
Emotional intelligence develops over a person’s life span and could be enhanced through
training and teaching and learning in formal educational contexts (Jaeger, 2003).
Emotional intelligence is generally regarded as a factor with the potential to contribute to more
positive attitudes, behaviours and outcomes and has been related to career success (Goleman,
1998). Researchers and career counsellors have also recognised the significance of emotional
intelligence in career success, career satisfaction and well-being (Kidd, 2008). No wonder, Pool
and Sewell (2007) further regard the development of Emotion intelligence as desirable for
enhancing individuals’ employability and career choices.
Creating a career in a world with decreased job security, fast-paced technology and increasing
personal responsibility for constant up-skilling, employability and lifelong learning are some of
the key challenges faced by today’s workforce (Sinclair, 2009).
Researchers have noted that the complexities of the increasingly turbulent career context have
significantly impacted people’s career attitudes and affective experiences of their working lives
(Kidd, 2007).
Some of these attitudes and experiences relate to less positive work experiences resulting from
more frequent career transitions, a sense of instability and dissatisfying and insecure working
conditions. In response to the more turbulent and uncertain career contexts, people seem to adopt
a more proactive stance toward their careers by taking personal ownership for their career
development and focusing on their subjective experiences of career success and continued
employability (Lumley, 2010).
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Individuals’ employability provides them with an inner sense of stability and security and relates
to their ability to achieve sustainable employment and move self-sufficiently within an uncertain
and unpredictable labour market (Hillage and Pollard, 1998).
Employability is regarded as a form of functional flexibility or career resiliency and reflects
individuals’ self-efficacious beliefs about the possibilities of their getting and maintaining
employment even in the face of uncertain work circumstances (Berntson, Näswall and Sverke,
2008).
Employability presupposes proactive career behaviours and abilities that help people to fulfill,
acquire or create work through the optimal use of both occupation-related and career meta-
competencies (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2011).
Career meta-competencies include awareness of the motives and values (or career anchors) that
drive one’s career decisions and experiences of career satisfaction, behavioural adaptability and
emotional literacy in dealing with setbacks and failures (Coetzee and Bergh, 2009).
As a career meta-competency, research increasingly recognises emotional intelligence as an
important attribute of people’s employability and career decision-making (Yorke and Knight,
2004).
Emotional intelligence positively relates to less dysfunctional career thinking, greater career
decision-making self-efficacy, a higher level of willingness to explore a variety of career
preferences, and to commit to attractive career options (Puffer, 2011).
People’s emotional intelligence is also positively associated with important employment
experiences and their emotional attachment to their current careers and jobs (Carson and Carson,
1998).
However, the research literature provides evidence of the relationship between people’s
emotional intelligence and their employability, there seems to be a paucity of research regarding
the relationship between people’s emotional intelligence and their career anchors, and how their
career anchors relate to their employability satisfaction (Coetzee, Bergh and Schreuder, 2010).
Career anchors are regarded as an important aspect of individuals’ career self-concept, which
provides clarity of career values, motives, interests and needs. Awareness of one’s career anchors
and how these influence one’s job and career satisfaction have been related to positive career
choice outcomes (Schein, 1990).
Emotional intelligence positively relates to less dysfunctional career thinking, greater career
decision-making, self-efficacy and a higher level of willingness to explore a variety of career
preferences and to commit to attractive career options (Puffer, 2011).
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Salovey and Mayer (1990) state that original model of emotional intelligence is relevant to the
present study.
Gardner (1983) stresses that interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other people
and what motivates them and intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to form an accurate model
and understanding of oneself and to use the model to operate effectively in life.
Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) model proposes that emotional intelligence consists of a set of four
conceptually related mental processes: efficiently handling psychological and social problems,
accurately appraising and expressing emotion in the self and others, regulating emotion in the
self and others, and using emotions adaptively in order to solve problems and achieve one’s
goals. The ability to monitor one’s own emotional landscape is thought to lead to greater insight
and self-knowledge (Goleman, 1998).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) opine that people differ in the degree to which they display their
emotional intelligence. Individuals who appraise and express (perceive and respond to) their
emotions accurately are likely to be better understood by the people with whom they interact.
They also have the potential to better influence people when they are able to perceive the
emotions of the people with whom they interact, as well as to develop empathy (the ability to
comprehend another’s feelings and re-experience them oneself).
Career choice is a culmination of a series of decisions. Decisions regarding people’s values, tasks
and activities of interest, levels of aspirations, how their work roles interact with their non-work
roles, and what information to seek and how to seek it are important part of the decision-making
processes which are likely to be influenced by the emotional makeup. Emotions experienced in
the career decision-making process may influence the career options being considered, tolerance
for risky career decisions, amount and type of career exploration activities individuals will
engage in the choice process, how much effort to invest in the process and how the information
related to career choice is processed (Emmerling and Cherniss, 2003).
Based on the aforementioned influences, it is expected that an individual’s dissatisfaction with
his/her current career choice can motivate the individual to engage in career planning,
exploration and decision-making with the aim of finding a more satisfying career. The current
increased wave of unemployment, career instability and change and trend toward boundary less
careers or protean careers calls for the ability to use emotions adaptively in the career choice-
making process (Lumley, 2010).
Cooper (1997) argues that those who trust and use their feelings effectively could achieve a more
successful career. Although numerous empirical studies on the relationship between EI
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(emotional intelligence) and career development appear in the literature, relatively little is known
about this relationship in developing countries (Caruso and Wolfe, 2001).
Many elements of the present consensus on the role of emotional intelligence in career
development developed from studies of western samples may be directly applicable to
developing countries. However, it is likely that differences in macro-environmental factors
namely, socio-cultural and economic situations may render the commonly accepted notions of
the role of emotional intelligence in career development inappropriate in many developing
countries (including Nigeria) (Thomas and Inkson, 2006).
The role of emotional intelligence in the society and particularly in the workplace has generated
a lot of interest within the scientific community and the general public in the last few decades.
Emotions play significant albeit often misunderstood roles in the career decision-making process
(Emmerling and Cherniss, 2003).
The lack of a coherent theory that explains the role of emotions in career decision-making might
have been responsible for the researchers’ and practitioners’ limited insight into this major aspect
of mental life. The seeming absence of theory and research on emotional processes in the career
decision-making literature and general literature on judgment and decision-making, until
recently, is surprising given the significant role of affective processes in other sub-disciplines
within psychology (Emmerling and Cherniss, 2003).
Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) state that this might be due to an implicit desire to separate the
practice of career which focused on interest testing, self-exploration strategies and examination
of career resource materials, from the practice of psychotherapy which focused on emotional
processes.
In Nigeria, the tradition or cultural practice is that the family or the parents know the best and as
such, they dictate the type of occupation that the children will choose regardless of the children’s
abilities and interests (Salami, 2007).
The reason for parents’ decision-making might be that their children should go into well-paid
jobs so that family financial problems can be solved. Furthermore, the cultural beliefs and
societal expectations are that the females do not need to be too serious about occupational
choice. They are expected to go into female gender-role stereotyped lower occupations, where
salary levels are relatively low, because they are expected to be helpers to their husbands who
are expected to be the breadwinners for the family (Salami, 2001).
For this, the females may be less career mature than the males. Generally, there is lack of career
maturity for the secondary school students (Salami, 2008).
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This might be due to perceptions of restrictive post-graduation vocational options. Where to go
next after graduating from secondary school students may pose problems (Salami, 2001).
A sense of limited career options may be magnified by lack of meaningful employment options
witnessed in contemporary Nigerian economy for there is mass unemployment (Oyebade, 2003).
When high school students think of mass unemployment of the graduates, they might not be
motivated to take the matter of career decision-making seriously. Instead, they might likely feel
frustrated and confused. Given the arguments for the fundamental role of emotion in career
decision-making and career development, and the limited research on the role of emotion in the
career development process, an investigation of the role of emotion in relation to career decision-
making and career maturity is warranted (Emmerling and Cherniss, 2003).
Career development, for most people, is a lifelong process of engaging the work world through
choosing among employment opportunities made available to them. It is a process of getting
ready to choose, choosing, and continuing to make choices (Brown, Brooks and Associates,
1996).
The National Career Development Association (NCDA) (1993) states that helping individuals
increase self-understanding of their abilities, interests, values, and goals is a vital foundation of
the career development process. The NCDA suggest that career development activities help
students develop positive work habits (for example, organization, following directions,
completing assignments on time), set goals, make informed decisions, identify interests and
abilities, and explore jobs (for example, job shadowing, and apprenticeships). A major turning
point in adolescents' lives involves the career choice that they make while in senior secondary
school.
Frequently, career choice viewed by family and community as a mere start to workplace
readiness; however, this decision plays a major role in establishing youth in a career path that
opens as well as closes opportunities. Since some adolescents with special needs like those with
severe mental retardation may not even complete secondary school education because of their
unique characteristics, the emotional intelligence is to assist these adolescents in their career
development as early as possible. Therefore, whether college-bound or work-bound, meeting the
challenge of this developmental milestone is critical in adolescents' lives. This is why career
development plans and activities are important for individuals with disabilities (Jaeger, 2003).
Besides, career development has been described as the way an individual manages his career
either within or between organizations. It includes how a person makes effort to learn new skills,
and make improvements to help in his career. Individuals with disabilities should not be left out
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in career development plans. Like other employees, they want to do good jobs, appreciate
constructive supervision, enjoy new challenges and want to get ahead. Therefore, educators must
seek to understand their unique needs and challenges as well as tackle their problems by ensuring
that necessary career information, plans, and activities are put in place. The ultimate goal is to
make persons with special needs become adjusted and successful in life (Caruso and Wolfe,
2001).
Research on career success benefits and concern not only to individuals but also to organizations
because employees’ personal success can eventually contribute to organizational success (Judge,
Higgin, Thoresen and Barricj, 1999).
Career success is also a way for individuals to fulfil their need for achievement and power
because it improves people’s quantity and quality of life. Scholars are noting that employees may
remain committed and productive members of an organization as long as they believe that the
organization helps them achieve positive career experiences, or intrinsic career success (Lee and
Maurer, 1997).
Career paths become increasingly ambiguous and individuals must take on increased
responsibility for managing their own careers as organizations are facing more complex business
environments (Hall and Mirvis, 1995).
Managers in public and private sector are experiencing substantial transformation in
organizations via organizational as well as career changes which affects long-term relationship
and psychological contract between organizations and employees. Understanding the role
emotional intelligence plays in career satisfaction will benefit organizations and individuals
interested in identifying high potential employees. In many of the writings on emotional
intelligence, the components and competencies underlying this construct have been touted as
important determinants of life and career success (Goleman, 1995).
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Over the past few years, there has been an increasingly decline in innovation and creativity from
Nigeria’s citadel of learning. Preliminary investigation into the causes of decline reveals that
Federal Universities staff have been faced with serious challenges such as poor condition of
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service, poor working environment, poor morale among workers, lack of emotional intelligence.
These myriads of problems if left unchecked could have negative impact on the career
development of any worker-academically and technically.
A worrisome issue is that even when individual employees are aware of their organization’s lack
of finance and unwillingness to invest in their career development, many of them remain
adamant on whether to embark on self development or not and most of the time remain
undisturbed. Organizations that lack well equipped, skilled and committed employees are bound
not to stand the test of time in this turbulent environment.
Emotional intelligence plays an important role in improving employee’s performance.
Consequently, individuals with low emotional intelligence experience emotional tensions, career
dissatisfaction, decrease in career performance which affect the efficiency of the individual.
Emotional intelligence is an array of non-cognitive capability, competencies and skills that
influence ones’ ability to succeed in coping with the environmental demand and pressure.
Based on this, emotional intelligence is an indispensable elements that promotes academic
achievement, which relate to human growth and physical development. But evidence has shown
that managers that lack emotional intelligence are bound to experience depression, inadequate
cognitive skill and deviant behavior. Thus, this study focuses on emotional intelligence and
implication for career development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main objective of this study is to examine emotional intelligence and implication for career
development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. The specific objectives of
the study include the following:
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i. To assess the significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of
selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
ii. To assess the implication of emotional intelligence on the non-academic staff.
iii. To ascertain the attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career
development.
iv. To determine the extent of the relationship between motivation and training.
v. To examine the extent to which emotional intelligence affects career development in the
selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. What are the significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of
selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria?
ii. What are the implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff?
iii. What attributes of emotional intelligence enhance academic staff career development?
iv. What is the extent of the relationship between motivation and training?
v. To what extent does emotional intelligence affect career development in selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
These hypotheses were proposed to guide the study
i. Leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional
intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
ii. The implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff are team work, job
satisfaction and management of stress.
iii. Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that
enhance academic staff career.
iv. There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training.
v. Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The significance of this study cannot be over-emphasized and can be viewed from the following
perspectives.
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1. To the academic staff, this study is significant because it discovers the attributes of
emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development.
2. To non-academic staff, the study will inform them about the positive effects derived from
emotional intelligence.
3. To the management of universities in Nigeria, the study will inform them on the significant
areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of Nigeria universities.
4. Finally, the study will help enrich the literature on emotional intelligence and career
development and serve as a body of reserved knowledge to be referred to.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study was carried out in the five selected federal Universities in the south eastern Nigeria:
The Universities are Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Federal University of
Technology Owerri, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka and
Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo all in Abia, Imo, Enugu, Anambra and Ebonyi state. The
study covered a time from 2008 to 2013.
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
In the process of conducting the research, the researcher was impeded by some constraints such as;
Finance - This was a major constraint as sourcing for some vital information from some teaching
hospitals required a lot of money. The researcher has not got enough money to carry an intensive
research of this nature.
Time Constraint – Due to limited time given for the study, the researcher could not visit some
of the places where information needed for the study could be obtained. Due to this, the
researcher could not cover all the Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria but selected some
of them.
Attitude of the Respondents –Some respondents feel indisposed to provide vital information
concerning their institution as a result of prejudiced opinion conceived about the study.
1.9 DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
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For the purpose of clarification and understanding of this study, some concept require definition
Emotions: Emotions can relate to expression of love, hate, attraction, aggression and
disappointment (Girdhalwal, 2007).
Intelligence: Intelligence can be defined as the aggregate of an individual to act with purpose
and to deal effectively with the environment. (Cherniss, 2000)
Emotional self control: Emotional self control is the ability to remain calm and unperturbed in
stressful situations and to be able to deal with hostile persons without exerting violence (Cherniss
and Goleman, 2001)
Emotional Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence is the ability to perceive emotion, integrate
emotion to facilitate thought, understand emotions and to promote personal growth (Salovey and
Mayer, 2000).
Career: Career is conceptualized more broadly in terms of the individuals or personal
development in learning and work throughout life. ( Collins and Watts, 1996)
Career Management: Career Management is the organizational process which contributes to
the identification and development of staff potential to meet the strategic manpower planning
targets of the organization and is supported in part by the line management, supervisors or
anyone who has responsibility for direct staff reports. (Hirsh and Jackson, 1996)
Career Development: Career Development is not one-shot training programme or career-
planning workshop; rather, it is an on-going and formalized effort that focuses on enhancing
workers to work. (Gomez-Mejia and Balkon, 1998)
Manpower Development: is the act of training, producing and creating human resources to
meet the manpower requirements of an organization as when due for the various goals and
objectives of an organization. (Imaga, 2000).
1.10 PROFILE OF THE SELECTED FEDERAL UNIVERSITIES IN Sou thEast,
NIGERIA
1. University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN),
23
The University of Nigeria (UNN), commonly referred to as UNN, is a federal university located
in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. Founded in 1955 and formally opened on 7 October 1960, the
University of Nigeria has four campuses – Nsukka, Enugu and Ituku-Ozalla – located in Enugu
State and one in Aba, Abia State, Nigeria. The University of Nigeria (UNN) was the first full-
fledged indigenous and first autonomous university in Nigeria, modeled upon the American
educational system. It is the first land-grant university in Africa and one of the five elite
universities in the country. The university has 15 Faculties and 102 academic departments. The
University offers 82 undergraduate programs and 211 postgraduate programmes. The university
celebrated its 50th anniversary on October 2010.
Philosophy:
To seek Truth, teach Truth and preserve Truth.
Motto:
To Restore the Dignity of Man.
Vision Statement:
To create a functional, globally competitive and research-focused University which is not just an Ivory Tower, but responsive to the needs of the society, while delivering World-class education and Knowledge.
Mission Statement:
To place the University of Nigeria in the forefront of Research and development, Innovation, Knowledge Transfer and Human Resource Development in the global academic terrain, while promoting the core values which will ensure the restoration of the dignity of man.
OUR CORE VALUES
Integrity, Accountability and Transparency
• The interest of the university will be placed above all other considerations. • Our decisions will be guided by deep sense of honesty, truth, equity and justice. • The highest standard of ethical and moral values will be exhibited and encouraged. • All actions will be in compliance with the rules of the university and the laws of the
country.
Respect
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• Recognize and respect the diverse nature of the university community in the course of our duties.
• Treat everyone fairly and justly, regardless of religion, gender or geographical origin.
Meritocracy
• Eschew all forms of favoritisms, while ensuring that the rewards, promotions and appointments of students/staff are based on merit.
• Ensure that the assessments of student performances are guided by the same principles.
Academic Freedom
• Support the ethical and responsible promotion of academic freedom. • Recognize and promote the essential role of the university in the advancement of
knowledge and improvement of human societies (in line with the university’s goal, to seek truth, to teach truth and to preserve truth).
Creativity
• Encourage new perspectives and approaches to issues.
Team Work
• Promote a new attitude to work and study in the university in which people (faculty and students) collaborate freely, while providing essential mentorship to younger colleagues.
• Encourage students and staff to share credits for success and accept blame for any shortcomings. Promote a culture where students and staff do not place personal objectives over group objectives).
Open Mindedness
• Encourage the expression of viewpoints that contribute to improvements and intellectual pursuits within the university.
Social Responsibility
• Encourage community services and activities focused at preserving the natural environment.
History
A Law to establish a University in the Eastern Region of Nigeria was passed on May 18, 1955.
While that date marks the formal beginning of the history of the University of Nigeria, the
enactment of this legislation by several Nigerian leaders, and inspired particularly by the then
Premier of the Eastern Region, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. One of the first steps taken by the Eastern
Nigeria Government towards the implementation of its commitment was an invitation to both the
25
United States of America and the United Kingdom to send advisers to help in the planning of
physical and educational aspects of the proposed university.
Under the joint auspices of the Inter-University Council for Higher Education and Overseas and
the International Co-operation Administration (now the United States Agency for International
Development), J.W. Cook, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Exeter, Dr John A. Hannah,
President of Michigan State University and Dr Glen L. Taggart, Dean of International Programs
at the same university, came to Nigeria in 1958. The team surveyed the site at Nsukka, and
extensively investigated a great variety of factors pertinent to the establishment of a new
university.
The results of their efforts were contained in a white paper issued by the Eastern Nigeria
Government on 30 November 1958. They had recommended "that the development of the
University of Nigeria based upon the concept of service to problems and needs of Nigeria, is a
desirable project and one that should receive support from any source which could help to make
it a sound endeavour". They further recommended that a Provisional Council be established to
"draw upon the technical and consultative resources available throughout the world for help in
planning the institution".
The Provisional Council, authorized by the Eastern Nigeria Legislature, was appointed by the
Governor in Council in April 1959, and given necessary financial and administrative powers to
build a sound university. It reflected the spirit of international cooperation which has given birth
to the Institution. It consisted of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Chairman, Dr. T. Olawale Elias and Dr.
Okechukwu Ikejiani from the Federation of Nigeria, J.S. Fulton from the United Kingdom, Dr.
Margueritue Cartwright and Dr. Eldon Lee Johnson from the United States of America.
The University was formally opened on 7 October 1960, as the climax to the Nigerian
independence celebrations in the Eastern Region. Her Royal Highness, Princess Alexandra of
Kent, representing Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II at the Nigerian Independence celebrations,
performed the opening ceremonies and laid the foundation stone of one of the University's early
buildings. Classes began on 17 October 1960 with an enrollment of 220 students and 13
members of the academic staff. The opening convocation addresses were delivered by the
Chairman of the Provisional Council, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, the first President of the Federation
of Nigeria, and by Dr John A. Hannah, President of Michigan State University, USA.
The University was fully autonomous, with the power to grant its own degrees. Technically
speaking, therefore, it became the first fully-fledged university in Nigeria, since Ibadan was still
26
at that time a university college granting London degrees. It also became the first university
established by a Nigerian Regional Government. The University College Ibadan, the oldest
university institution, cut its umbilical cord with London in October 1962, becoming the
University of Ibadan. In July 1965, it turned out the first graduates holding Ibadan (rather than
London) degrees, by which time Nsukka had produced two crops of graduates and taken all the
publicity for turning out the first graduates of an autonomous Nigerian university.
Campus The University has four campuses – Nsukka (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, UNN), Enugu
(University of Nigeria Enugu campus, UNEC), Ituku-Ozalla (University of Nigeria Teaching
Hospital, UNTH) and Aba (University of Nigeria Aba campus, UNAC). The main campus of the
University is located on 871 hectares of hilly savannah in the town of Nsukka, about eighty
kilometres north of Enugu, and enjoys a very pleasant and healthy climate. Additionally 209
hectares of arable land are available for an experimental agricultural farm and 207 hectares for
staff housing development. There is regular road transport between Nsukka and Enugu, and
Nsukka is also quite easily accessible from all parts of Nigeria. There are modern shopping
facilities and a large market in Nsukka town. The Nsukka campus houses the Faculties of
Agriculture, Arts, Biological Sciences, Education, Engineering, Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Physical Sciences, Social Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine.
The former Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Enugu, was incorporated into the
University in 1961, and its buildings now form the Enugu Campus (200 hectares) of the
University located in the heart of Enugu, the administrative capital of Enugu State of Nigeria.
Enugu is a modern city, accessible by air, rail and road. The Faculties of Business
Administration, Environmental Studies, Law and Medical Sciences are located at the Enugu
Campus.
The teaching hospital (UNTH) attached to the University is presently sited at Ituku-Ozalla (25
kilometres South of Enugu) on a 500 hectare site. It also hosts the Faculty of Dentistry and
Health Sciences and Technology. The Aba campus (UNAC) hosts the Institute of Nigerian
Languages.
A former campus was opened in October 1973 in Calabar, Cross River State. The campus at
Calabar became a full-fledged University of Calabar in October 1977.
The official name of the University is University of Nigeria and the official acronym of the name
UNN. "U" stands for University, “N”stands for Nigeria while the last "N" stands for Nsukka.
27
This acronym is also shared by the main campus of the University, Nsukka (University of
Nigeria, Nsukka). Thus technically, the name University of Nigeria, Nsukka refers to the main
campus at Nsukka only while the name University of Nigeria refers to all the campuses of the
University. References may be made to the location of the other campuses by mentioning the
names of the cities where they are situated rather than a blanket description with the name
Nsukka. Students at the Enugu Campus prefer to write the name of their school as University of
Nigeria Enugu Campus (UNEC) if they must add the location of their school. Students from
other campuses of the school also prefer same. Official documents of the school describe the
school as simply University of Nigeria. They also make the dichotomy when referring to
different campuses of the school.
Academics
Noted author Chinua Achebe held research and teaching appointments at the university, starting
in the early 1970s. Renowned Astrophysicist Sam Okoye founded the Space Research Center in
1972. The SRC remains one of the few institutions in Africa that researches and offers courses in
astronomy at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.
The medical school, in Enugu, has most of it activities in the University of Nigeria Teaching
Hospital (UNTH), where doctors and other health workers are trained with high standards and
have proven over the years that they can effect a significant positive change in Africa and the
entire worlds' healthcare system. Doctors and nurses trained in the institution have contributed to
the advancement of medicine.
The first open heart surgical operation in Nigeria and sub-Saharan Africa was undertaken in
1974 at the University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital (UNTH) Enugu. The team was led by
visiting Professor Yacoub from the UK and others in the team included Professors F.A. Udekwu
and Anyanwu. The College of Medicine has since evolved into the center for cardiothoracic
surgery and tropical cardiology excellence for the West Africa region with the siting of the
National Cardiothoracic Center at UNTH Enugu. A lot of medical research is also being carried
out in the college. Most of the projects are nearing completion, but it is pertinent to note that
some too, have fallen short of completion due to lack of finances and the Government's
reluctance to fund private research.
The Department of Fine and Applied Arts is renowned for the Nsukka group – seven artists
associated with a system of traditional Igbo designs and styles known as uli. The seven artists are
Uche Okeke, Chike Aniakor, Obiora Udechukwu, El Anatsui, Tayo Adenaike, Ada Udechukwu,
28
and Olu Oguibe. The Law Faculty of the University is the oldest in Nigeria, having been
established in 1960. It has contributed immensely in legal education in Nigeria. The faculty has
gotten into the legal profession notable people like Late Barrister Johnny Okonkwo (SAN) one
of the most Igbo prominent members of the Nigerian Bar Association and one of the first three
SANs in Anambra state and also was an attorney to people like former Vice President of Nigeria,
Alex Ekwueme, Barclays Bank, Chief Chris Uba, Dim Odumegwu Ojukwu, Shell Petroleum,
President Bush amongst other big names in Nigeria and beyond. He even has trained other
successful legal icons like Chief Tagbo Ike, Justice Donatus Okorowo and the rest of them. The
faculty also saw through the former vice president, Alex Ekwueme in law practice.
The Department of Electronic Engineering was named a Center of Excellence in Electronics by
the Federal Government of Nigeria in 1982. It is renowned for its prestigious graduates and is
one of the most sought after programs to study at the university. The department has consistently
produced the Best Graduating Student of the University and Best Graduating Student in the
Faculty of Engineering. Of recent a lot of work has emanated from the Department of
Pharmacology and Therapeutics where a new agent against HIV was derived from a local plant
source. Named "irab" the new agent is thought to be a fusion inhibitor and studies in initial
clinical trials have shown astounding results. Noteworthy also is finding a novel application for
an otherwise old drug. Piperazine citrate which is a cheap and safe anthelmintic agent that has
almost gone into disrepute was shown to have anti-arryhthmic properties by studies in the
department. The investigators have also established that piperazine can protect the heart against
sudden cardiac death from ventricular fibrillation.
Library
The University of Nigeria, Nsukka Libraries consist of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Library, the Enugu
Campus Main Library and the Medical Library located at the College of Medicine, University of
Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Ituku-Ozalla.
Internet
The school also provides wifi hotspot for the students, a service which cost #12,000 for first-year
students and #6,000 for other years e.g second, third and fourth year, the hotspot have a
limitation of 50kb/secs as download speed, and it is provided by tenace.
29
Vice-Chancellors
The Vice-Chancellor is supported by three deputy vice-chancellors. Former and current persons
who have fulfilled the position are:
• Professor Benjamin Chukwuma Ozumba: 2014–Present
• Professor Barth Okolo: 2009 - June 2014
• Professor Chinedu O. Nebo: June 2004 - June 2009
• Professor Ginigeme Francis Mbanefoh: 1999 - 2004
• Professor Umaru Gomwalk: May 1994 - (appointed as the Sole Administrator)
• Professor Oleka K. Udeala:1992 - 1995
• Professor Chimere Ikoku: 1985 -
• Professor Frank Nwachukwu Ndili: 1980 - Oct. 1985
• Professor Umaru Shehu: 1978 - 1979
• Professor James O.C. Ezeilo: 1975 - 1978
• Professor Herbert C. Kodilinye: 1971 - 1975
• Professor Eni Njoku: July 1966 - 1967; 1967 - 1970
• Professor Glen L. Taggart: 1964 - 1966
• Dr. George Marion Johnson: 1960 – 1964.
2. Federal University of Technology Owerri
FUTO, as the oldest University of Technology in Nigeria was established in 1980 by Executive
fiat with the composition and appointment of the first provisional Council by Nigeria's First
Executive President, Shehu Shagari. It became the first of three such Universities set up by the
Federal Government of Nigeria who sought to establish a University of Technology in each geo-
political region and particularly in a State which did not have a conventional University.
On November 28, 1980 in the premises of the Old Government Technical College (GTC), FUTO
opened its doors to staff and students. In January, 1982 the Imo State government approved a
permanent site for the University.
Located 25 kilometers south of Owerri, the selection of the site was guided by the advice of the
National Universities Commission that a minimum area of ten thousand (10,000) acres or 4,048
hectares should be obtained based on the location, relative absence of human settlements within
the area and other relevant factors.
30
FUTO engaged Messrs Concarplan - Enplan Group (a firm of Consultants) to design the physical
plan for the University. FUTO is surrounded by a number of autonomous communities and
homesteads all of which had contributed land acquired for the development of the University.
These communities are Ihiagwa, Obinze, Umuoma, Nekede, Eziobodo, Avu, Okolochi,
Obibiezena and Emeabiam.
It is bisected by a new road between Obinze and Naze which connects the two mentioned major
roads. The Otamiri River traverses the site from North to South and with the beautiful vegetation
in its river basin forms an important physical feature.
Futo at a Glance
Established
1980
Faculty
Starting with an initial enrollment of 225 undergraduate students and a staff strength of 60
(comprising 28 Academic and 32 Administrative staff) in 1981. The University’s enrollment for
the 2010/2011 session has grown to 21,039 students (comprising 17,713 Undergraduates and
3,326 Postgraduate students) and an Academic Staff strength of 926 (including 156 Professors),
plus over 1,200 Administrative and Technical support Staff.
Students
FUTO Undergraduate Students – About 14,500
Postgraduate Students– About 6,700
Total Number of Students – About 21,000
Motto
Technology for Service
Library Collection
31
• Available print collections of over 95,000 Books and 200 Journal Titles plus over 3,500
Technical Documents and 1,000 maps.
• Virtual Library (with database covering over 300 subject areas; plus availability of some
rather specialized EBSCO, AGRA and OARE data bases).
• Added to these are some modern Internet facilities, provided under the OSIWA Project
and some well co-ordinated IMO depository rights.
FUTO SCHOOLS
Federal University of Technology, Owerri has 6 degree-granting schools. The University has
grown from few students with a single master to an enrollment of more than 20,000 degree
candidates including Undergraduate and Postgraduate students.
• School of Agriculture and Agriculture Technology
• School of Engineering and Engineering Technology
• School of Environmental Technology
• School of Health Technology
• School of Management Technology
• Scho ol of Science
Commercial and Entrepreneurial Ventures
• FUTO Consultancy Services Limited
• FUTO Micro-finance Bank Limited
• FUTO Farms Limited
• FUTO Bookshops Limited
• FUTO Press Limited
Research Centres And Academic Support Units
• Centre for Agricultural Research
• Centre for Industrial Studies
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• Centre for Continuing Education
• Centre for Energy and Power Systems Research
• Centre for Vocational and Entrepreneurial Studies
• Institute of Erosion Studies
• Information and Communication Technology Centre
• University Computer Centre
Vice-chancellors of the University till date
� Prof. U.D Gomwalk (1980-1986)
� Prof. Amah Nduka (1986-1991)
� Prof. O.G Oba (1992-1999)
� Prof. Jude Njoku (2000-2005)
� Late Prof.C.E.O. Onwuliri (2006-2011)
� Prof. C.C. Asiabaka (2011-Date
3. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka
Nnamdi Azikiwe University came into being as an offshoot of the defunct Anambra State
University of Technology (ASUTECH). ASUTECH which was established through Law No. 7
of 30 July 1980 by the Government of the old Anambra operated as a multi-campus university,
with campuses in Abakiliki, Enugu, Awka and Nnewi. In 1991, following the split of the old
Anambra State into Anambra and Enugu States, the Awka and Nnewi campuses of the former
ASUTECH were constituent into Nnamdi Azikiwe University by the Anambra State Edict No.5
of November 26, 1991. Nnamdi Azikiwe University was taken over by the Federal Government
by Decree No. 34 of July 15, 1992 In 1991, after the former Anambra State was split into
Anambra and Enugu States, the Awka and Nnewi campuses of the former Anambra State
University of Technology (ASUTECH) were combined into Nnamdi Azikiwe University, which
was later taken over by Federal government. The university is named after Nnamdi Azikiwe, the
first president of Nigeria. The Awka Campus became Nnamdi Azikiwe University. In 1992,the
Federal Government of Nigeria took over the University from Anambra State. Nnamdi Azikiwe
University, thus, became a Federal University.
Location of the University
33
The main campus of the University is located at Awka sited thirty-five kilometers to the South -
West of Awka, the second campus is at Nnewi (NAUTH and Okofia) and the third campus is at
Agulu (Faculty of Pharmacy)
Student's Population The University has a population of twenty-four thousand seven hundred and six (24,706) for the
full-time and twelve thousand, four hundred and seventy-six (12,476) students for the part-time
programmes during the 2004/2005 academic year.
The university offers a diverse range of courses of study, including Arts, Natural Sciences,
Engineering, Management Sciences, Medical and Health Sciences, Social Sciences, Law,
African Languages, European Languages, and Education. In the 2004–2005 academic year there
were 24,706 full-time students and 12,476 part-time students enrolled. The current Vice
Chancellor is Prof. Boniface Egboka who took over from Prof.Ilochi Okafor (SAN). On 26th of
May, 2014, Prof. Joe Ahaneku was announced as the Vice Chancellor
Student's Population: The University has a population of twenty-four thousand seven hundred
and six (24,706) for the full-time and twelve thousand, four hundred and seventy-six (12,476)
students for the part-time programmes during the 2004/2005 academic year.
Mission Statement: Nnamdi Azikiwe University is founded on the philosophy that knowledge
should be propagated and disseminated to individuals without let or hindrance. Teaching and
Research would be anchored on the needs of the immediate environment and the Nigerian
society generally. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, after whom the University is named, stands out clearly
in the history of University education in Nigeria and Africa in general. In the discharge of its
mission, the University shall live up to the ideals of this renowned statesman, by making
University education pragmatic, and using it to forge unity among the various communities in
Nigeria. The mission of the University is, thus, to use teaching, research and public service to
solve societal problems. In the process of learning, students would be oriented to use education
in the solution of practical problems confronting them and the Nigerian society. It is hoped that
the University’s graduates will be able to use their knowledge to lift the society off its problem in
Science, e.g. technological backwardness, poor health delivery services, agricultural under
production, environmental degradation, misapplication and/or under utilization of human and
material resources, cultural disorientation etc. To achieve these purposes and harness the large
pool of qualified secondary school graduands and high caliber manpower in the environment of
34
the University, the University will be conventional in scope and outlook covering wide areas of
learning and research. In totality, the mission of the University is to produce graduates who shall
possess the following attributes: a wide and ordered knowledge in a discipline area;
the ability to reason logically; Dedication the ability to communicate clearly in speech and
writing with confidence and fluency; numeracy and computer literacy;
accepted moral values as honesty, humility, truthfulness, and high ethical standards in personal
and professional life; acceptance of obligations and responsibilities; desire for life-long
education and creativity; self-confidence and result-oriented ability.
Objectives of the University: Specifically, the Decree establishing the University provides for
the under listed objects: to encourage the advancement of all branches of learning and to hold out
to all persons without distinction of race, creed, sex or political conviction, an opportunity of
acquiring higher and liberal education; to provide courses of instruction and other facilities for
the pursuit of learning in all its branches and to make these facilities available on proper terms to
such persons as are equipped to benefit from them;
Summary: These strategies for success will emphasize our desire for high quality education,
wise investment of University resources, result oriented and problem solving curricula. These are
mediated through the reorientation of staff attitude to effect pragmatic teaching and
development, output mix, research, good governance and management. Put together, the Mission
Statement and Decree No. 34 of 1992 identify the Operational Objectives of the University. Our
strategies for their success will be clearly tied to our ability to plan expertly and manage the
activities of the University based on extensive internal consultations and consensus building with
staff and students through management audit and brain storming sessions. Already many of these
are in place and are viable. For instance Academic Planning and Physical Planning Units, Central
University Monitoring Committee (which monitors the commitment of staff and students to the
objectives of the Decree as well as the tenets of the University’s motto) are functioning
effectively. Furthermore, the adoption of Management Information System (MIS) to manage
change posed by leadership challenges in appropriate socio-economic endeavours and well
planned business initiatives will be vigorously pursued.
University Motto: The motto of the University is “Discipline, Self Reliance and Excellence.”
The rationale for this motto is that discipline is a pre-requisite condition for the achievement of
any goal. Discipline embodies endurance, continuity and determination to start afresh when
35
previous efforts fail. It is believed that discipline will give rise to self reliance, which entails
confidence in one’s self and abilities. The amalgam of a disciplined mind with self confidence
will yield excellence.
4. Michael Okpara University of Agriculture
The Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, originally the Federal University of Agriculture,
is a federal university in Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria established as a specialized University by
a Federal Government of Nigeria Decree No 48 of November 1992. It began formal activities in
May 1993 with the appointment of the first Council and Vice-Chancellor Professor Placid C.
Njoku on 27 May 1993, while other key officials of the University were appointed later.
The first set of students were admitted into the institution during the 1993/94 academic year with
a student population of 82.
The nickname "Umudykes" or U'dykers refers to students, alumni, and sports teams of Michael
Okpara University of Agriculture.
Contents
• 1 Campus
• 2 Academics
• 3 Athletics
• 4 References
• 5 External links
Campus
The institution is located in the Agricultural Training and Research city of Umudike, about 10
kilometers from Umuahia (capital of Abia State). The major link road to the University is the
Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Federal Road, a direct route to the State capitals of Abia Akwa-Ibom and
Cross River States. Being close to Umuahia, the University is linked through a major North-
South Express Road to most part of the country. It commenced its activities on the premises of
the former Federal College of Agriculture, Umudike.
The Qua Iboe River, which rises near Umuahia, flows through the campus grounds.
36
Academics
It offers more than 100 programs, and grants more than 40 undergraduate degrees. Post Graduate
degrees are offered (M.Sc. and MBA ) and doctoral (Ph.D.) degrees in over 15 departments, in
11 schools and colleges. The university issues the following degrees:
• Bachelor of Agriculture (B.Agric)
• Bachelor of Science (B.Sc)
• Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng)
• Master of Business Administration (MBA)
• Master of Science (M.Sc)
• Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
These degrees are offered across ten Colleges and a graduate school within the University.
Athletics
The University competes in the Nigerian University Football League. It also competes in the
Nigeria National University games in football (soccer), basketball, volleyball and tennis.
Historical Background
The Federal University of Agriculture Umudike was established as a specialized University by a
Federal Government of Nigeria Decree No 48 of November 1992. It began formal activities in
May 1993 with the appointment of the first Council and Vice- Chancellor. Professor Placid C.
Njoku on 27th May 1993, while other key officials of the University were appointed later.
The institution is located in the well known Agricultural Training and Research city of Umudike
about 10 kilometers from Umuahia town the capital of Abia State. The major link road to the
University is the Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Federal Road, a direct route to the State capitals of Abia
Akwa-Ibom and Cross River States. Being close to Umuahia the University is linked through a
major North-South Express Road to most part of the country. It commenced its activities on the
premises of the former Federal College of Agriculture, Umudike.
The Federal University of Agriculture Umudike is envisioned to be a University par excellence
and hopes to help the peoples of Nigeria and beyond through the provision of practical
knowledge for agricultural transformation in order to achieve sustainable food production.
The first sets of students were admitted into the institution during the 1993/94 academic year
37
with a student population of 82. It was the intention of the University to gradually increase the
number of students to a target of 1,700 total enrolment at the end of the first 5 years and 3.000 to
3.500 total enrolments by the end of the second 5 years.
One of the responsibilities of a university is to impact understanding of the processes that govern
human experience. Therefore the Federal University of Agriculture, Umudike as a specialized
tertiary institution can impart understanding of the processes that relate environment, and how
these processes can be harnessed for the production of food and fibre to meet human needs
without degradation of the natural environment. It is the plan of the University to serve the
people of Nigeria and the world through education, manpower, development and quality research
aimed at development of technologies that will overcome major constraints to agricultural
production. This is the University does through a range of activities carried out in its
programmes.
5. Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo, Ebonyi State.
The University is one of the Nine new Federal University that were set up by President Goodluck
Ebele Jonathan GCFR on the 26th of February 2011 in order to expand access to quality
education to all parts of Nigeria and to produce research that will support the nation’s economy
and its industries. Here at FUNAI our focus is on Excellence and Integrity. Academic activities
in the University commenced fully in the first week of November, 2012 with 10 departments/
academic areas and 25 undergraduate programmes. These programmes are being run in the
faculties of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Technology as well as Basic Medical
Sciences. Federal University Ndufu-Alike offered admission in 2013/2014 academic session.
Currently FUNAI has 188 full-time academic staff.
FUNAI had several workshops in our Faculties in the 2012/2013 academic session including that
for Grid Computing, Proposal Writing and Developing an International Research Profile. These
academic activities will continue with more vigour in the coming academic sessions.
The University prides itself on offering excellent learning experience for students, informed by
up-to-date research and facilitated by a high-quality learning environment, with multi-media
classrooms, modern library and well equipped laboratories. There is an emphasis on
employability and entrepreneurship in all our academic programmes. FUNAI is developing
iconic infrastructure based strictly on our physical masterplan, on both the take-off and the
adjourning main campus that will befit the vision of the university.
38
FUNAI is constantly implementing new technologies and programmes that reflect the
educational needs of 21st century and beyond students. FUNAI is also committed to recruiting
scholars that are proven world-class experts with international research standing. As it stands, a
significant number of our teaching staff posses terminal degrees from the United Kingdom,
Canada, United States, Belgium, South Africa and other African countries. FUNAI students learn
among and with world-class academics that are leaders in their fields and disciplines. FUNAI
academic staff regularly publish researches in leading international peer-reviewed journals.
FUNAI is also investing in a five-year (2013-18) campus development project to provide new
teaching space, more student accommodation, staff offices, sports facilities and state-of-the-art
ICT building. This will further enhance our ability to deliver an outstanding student experience,
world-class research facilities and an inspiring working environment. FUNAI is already
developing a profile as one of the best Universities in Nigeria. FUNAI was ranked by Web
metrics and National Universities Commission (NUC) in January 2013 as the first among the
nine new Federal Universities established in 2011 in Nigeria. The August 2013 Webometrics
ranking placed us in the category of Universities that have advanced in ranking both nationally
and internationally. However, FUNAI is working harder to rise further and be a world class
university in Nigeria that is recognized for the delivery of intellectually rigorous, cutting-edge
research and excellent teaching and learning.
Faculties and Departments
Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Faculty of Science and Technology
Our Governance
The Federal University, Ndufu Alike Ikwo, is organized around some seven key decision
structures. Each organ of the structure is crucial but does not have a direct influence on general
matters of the day to day administration of the university, except through Central Administration.
The Federal Government of Nigeria
39
As the Proprietor of the University, the Federal Government of Nigeria has the responsibility to
determine the overall development objectives of the university from time to time. The Federal
Government also has the power to define the structure and vision of the University as articulated
and enshrined in the laws governing the establishment of the University. However, the Proprietor
of the University has no direct influence in the general administration of the University. This is
to secure academic freedom and allow for the sustainable development of a culture of
independence in matters
40
REFERENCES
Alavi, H and Askaripur, M. R (2003) “The Relationship between Self-esteem and Job Satisfaction of Personnel in Government Organisations,” Public Personnel Management, 32(4), 591-598.
Ashforth, B. E and Humphrey, R. H (1993) “Emotional Labour in Service Roles: The Influence of Identity,” Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88-115.
Ashforth, B.E and Humphrey. R. H (1995) Emotion in the Workplace. A Reappraisal, Human Relations, 48(2), 97-125.
Bar-On, R.( 2000) “Emotional and Social Intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory. In R. Bar-On and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of Emotional Intelligence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Caruso, D. R and Salovey, P (2004) The Emotionally Intelligent Manager, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Collin, A and Watts, A (1996) The Death of Transfiguration of Career and of Career Guidance, British Journal of Guidance and Counseling, (24), 32-37.
Cote, S and Miners C. T. H (2006) “Emotional Intelligence, Cognitive Intelligence and Job Performance” Administrative Staff Quarterly, 51, 1-28. Accessed 08/06/09 from: http://search.yahoo.com/search.
Desler, D ( 2004) Human Resource Management New Delhi: Prentice Hall International Incorporated.
DeVaney, S.A and Chen, Z (2003) Job Satisfaction of recent Graduates in Financial Services. U.S. Department of Labor.
Garcez, C (2009) Job Satisfaction and Self-esteem: A Literature Review of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Self-esteem, Accessed 20/02/09 from: http://www.cgconsultoriaderh.com.
Goleman,D (2003) Working with Emotional Intelligence. Accessed 15/12/2009 from http://www.bizsum.com
Gomez-Mejia, L.R and Balkin, D.B (1998) Managing Human Resources, London: Pearson Education Limited.
Hirch, W and Jackson, C (1996) “Strategies for Career Development: Promise, Practice and Prentice” Brighton Institute for Employment Studies, Report 305.
Judge, T. A and Bono, J. E (2001) Relationship of Core Self Evaluations Traits – Self-esteem, Generalized Self-Efficacy, Locus of Control, and Emotional Stability – with Job Satisfaction and Job Performance: A Meta-analysis, Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1) 80-92.
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Law, K. S, Wong, C and Song, L (2004) The Construct and Criterion Validity of Emotional Intelligence and its Potential Utility for Management Studies, Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3) 483-496.
Locke, E. A, McClear, K and Knight, D (1996) Self-esteem and Work. International Review of Industrial/Organisational Psychology, (11) 1-32.
Mayer, J. D, Salovey, P and Carusro, D. R ( 2000) “Emotional Intelligence as Zeitgeist, as Personality and as a Mental Ability. In R. Bar-on and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.) Handbook of Emotional Intelligence, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Mayer, J. D, Salovey, P and Carusro, D. R (2000) Models of Emotional Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Intelligence: Cambridge University Press.
Njoku, R (2005) Human Resource Managemen, A Critical Assignment on Personnel Administration, Aba: Logic Gate Media limited.
Sala, F, Druskat V. U and Mount, G (2006) Linking Emotional Intelligence and Performance at Work. Accessed 08/06/12 from: http://books.google.com.gh/books?
Shamir, B (1991) Meaning, Self, and Motivation in Organisations. Organisation Studies, (12) 405-424.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: CONCEPT OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence (EI) plays an important role in ensuring success in the workplace and it
should be nurtured and practiced by all parties facing the challenges of globalization and
competitive in business. Then, it is also a positive encouragement to create human relationship
that can lead to the achievement of common goals and organizational effectiveness (YengKeat,
2009).
According to Bar-On (2000) in Jorfi, et. al. (2010) emotional intelligence refers to an effective
understanding of ourselves and others, have a good relationship with other people, and to adapt
and cope with their environment to become more successful in dealing with environmental
demands.
Salim and Nasir (2010) state that emotional intelligence refers to the ability or capability as
shown and owned by an individual in facing any situation. Therefore, individuals who are able or
capable to use the dimension of feeling that they have in themselves and others are those that can
be said as people who have high emotional intelligence.
Fletcher (2007) states that emotional intelligence refers to the ability of individuals in handling
relationships with others (Interpersonal) and controlling their emotions (intrapersonal).
Emotional intelligence is involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-
related feelings, understand the information of those emotions, and manage them. We all have
different personalities, different wants and needs, and different ways of showing our emotions.
Navigating through this all takes tact and cleverness especially if we hope to succeed in life. This
is where emotional intelligence becomes important. Emotional intelligence is the ability to
recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling you, and realize how your emotions
affect people around you. Emotional intelligence also involves your perception of others: when
you understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more effectively (Salim
and Nasir, 2010).
Emotional Intelligence is the ability to understand, accept and recognize our own emotions and
feelings, including their impact on ourselves and other people and to use this knowledge to
improve our own behaviours as well as to manage and improve our relationship with others
(Cartwright and Solloway, 2007).
43
People with high emotional intelligence are usually successful in most things they do. Why?
Because they're the ones that others want on their team. When people with high EI send an
email, it gets answered. When they need help, they get it. Because they make others feel good,
they go through life much more easily than people who are easily angered or upset (Goleman,
2000).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) define the term Emotional Intelligence (EQ) as the ability to perceive
emotions, to access and generate emotions in order to assist and understand emotions and
emotional meanings. Any array of personal, emotional and social abilities and skills that
influence one’s ability to succeed in coping with the environment .It addresses the emotional,
personal, social and survival dimensions of intelligence that are more important for daily
functioning than traditional aspects of intelligence. This encompasses emphasises on the
understanding of oneself and others and adapting to changing demands.
Salovery and Mayer (1997) define EI as involving the ability to perceive accurately, express
emotion, access feelings, understand emotions and promote emotional and intellectual growth.
Websters New World Dictionary defines intelligence as the ability to learn or understand from
experience or to respond successfully to new experiences, the ability to acquire and retain
knowledge (Elder, 1997).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) opine that emotional intelligence is the ability of an individual to
understand his own and other’s emotions and feelings, to distinguish between them and to use
this knowledge in his decision making process and actions. Emotional Intelligence are also refers
to the ability to perceive, access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand
emotions, and to regulate emotions and further more as to promote better emotion and thought of
individuals (Mayer and Salovey, 1997).
2.1.1 THE CONCEPT OF CAREER
Adeniji and Osibanjo (2012) state that “career” connotes different meaning to different people.
Wilensky (1961) defines it in structural terms in relation to paid jobs as “a succession of related
jobs arranged in a hierarchy of prestige, through which persons move in an ordered, (more or less
predictable) sequence. Wilensky (1961) sees career as a design, tailored for individuals to
undertake and the end can be predicted.
Leach and Chakiris (1988) see career in a deeper perspective, they argue that career is a by-
product of job and job is activity individuals get into in order to get paid, and job does not lead
44
individuals to anywhere; while career is seen as a continuous and progressive behavior display
by individuals moving through a journey (path/ladder) that leads to predicted/known ultimate
end. The above definitions would be adopted for this study, therefore, we would like to define
career as a series of work-related positions an individual occupies throughout his/her work life.
A career can be defined as the pattern or sequence of work roles of an individual (Torrington et
al, 2000). Traditionally, the word is applicable only to those occupying managerial and
professional roles, but increasingly it is as appropriate for everyone in relation to their work
roles. Also the word ‘career’ has been used to imply upward movement and advancement in
work roles. Many organizations no longer offer a tradition career, or only offer it to a selected
few (Hall, Zhu and Yan, 2002).
Enforced redundancies, flatter structures, short-term contracts, availability of part-time rather
than full- time work, all break the idealized image of career. We now recognize other moves as
legitimate expressions of career development, including development and extension within the
job itself, lateral moves and the development of portfolio work (Walton,1999).
Career can also be conceptualized more broadly in terms of the “individual’s development in
learning and work through life” and thus includes voluntary work and other life experiences.
Career has equally been defined as a lifelong process made up of a sequence of activities and
related attitudes or behaviors that take place in a person’s work (Hall and Associates, 1986).
Career is also viewed as a pattern of work related decision; and subjective interpretations of
work related events, such as work aspirations, expectation, values, needs and feelings about
particular work experiences, that span, the course of a person’s life, clearly, careers is not just a
job, but evolve around process, an attitude, behavior and a situation in a person’s work life to
achieve set of career goals (Greenhaus, et al, 2000).
Baruch (2004) states that career is the property of individuals, but for the employed, it is
organizations that will plan and manage employee careers. However, during the last decades the
notion that individuals are also responsible to cater for and build their own careers, instead of
leaving it entirely to the organization to manage, has been well documented (Baruch, 2004).
Hence career management requires initiative from organizations as well as individuals in order to
provide maximum benefits for both. A career is much more than just full-time employment. The
following activities should all be considered an important part of one’s career: (Baruch, 2004).
(a) Permanent or casual contracts (however short);
(b) Freelance, consultancy, or self-employment;
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(c) Post-retirement activities;
(d) Formal education and training
(e) Informal studies or self-taught material;
(f) Development activities (work-base or private learning);
(g) Voluntary work or any charitable activity;
(h) Political or public representation or involvement;
(i) Hobbies or interests.
2.1.2 THE CONCEPT OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The definition of career development can be viewed from different approaches; congruence
between career development, individuals’ personality, and their occupation (Parson, 1989); a
process for achieving specific employee’s and organization goals, (Kirk, Downey, Duckett, and
Woody, 2000).
Adeniji and Osibanjo (2012) stress that career development can “help reduce cost expended on
recruiting and training new employees in organizations.
Byar and Rue (2004) identify the following major objectives of career development: “(i) to meet
the immediate and future human resource needs of the organization on a timely basis; (ii) to
better inform the organization and the individual about potential career paths within the
organization; and (iii) to utilize existing human resource programs to the fullest by integrating
the activities that select, assign, develop, and manage individual careers with the organizations’
plans.”The underlying theories of career development provide assumptions about factors
involved in vocational development. They provide platform in which various tasks that will fast
track the development of one’ career a reality. Some of these variables include; skills,
experience, promotion, values, recognition and reward (Mishra and Sachan, 2012).
However, the underlying theories of career development adopted for this study are (i) Theory of
Work Adjustment (Dawis, 2005); Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) also known as person-
environment correspondence theory argues that career development can be achieved when an
individual searches for organizations (environment) that align with perceived requirement; while
the organizations (environment) also seek for individuals that possess expected requirement of
the organization. However, mutual agreement should be established among the parties involved
(Dawis, 2005). The second theory adopted for this study is (ii) Self concept Theory propounded
by Donald Super (1990). This theory recognizes the developmental stages people undergo from
childhood into maturity taking into consideration factors such as mental ability, physical ability,
46
individual characteristics, and any other opportunities and privileges in which individuals are
predispose contribute career patterns of such individuals.
Baruch and Peiperl (2000) state that there is a paradigm shift in career development from
organizational approach to individualistic approaches. The recent past career research focus has
been shifted from organizations to individuals. This could be as a result self-concept theory,
which suggests that individuals are absolutely responsible for their choice of careers.
Van der Sluis and Poell (2003) state that both the organization and the individual join forces to
achieve their objectives, which are beneficiary for both parties.
The primary purpose of career development is to meet the current and future needs of the
organization and the individual at work. This increasingly means developing employability.
Walton (1999) stresses that it is increasingly difficult to disentangle career development from
general training and development. Career success is seen through the eyes of the individual, and
can be defined as individual satisfaction with career through meeting personal career goals.
Torrington et al, (2005) assert that since priority had been given to the individual in career
development, it is worth nothing that the general benefits career development provides for the
organization include that:
i. It makes the organization attractive to potential recruits.
ii. It enhances the image of the organization, by demonstrating recognition of employee
needs.
iii. It is likely to encourage employee commitment and reduce staff turnover.
iv. It is likely to encourage motivation and job performance as employees can see some
possible movement and progress in their work.
v. Perhaps most importantly it exploits the full potential of the workforce.
Many authors have attempted to map out the ideal stages of a successful career development as
matched against various bracket for each stage. Schein (1978) offers seven stages of the career
life cycle.
Stage1: Occupational Choice Preparation to Work
There are countless tests available to help identity individual interests, but these can only
complete part of the picture, and need to be complemented by structured exercise, which will
help people look at themselves from a range of perspectives. Other problems involve individuals
limiting their choice due to social, cultural, gender or racial characteristics. Although, we use
47
role models to identify potential occupations, and these extend the range of options we consider,
this process may also close down. Another difficulty at this stage is gaining authentic
information about careers which are different from the ones pursued by family and friends.
Stage 2: Organizational Entry
According to Torrington et al (2005), there is some overlap between stage 1 and stage 2 which
occurs, typically, between the ages of 18 and 25 , but is revisited by most of us a number of
times. It involves the individual in both finding a job which corresponds with their occupational
self-image, and starting to do that job. Problems here center on the accuracy of information that
the organization proves, so that when the individual begins work expectations and reality may be
very different. Recruiters understandably self their organization and the job to potential recruits,
emphasizing the best parts and neglecting the downside. Applicants often fail to test their
assumptions by asking for the specific information they need. In addition, school, colleges and
universities have, until recently, only prepared students for the technical demands of work,
ignoring other skills that they will need, such as communication skills, influencing skills and
dealing with organizational politics.
Stage 3: Early Career- Establishment and Achievement
The age bracket for early career, according to Torrington et al (2005) is between 25 and 40 years.
The establishment stage involves fitting into the organization and understanding how things are
done around here. Thorough induction programme are important, but more specifically it is
important to provide the new recruits with a real job and early challenges rather, than a roving
commission from department to department with no real purpose, as often found on trainee
scheme. Feedback and support from the immediate manager is also the key (Torrington et al,
2005).
The highest part of this stage is demonstrating competence and gaining greater responsibility and
authority. It is this stage that access to opportunities for career development becomes key.
Development within the job and opportunities for promotions and broadening moves are all
aided if the organization has a structured approach to career development, involving career
ladders, pathways or matrices, but not necessary hierarchical progression. Feedback remains
important, as do opportunities and support for further career exploration and planning,
organizations are likely to provide the most support for highfliers who are seen as the senior
management of the future and may be on fast track programme.
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Stage 5: Late Career
The Organization’s task in the late career stage is to encourage people to continue performing
well. This is particularly important as some sectors are experiencing skills shortages and there
are moves by moves by some companies to allow individuals to stay at work after the state
retirement age. Despite the stereotypes that abound defining older workers as slower and less
able to learn. Mayo (1991) states that if organizations believe these employees will do well and
treat them accordingly they will perform well. Greenhaus and Callanan point out that the
availability of flexible work patterns, clear performance standard continued training and the
avoidance of discrimination as helpful at this stage, combined with preparation for retirement.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Goleman (2001) states that an American psychologist developed a framework of five elements
that define emotional intelligence:
Self-Awareness: People with high emotional intelligence are usually very self-aware. They
understand their emotions, and because of this, they don't let their feelings rule them. They are
confident – because they trust their intuition and don't let their emotions get out of control. They
are also willing to take an honest look at themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses,
and they work on these areas so they can perform better. Many people believe that this self-
awareness is the most important part of emotional intelligence.
Self-Regulation: This is the ability to control emotions and impulses. People who self-regulate
typically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive,
careless decisions. They think before they act. Characteristics of self-regulation are
thoughtfulness, comfort with change, integrity , and the ability to say no.
Motivation : People with a high degree of emotional intelligence are usually motivated. They
are willing to defer immediate results for long-term success. They're highly productive, love a
challenge, and are very effective in whatever they do.
Empathy: This is perhaps the second-most important element of emotional
intelligence. Empathy is the ability to identify with and understand the wants, needs, and
viewpoints of those around you. People with empathy are good at recognizing the feelings of
others, even when those feelings may not be obvious. As a result, empathetic people are usually
49
excellent at managing relationships, listening and relating to others. They avoid stereotyping and
judging too quickly, and they live their lives in a very open, honest way.
Social Skills: It's usually easy to talk to and like people with good social skills, another sign of
high emotional intelligence. Those with strong social skills are typically team players. Rather
than focus on their own success first, they help others develop and shine. They can manage
disputes, are excellent communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining relationships.
As you have probably determined, emotional intelligence can be a key to success in your life –
especially in your career. The ability to manage people and relationships is very important in all
leaders, so developing and using your emotional intelligence can be a good way to show others
the leader inside of you (Goleman, 2000).
2.3 BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Fcrnadez Berrocal and Extremera (2007) suggest four basic areas where the benefit of emotional
intelligence skills can facilitate problem solving capacity in Workers, namely:
a) Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Relationship: One of the most important
objectives for any person is to maintain the best possible relations with people around him or her.
Emotionally intelligent people also are able to extrapolate these skills to the emotions of others.
Emotional intelligence skills are basic factors in establishing, maintaining and having
interpersonal relations. Research evidences have established strong positive relationship between
emotional intelligence and interpersonal relationships.
b) Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Well-being: Mayer and Salovey's studies in
USA have shown that University workers with higher emotional intelligence report fewer
physical symptoms, less social anxiety, depression, greater use of active coping strategic for
problem solving, and has nomination. Furthermore, when these students are exposed to stressful
laboratory tasks, they perceive stressors as lesson threatening, and their levels cortisol and blood
pressure are lower. Research carried out with Spanish adolescents shows that when they are
divided into groups according to their level of depressive symptomatology, worker with a normal
state differ from those classified as depressive by greater clarity about their feelings and greater
ability to regulate their emotions (Fcrnadez, Berrocal and Extremera, 2007).
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c) Emotional Intelligence and Academic Performance: Emotional Intelligence may act as a
moderator of the effects of cognitive skills on academic performance Persons with limited
emotional skills are more likely to experience stress and emotional difficulties during their
studies.
d) Emotional Intelligence and the Appearance of Disruptive Behaviours: with low level of
emotional intelligence show greater levels of impulsiveness and poorer interpersonal and social
skills, all of which encourage the development of various antisocial behaviours. Research
evidences abound that people with lower emotional intelligence are more involved in self-
destructive behaviours such as tobacco consumption (Trinidad, Unger, Chou, and Johnson,
2005). Adolescents with a greater ability to manage their emotions are more able to cope with
them in their daily life, facilitating psychological adjustment and so they present less risk for
substance abuse.
2.4 REASONS FOR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Golemen (1998) identifies varieties of skills, individuals possess to include as the ability to
manage relationships, navigate social networks, influences and inspire others. Every individual
possesses different levels, but in order for individuals to become effective leaders, they will need
high level of emotional intelligence. In today’s workplace, it has become a highly important
factor for success., influencing productivity, efficiency and team corroboration. The following
are Important reasons why leaders should cultivate their emotional intelligence:
(1) Self-Awareness
Leaders with emotional intelligence are self-aware and able to recognize emotions as the
happen. This is a vital skill for leaders, as it helps them obtain a clear understanding of
their strength and weaknesses without any obstruction. In addition, great leaders are able
to perceive emotions as they arise in response to an action or situation. As a result, they
are able better to address problems and handle any future complications.
(2) Emotional Management
The prior skill gives leaders the ability to stay aware of their feelings. The next step is
learning how to manage those emotions. Leaders with high emotional intelligence are
able to regulate themselves and stay in control. These individuals are unlikely to rush
headlong into hasty decisions or let their anger take over their behavior. It is vital that
51
individuals in managerial position keep their emotions in check, as it will help them stay
in a respected position.
(3) Effective Communication
What is the benefit emotional awareness and management if you are unable to clearly
express your thought? Luckily, individuals with emotional intelligence also have the skill
of effective communication. They are able to clearly convey directions and know what to
say in order to inspire and motivate others. An important skill for leaders, communication
can be a deciding factor in whether the team listens or not.
(4) Social Awareness
Leaders with emotional intelligence are well tuned to the emotions of others and are able
to pick up on what is going on around them. They are able to sympathize with others by
putting themselves in the employee’s shoes and giving helpful feedback. This is a critical
skill for leaders, who work closely to inspire and motivate a team. If the leader is unable
to empathize with their employees, he or she will surely find it difficult to obtain respect
or loyalty.
(5) Conflict Resolution
In the workplace, there’s always the risk that emerging conflicts can threaten or disrupt
efficiency and productivity. However, leaders with emotional intelligenc are equipped to
handle conflicts and provide resolution. With this skill, leaders can quickly placate any
disagreements that arise between employees, customers, and other parties. In conjunction
with the above skills, leader can use their emotional intelligence to develop a more effective
workplace.
(6) Motivation and Creativity
It is no surprise that moods and emotions significantly affect our psyche. When we feel good
about ourselves and the world around we tend to find greater intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation. In turn, this motivation helps us express out personality better and be more
creative and optimistic (Murray, 2009). EI relates to contemporary theories of motivation
(including Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs and self-efficacy theory) that are based on evaluation
of your social awareness and emotional responsiveness in a given situation. Thus, being
emotionally intelligent, being aware of emotions and their causes can help stay attuned to
motivated attitude, express and project it on others, and produce better results at work and in
52
personal life. Additionally, EI contributes to ethical behavior and creates positive work
environment, influencing employees‘ job attitudes in a healthy way (Barrett, Salovey, 2002).
(7) Job Performance
Expressing organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions at work can
be tiresome and counter-productive for employees. The true challenge arises when
employees have to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling another (Robbins,
Judge, 2009). This disparity is called emotional dissonance. Accumulated feelings of
frustration, anger, and resentment lead to exhaustion and burnout (Murray, 2009). Felt
emotions are an individual‘s actual emotions. In contrast, displayed emotions are those that
the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job: Effective
managers have learned to be serious when giving an employee a negative performance
evaluation and to hide their anger when they‘ve been passed over for promotion‖ (Robbins,
Judge, 2009). Therefore, at work people have to get used to constant acting. This acting can
be acquired on either surface or deep level. Surface acting is hiding one‘s inner feelings and
foregoing emotional expressions in response to display rules. On the other hand, deep acting
is trying to modify one‘s true inner feelings based on displayed rules (Merighi, Dinis, 2008).
Surface acting deals with one‘s displayed emotions, and deep acting deals with one‘s felt
emotions. Research shows that surface acting is more stressful to employees than deep acting
because it entails feigning one‘s true emotions (Grandey, 2003). Being emotionally
intelligent helps acquire deep acting skills and cope with emotional stress and burnout at
work.
(8) Decision Making
Many researchers agree that the key to good decision making is to employ both thinking and
feeling in one‘s decisions (Gardner, 1983). Positive moods and emotions seem to help
decision making. People experiencing positive emotions are more likely to use heuristics to
help make good decisions quickly. Positive emotions also enhance problem-solving skills so
that positive people find better solutions to problems (Isen, 2001).
(9) Negotiation
Everybody knows that negotiation is an emotional process. Being aware of emotions and
moods of oneself and others can help manage stressful situations and improve conflict
resolution. Active listening techniques and reading non-verbal cues to recognize and
understand emotions are elements of both EI and successful negotiations (Vower, 2009).
53
(10) Leadership
Effective leaders rely on emotional appeals to help convey their messages. When leaders
feel excited, enthusiastic, and active, they may be more likely to energize their subordinates
and convey a sense of efficacy, competence, optimism, and enjoyment‖ (Robbins, Judge,
2009). Therefore, successful leaders are also emotionally intelligent.
(11) Personal Growth
Being able to identify and manage emotions is about staying aware and open to change.
Emotional intelligence conditions a person to be flexible, responsive to others, and strong in
the core (Baras, 2009). Research shows that emotionally intelligent people achieve better
results at work, school, and personal life and are more successful and fulfilled. They also
insist on that personal growth can be achieved through developing EI competences (Davis,
2009).
(12) Globalization and Diversity
The frequency and intensity of emotions vary across cultures. In China, people report
experiencing fewer positive and negative emotions than people in other cultures, and the
emotions they experience are less intense (Eid, Diener, 2004). Therefore, norms for the
expression of emotions differ across cultures. It may seem that being emotionally intelligent
in one culture may not guarantee success across other cultures. However, the evidence
suggests that EI is a multifaceted ability that transcends cultural boundaries and allows a
person to attune to diverse backgrounds (Cherbosque, Gardenswartz and Rowe, 2009). All in
all, EI contributes significantly to the improved quality and productivity, stimulates
innovation and change in an organization as well as in person. Therefore, it is important to
learn ways to improve EI both on the personal and organizational levels.
2.5 THEORETICAL REVIEW
The Theories for this Research includes:
2.5.1 Emotional Intelligence Theory (Eq - Emotional Quotient)
Understanding the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) requires exploring its two component
terms, intelligence and emotion. Since the 18th Century, psychologists have recognized an
influential three-part division of the mind into cognition, affect and motivation (Pahl, 2008). The
54
cognitive sphere includes such functions as human memory, reasoning, judgement and abstract
thought represented by the term intelligence. Emotions, on the other hand, belong to the affective
sphere of mental functioning, which includes the emotions, moods, evaluations and other
feelings states, including fatigue or energy. The third triad of personality construct, which is
motivation, refers to a state which generates actions and is similar to desire.
2.5.2 The Ability-Based Model
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2008) state that the ability based model views emotions as useful
sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment. The
model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional
nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition. The model
proposes that emotional intelligence includes 4 types of abilities:
1. Perceiving emotions: This refers to the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces,
pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts and the ability to identify one’s own emotions.
2. Using emotions: It is the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive
activities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can
capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
3. Understanding emotions: It refers to the ability to comprehend emotion language and to
appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. That is, understanding emotions
encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the
ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.
4. Managing emotions: It is the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others.
Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones,
and manage them to achieve intended goals.
Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) posit that people with higher emotional intelligence are:
likely to have better social support, and fewer problematic interactions with others; less likely to
abuse drugs and alcohol; more satisfied with their social networks and appear to receive more
social support; and seem to more successfully avoid interpersonal arguments and fights; are
better able to perceive emotions, use them in thought, understand their meanings and manage
emotions than others; somewhat higher in verbal, social and other intelligences; more open and
agreeable than others; are less apt to engage in problem behaviours, and avoids self-destructive
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and negative behaviours such as smoking, excessive drinking, drug abuse, or violent episodes
with others.
2.5.3 Mixed Models of Emotional Intelligence
The mixed model of emotional intelligence focuses on emotional intelligence as a wide array of
competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman (1995) states that emotional
task of a leader is primal, because it is the original and the most important act of leadership. His
model is premised on four main constructs which are:
1. Self-awareness: The ability to read one's emotions and recognize their impact, that is,
having a deep understanding of one’s emotions as well as one’s strengths and limitations
and one’s values and motives. It also means reading one’s own emotions and recognizing
their impact to guide decisions.
2. Self-management: This involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting
to changing circumstances. In general, self-management means the focused drive that all
leaders need to achieve their goals.
3. Social awareness: It is the ability to sense, understand, and react to others' emotions
while comprehending social networks. Social awareness, particularly empathy, is crucial
for the leader’s primal task of driving resonance.
4. Relationship management: This is the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others
while managing conflict. The triad of self-awareness, self-management and empathy, all
come together to form relationship management. Managing relationships skillfully boils
down to handling other people’s emotions and leaders who guide and motivate with a
compelling vision show inspirational leadership.
Goleman (2003) states that people with high emotional intelligence tend to: label their feelings,
rather than label people or situations; distinguish between thoughts and feelings; take
responsibility for their feelings; use their feelings to help them make decisions; show respect for
other people's feelings; feel energized, not angry; validate other people's feelings; practice
getting a positive value from their negative emotions; avoid advising, commanding, controlling,
criticizing, judging or lecturing others; and finally avoid people who invalidate them, or don't
respect their feelings.
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2.5.4 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Social Intelligence ( ESI )
The Bar-On model provides the theoretical framework for the emotional intelligence. According
to this model, emotional-social intelligence is defined as a cross-section of interrelated emotional
and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and
express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands (Bar-
On, 2006). The emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators referred to in this
concept include the following five key components, namely: (a) the ability to recognize,
understand and express emotions and feelings; (b) ability to understand how others feel and
relate with them; (c) ability to manage and control emotions; (d) ability to manage change, adapt
and solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature; and (e) ability to generate positive
affect be self-motivated.
Bar-On posits that emotional intelligence develops over time and that it can be improved through
training, programming, and therapy. He further hypothesizes that those individuals with higher
than average emotional intelligence are in general more successful in meeting environmental
demands and pressures. He also notes that a deficiency in emotional intelligence can mean a lack
of success and the existence of emotional problems.
2.5.5 Cornerstone Model of Emotional Intelligence
The four cornerstone model, initiated and propounded by Cooper and Sawaf (1997), move
emotional intelligence out of the realm of psychological analysis and philosophical theories and
into the realm of direct knowing, exploration, and application. Executive emotional intelligence
begins with the cornerstone of emotional literacy, which builds a locus of personal efficacy and
confidence through emotional honesty, energy, awareness, feedback, intuition, responsibility and
connection.
Thus the second cornerstone, the emotional fitness, builds one’s authenticity, believability, and
resilience, expanding one’s circle of trust and one’s capacity for listening, managing conflict, and
making the most constructive discontent. The third cornerstone, emotional depth, explores ways
to align one’s life and work with the unique potential and purpose, and to back this with
integrity, commitment, and accountability, which, in turn increase one’s influence without
authority. Finally, the fourth cornerstone, which is known as emotional alchemy extends one’s
creative instincts and capacity to flow with problems and pressures and compete for the future by
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building one’s capabilities to sense more readily, and access the widest range of hidden solutions
and emerging opportunities.
In spite of the existence of different models of emotional intelligence, they all share a common
core of basic concepts. That is, the abilities to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and
in others. All the models view emotional intelligence as the recognition and regulation of one’s
own emotions and the emotions of others (Goleman, 2003). In spite of minor differences, all the
models of emotional intelligence recognize the awareness of emotions and the management of
emotions as being key elements in an emotionally intelligent individual.
Review of various models of emotional intelligence gives a cursory indication that emotional
intelligence remains vital to making any head way in job performance of workers in any
industrial organization or service institution like a university library. Therefore, as an important
independent variable in job performance, the mixed model of emotional intelligence as
propounded by Goleman (1995) will form part of the cornerstones on which this research work
will stand. This is so because, the mixed model of Daniel Goleman is more encompassing in
terms of recognizing and managing emotions in organization leaders, interpersonal and intra
personal relationships of workers especially university library workers, managing emotions as
central elements in an emotionally intelligent and vibrant workforce.
2.5.6 Theories of Career Development
Renowned scholars have developed theories that describe manners in which adolescents make
choices about career development. In other words, researchers tend to explain why and how
adolescents choose the careers of their choice.
For instance, Holland’s personality type theory centred on the notion that people fit into one of
six personality types namely, realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and
conventional (RIASEC).
Holland (1987) maintained that in choosing a career, people prefer jobs where they can be
around others who are like them. They search for environments that will let them use their skills
and abilities, while taking on enjoyable problems and roles.
Super (1976) propounds a career self-concept theory. According to Super an individual’s self-
concept plays a central role in his or her career choice. Super believes that it is during
adolescence that individuals first construct a career self-concept. Super talks of crystallization
phase when the adolescents develop ideas about work that mesh with their already existing
global self-concept. Next is the specification phase. This is when the adolescents narrow down
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their choices and initiate behaviour that enables them to enter some type of career. The
implementation phase is when the adults complete their education or training and enter the world
of work. The stabilization phase is when a specific, appropriate career is made and finally when
the individuals seek to advance their careers and to reach higher status positions. This phase is
called consolidation. For Super, a time perspective was always centrally important to the career
development process:
“It has always seemed important to maintain three time perspectives: the past, from which one
has come; the present, in which one currently functions; and the future, toward which one is
moving. All three are of indisputable importance, for the past shapes the present and the present
is the basis for the future. But if I were forced to declare a preference in orientation to time, it
would be for the future - even after more than fifty years of work experience “(Super, 1990).
In 1996, Krumboltz developed the Learning Theory of Careers Choice and Counselling (LTCC)
to provide `a guide to practising career counsellors who want to know what they can do to help
people troubled with a variety of career-related concerns.
Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996) identified four fundamental trends with which people must cope
when making career choices in society and with which careers counsellors must help. First,
people need to expand their capabilities and interests. Therefore, counsellors should assist clients
to explore new activities, rather than routinely directing them on the basis of measured interests
that reflect limited past experiences. Second, people need to prepare for changing work tasks: As
a result, learning new skills for the changing labour market can be very stressful for clients.
Counsellors have a role to play in helping them cope with stress as they learn to develop new
skills on an ongoing basis. Third, people need to be empowered to take action. In other words,
many issues relevant to career decisions are often overlooked in guidance practice (for example,
a family’s reaction to taking a particular job). This could cause a fear of the decision making
process (referred to by Krumboltz as `zeteophobia') or cause delay in making a decision.
Counsellors need to be prepared to help with these issues as well as providing effective support
during the exploration process. Fourth, career counsellors need to play an extended role. This
entails that career and personal counselling should be integrated. Issues such as burnout, career
change, peer relationships, obstacles to career development and the work role itself together with
its effect on other life roles are examples of potential problems that should attract the support of
the careers practitioner.
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2.5.7 Criticism of the Theoretical Foundation of Emotional Intelligence
Regardless of the detailed researches so far conducted into Emotional Intelligence, social
criticisms have been leveled against the theoretical foundation of the construct in the following
terms. Emotional intelligence is too broadly defined and these definitions are unstable, thus the
construct encompasses too many unrelated elements that have rendered it an unintelligible
concept. According to Locke (2005) "What is the common or integrating element in a concept
that includes introspection, about emotions, planning, emotional expression, non-verbal
communication with others, empathy, self-regulation, planning creative thinking and the
direction of intention?" Locke therefore claims that the concept of emotional intelligence is in
itself a misrepresentation of intelligence construct.
Eysenk (2000) claims that emotional intelligence cannot be recognized as a form of intelligence
and Goleman's description of emotional intelligence runs contrary to what researchers have come
to expect when studying types of intelligence.
Landy (2005) claims that emotional intelligence has no substantial predictive value, studies
seem to suggest that emotional intelligence appears as a collection of personality traits. Cole and
Miners (2006) states that emotional intelligence and intelligence quotient foists that the
association between emotional intelligence and job performance becomes more positive as
cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context academic performance.
The United States of America was first to introduce emotional intelligence in her education
system. The philosophy was to put forward an integrating framework in order to coordinate all
the specific programme which are being applied at school, under the assumption that the
problems affecting youths are caused by the same emotional and social risk factors. Thus, the
best way to prevent these specific skills in a positive, and stimulating atmosphere. The training
embodied basic skills directly related to emotional intelligence such as emotional perception,
emotional understanding, emotional regulation as well as broader, higher level aspects linked to
personality such as self-esteem, perseverance, assertiveness and optimism.
In Spain, an emotional movement under the name emotional education or socio-emotional
education was founded. The aim was based on educators' interest in changing their education
system perceived to be in crisis and unable to face the many challenges of their society. They
included emotional and social aspects of students in curriculum as a means of seeking possible
solution to some of their social problems of the educational system. The rationale was based on
enhancing in students. the skill of accurate perception, appraisal and expression of emotions, the
skill of taking on and/regenerating feelings which facilitates thinking, the skill of understanding
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emotions and emotional knowledge and the skill of regulating and perceiving emotional and
intellectual growth (Mayer and Salovay,1997).
Salovey, et al, (2000) see emotional intelligence as an ability resembling other standard
intelligences. That is, high EI persons are objectively superior to those of lower EI in performing
certain activities associated with emotions. In their four-branch model. Mayer and colleagues
differentiate four essential components of EI: identifying emotions, assimilating emotions into
thought, understanding emotions, and managing the emotions of oneself and others.
This ability model is relatively narrow in scope; much of what Goleman (1995) describes as EI is
not relevant to the Mayer, Salovey, et al, (2000) conception.
Salovey et al (2000) claim that EI relates specifically to interactions between emotions and
cognitions; using emotion to enhancing thinking and using thought to regulate emotion. A third
psychological domain motivation falls outside their definition.
Although other authors have attributed motivational components to EI, such as persistence in
adversity and motivations to support and connect with other people (Goleman, 1995).
Besides the four-branch model, other ability-based definitions are possible. For example, Scherer
(2007) cites competencies in appraisal (accurate perceptions of emotive events) and
communication (effective listening and speech) as possible bases for emotional intelligence.
There is also research concerned specifically with accurate perception of emotions, a faculty that
is relatively straightforward to measure using objective techniques (Schulze, et al, 2005).
Lane (2000) suggests that awareness and verbal expression of emotion may be critical for human
survival; EI may relate to the sophistication with which the person can articulate emotional
experience. Abilities are best measured through objective tests akin to IQ tests. These tasks
present the respondent with problems that can be scored on a right-or-wrong basis. The difficulty
is that it is hard to write test items relating to emotional functioning that can be objectively
scored. The correct way to handle an aggressive coworker or comfort an upset family member
may depend on circumstances and the particular individuals concerned. Nonetheless, Mayer and
colleagues have published two widely used tests for EI, the Multi-factor Emotional Intelligence
Scale (MEIS), and its successor, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test
(MSCEIT).
Mixed Models: A broader conception of emotional intelligence incorporates both abilities and
qualities such as personality and motivational traits that assist the person in using EI in real life.
For example, a person with a warm, sympathetic personality may find it easier to deploy skills
for managing the emotions of others.
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Goleman’s (1995) account of EI, which includes qualities such as optimism, empathy, and good
character, is a mixed model. More scientific approaches aim to list the specific abilities and traits
that contribute to real-world adaptation (Bar-On, 2000). As we will see in chapter 4, mixed
models embrace a multitude of qualities. Questionnaires have also been used to assess more
narrowly defined personal characteristics relevant to EI, including regulation of moods (Salovey
et al 1995) and ‘‘alexithymia,’’ which is a deficiency in the ability to understand and verbalize
one’s own feelings (Taylor and Bagby, 2004).
Researchers in the mixed model tradition have typically used questionnaires to assess emotional
intelligence (Schutte et al 1998). The approach is based on the often unstated assumption that
people have sufficient insight into their own emotions and real-life functioning for self-reports to
be valid. Another difficulty is that questionnaire assessments tend to overlap with standard
personality traits such as extraversion and emotional stability. Nevertheless, questionnaires for
EI have become widely used in research. In principle, they provide a straightforward and
economical means for measuring individual differences in emotional functioning.
Trait Emotional Intelligence: The difficulties of trying to assess abilities by self-report,
exemplified by mixed model research has led some researchers toward a radical re-
conceptualization of emotional intelligence. The idea is that emotional abilities and competencies
may be dauntingly difficult to measure systematically, certainly by questionnaire (Tett et al
2005) However, there may be personality traits that relate directly to emotional functioning (e.g.,
assertiveness, empathy). Trait emotional intelligence represents an overarching personality factor
that represents the person’s emotional self-confidence (Petrides et al, 2007).
A focal research challenge is then to integrate trait EI and its facets into standard personality
research. Does work on trait EI add new facets to existing personality models? Or does it just
describe existing traits from a different perspective? Loose Ends Some important conceptual
issues not entirely accommodated within the different EI models that we have described thus far
appear worthy of mention. One issue is the extent to which EI is primarily a social intelligence.
There is a long tradition of researchers who have attempted to develop objective tests for social
abilities (e.g., understanding and coping with the behaviors of others) with rather mixed results
(Kihlstrom and Cantor, 2000; Matthews, Zeidner, et al 2002).
Goleman (2001) states that self-related can be distinguished from other-related aspects of EI, it
remains unclear to what extent EI is expressed only through interaction with others. We should
bear in mind that emotions have important social functions, in communicating personal status
and needs to others (Oatley and Johnson-Laird, 1995).
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A second issue is the extent to which emotional intelligence is conscious or unconscious.
Psychology makes a pivotal distinction between processes that are explicit or implicit. On the
one hand, explicit processes are accessible to consciousness; the person can describe them
verbally. Implicit processes, on the other hand, are unconscious and resistant to articulation. For
example, describing the parts of a bicycle (wheels, handlebars, etc.) requires explicit memory,
whereas actually riding a bike requires implicit memory; it is difficult to verbalize the motor
skills involved. There may indeed be separate brain systems for implicit and explicit processing
(Rolls, 1999).
Similarly, describing how one would deal with an emotionally challenging situation is an explicit
activity, but actually interacting with someone who is emotionally upset also involves implicit
processing. Responses to another’s body language and other social signals may be unconscious,
as is our own nonverbal behavior (Bargh and Williams, 2006).
A third issue we might call the ‘‘de-contextualization’’ of emotional intelligence. Can we ever
really separate emotional competence from the contexts and situations to which it applies?
Similar concerns about cognitive intelligence have generated the controversial suggestion that
practical intelligence geared to real-life problems should be separated from abstract, academic
intelligence (Wagner, 2000).
The way we process emotions is highly context-dependent. Although there are universal facial
expressions of emotion, we use contextual knowledge to decode emotion expressions. For
example, we know from experience which of our friends tend to exaggerate their emotions. We
also have no difficulty laughing when a comedian puts on a tragic expression. A test of how
quickly the person recognizes standard emotion expressions may not capture the real-life
richness and context-dependence of our understanding of facial emotions. A particular instance
of context is culture. A display of emotion that is acceptable in one culture may be deeply
offensive in another. Research on EI has tended to shy away from cross-cultural analyses, but it
is likely that emotionally intelligent behavior is culturally dependent. At the extreme we might
wonder whether emotional intelligence refers not to any basic universal human ability but to the
extent of the person’s learning of their culture’s rules for handling emotion. Most Westerners
would instantly lose 20 emotional intelligence points as soon as they arrive at Narita airport in
Japan. Alternatively, a foreigner’s speed of adaptation to novel cultural norms may be an index
of EI. Indeed it appears on such a premise that the eminently popular film Lost in Translation
was based (Bargh and Williams, 2006).
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2.6 TRAINING
Training is crucial for any organization’s success. Tanzania Institute of Bankers (2003) points
out that training is work oriented; and that it changes attitudes and imparts knowledge.
Employees grow and develop through a continuous process of learning and training. Identifying
and developing talents becomes a key factor in organizations in which employees are facilitated
to realize their professional ambitions.
Torrington and Hall (1987) assert that training is necessary for effective performance and job
satisfaction.
Tanzania Institute of Bankers (2003) stresses that training reduces dissatisfaction, discontent,
absenteeism and employee turnover. The institute further points out that promotional training
which gives priority to existing staff is a great morale booster. It leads to greater efficiency for
the concerned staff. Due consideration has to be given to organizational needs, availability of
resources and an organizational setting that facilitates effective work performance.
Nakauka (1998) agrees that after training a manager aspires to put in excellent performance. The
desire to excel is very real.
Baguma and Rwabwera (2001) opine that an interesting point is that nations can improve their
economies when management training brings about effectiveness in the way organizations carry
out their activities.
Tanzania Institute of Bankers (2003) states that emphasizes is on management development as a
tool which among other things, ensures and aids effective succession planning. It also increases
managerial capacity, motivates and aids retention of capable managers and encourages the
pursuit of career development for managers.
2.6.1 Types of Training
The type of employee training which is best suited to a particular organization depends on a
number of factors. Some of these factors are the skills that are called for in the job that have been
filled, the qualification of the employees and the types of problems faced by the organisation.
The approaches that can be used in implementing training fall broadly into; on the job and off-
the job techniques, notwithstanding that some of the training techniques cut across (Kempton
1995).
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� On-The Job Training Techniques
On- the job training is one of the approaches to training. It has been defined as, ‘training that is
planned and structured that takes place mainly at the normal work station of the trainee-although
some instruction may be provided in a special training area on site-and where a manager,
supervisor, trainer or peer colleague spends significant time with the trainee to teach a set of
skills that have been specified in advance (Kempton, 1995).
It also includes a period of instruction where there may be little or no useful output in terms of
productivity’ (Holden, 2001).
Some of the on-the job training techniques include job enrichment, job rotation, special project,
coaching, mentoring and planned experience. The effectiveness of the on- the job training
depends mainly upon immediate supervisors and qualified trainers. On- the job training has also
been argued to be the most useful but equally the most abused and most unsuccessful method of
training (Kenny and Reid, 1986).
In this study, I have used on-the job training as a proxy for more specific training. While people
do learn best by doing, that doing needs careful planning and control in order to get full learning
value out of it. One advantage of training on- the job is that there is no learning transfer problem.
Furthermore, learning is reinforced and rewarded while invalid learning is corrected. (Kempton,
1995).
� Off-The Job Training
Off-the job training includes group discussion, individual tutorials, lectures, reading, training
courses and workshops (Kempton, 1995). This type of training has been used as a proxy for more
general training in this study. While there are many forms of off-the job training, this study
focuses on training courses and this is because courses permit individuals to leave the day to day
demands of their jobs behind so that they can concentrate on analysing past behaviours and
reflecting on what has been successful and what has not. This is also because training courses
fall in the longer term training episodes that are the main focus of this research.
According to Kempton (1995), this kind of training offers an opportunity to impart knowledge
and skills that can be learnt or practiced in a safe environment. He further states that if training is
conducted in an organised and systematic way it should be able to develop new attitudes and
experiences that contribute to the success of the organisation, improve employee morale which
would lead to better performance and greater productivity and create a psychological climate
which orients the activities of each employee towards achieving the goals of the organisation. In
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line with these assertions, this study interests itself in investigating whether such training
episodes actually translate into improved employee performance and motivation. In doing so, I
have for the purpose of this study and practical reasons categorised the 47 training episodes into
more specific and more general as indicated in table 2. It is also on this basis that I have
premised the discussions with regard to training episodes.
2.6.2 Benefits of Training to Employees
Career advancement after training leads to the development of new skills and competencies;
increased job satisfaction (more challenging work, greater variety etc.) aligning work with
personal values and motivations; provides a map for employees to see how they might be able to
move laterally or vertically in the organization; provides individuals with a degree of influence
and control over the direction of their careers and an ability to identify and plan their
development (Kempton, 1995).
Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) states that career advancement makes it possible for an
organization to have a well motivated workforce - and this creates among others: improved
ability of managers to plan ahead for the staffing of key positions (succession planning); better
identification of the organizations workforce planning needs; increased staff morale through a
sense of development and feeling valued; lower staff turnover levels and a more stable
workforce; increased internal recruitment activity (rather than external), and the associated cost
savings; retention of more experienced and skilled staff and improved level of service to people
with a disability and families. It should be noted, however, that some organizations prefer
external recruitment in a bid to select the best person for the job (Beardwell and Holden, 1997).
Armstrong (2001) states that people are motivated when they expect that a course of action is
likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward - one that satisfies their needs. He
goes even further to assert that the organization can provide the framework that can facilitate
high levels of motivation through the provision of incentives and rewards, satisfying work and
opportunities for learning and growth. The manager’s role here, in motivating employees to
perform cannot be overemphasized.
Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) point out that rewards are vital for staff acquisition and
retention.
Baguma and Rwabwera (2001) agree that promotion is necessary for job satisfaction and that it
stands for increased incentives in recognition of the employee’s performance and contribution.
Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) agrees that career advancement and reward systems are
66
„sources‟ of motivation at the work place. It is, therefore, logical to believe that there may be a
negative impact on motivation, morale, job satisfaction and performance in instances where
employees‟ expectations for advancement are not met.
2.6.2 Hindrances to Career Advancement after Training
Organization Structure
The organizational structure may indeed play a part in one’s job situation as far as training and
career advancement are concerned (Tharenous et al 1994). An organization whose hierarchy is
dominated by men may impact negatively for career advancement for women managers. In
addition, a rigid structure which provides very few job openings impacts negatively on career
advancement after training (Torrington and Hall, 1995).
Beardwell, Holden and Claydon (2004) state that effective management development should
give due consideration to career paths and opportunities for promotion and progression.
Today, due to rapid changes in organizations, there is a great deal of uncertainty and no clearly
defined progression paths; promotion is no longer „automatic as was the case in the structures
and cultures of traditional organizations (Torrington and Hall (1995).
Hilton (1991) stresses that decreasing opportunities for upward promotion which appeals to most
employees, to organizational delayering; they state that in the longer term, constant change and
reshaping in organizations turn career planning into an exercise in fortune telling (futility).
Individual factors
Torrington and Hall (1995) stress that the responsibility for managing a career is with the
individual, although the organization may play a key role in facilitating and supporting this.
Indeed an employee who pursues training that is inconsistent with the organizations set goals and
objectives would not advance his/her career.
Mullins (2005) stresses that for self development to be supported by management, it has to be
relevant to organizational needs and goals. Graham and Bennett (1995) state that employees
should set and aim at specific targets, identify career priorities and consistently monitor their
achievements and failures.
Political factors
Organizational politics may prove to be a hindrance to career advancement after training in
whatever form it takes (from nepotism, ethnicity, corruption to favoritism). Nzuve (2007) states
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that, in some institutions, managers create, coalitions to assist, block, protect or hinder some
employees. On the other hand, some organizations for example may have to be conceptualized in
the larger context of national politics.
Robbins (2010) states that, systems that can be manipulated by managers in order to reward and
recognize, favorite, employees demoralize the rest of the staff. Cranfield University’s School of
Management (2006) opines that organization politics, which concerns motives, power, positions
and competition, if not used constructively, can impact negatively on various aspects of the
workplace.
Social Factors
Taking a break from employment to raise young children halts ones career advancement.
Branching out in a new field for a more flexible job in which to raise children also puts a stop to
ones aspirations in an organization which had provided stable employment; this interruption of
ones career path way (Torrington and Hall, 1998).
Even issues regarding accommodation of husband/partners career may come into play here. In
addition, feelings of inferiority among women and racial minorities, or „social class identity
(Torrington and Hall, 1998).
2. 7 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING
The good news is that emotional intelligence can be learned and developed. As well as working
on your skills in the five areas above, use these strategies. Goleman (2000) states that one has
observed how one reacts to people: Do you rush to judgment before you know all of the facts?
Do you stereotype? Look honestly at how you think and interact with other people. Try to put
yourself in their place , and be more open and accepting of their perspectives and needs. Look at
your work environment. Do you seek attention for your accomplishments? Humility can be a
wonderful quality, and it doesn't mean that you're shy or lack self-confidence. When you practice
humility, you say that you know what you did, and you can be quietly confident about it. Give
others a chance to shine – put the focus on them, and don't worry too much about getting praise
for yourself.
Goleman (2000) identifies four processes of solving organizational stress to include:
i) Do a self-evaluation. What are your weaknesses? Are you willing to accept that you're
not perfect and that you could work on some areas to make yourself a better person?
Have the courage to look at yourself honestly – it can change your life.
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ii) Examine how you react to stressful situations. Do you become upset every time there's
a delay or something doesn't happen the way you want? Do you blame others or
become angry at them, even when it's not their fault? The ability to stay calm and in
control in difficult situations is highly valued – in the business world and outside it.
Keep your emotions under control when things go wrong.
iii) Take responsibility for your actions. If you hurt someone's feelings,
apologize directly – don't ignore what you did or avoid the person. People are
usually more willing to forgive and forget if you make an honest attempt to make
things right.
iv) Examine how your actions will affect others – before you take those actions. If your
decision will impact others, put yourself in their place. How will they feel if you do
this? Would you want that experience? If you must take the action, how can you help
others deal with the effects (Goleman, 2000).
Although "regular" intelligence is important to success in life, emotional intelligence is key to
relating well to others and achieving your goals. Many people believe that emotional intelligence
is at least as important as regular intelligence, and many companies now use EI testing to hire
new staff (Goleman, 2000).
Emotional intelligence is an awareness of your actions and feelings – and how they affect those
around you. It also means that you value others, listen to their wants and needs, and are able to
empathize or identify with them on many different levels (Goleman, 2000).
2.8 MOTIVATION
Motivation is one of the factors which affect individual performance. It is what makes people put
effort and energy into what they do. It is also seen as a goal directed behaviour that addresses
issues that energize and direct behavior towards the goal (Armstrong, 1996).
These issues can be referred to as motivating factors, which give rise to good feelings and raise
performance by influencing the ‘will to work well’. Individuals at work should be induced to
keep on working well. It has been observed that managers ought to be aware of the issues that
boost employee morale. On the one hand, it is important to have a conducive and comfortable
work environment for employees to work well and on the other, it is imperative for managers to
show a sense of recognition of their employees. Workers need to feel that they are recognised,
that their jobs help them achieve their aspirations and that there are prospects of advancement in
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terms of career. These are what have come to be known as the satisfiers, that is recognition,
achievement and advancement (Herzberg, 1966).
Motivation of employees is key in that it boosts the psychological contract between the
employees and the organisation in that by showing employees that they are recognised, they tend
to show commitment and loyalty to the organisation which can be translated into improved
organizational performance. This may partly explain why some workers may be reluctant to
leave their parent organisations. To this end, motivation remains a key factor determining the
psychological contract between employees and employers. Performance success depends on
motivated individuals who become committed to the organisation’s objectives.
Motivation is however very difficult to determine because people differ. It is management’s task
to help put back the stimulus at work regardless of the level of training workers may have
(Herzberg, 1966).
Graham and Bennett (1995) state that motivation is an integral part of human resource
management. They point out that motivation focuses on reasons that explain the way people
behave. Nzuve (2007) stresses out that all managers should address themselves to issues of
employee motivation. Graham and Bennett (1995) confirm the issue of needs or motives.
Armstrong (2001) opines that indeed motivation is “goal-directed” behavior. Beardwell, Holden
and Claydon (2004) state that motives direct the way employees behave at the work place.
Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert (2002) state out that motivation is a great contributor to the extent
of employee commitment. They also argue that motivation cannot be in isolation it must go hand
in hand with, among other things, learning and ability.
Nomura Research Institute Ltd (2005) states that future leaders ought to be selected on the basis
of their ability to stimulate organizational motivation. It is therefore, very important, for
organizations to take the issue of motivation seriously in administration of reward systems
because job satisfaction or lack of it affects productivity and the achievement of organizational
goals.
Tanzania Institute of Bankers (2003) states that, the force that is behind motivation drives
employees to act and put in (willingly) their best performance towards the achievement of
expected results. Managers, therefore, need to understand the needs and aspirations of their
employees.
Kakama (1995) stresses that reward systems can motivate or demotivate employees. Managers
must know what motivates employees so as to bring about improvement in job performance.
Where employees ‘goals are not met (and organizational goals are not in conformity with
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personal goals of employees), employees may not identify themselves with organization goals.
As a consequence, organizational goals may be put in jeopardy.
2.9 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
Emotional intelligence is the ability of expressing feeling, expressing, understanding, and
sentiment regulation. An employee with high emotional intelligence can deal with work
environment stress (Cooper et al, 2001). Emotional intelligence has an important role in forming
the person.
Goleman (2000) states that emotional intelligence develops a kind of enthusiasm, confidence,
friendship, motivation, and energy in the person. People with high emotional intelligence can
transfer these feelings to the others.
Researchers stated that people with high emotional intelligence are more successful in reaching
their goals (Cooper et al, 2001).
When we have a good feeling, we will have an optimistic perspective and vice versa, emotional
operation affects the neurotic-psychological function. When you are in a good mood, you
remember good moments of your life and when you are upset, automatically you will remember
bad events. So we can say that good mood makes us forget bad memories of that job. Emotional
intelligence represents the ability of cognition, assessment and expressing emotion in a good way
and ease cognition activities and emotion regulation in the individual and in the others (Gardner,
2005).
2.10 RECOGNITION, REWARD AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Career development sits within a cluster of essential systems including recruitment and
induction, performance management and reward and recognition. These cannot function without
being connected to each other, yet together they will improve productivity and ultimately rob on
organizational survival and growth. Recognition is a process of giving an employee certain status
within an organization. This is very crucial as it motivates an employee towards greater
achievements, enhances the career advancements and impact on organizational growth and
survival. Recognition describes how the work of an employee is evaluated and how much the
appreciation the employee receives in return from the organization. Also, it specifies the way an
organization gives its employees the reward and status for his works and activities. Organizations
in today’s complex and competitive environment are always on the look out to find out the
relationship and reasonable balance between employee satisfaction and performance of the
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organization as it relates to its survival and growth. The reward and recognition programs serve
as the most crucial factor in keeping employees’ passionate and career advancement. (Lawler,
2003).
Andrew (2004) states that motivation and commitment of all employees is based on rewards and
recognition and that among the financial, economical and human resources, human resources are
more important in that they can provide the organization competitive edge as compared to others
leading to organizational survival and growth.
Lawler (2003) opines that prosperity, growth and survival of the organization are determined
through the human resources of the organization and how they are treated. Many organizations
have gained competitive advantage and achieve considerable growth in their operations by fully
complying with their business strategy via a well-balanced reward and recognition programs for
their employees.
Deeprose (1994) submits that the motivation of the employees and their productivity can be
enhanced through providing effective recognition and this ultimately result in improved
performance of organization and their continuous survival and growth in the competitive
environment. Thus, the reward and recognition given to employees in an organization have very
positive impact on overall organizational achievements, survival and growth. Not only that, the
rewards includes the financial rewards, pay and benefits, promotion and incentives that satisfy
employees to some extent and reduce their intention to leave. Recognition on the other hand,
keeps them motivated, contended and committed. Because rewards play a significant role in
keeping the employees contended and committed and also impact on the organization
effectiveness and efficiency which measures their levels of survival and growth, thus the highly
motivated employees serve as the competitive advantage for any company because their
performance leads an organization to well accomplishment of its goals.
2.11 EMOTIONAL COMPETENCIES APPLICABLE TO WORKPLACE SITUATION
Genos (1999) states that there are five key emotional competencies which are applicable to the
workplace situation:-
1. Emotional Recognition and Expression – refers to the ability to identify one’s own
feelings and emotional states and the ability to express those inner feelings to others.
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2. Understanding Others Emotions – refers to the ability to identify and understand the
emotions of others and those that are manifest in response to workplace environments
and staff meetings.
3. Emotions Direct Cognition – refers to the extent to which emotions and emotional
knowledge are incorporated in decision- making and \or problem solving situations.
4. Emotional Management – refers to the ability to manage positive and negative emotions
both within oneself and others
5. Emotional Control – refers to the ability to effectively control strong emotional states
experienced at work such as anger, stress, anxiety and frustration. The questionnaire uses
the five-point.
2.11.1 Dimensional Levels of Emotional Intelligence
Podsakoff et al [1990] identify dimensional levels of emotional intelligence to include:
i) Conscientiousness – punctuality in attendance, use of work time and adherence to rules.
It also refers to the trait of being painstaking and careful, or the quality of acting
according to the dictates of one's conscience. It includes such elements as self-
discipline, carefulness, thoroughness, organization, deliberation (the tendency to think
carefully before acting) and need for achievement. It is an aspect of what was
traditionally called character. Conscientiousness is related to emotional intelligence
and impulse control.
ii) Altruism – helping others who have been absent or who have fallen behind in their work
(any voluntary action that helps another person out at work) it is often referred to as
the willful sacrifice of one's own interests or well-being for the sake of something that
is non-self. It is also often defined as being the selfless concern for the welfare of
others.
iii) Sportsmanship – putting up with minor inconveniences, or not always finding fault with
the organization.
iv) Courtesy – consulting people who may be affected by a decision or at the very least
informing other people in advance of such actions.
v) Civic virtue – keeping up with developments happening in the organisation (being
constructively involved in the political process of the organization)
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2.11.2 New Intelligence and the Workplace
It is of pivotal importance to note, at the outset, that emotional intelligence is thought of as a type
of intelligence. That is to say, individuals differ by some objective ability in dealing with
emotion. It is believed that the ways in which the difference is manifest are complex and varied.
Consider thus one of many principled lists of abilities we might compile:
1. Detecting a person’s emotions by facial cue, voice pitch and rhythm, bodily posture both
standing and sitting.
2. Understanding the antecedents and consequences of emotions.
3. Facilitating thought by evoking particular emotions.
4. Regulating negative emotions such as anger and sadness
The concept of emotion connected to intelligence seems reasonable because we likely encounter
emotional geniuses, emotional idiots. Emotional Intelligence typical person of moderate
emotional competence in our day-to-day activities. In short, the idea of an intelligence
continuum is compelling (Goleman, 2000).
A contrasting, alternate position is how people typically deal with emotion by a qualitative style
of behavior that is neither intrinsically good nor bad; that is, some people tend to be calm
whereas others are more excitable. Calmness, however, is not necessarily better (or worse) than
excitability. The concept of emotional intelligence currently being discussed implies a strict
structure that interlinks emotional abilities with other aptitudes, including conventional mental
ability. Thus, to understand what is meant by emotional intelligence, we must examine how
‘‘emotional’’ intelligence might be different from standard, consensually agreed-on forms of
‘‘cognitive’’ intelligence (Goleman, 2000).
2.11.3 Measurement of Emotional Intelligence
"In regard to measuring emotional intelligence – I am a great believer that criterion-report (that
is, ability testing) is the only adequate method to employ. Intelligence is ability, and is directly
measured only by having people answer questions and evaluating the correctness of those
answers." --John D. Mayer
i. Reuven Bar-On's EQ-i
A self-report test designed to measure competencies including awareness, stress tolerance,
problem solving, and happiness. According to Bar-On, “Emotional intelligence is an array of
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non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands and pressures.
ii. Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS)
An ability-based test in which test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their ability to
perceive, identify, understand, and utilize emotions.
iii. Seligman Attributional Style Questionnaire (SASQ)
Originally designed as a screening test for the life insurance company Metropolitan Life, the
SASQ measures optimism and pessimism.
iv. Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI)
Based on an older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire, the ECI involves
having people who know the individual offer ratings of that person’s abilities on a number of
different emotional competencies. Emotional intelligence competence framework, case studies,
examples, tools, tests, information and related theory references. (Mayer, 1999).
2.12 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP
Hogan et al (1994) state that leadership is persuasion, not domination where they can acquire
others to carry out their instructions in terms of the leaders vision. Leadership is also about
building cohesive and goal-oriented teams.
Vrba (2007) states that leadership is the art of persuading people to work towards a common
goal. However, this seems to be easier said than done due to the complexities and dynamics in
managing people. There is a growing body of evidence that supports the view that emotional
intelligence plays an instrumental role in effective leadership. The question arises as to whether
research can determine how leadership affects organisational effectiveness and assist
organisations in choosing better leaders (Hogan et al, 1994).
Effective leadership is essential for an organization’s success; hence, the ability to identify and
define effective leadership is crucial. Technical expertise, superior performance, and established
experience are no longer only criterion of effective leadership. Today effective leaders are
defined by inspiring and motivating others, promoting a positive work environment,
understanding and managing emotions, building bonds, communications, and influence, and so
forth. Emotional Intelligence (EI) has an emerging track record of being linked to leadership
performance. Emotional intelligence connects a leader’s cognitive abilities with their emotional
state. The ability for leaders to recognize the impact of their own emotions on their decision
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making is paramount if a leader is to make sound decisions based on the best interests of the
organization. A leader must be able to read emotions in his/her peers and employees in order to
be as effective as possible (Goleman, 1999).
Due to the complexity of organizational change and the role emotions play in changes such as
global expansion, job eliminations, leadership changes, as well as stressors of day to day
responsibilities, the EI of managers and how they manage their associates is an element that
leadership needs to consider while moving their organizations forward. Organizations
everywhere need now to realize the benefits of primal leadership by cultivating leaders who
generate the emotional resonance that lets people flourish (Riggio et al, 2002).
The high level of self-awareness associated with EQ enables leaders to display self-confidence
and earn respect and trust from followers. Through self-regulation they can objectively consider
the needs of others despite their own immediate feelings. Leader’s who are able to maintain
balance, keep themselves motivated, optimistic and hopeful are positive role-models to help
motivate and inspire others. The ability to empathise with others and to manage interpersonal
relationships also contributes to motivate and inspire subordinates. EQ enables leaders to
recognise and respect followers with feelings, opinions, and ideas, to treat them as persons with
unique needs and abilities. Empathetic leaders use their social skills to help followers to grow
and develop, to enhance their self image and sense of self-worth, and help their followers to meet
their needs and achieve their goals (George, 2000).
Rubin et al, (2005) assert that the ability to recognize emotion, maintain positive affect, and
demonstrate agreeableness, positively predicted transformational leadership behaviour. Using
emotion recognition, a facet of Emotional Intelligence, Rubin et al. (2005) conclude that leaders
who were able to perceive emotions more accurately are rated more highly on transformational
leadership behaviour, these types of leaders were more interpersonally sensitive than leaders who
rely on contingent reward behavior.
Sosik and Megerian (1999) submit that emotionally intelligent people feel more secure in their
ability to control and influence life events and, as a result, provide individual focus on others as
well as intellectually stimulate and motivate followers. Emotionally intelligent leaders are
thought to be happier and more committed to their organization, achieve greater success, perform
better in the workplace take advantage of and use positive emotions to improve their decision
making and instil a sense of enthusiasm, trust and co-operation in other employees through
interpersonal relationships (Gardner and Stough, 2002).
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George (2000) stresses that emotional intelligence plays an important role in leadership
effectiveness and proposes that the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in
oneself and in others theoretically contributes to the effectiveness of leaders. Emotional
intelligence enhances leaders’ ability to solve problems and to address issues and opportunities
facing them and their organization. A leader high in emotional intelligence is able to accurately
appraise how their followers feel and use this information to influence their subordinates’
emotions, so that they are receptive and supportive of the goals and objectives of the
organization.
2.13 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND SUCCESS
During the last decade interpersonal skills have become integral to effective leadership. In
today’s fast-paced world the complexity of business environments in the institutions require
organisations to employ leaders with strong managerial skills who also have high emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Emotional intelligence is the single most important
factor in job performance. A manager with emotional intelligence can restrain anger, doubt and
other negative emotions and can focus on positive emotions. Emotional intelligence is in fact a
major factor that determines the difference between highly successful managers and those who
are less successful (Goleman, 1998). The most important factor that distinguishes effective
leaders is not their IQ but their Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ). Emotional intelligence is
the single most important factor for personal adjustment, success in relationships and in job
performance.
IQ is relatively fixed whereas EQ can be learned, improved, trained and matured. As EQ grows,
managers are transformed into leaders. Managers gain in interpersonal skills and develop as
insightful persons (Goleman, 1998).
Bradford (1984) states that successful leaders not only have the ability to motivate, control and
coordinate subordinates but also bring them into the decision process. The leader’s effectiveness
is associated with drive, motivation, honesty/integrity, self-confidence, intelligence and
emotional intelligence, all of which can be developed through experience, training and analysis.
Cooper and Sawaf (1997) demonstrate the difference emotional intelligence can make in the
success of a career or organization. A primary source of motivation, information, feedback,
personal power, innovation and influence, Emotional Intelligence helps in decision making,
leadership, strategic and technical breakthroughs, open honest communication, trusting
relationships and teamwork, customer loyalty, creativity and innovation. By helping managers to
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acknowledge and understand the feelings of themselves and others, to appropriately respond to
the emotions and to effectively apply them, Emotional Intelligence contributes greatly to success
in work and everyday life.
2.13.1 Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Development
Goleman (1998) identifies Self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skill,
as that which constitute the behaviours most readily identified among individuals described as
emotionally intelligent. These behaviours, while historically described as present in an
individual, may alternately be viewed as processes to balance the internal interests of the
organization for the benefit of those it intends to serve.
Specifically, the utilization of the emotional intelligence principles to develop a shared sense of
culture can transform emotional intelligence from an individual behaviour to a group dynamic
(Blattner and Bacigalupo, 2007).
In spite of the crucial role that emotional intelligence could play in improving individuals’
performance as well as career prospects in organizations, employees, executives and career
professionals across the world is only beginning to understand the concept. They want to know
what EI is, how EI develops in a person, and what tools, techniques and methods are available to
raise and incorporate EI into one’s personality. These queries persist because, despite EI
becoming a multimillion-dollar training industry in itself, research outputs from EI academics
are yet to reach the wider populations. Emotional intelligence performance of executives reveal
that managers who are aware and have true understanding of their own and other’s emotions, and
are able to use that understanding to effectively motivate, inspire, challenge, and connect with
others are far more effective than traditional managers who actively separate any emotion from
the workplace and promote methodical, detached, micro-managing style of supervision (Gardner,
Goleman et al, 2002).
Emotional intelligence can also raise the level of individual and team performance. Perhaps due
to an enhanced ability to recognize and manage emotions and brace against distracting emotions,
EI skills connect both to individual cognitive-based performance and team task performance
skills (Morehouse, 2007).
Jordan and Troth (2004) report that teams comprised of members possessing high EI tend to
display superior task performance skills when compared with teams made up of emotionally less
intelligent members.
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Goleman (1998) opines that for technical and complex positions in organizations, a lack of EI
might lead to diminished cognitive performance and an inability to accomplish tasks, especially
with others. It thus appears that EI has a pervasive influence on job performance in diverse
career settings. But do these performance stories culminate in career advancements for people?
Emotional intelligence competencies are all the more important for career advancement of
people as they move up and across various career levels in organizations (Langley, 2000).
Mandell and Pherwani (2003) state that EI-linked competencies of people in leadership
positions, such as flexibility, conflict management, persuasion, and social reasoning, become
increasingly important with advancing career levels in organizations. Dulewicz and Higgs (2003)
reveal that emotional intelligence as stronger determiner than intellect and other management
competencies in predicting career advancements of managers. Skills required at various career
levels in an organization’s hierarchy, compared skill differences between senior directors and
managers. The directors displayed significantly higher measures on overall EI and on
interpersonal sensitivity, whereas no differences appeared to exist among the directors and
managers in terms of intellect or other managerial competencies.
Due to the complexity of organizational change and the role emotions play in changes such as
global expansion, job eliminations, leadership changes, as well as stressors of day to day
responsibilities, the EI of managers and how they manage their associates is an element that
leadership needs to consider while moving their organizations forward. Organizations
everywhere need now to realize the benefits of primal leadership by cultivating leaders who
generate the emotional resonance that lets people flourish (Cooper and Sawaf, 1997).
2.14 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND GENDER
In the realm of emotional intelligence, women performed about 0.5 standard deviations higher
than men using previously developed tests of emotional intelligence (Mayer, Caruso, Salovey,
1999).
One possible explanation for this is that women must read emotions more carefully because they
possess less power in society than do men. However, research shows that it is women in more
powerful positions who have exhibited greater emotional accuracy. Alternative explanations of
this finding include the idea that women may be socialized to pay more attention to emotions,
and further, that they may be better biologically prepared to perform such tasks. Research does
not address the relative contributions of these factors. (Mayer, Caruso, Salovey, 1999).
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There are significant gendering processes at work in our culture. “When children are born they
enter into a gender-tracking system that creates different social realities for the sexes. Parents,
teachers, and peers believe that the sexes differ—and explicitly or subtly reward, punish, and
ignore behaviors in accordance with prevailing stereotypes. Different physical environments are
constructed for the sexes, environments that provide different opportunities for learning physical
and cognitive skills” (Russo, 1985).
There is a prevailing belief embedded within our society that women are more emotional than
men. According to commonly held beliefs, women are more emotionally responsive,
experiencing and expressing most emotions more intensely than do men. Men, if they are
emotional at all, are believed to experience and express more anger. In contrast to these widely
held beliefs, the empirical status of sex differences in emotions remains unknown (Riggio et al,
2002).
Barrett et al (2000) state that keeping one’s emotions hidden is one of the strongest demands of
the male sex role in American society. Research has documented that both mothers and fathers
encourage their sons to hide their emotions at an early age. Almost half of all males surveyed
listed “keeps his feelings under control” as one of the most important qualities in a man. It’s not
that men can never show any emotions. Men can openly display anger, contempt, impatience,
hostility or cynicism without being stigmatized. It is only emotions suggesting vulnerability, like
fear, sadness, and depression; and extremely positive feelings such as tenderness and trust which
are felt to be unmasculine.
Brannon (1985) opines that women and men appear to perform about the same on most
intelligence-related mental tests. There are, however, some regular differences in the profiles of
the two groups. Women are better at reading comprehension, perceptual speed, associative
memory, and composition. Men are somewhat better in mathematics, social studies, and in
scientific knowledge. The fact that women are slightly superior to men in perceiving emotion has
been known for some time.
Barrett, Lane, Sechrest, and Schwartz (2000) examine sex differences in the complexity and
differentiation of people’s representations of emotional experience. “Women consistently
displayed more complexity and differentiation in their articulations of emotional experiences
than did men, even when the effect of verbal intelligence was controlled. These results may
reflect a sex difference in knowledge of emotions, in ability to access knowledge of emotion, in
motivation to use knowledge of emotion, or all three (Barrett et al, 2000).
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Emotional Intelligence does not respect the gender. The popular belief is that, women are not
more emotionally intelligent than men. They are, however, emotionally intelligent in different
ways. An analysis of emotional Intelligence was found in thousands of men and women which
showed that women, on average, are more aware of their emotions, show more empathy, and are
more adept interpersonally. Men, on the other hand, are more self-confident, optimistic, and
adaptable. It was found that men are also able to handle stress better than women. In general,
however, far more similarities exist than differences. Some men are empathetic as the most
interpersonally sensible women are, while some women are just as able to withstand stress as the
most emotionally resilient men. After taking into account overall ratings for men and women, the
strengths and weaknesses average out, so it is a competition between both sexes (Mayer, Caruso,
Salovey, 1999).
Singh (2002) reveals that females have higher emotional intelligence than that of males. Since
females tend to be more emotional and intimate in relationships as compared to males, so their
emotional intelligence ought to be higher than that of males.
Moreover, higher emotional intelligence among girls can also be explained in terms of some of
their personality characteristics. Girls score higher with regard to empathy, social responsibilities
and interpersonal relationships than boys. More sensitivity was find towards their relationships
with parents, friends and siblings. All these traits help them to acquire more emotional
intelligence as compared to boys. Gender plays a main role in a set of behavior and norms
associated particularly with males or females in a given social group or system. The rejection of
gender role stereotypes by women who pursue traditionally construed male careers can be
suggestive of the fact that women in those positions have needs, motives and value similar to
men who also are in similar positions (Barrett et al, 2000).
Hulin and Smith (1964) contend that gender is not relevant to either high or low satisfaction;
rather, when gender is matched with separate factors like the pay, job level and promotional
possibility, they can affect job satisfaction.
2.15 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS Research in the area of academic success has shown that students with higher emotional
intelligence scores also tend to be more successful academically (Walker, 2006). There has been
much research done regarding the student’s GPA as a predictor for retention in the freshman year
(Debarard et al, 2004).
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Although academics may occupy a central role in preparing students for tertiary institution, there
are other less-studied factors, which might also contribute to student success, retention, and
ultimately, graduation rates. High school preparatory programs are often solely focused on the
student’s GPA and SAT scores and may fail to recognize the possible impact that emotional
intelligence has on students once they have reached tertiary institution (Chickering, 1993).
Social intelligence is ability to distinct from abstract intelligence, defining it as ‘the ability to
manage and understand men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in human relations”
(Zeidner et al, 2009). Some studies have suggested that perhaps women are more likely to have
emotional intelligence in areas of “empathy, awareness of the feelings of others, and coping with
stress through ‘tending and befriending’, all components central to emotional intelligence”
(Zeidner et al, 2009).
Perhaps female tertiary institution students have an advantage resulting in greater persistence and
overall success in school. The challenge to determine whether emotional intelligence and gender
are correlated has had mixed results in previous studies (Liptak, 2005)
Izaguirre (2008) finds that the research did not support the existence of a relationship between
overall emotional intelligence and GPA, but some aspects of emotional intelligence did bear a
significant relationship with higher academic achievement. Community tertiary institution
students typically have more academic challenges than students admitted to 4-year institutions.
Many are unprepared in reading, mathematics, and English, so remedial courses are part of the
entry level curriculum of all community tertiary institutions as faculty and administrators strive
to bolster students’ preparation for tertiary institution level work. Community tertiary institution
students are also admitted in an open door environment and students are tested for appropriate
academic levels, either remedial or preparatory, depending on a number of factors including
previous secondary studies, native language, previous tertiary institution experience, first time in
tertiary institution, and first generation in tertiary institution, among others (Liptak, 2005).
Some years later, researchers are also able to more effectively separate the serious research from
pop culture. Emotional intelligence is an appealing concept and subscribing to its apparent virtue
is easy. As a matter of fact, many see it as a handy answer to why smart students fail or why
average students thrive (Goleman,1995).
So, how do admissions officers, advisors, and parents of tertiary institution-bound students
determine readiness for tertiary institution beyond their academic profile and test results? Once
students have been deemed tertiary institution-ready based on their high school GPA and
SAT/ACT scores, interviews, and applications, how do admissions officers determine which of
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these students are likely to persist and succeed in tertiary institution? Even in the case of open
access at the community tertiary institutions, those scores and results are often used in the
community tertiary institution as well for admission to the Honors Institute or Phi Theta Kappa
(Zeidner et al, 2009). .
Historically, there have been numerous publications that examine the reasons why students do
not persist in tertiary institution. Leaving Tertiary institution examines four individual aspects of
which he identifies as “roots of individual departure” and those factors are adjustment, difficulty,
incongruence, and isolation. These four factors may be related to emotional intelligence (Ishitani,
2006).
Students will not persist to the second year of tertiary institution, the cost on all fronts (financial,
emotional, and public) is enormous, and there may be an aspect that has not been considered in
terms of retention from first to second year. The answer may lie in the assessment of students’
emotional intelligence. Certainly, the number of studies in many fields relating an emotional
intelligence component has increased exponentially since the publication of the best seller,
Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1995).
No one can say exactly how much of the variability from person to person in life’s course it
accounts for. But what data exist suggest it can be as powerful, and at times, more powerful,
than IQ. The idea that anyone of any intelligence level has a chance to be recognized in a realm
that was previously less acknowledged, or rewarded, is certainly appealing to the great majority
of people watching their intelligent and acclaimed peers garner the admiration of, and
subsequently receive, a status of privilege from teachers, administrators, supervisors, and the
community at large. Determining whether there is any substance to the field of emotional
intelligence and its usefulness in the realm of traditional age community tertiary institution
students is the focus of this study (Goleman, 1995).
Chickering (1993) identifies managing emotions as one of the seven vectors in tertiary institution
student development. Students of any age must recognize and wrestle with emotions that can
interfere with the educational process, including “anger, fear and anxiety, depression, guilt,
shame and dysfunctional sexual or romantic attraction.
Development occurs when students learn to control impulses and to develop appropriate
responses (both immediate and long-term) for handling intense, potentially disruptive emotions
(Reisser, 1995).
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2.16 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TO EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Over the last few decades a continuous growth has been in the interest in the area of leadership,
with both managers and leadership researchers trying to identify the behavior which increases a
leader’s effectiveness. Despite of research, there appears to be little emerging consensus
regarding what characterizes an effective leader. It also seems to be quite common to recruit
managers on the basis of their technical qualifications rather than their ability to communicate
with others which could be prevented, or at least minimized, by taking so called “soft”
management procedures (focus on the personal aspects in working environment) into
considerations during the recruitment process (Mayer and Salovey, 1999).
Recently, emotional intelligence as a predictor of effective leadership has gained the attention of
researchers and recruiters. Emotional intelligence can be generally defined as a set of on
cognitive competencies that are linked to interpersonal effectiveness or “people skills” at work.
More specifically, emotional intelligence includes the ability to monitor one’s own and others’
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use that information to guide one’s
thinking and actions. Emotional intelligence has become extremely popular within the fields of
management because it is thought to underlie various aspects of workplace performance and
success not accounted for by traditional intelligence measures or personality (Reisser, 1995).
A person with emotional intelligence can be thought of as having attained at least some form of
positive mental health. These individuals are aware of their own feelings and those of others, are
open to positive and negative aspects of internal experience and are able to communicate them
when appropriate. This leads to the fact that an emotionally intelligent person is often a pleasure
to be around, has good influence and makes others feel better. This person however does not
mindlessly seek pleasure, but rather attends to emotions which lead to growth. People are being
judged by new yardsticks and it is not how smart they are or what kind of education they have or
expertise, more focus is on how people handle themselves and others. This yardstick is becoming
more important and is increasingly applied when choosing whom to hire. This new measurement
focuses on personal qualities but takes for granted peoples intellectual abilities and technical
skills. Emotional intelligence is even more crucial today, because organizations are shrinking and
the people who remain are more accountable and visible (Goleman, 2000).
Emotional intelligence has become extremely popular within the fields of management because it
is thought to underlie various aspects of workplace performance and success not accounted for
by traditional intelligence measures or personality. Several studies highlight that traditional
forms of intelligence only account for twenty percent of overall success at work. That leaves
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eighty percent of the variance unaccounted for. With personality and motivational measures
approximately contributing another ten percent to the puzzle, there still seems to be a lot that is
unknown about what makes some individuals perform better or why some people are always a
step ahead. Therefore, measuring emotional intelligence or the ‘softer skills’, as they are often
known, could explain what differentiates between who will be an effective leader and who will
not. In today’s competitive business world, where the “higher education” level of many leaders
and managers is increasing, emotional intelligence has the potential to become a core
differentiator in terms of selecting the best leaders for organizations. Lack of interpersonal skills
can have tremendous influence over the career prospects of highly intelligent, qualified, and
experienced professionals and can easily destroy them (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
It is important to understand the evolution of management because management problems
remain mostly the same over time. While value systems and perspectives may have changed,
experts have gained a better understanding of what motivates employees. The concept of
management is defined and various theories are covered in order to see how they have
developed, where the human mind was considered valuable and made a difference. Mary Parker
Follett (1998) states that the role of the manager and his influence on employees was becoming
more and more important. Henry Fayol argues that leaders emerged from managers’ authority
derived from their position in the hierarchy. Knowledge and expertise should decide who would
be the leader at any particular moment. With this in mind is focused on leadership as more and
more managers are becoming aware of how important different leadership styles are and are
trying to incorporate them into their personal leadership style (Goleman, 1995).
Characteristics of managers are very personal but they are very important for understanding how
managers behave, how they treat and respond to others and how they help contribute to
organizational effectiveness through the four managerial functions; planning, leading, organizing
and controlling. Covers the theory of emotional intelligence and focus is put on the importance
of the emotions of managers and to what degree companies recruit and select managers on the
basis of emotional intelligence characteristics versus technical qualifications. In modern
management, many words have been written about the value of soft management if this is
something that is preached more than practiced, if managers today are really following the
theories that they claim to do and if this is really something that is being used as a guideline
when managers are recruited (Goleman, 1998).
The world is changing more rapidly than ever before and managers and other employees
throughout an organization need to perform at higher and higher levels. In the last twenty years,
85
competition between organizations, both nationally and internationally, has increased
dramatically. Managers need to learn and adapt to changes in the global environment in order to
achieve the goals of the organizations. Today, the term competencies is often used to refer to a
specific set of skills, abilities and experiences that gives a manager the ability to perform at a
higher level. Developing such competencies through education and training has become a major
priority for managers and the organizations they work for. To understand better the role of
managers it is necessary to define what management is. Management is the organizational
process that includes strategic planning, managing resources, deploying the human and financial
assets needed to achieve objectives, and measuring results. Management also includes recording
and storing facts and information for later use or for others within the organization. Management
functions are not limited to managers and supervisors. Every member of the organization has
some management and reporting functions as part of their job (Jones et al, 1997).
(Jones et al, 1997) opine that organizations as collections of people who work together and
coordinate actions to be taken to achieve certain goals. These goals, which are to be achieved,
are what are desired in the future. Resources are the company‘s assets such as people, machines,
information, skills and financial capital. The role of the managers is to supervise the use of the
resources so the goals can be achieved. The four functions of management include: Management
is an organizational function but does not necessarily mean managing people; it can also be the
management of other resources like capital sales areas and marketing. Management is like an
investment. Managers have resources to invest; their time, talent and, possibly, human resources.
The goal (function) of management is to get the best return on such resources by getting things
done efficiently. This doesn’t imply being mechanical or narrowly controlling as some writers on
management suggest. The manager’s style is a personal or situational matter and has evolved
over time. With highly skilled and self-motivated knowledge workers, the manager must be very
empowering. Where the workforce is less skilled or not very motivated, the manager may need
to monitor output more closely. Skilled managers know how to vary their style, coach and
motivate diverse employees. Getting things done through people is what they do. By saying that
management is a function, not a type of person or role, it is easier to account for self-managed
work teams where no one is in charge. In a self-managed team, management is a group effort
with no one being the designated manager.
Improvements in management have taken place because the relevant stakeholders have found
that the current management styles are insufficient in dealing with the problems of the future.
The next chapter tells how management theory has developed over time from first focusing on
86
how to increase the effectiveness of machines to the importance of the human mind in the
organizational process (Mayer and Salovey, 1999).
In order to understand the effects of managers’ and all employees’ moods and emotions, it is
important to take into account their level of emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is as a
subset of social intelligence. Social intelligence is the ability to understand and manage people,
but might also be directed inwards and therefore could be the ability to understand and manage
oneself. Emotional intelligence is the ability to know, understand and have influence over one‘s
own emotions, “...the ability to monitor one‘s own and others feelings and emotions, to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one‘s thinking and actions
(Reisser, 1995).
It does not include the general sense of self and appraisal of others, rather it is more about the
recognition and use of one‘s own and others emotional states to solve problems and regulate
behavior (Mayer and Salovey, 1999).
When people approach tasks in life with emotional intelligence they should be at an advantage to
solving problems. The kind of problems that people identify and the way they handle them will
probably be more related to internal emotional experience. Such individuals are more likely to
choose a career that will make them happy instead of thinking how much they will earn and they
are also more likely to be more creative and flexible in arriving at possible alternatives to
problems. Individuals who have developed skills related to emotional intelligence understand
and express their own emotions, recognize the emotions of others and they also use moods and
emotions to motivate adaptive behaviour. A person with emotional intelligence can be thought of
as having attained at least some form of positive mental health. These individuals are aware of
their own feelings and those of others, are open to positive and negative aspects of internal
experience and are able to communicate them when appropriate. This leads to the fact that an
emotionally intelligent person is often a pleasure to be around, has good influence and makes
others feel better. This person however does not mindlessly seek pleasure, but rather attends to
emotions which lead to growth (Salovey and Mayer,1999).
Goleman (1999) defines emotional intelligence as the ability to understand and manage one’s
own moods and emotions, and the moods and emotions of other people: “abilities such as being
able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay
gratification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to
empathize and hope.
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People are being judged by new yardsticks and it is not how smart they are or what kind of
education they have or expertise, more focus is on how people handle themselves and others.
This yardstick is becoming more important and is increasingly applied when choosing whom to
hire. This new measurement focuses on personal qualities but takes for granted peoples
intellectual abilities and technical skills. Emotional intelligence is even more crucial today,
because organizations are shrinking and the people who remain are more accountable and
visible, as (Goleman, 1990).
The corporate world is changing and no one is guaranteed a job anymore. For many older
workers who were taught that education and technical skills were a permanent ticket to success
this new landscape is quite shocking (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
People are beginning to realize that to be successful another type of skills are necessary to
survive as Goleman puts it: “internal qualities such as resilience, initiative, optimism and
adaptability are taking on a new valuation (Goleman, 1990).
All too often, in the context of reviewing competences of leaders or managers for development
purposes, they are told that they need to improve their “people skills”. That means that these
persons are having difficulties in the interpersonal aspects of their relationships with supervisors,
peers and their employees. The problem may be that the managers are not communicating
enough to maintain effective work relationship or there may be problems at the emotional level,
i.e. not connecting emotionally with others (Reisser, 1995).
Goleman (1999) states that emotional intelligence is more important than traditional intelligence
tests. Results of intelligence tests would not predict completely how well people would do in
school, in a job or in life in general. It is his opinion that emotional intelligence can predict better
how well people will actually do, rather than their intelligence quotient (IQ). Intelligence tests
are not a good yardstick on how well people communicate. A simple job where a person has to
be agreeable and be able to communicate well with others but where understanding, reasoning
and judgment is not as important, could be an example of where emotional intelligence would
predict better than their IQ how well a person would perform on the job (Salovey and Mayer,
1990).
2.17 ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Although career management is primarily the individual’s responsibility, organizations can and
should support this. This is relevant whether careers are offered internally or whether
employability is promoted, although the support maybe different. Most organizations still see
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career management as optional rather than essential, its future orientation makes it slip down the
business agenda, and there is always a tension between individual and organizational needs
(Hirsch, 2003).
Successful career management depends on resolving these differences. Hirsch (2003) submits
that the factors contributing to effective career management are: using career management
activities and valued by employees; training of line mangers and HR staff in career management;
a formal written career management strategy; integration with overall HR and business and
business strategy. Based on the 2003CIPD study, Hirsh states that the main barriers to career
management are practical, rather than philosophical, and involve lack of time and resources,
career management being seen as peripheral and lack of senior management commitment.
Organizations can help individuals with:
(a) Career exploration- providing tools and help for self-diagnosis and supplying
organizational information.
(b) Career goal setting- providing a clear view of the career opportunities available in the
business, making a wider range of opportunities available to meet different career
priorities.
(c) Career strategies and action planning- providing information and support; what
organization may deem appropriate.
(d) Career feedback- providing an honest appraisal of current performance and career
potential (Hirsch, 2003).
2.18 CONTRIBUTIONS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT TO THE ORGANISATION
(A) Career Strategy
Although a career strategy is critical, less than a half of the organizations responding to the 2003
CIPD careers survey reported that a written career strategy existed, and only one-quarter of
respondents had a career strategy that cover all employees. Most organizations concentrate on
senior managers and key staff that the organization wishes to retain. There appeared to be little
support for traditionally disadvantaged groups such as part-time workers, those returning after
long –term sick absence or a career break, women returning to work after bearing children and
workers over age 50 (Hirsch et al, 2001).
(B) Career Pathways and Grids
A career path is a sequence of job roles or positions, related via work content or abilities
required, through which an individual can move publicized pathways to help people to identify a
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realistic career goal within the organization. Traditionally, pathways were normally presented as
a vertical career ladder, emphasizing upward promotion within a function, often formally or
informally using age limits and formal qualifications for entry to certain points of the ladder.
Joining, the pathway other than at the normal entry point was very difficult. These pathways
tended to limit career opportunities as much as they provided helpful information. The emphasis
is on upward movement meant that career progress for the majority was halted early in their
careers. The specifications of age and qualification mean that the pathways were restricted to
those who had an ideal career development profile but excluded those who had taken career
breaks, or who had lots of relevant experience but no formal qualification. This inflexibility
tended to stifle cross-functional moves and emphasized progression via management rather than
equally through development of technical experiences (Hirsch, 2003).
There is now increasing use of alternative approaches, often designed in the form of a grid, with
options at each point, so that upward, lateral, diagonal and even downwards moves can be made.
This grids may also be linked into grids for other parts of the business, thereby facilitating cross-
functional moves. Ideally, positions are described in behavioural terms, identifying skills,
knowledge and attitudes required for a position rather than the qualifications needed or age range
anticipated. However, as organizations continue to change more and more rapidly even such as
matrix may prove to be too rigid and career opportunities may need to be expressed in terms of
groups of roles and be fluid enough to integrate newly developed and unexpected types of roles
(Hirsch, 2003).
(C) Career Conversations
The lack of opportunity to discuss career options is frustrating for employees, and to discover the
nature of helpful career conversations, Hirsch et al, (2001) state that individuals explain positive
career conversations in terms of where they took place, who was involved, how they were
conducted and the impact that they had. They found that only around one-fifth of the discussions
took place with the individual’s line manager in the organization, and some with specialist
advisers or HR. around half the discussions took place informally, outside the remit of, say, an
appraisal, development center, mentoring, coaching, or any other formal system, and these 40
percent were unplanned. It was key that discussions were held with people who were trusted and
open, prepared to be frank about the individual’s skills and potential and who were genuinely
interested in the individual. Around three-quarter of these conversations appeared to result in
some form of career action. Hirsch and her colleagues note that these findings different from
90
current ideas of best practices which are to discuss career with one’s line manager in an appraisal
context (Hirsch, 2003).
(D) Managerial Support
Inspite of the absence of findings by Hirsch et al, (2000), managerial support remains critical, not
only in terms of appointing staff, but also in terms of supporting the career development of their
staff. Direct feedback on current performance and potential is vital, especially in identifying
strengths and weakness, and what improvement is required. The immediate manager is in good
position to refer the individual to other managers and introduce them into a network, which will
support their career moves. In addition the manager is in the ideal position to provide job
challenges and experience with the current job, which will equip the incumbent with the skills
needed for the desired career move.
According to Torrington et al (2005) managers do not often see these responsibilities as part of
their job and see them as belonging to the HR department,
Hirsch states that managers often need to be cajoled by HR to play their part.
Yarmall (1998) finds low levels of support from managers, but also finds that employees
participating in self development career initiatives did encourage management support.
Managers often feel constrained by their lack of knowledge about career potential, particularly
when they know that what they have to say is not what the individual wishes to hear. there
appears to be lack of training for line managers to support them in their career development role
(CIPD,2003).
(E) Career Counseling
Occasionally immediate management will be involved in career counseling drawing out the
strength, weakness, values and interest of their staff. In many cases, however, those who seek
such counseling would prefer to speak in confidence to someone independent of their work
situation. In these circumstances, a member of the HR department may act as counselor. In more
complex cases, or those involving senior members of staff, professionals external to the
organization may be sough. This according to Torrington et al (2005) is also likely to be the case
if the career counseling is offered as part of an outplacement programme resulting from a
redundancy.
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(F) Career Workshops
Career workshops are usually, but not always, conducted off-sites, and offered as a confidential
programme to help individuals assess their strengths and weakness, values and interest, identify
career opportunities, set personal career goals and begin to develop strategy and action plan
(Torrington et al, 2005).
Again in their view, career goal will not necessarily be restricted to the current employing
organization and one objective of the workshop is often to broaden career perspective.
Workshops may last 2-3 days, and normally involve individual paper-and-pencil exercises, group
discussions one-to-one discussions and private conferences with tutors. For some people these
can be quite traumatic events as they involve whole-life exploration, and often buried issues are
confronted which has been avoided in the hurly-burly of day-to-day life. The most difficult part
of many individuals is keeping the momentum going after the event by continuing the action
planning and self assessment of progress (Hirsch, 2003). .
2.18.1 Individual Career Management
If we identify a career as the property of the individual, clearly, the responsibility for managing
this rest on the individual, who should identify career goals, adopt strategies to support them and
devise plans to achieve the goals (Torrington et al, 2005). In reality, however, many people fail
to plan. Pringle and Gold (1989) find lack of career planning in their sample of 50 achieving men
and women managers. Only around a quarter of people had plans for the future and many
identified luck, opportunity or being in the right place at the right time as the reason they had
achieved promotions. Harlan and Weiss (1982) find both men and women drifting into positions
created through coincidences.
Some argue that planning is an essential ingredient of individual career management even if only
to provide a framework for decisions about the opportunities that arises through identifying
priorities. Some also argue that the more an individual attempts to manage their career, the more
likely that opportunities will arise and the more likely they are to be able to do something
constructive with them (Torrington et al, 2005).
Mayo (1991) states that in defining a career goal it is too difficult for a person to specify the
ultimate goal of their career. Career aiming points are more appropriate if based on a 10-15 year
time span, or maybe a shorter period.
A career goal will be specified to the individual, such as to become an internal senior
organizational consultant by the age of 35. The range strategies that a person may adopt in
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pursuit of their goal can be described in terms of more general groups. The list below describes
the type of strategies that identified from a review of the literature by (Gould and Penley, 1984).
a) Creating Opportunities: This involves building the appropriate skills and experiences
that are needed for a career in the organization. Developing those skills that are seen as
critical to the individual’s supervisor and department are most useful, as exercising
leadership in an area where none exists at present.
b) Self- Nomination/Self –Presentation: The individual who pursues this strategy will
communicate the desire for increased responsibility to their managers. They will also
make know their success, and build an image of themselves as someone who achieves
things.
c) Seeking Career Guidance: This involves seeking out a more experienced person, either
within the organization or without, and booking for guidance or sponsorship. The use of
mentor relationship would come into this category.
d) Extended Work Involvement: This necessitates working long hours, both at the
workplace and at home, and may also involve a preoccupation with work issues at all
times.
e) Interpersonal Attraction: This strategy builds the relationship with one’s immediate
manager on the basis that they will have an impact on career progression. One form of
this is opinion conformity; that is, sharing the key opinion of the individual’s manager,
perhaps with minor deviations. Another is expressed as “other enhancement, which may
involve sharing personal information with one’s manager and becoming interested in
similar pursuits.
More recently, Siebert et al, (2001) states that career success hinges on who you know as well as
what you know, and often on the relationship between the two. In their research they found that
it was better to have a large network of contacts and weaker ties, rather than a smaller network
with stronger ties. These strategies provide some difficulties for women.
“women in management often find it difficult to break into the male-dominated old boy network’
and therefore are denied the contacts, opportunities and policy information it provides”( Davidon
and Cooper, 1992).
The career strategies explored above are clearly most appropriate in the early and mid-career
stages, and other strategies will best fit other stages. There is evidence however, that individuals
are generally not good at career self- management, as demonstrated by Sturges et al (2002).
93
Nevertheless, they did find that informal career support, perhaps in terms of mentoring, did
reinforce self-management activities. This supports the partnership approach to career
development. From a slight different angle
Yarnall (1998) finds that career education for employees helps them extract support from the
business. In the 2003 career management survey by CIPD (2003) 95 percent of respondents’ fact
that individuals will be expected to take responsibility for their own career in the future and 90
percent felt that they must be offered organizational support to do this. Arguing that the public
sector seems to depend more on the individual to drive their own career. Hirsch (2003) stresses
that this may be related to the lower effectiveness of the public sector.
2.19 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND EMPLOYABILITY SATISFACTION
Employability has emerged as a key contributor to career success and satisfaction in an
increasingly globally unstable and chaotic business environment (Coetzee and Beukes 2010).
Tomlinson (2007) regards individuals’ employability to be values- and identity-driven, relating
to their own dispositions and biographies.
McArdle, Waters, Briscoe and Hall (2007) view career identity and adaptability as key aspects of
individuals’ employability.
In the context of the present study, employability satisfaction is defined as the self-perceived
level of satisfaction that individuals have in terms of their beliefs that they have the attributes,
skills, knowledge, experience and occupational expertise to create or attract employment with
ease (Schreuder and Coetzee, 2011).
Employability satisfaction represents individuals’ self-efficacious beliefs about their capabilities
of securing employment. Van der Velde and Van den Berg (2003) opine that employability is
largely dependent on self-efficacy, which in turn has been shown to be positively related to job
search behaviour and positive employment outcomes.
Coetzee and Beukes (2010) stress that individuals who are able to manage and utilise their own
emotions are more likely to report greater confidence in their ability to achieve their career goals
and succeed in the business world.
Bandura’s (1997) states that self-efficacy theory, career decision-making self-efficacy is defined
as one’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform career-related tasks.
High career decision-making self-efficacy would allow an individual to willingly engage in such
behaviors as self-assessment, career/job exploration, and choosing a career based on this
94
exploration. Low career decision-making self-efficacy would lead a person to avoid these career
decision behaviors (Moore, 2003).
Emotional intelligence has been related to career development outcomes and/or career choice
(Menhart, 1999).
Recently, emotional intelligence factors: empathy, utilization of feelings, handling relationships
and self-control were found to be positively related to career decision-making self-efficacy
(Brown, George-Curran and Smith, 2003). Similarly, Emmerling and Cherniss (2003) states that
it seems plausible that those higher in emotional intelligence would be able to better manage
their emotional responses to the career decision-making process, whereas the opposite may hold
true for those lower in emotional intelligence.
On the relationship between gender and career decision-making self-efficacy, empirical evidence
showed that no gender differences were found with respect to career decision-making self-
efficacy, college major indecision and vocational indecision (George-Curran and Smith, 2003).
This suggests that the specific tasks and behaviors necessary for effective career decision-making
may not be gender-linked.
Kerr, Lambert, Statti and Klackenberg-Larsson (1994) define stereotypes of masculinity and
femininity set the rules for how boys and girls are expected to behave. In terms of career
development tasks (career decision-making, career exploration and information collection) and
career choice, there is occupational stereotyping in Nigeria.
Certain types of careers are deemed appropriate for boys and others for girls. It is thus expected
that some differences would exist between the rate of career maturity and career decision-making
process of the female and male adolescents (Salami, 2007).
However, gender was not found to moderate the relationship between emotional intelligence and
career decision-making self-efficacy by previous researchers (Brown, George-Curran and Smith,
2003).
Career maturity is a widely used and valuable construct derived from Super’s (1990)
developmental career theory. It is broadly defined as the individual’s readiness or ability to make
informed, age-appropriate career decisions and manage his/her career development tasks (Super,
et al, 1996). The development nature of the construct means that the individual’s career maturity
is relative to his/her life stage and to his/her coping in relation to his/her peers.
Attitudinal dimensions comprise 2 variables: attitudes toward career planning and attitudes
toward career exploration. Planning activities deal with thinking about and preparing for the
vocational future. Mature attitudes involve individuals in looking ahead, taking a playful
95
approach, and actively involving themselves in career planning activities. Immature attitudes
prevent individuals from looking ahead to their future careers and do not feel the need to
acquaint themselves with or relate themselves to occupations. Attitudes toward career
exploration address willingness to find and use good resources for career planning. Immature
attitudes toward exploration mean the individuals do not use good resources of data in
occupational fields (Savickas, Briddick and Watkins, 2002).
Cognitive dimensions deal with decision-making competence and fund of occupational
information. Low informational competence indicates that individuals need to learn about types
of occupations, work ethics and vocational development tasks. Adequate fund of information
means good knowledge of types of occupations and how to obtain and succeed in jobs. Decision-
making competence means the ability to apply decision-making principles and methods to solve
problems relating to educational and vocational choice. Low competence means the individuals
do not know what to consider in making choices. This shows that the individuals are not ready to
use the occupational information that they have acquired for career planning. High competence
means good knowledge of principles and practice of decision-making (Savickas, Briddick and
Watkins, 2002).
2.19.1 Career decision-making self-efficacy
Bandura’s (1997) states that self-efficacy theory, career decision-making self-efficacy is defined
as one’s confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform career-related tasks (Betz and
Taylor, 2000). High career decision-making self-efficacy would allow an individual to willingly
engage in such behaviors as self-assessment, career/job exploration, and choosing a career based
on this exploration. Low career decision-making self-efficacy would lead a person to avoid these
career decision behaviors (Moore, 2003).
Emotional intelligence has been related to career development outcomes and/or career choice
(Menhart, 1999). Recently, emotional intelligence factors: empathy, utilization of feelings,
handling relationships and self-control were found to be positively related to career decision-
making self-efficacy (Brown, George-Curran and Smith, 2003). Similarly, Emmerling and
Cherniss (2003) submit that it seems plausible that those higher in emotional intelligence would
be able to better manage their emotional responses to the career decision-making process,
whereas the opposite may hold true for those lower in emotional intelligence.
On the relationship between gender and career decision-making self-efficacy, empirical evidence
showed that no gender differences were found with respect to career decision-making self-
96
efficacy, college major indecision and vocational indecision (George-Curran and Smith, 2003).
This suggests that the specific tasks and behaviors necessary for effective career decision-making
may not be gender-linked.
Betz and Taylor (2000) assert that significant main effect of gender on career decision-making
self-efficacy. This inconsistency in research makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions
about the specific patterns of boys and girls when career decision-making self-efficacy is
considered.
Kerr and Lambert (1994) define stereotypes of masculinity and femininity set the rules for how
boys and girls are expected to behave. In terms of career development tasks (career decision-
making, career exploration and information collection) and career choice, there is occupational
stereotyping in Nigeria. Certain types of careers are deemed appropriate for boys and others for
girls. It is thus expected that some differences would exist between the rate of career maturity
and career decision-making process of the female and male adolescents (Salami, 2007).
However, gender was not found to moderate the relationship between emotional intelligence and
career decision-making self-efficacy by previous researchers (Brown, George-Curran and Smith,
2003).
2.19.2 Career maturity
Career maturity is a widely used and valuable construct derived from Super’s (1990)
developmental career theory. It is broadly defined as the individual’s readiness or ability to make
informed, age-appropriate career decisions and manage his/her career development tasks (Super
et al. 1996). The development nature of the construct means that the individual’s career maturity
is relative to his/her life stage and to his/her coping in relation to his/her peers. Crites’ (1971)
model of career maturity proposed that career maturity consisted of both affective and cognitive
dimensions with the cognitive dimension being composed of decision-making skills and the
affective dimension being attitudes about the career decision process.
Attitudinal dimensions comprise 2 variables: attitudes toward career planning and attitudes
toward career exploration. Planning activities deal with thinking about and preparing for the
vocational future. Mature attitudes involve individuals in looking ahead, taking a playful
approach, and actively involving themselves in career planning activities. Immature attitudes
prevent individuals from looking ahead to their future careers and do not feel the need to
acquaint themselves with or relate themselves to occupations. Attitudes toward career
exploration address willingness to find and use good resources for career planning. Immature
97
attitudes toward exploration mean the individuals do not use good resources of data in
occupational fields (Savickas, Briddick and Watkins, 2002).
Cognitive dimensions deal with decision-making competence and fund of occupational
information. Low informational competence indicates that individuals need to learn about types
of occupations, work ethics and vocational development tasks. Adequate fund of information
means good knowledge of types of occupations and how to obtain and succeed in jobs. Decision-
making competence means the ability to apply decision-making principles and methods to solve
problems relating to educational and vocational choice. Low competence means the individuals
do not know what to consider in making choices. This shows that the individuals are not ready to
use the occupational information that they have acquired for career planning. High competence
means good knowledge of principles and practice of decision-making (Savickas, Briddick and
Watkins, 2002).
Young, Paseluiko and Valachi (1997) emphasize that emotional intelligence energizes and
motivates action in career exploration and decision-making activities. More recently, emotional
intelligence was found to be positively related to career commitment and decision-making
process. Emotional intelligence and the limited research on the role of emotional intelligence in
the career development process, an investigation of the role of emotional intelligence in career
maturity is warranted.
2.18.3 Career Commitment
The origin of the concept of commitment could be traced from views based on classics,
sociology, psychology and management approaches. kierkgard (2008) submit that commitment
as being a consequence of choosing with one’s whole self to go in a direction, which irrevocably
defines that self from such point. This definition views commitment as a set of process that
follows a clear-cut pattern without considering the inconsistent nature of commitment due to
internal and external factors.
Morakinyo ( 2010) asserts that there was little formal analysis of the concept and little attempt at
integrating it explicitly with current sociological theory. People make use of the concept, when
trying to account for the fact they are engaged in consistent lines of activity and behaviour,
especially when a person continues to follow the partly line or remain in the same organization.
It is the view of Becker (ibid), that, consistent lines of activity seem to imply a rejection by the
actor of feasible alternative. Kantor (2009) describes commitment as such diverse phenomena
as, the willingness of social actors to give their energy and loyalty to social system. Step (2000)
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states that it as an awareness of the impossibility to choosing a different social identity or not
rejecting a particular expectation under forces or penalties. Katzell (2001) states that
commitment is the binding of an individual to behavioural acts.
(Morakinyo, 2010) describes commitment using a rather psychological approach which he
defined it to include identification, involvement and loyalty. He saw commitment as a partisan
satisfaction of the individual. It was view that when an individual genuinely identifies himself
with a group, leader and subordinates, he is in effect saying that the goals and values associated
with that cause have become his own. Self-consciously, he directs his efforts towards those goals
and gains that give intrinsic satisfaction through self achievement.
Etzioni(1979) submits that commitment in a rather narrow sense as positive involvement. To
him, commitment is the catechize evaluation orientation of an actor to an object, characterized in
terms of intensity and direction. Positive catechize evaluative orientation is called commitment
while negative catechize evaluative orientation is called alienation. He further saw commitment
as moral inducement.
Steer and Porter(2010) asserts that commitment differ from the narrower concept of job
satisfaction in the sense that commitment is more global, reflecting a general effective response
to the organization as a whole.
(Morakinyo, 2010) asserts that people become members of formal organizations because; they
can attain objectives they desire through their member. If the individual discovers that he cannot
obtain the reward he originally desired, he leaves the organization and joins another. If this is not
possible, he accepts those rewards which he can obtain and may at the same time feel less
committed to the organization. It was Crusky’s contention that readily obtained reward weakens
one’s obligation to the organization. Introducing the element of time and the idea of investment,
quality of organizational participation in a bid to redefine the simple exchange paradigm, Becker
(ibid), stressed that the more one has at stake in an organization the greater the career
commitment to the organization. He visualized career commitment mainly as a structural
phenomenon which occurs as a result of individual organizational transactions and alternations
that can invest over time.
Wienner and Vardi (1980) submit that task and career commitment asserted that, a person could
be committed to his work or task but not necessarily to his organization or vice versa. They
claimed that task and organizational commitment is clearly two distinct attitudes and could have
different effect on behavioural out comes. It is their contention that organizational commitment
could be influenced by the introduction of organization oriented behaviour, while task
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commitment could be influenced in a work setting by task oriented behaviour. Thus, the largest
relative contribution to work effort would be made by career commitment, while the largest
relative contribution to organizational attachment could be made through organization
commitment. It is the view of this researcher that, although task and organizational commitment
may be different or distinct to some extent, they are inter related. An organization is normally set
up to achieve goal. This goals could only be achieved by the operation of different task and thus
if a task is not performed well enough it could have effect on the total organizational goal. The
task of the organization can only be achieved by the provision of necessary tools, good
environment and adequate financial support with which to work. A right organizational
commitment would no doubt instill a right task commitment (Wienner and Vardi,1980).
2.18.4 Career Success
Judge et al. (1995) define career success as the positive psychological outcomes or achievements
one has accumulated as a result of experiences over the span of working life. Lau and Shaffer
(1999) view career success as a means to fulfil a person’s needs and desire through
achievements, accomplishment, power acquisition (Lau and Shaffer, 1999). Seibert, Kraimer and
Liden (2001) define career success as the accumulated positive work and psychological
outcomes resulting from one’s work experiences. More recently, researchers (Judge et al. 1995;
Sagas and Cunningham, 2004) measure career success from both an extrinsic (objective) and
intrinsic (subjective) perspective which links individuals and the organizations for which they
work. Extrinsic success is relatively objective and observable, and typically consists of highly
visible outcomes such as pay and ascendancy. Research confirms the idea that extrinsic and
intrinsic career success can be assessed as relatively independent outcomes, as they are only
moderately correlated (Judge and Bretz, 1994). Judge et al. (1995) define extrinsic success in
terms of salary and number of promotions. The objective career is publicly accessible, and
concerned with social role and official position. Objective career success reflects shared social
understanding rather than distinctive individual understanding. Conversely, intrinsic success is
defined as an individual’s subjective reactions to his or her own career, and is most commonly
operationalized as career or job satisfaction (Judge et al., 1995).In terms of intrinsic
success; it would appear that job satisfaction is the most relevant aspect. Individuals who are
dissatisfied with many aspects of their current jobs are unlikely to consider their careers, at least
at present, as particularly successful. Judge (1994) considers job satisfaction as the most relevant
aspect of career success. Subjective career success can be measured in terms of individual’s
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feelings of success with reference to intrinsic indices such as perceptions of career
accomplishments and future prospects. It is now believed that an individual who is objectively
successful by getting a very high pay, got promoted or empowered with supervision authority,
may still be unhappy. This is due to the fact that individual’s perspective on success is actually
affected by life situations such as family commitments, dual income and health. The employees
are having limited opportunity to achieve extrinsic success; therefore, this study will only
measure their subjective career satisfaction.
2.20 FACTORS THAT AFFECT CAREER DEVELOPMENT
As identified by the theories of career choice highlighted above, one major variable that affects
how people choose their occupations is personality traits. Holland (1987) stresses that the choice
of an occupation is an expression of personality and members of an occupation share similar
personality characteristics. Career interest is a second factor that affects the choice of a career.
An interest may be conceived in terms of an activity which an individual engages in for the
interest of it without deserving for an external reward. The reward is in the performance of the
activity the person does. Personality and interest are not the only criteria for choosing a career.
An individual’s aptitude and intellectual abilities are equally of great importance. An aptitude is
a potential for success in an area after undergoing some training but a layman may define
aptitude as a flair for something. The context in which people live, their personal aptitudes, and
educational attainment are other things that do influence people’s career choice. (Bandura, et al,
2001).
Similarly, skills and values also affect peoples’ choices. Values are the guiding principles that
are ordered in importance and serve as standards for judging and justifying actions (Schwartz,
1992).
Osakinle and Adegoroye (2008) identify factors that influence adolescents’ choice of career as:
sex, location of choice maker, environment, school influence (peer and curriculum content), and
religious affiliation, child rearing and family values.
McDermott and Butkus (2003) state that although intelligence is associated with career maturity
and the development of decision making skills, factors other than skills, abilities, and personality
play a major role in career development and satisfaction for people with mental retardation.
Factors such as interests, social opportunities, emotional rewards, and economic benefits
influence career choices (of most adolescents, including those with cognitive limitations.
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Jones et al (1976) opine that there are four factors that affect career choice of individuals.
environmental conditions and events (like social, cultural and political; economic forces; natural
forces and natural resources), learning experiences (instrumental learning experience which
consists of: preceding circumstances/stimulus; behavioural responses (overt and covert);
consequences, associative learning experience, and task approach skills (personal standards of
performance; work habits; emotional responses).
The concept of job satisfaction has been viewed differently by different scholars. According to
Vroom, in Akanbi (1986), job satisfaction is the reaction of the workers against the role they play
in their work.
Blum and Naylor (1988), define job satisfaction as a general attitude of workers, constituted by
their approach towards the wages, working conditions, control promotion related with the job,
social relations in the work, recognition of talent and some similar variables, personal
characteristics and group relations apart from the work life.
(Morakinyo, 2010) states that, the concept of job satisfaction is an elusive one. Job satisfaction is
obviously related to the meaning of work but the meaning of work is clearly also related to one’s
view of life. It may be misleading to try to measure something so inherently qualitative in a
purely quantitative manner.
Job satisfaction is the total of the sentiments related with the job conducted. If the worker
perceives that his values are realized within the job, he develops a positive attitude towards his
job and acquires job satisfaction (McCormic and Tiffin, 2004).
Strauss and Sayles (1980) claim that one’s satisfaction on his job depends on expectations, self-
evaluation, social norms, social comparisons, input and output relations and commitment;
McCormick and Illgen (1980) define job satisfaction in terms of attitude. To them, it is a specific
subject of attitudes held by organization members. It is the attitude one has toward his or her job.
It is one’s response to the job.
Ogunsanya (1981) regards job satisfaction as the orientation of individuals towards work roles
that they are currently occupying.
Smith, Kendal and Hulin (1979) see job satisfaction as an affective response of the worker to his
job. Job satisfaction as a construct, is a specific subject of attitudes one has towards his or her
job, meaning one’s effective response to the job he or she has.
Ugwuegbu (2008) defines job satisfaction as a result of various attitudes that an employee holds
towards his job and towards life in general. Job satisfaction, being a subset of attitudes, is the
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extent of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that dictates the attitudes and responses of employees to
their jobs.
Therefore, knowledge of these attitudes, to which employees respond unfavourably can provide a
basis for job design policy and practice decision where possible. (Ugwuegbu, 2008),
Hoppock in Ikhioya (1989) defines job satisfaction as any combination of psychological and
environmental circumstances that causes a person to say “I am satisfied with my job”. This
definition is as true today as it was in yesteryears. All the views thus expressed on job
satisfaction point to the fact that it is of negative and positive aspects related to the individual’s
salary, his physical and emotional working conditions, the authority he has, the autonomous
usage of this authority, the level of success he has maintained and the rewards given due to this
success, the social status maintained in relation with his job and relations with his colleagues and
administrators. Individual elements do not result in job satisfaction. Job satisfaction can therefore
only be mentioned if all these elements exist in harmony.
Kaya (1995) opines that the most important evidence which indicates that the conditions of an
organization have got worsened, is the low rate of job satisfaction. He therefore stressed that job
satisfaction is the condition for establishing healthy organizational authority by giving their
capabilities such as knowledge ability, education, health etc. to their jobs for which they spend
most of their time. The individuals who cannot meet their expectations with regard to their jobs
become dissatisfied. Thus, the dissatisfaction adversely affects the organization for which he
works.
(Morakinyo, 2010) states that job satisfaction is very important for a person’s motivation and
contribution to production. Work is expected to be challenging, and it is not expected to be
dissatisfying, and dissatisfaction will lead to frustration. If workers look upon themselves as
generally being satisfied, they will not allow the job to let them down. Also if people respect and
see their work as being very important, the workers are more likely to be satisfied. Satisfaction
with the job depends on what the workers put into the job and what they get out of it in terms of
recognition for excellence.
Canning and Roberts (1991) states that factors that bring about job satisfaction in the hospitality
industry include recognition from clients, challenging work, authority to judge client, primary
responsibility for clients’ participation and positive interaction with other workers.
Job satisfaction is commonly defined as the extent to which employee perceptions (negative or
positive) of their job or work environment (Reily, Chatman and Caldwell, 1991).
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2.21 CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION
Very few literatures are found on job satisfaction and career commitment. Ajayi (1981) opines
that, university teachers are neither significantly satisfied nor committed to their job such that
there was correlation between job satisfaction and career commitment.
Akanbi (1986) states that, job satisfaction was positively and significantly related to career
commitment.
Morakinyo (2010) states that modest correlation between job satisfaction involvement and
opportunity to influence the job. Job involvement is related to opportunities for the satisfaction
of esteem and growth needs.
Likert (1967) opines that the greater the involvement of the members of the groups towards its
goal, the greater is the motivation and loyalty among the members to achieve goals of the group
and also the greater the possibility for achievement of goals.
Lawler and Hall (2010) state that intrinsic motivation and job involvement to be factorally
independent. They still hold that, other things being equal, more people will become more
involved in a job that allows them to control and have a chance to use their abilities. Accepting
Lawler and Hall’s distinction between intrinsic motivation and attitude of job involvement, He
saw job involvement as a generalized cognitive state of psychological identification with work
which depends on the assumption that, work is instrumental in satisfying one’s salient needs and
expectation. He stressed that all behaviour, including behaviour in work situations, spring from
need states of the individual and it is directed towards obtaining outcomes for the satisfaction of
salient needs, the development of a need structure within the individual in terms of saliency as
influenced by various historical and contemporaneous factors such as group, cultural and
organizational norms. The degree of job involvement will depends on the extent to which an
individual perceives his salient needs as capable of being met on the job, while individual makes
inferences about his own job involvement attitudes by observing his own and the context in
which it occurs. Job satisfaction may have a link with career commitment.
Commitment has component parts, for example, identification, involvement and loyalty. Since
individuals could react with satisfaction or dissatisfaction to the component of job satisfaction, it
is possible that, the individual could react positively or negatively to the indicators of career
commitment. In that wise, job satisfaction indicators when taken individually may give a
different result from total job satisfaction when correlated with the indicators of career
commitment (Morakinyo, 2010).
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2.22 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF EMPLOYE ES
In order to understand the role of emotion in career-related behaviors, researchers have
introduced emotional intelligence as an important factor to career success (Goleman, 1995). The
construct of emotional intelligence was introduced to the academia and the lay public in the past
decade (Goleman, 1995).
Salovey and Mayer, 1990) define emotional intelligence as a sub-piece of social intelligence that
has the capacity to: efficiently handle psychological and social problems, accurately express
emotions and correctly assess the emotions of others, self-regulate one’s own emotions; and use
one’s emotions to achieve one’s goals.
Proponents of emotional intelligence believed that people with higher emotional intelligence are
better equipped to incorporate emotional experience into thoughts and actions. To them, the
ability to guide one’s thinking and actions through the use of emotions would be related to how
to feel efficacious when considering career-related actions (Brown, George-Curran and Smith,
2003).
Thus, emotional experience could be used to assist in the career exploration and decision-making
process. Research evidence has shown that emotional intelligence is significantly related to
gender. For example, women have been reported to have higher means on some emotional
intelligence subscales than men (Tapia, 1999).
It is more acceptable in most societies for the females to express emotions openly, but this is the
contrary for males. Brown, George-Curran and Smith (2003) found that there is no significant
difference between males and females in their measures of emotional intelligence. This
inconsistency in research results makes it difficult to arrive at definite conclusions as regards the
emotional intelligence of men and women.
Emotionally intelligent individuals are optimistic, a quality that enables them to focus on the
resolution rather than the reasoning. For many, this is an important time for career-related
matters that will be beneficial to them. As they face the need to choose an academic major, as
well as to develop career goals for the future, career problems often become a developmental
phase they must pass through in making proper career choices for life. Career development
process should start at an early age. Learning about different careers early could enable students
have a better understanding of types of jobs they would want to explore in the future. Career
process may start formally as early as primary school and could continue throughout secondary
school because of many uncertainties especially in an unstable economy like ours. This transition
from secondary school to university may be extremely difficult for many students, leaving them
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with unanswered questions and confusion when it comes to choosing a career. Adolescents in
Nigeria are not exempted from this career dilemma. The foregoing problem has led to several
studies in career development among adolescents in secondary schools by some researchers over
the years in Nigeria (Salami, 2000).
Schneider and Stevenson (1999) opine that career development is an important aspect of
adolescent life. They reasoned that though adolescents were more than ever motivated,
nevertheless, they appeared directionless. It can be reasoned that young people have high
ambitions. They are naturally motivated and develop some great quest for good education. With
all these, adolescents might have difficulties in developing coherent plans for achieving these
goals.
Career guidance and academic counselling can therefore, provide students with the necessary
tools to set career goals, and give them an understanding of the education and skills needed to
meet their goals. Career decidedness is a dynamic and interactive problem space that has been
the subject of research in Nigeria over the years (Adeyemo, 1999).
Onyeacho (1998) stresses that most secondary school leavers in Nigeria make poor career
decisions because of their unrealistic vocational aspirations. It is reported that students select
occupations mainly because of the salaries, positions, glamour and prestige attached to them
(Salami, 1997). For instance, adolescents prefer medicine, engineering, law, banking,
architecture, and pharmacy as professions they intend to enter into after graduating from
secondary school without adequate knowledge of what it takes to succeed and achieve in those
occupations (Salami, 2000).
Cote and Miners (2006) state that individuals with low cognitive intelligence may reap relatively
large returns from high emotional intelligence, because career performance that is not attained
through cognitive intelligence may be attained through emotional intelligence. To them, an
employee who accurately detects colleagues’ emotions may facilitate coordination and
interpersonal functioning that may, in turn enhance task performance. Hence, the contemporary
millennium university require workers, who have strong background, not only in educational
knowledge, but also in inter-personal skills such as responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self
management, integrity, effective collaboration, trust building, ability to handle confrontations
constructively, treating one another in a caring manner, and honesty. All these form the bedrock
of emotional intelligence. Therefore, it is pertinent to note that, low morale, intimidated workers,
arrogant bosses, emotional instability are indices of emotional deficiencies and their attendant
effects become evident in decreased career performance leading to decreased productivity,
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mistakes, absence, ill health, unnecessary transfer request, lack of organizational commitment
and reputation, loss of key staff and depleted bottom line (Salami,1997).
Emotional intelligence is a crucial determinant of job and career success which have been
suggest by emotional intelligence scholars (Cooper and Sawaf, 1997).
Mayer et al, (2001) states that individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the
emotions of others. Using and understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage
those emotions are also required to be successful.
It is been proved that individuals with high levels of emotional intelligence experience more
career success, build stronger personal relationships, more effective and enjoy better health than
those with low levels of emotional intelligence (Rahayu Imrani, 2004).
Huy (1999) states that people who are emotionally intelligence are more successful in their
careers than those low on emotional intelligence because they are able to recognize and use their
own and others’ emotional states to regulate behaviour and deal with the environment.
The ability to manage feelings and handle stress is another aspect of emotional intelligence that
has been found to be important for success. In predicting individual career success, previous
studies strongly supported that emotional intelligence may also be a factor in determining
success in life (Cherniss, 2000).
Few researchers have done research regarding emotional intelligence and found that emotionally
intelligence of senior managers will perform the job better than senior managers with low
emotional intelligence (Abraham 2003).
While research done by Wong and Law (2004) on the effects of the emotional intelligence of
both leaders and followers on job outcomes has indicated that emotional intelligence of followers
affect job performance and job satisfaction while the emotional intelligence of leaders affects
their career satisfaction and extra-role behaviour.
The elements of emotional intelligence comprised of a broad range of abilities, this, in turn, has
generated considerable discussion among researchers regarding the precise definition and
domain of EI, with a general consensus emerging that EI is an individual’s ability to deal with
emotions and includes the following four domains (1) Appraisal and expression of emotion in the
self. (2) Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others. (3) Regulation of emotion in the self. (4)
Use of emotion to facilitate performance (Wong and Law, 2004).
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2.23 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Magda (2010) conducted a study on the relationship between emotional intelligence and job
performance of call centre leaders. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a
relationship between perceived emotional intelligence and job performance among inbound call
centre leaders in the medical aid environment. The sample consisted of 268 participants (45
leaders and 223 raters) across different age and race groups. A convenience sample was used,
since it was easier to focus on call centre leaders working in the same office. All of the
participants completed the 360º Emotional Competency Profiler (ECP) in order to measure
emotional intelligence whereas the job performance data were obtained from the management
team and an average score of their performance over a one-year period was examined. The
research results show that there was no statistically significant relationship between emotional
intelligence and job performance among the call centre leaders.
Ellen (2013) carried out a study on the Impact of Emotional Intelligence and Executive Coaching
on Leader Effectiveness. The purpose of this research is to examine the influence of both
phenomena on leader effectiveness. This empirical study tests two research inquiries: does
emotional competence predict leader effectiveness, and what impact does a quality coaching
relationship have on leader effectiveness? Leader effectiveness is conceptualized as four
constructs: job performance, personal vision, work engagement, and career satisfaction. Eighty-
five senior executives in a North American financial services organization completed a
leadership development experience which included training on emotional intelligence, multi-
rater assessment, and work with an external executive coach. Survey responses were collected
and triangulated with job performance data and multi-rater feedback. Results indicated that both
emotional competence and a high-quality coaching relationship do indeed make a difference.
Specifically, findings revealed that emotional competence directly and positively impacts
performance and career satisfaction and that a quality coaching relationship leads to increased
levels of work engagement, career satisfaction and expression of a personal vision. These results
may be of particular benefit to scholars and practitioners interested in leader effectiveness, leader
development, developmental relationships and emotions and coaching in the workplace
Coetzee and Schreuder (2011) conducted a study on the relation between career anchors,
emotional intelligence and employability satisfaction among workers in the service industry. The
objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the career anchors (measured
by the Career Orientations Inventory), emotional intelligence (measured by the Assessing
Emotions Scale) and employability satisfaction (measured by a one-item scale) of a random
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sample of 270 adults employed in the service industry. A quantitative survey design was used.
Multiple regression analyses revealed significant relationships between the participants’ career
anchors, emotional intelligence and employability satisfaction. The results further showed the
entrepreneurial creativity, service/ dedication to a cause and autonomy career anchors to be
significant predictors of emotional intelligence. Employability satisfaction significantly predicted
the pure challenge and service/dedication to a cause career anchors. Managing others’ emotions
significantly predicted employability satisfaction. The findings contribute new knowledge to the
field of career psychology and may be used to inform human resource practices concerned with
optimizing person– job fit and the job and career satisfaction of employees. In the light of the
turbulent world of work context, career counselors may also find the results useful in facilitating
proactive career behavior.
Ismail, Suh-Suh, Ajis and Dollah (2009) carried out an empirical study to examine the
relationship between occupational stress, emotional intelligence and career development among
academic employees who worked in private institutions of higher learning in Kuching City,
Malaysia. The result showed that relationship between occupational stress and emotional
intelligence significantly correlated with job performance. Statistically, the result confirms that
the inclusion of emotional intelligence in the analysis has mediated the effect of occupational
stress on career development in the organizational sector sample. They recommended that
properly managed emotions in implementing job will strongly increase the capability of
employees to cope with occupational stress problems. As a result, it may lead to higher positive
attitudinal and behavioural outcomes (e.g., satisfaction, commitment, and good moral values).
Thus, these positive outcomes may lead to sustained career development and achieved
organizational strategies and goals.
Ogundokun and Adeyemi (2013) conducted a study on emotional intelligence and academic
achievement, the moderating influence of age, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The purpose of
the study was to determine how emotional intelligence affects age, academic and motivation.
The result revealed that emotional intelligence, age and academic motivations were important
predictors associated to academic achievement.
Megerian (1999) looked at the self-awareness component of emotional intelligence and
transformational leadership. The results of the study provided empirical support for emotional
intelligence being the foundation of other aspects of leadership. The data for the study were
collected from 63 managers, 192 subordinates, and 63 management superiors. Managers reported
their assessment of their emotional intelligence and leadership behavior; the subordinates
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reported their view of their manager’s transformational leadership behavior and performance
outcomes; and each manager’s superior rated managerial performance. The study tried to answer
two questions. The first question tried to find "what aspects of (emotional intelligence)
differentiate those leaders who are in agreement with others concerning their transformational
leadership qualities from those who are not in agreement". The second question asked "how do
non-military leaders who are in agreement with others regarding their transformational
leadership qualities differ in terms of performance from those who are not in agreement".
Leaders who underestimated their leadership were positively linked to social self-confidence
while leaders who overestimated their abilities were negatively related to sensitivity. The results
also suggested "self-awareness may provide individuals with greater perceived control over
interpersonal events and consequences in their life…transformational leaders who are self-aware
possess high levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy and provide orientation for follower. The
authors suggested that self-awareness may enable leaders to understand the emotional
implications of their own feelings and thoughts.
2.24 SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE The study discusses conceptual framework such as: Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence,
Benefits of Emotional Intelligence, Training, Emotional Intelligence And Learning, Motivation,
The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Occupational Stress, Recognition, Reward
and Career Development, Emotional Competencies Applicable to Workplace Situation,
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership, Emotional Intelligence and Success, Emotional
Intelligence and Gender, Emotional Intelligence and Academic Achievement in Tertiary
Institutions, Management Approaches to Emotional Intelligence, Organizational Support for
Career Development, Contribution of Career Development to the Organization, Emotional
Intelligence and Employability Satisfaction, Factors that affect Career Development, Emotional
Intelligence and Career Development of Employees.
The study also reviews various theories and models propounded in this field of study to include:
Ability-based Model, Mixed Models of Emotional Intelligence, Bar-On Model of Emotional
Social Intelligence (ESI), Cornerstone Model of Emotional Intelligence, Theories of Career
Development, Criticism of the Theoretical Foundation of Emotional Intelligence. The researcher
carried out an empirical review of works of past scholars which are relevant to the study.
Examining the works of past scholars on emotional intelligence, we found these empirical works:
Magda (2010) carried out a study on the relationship between Emotional intelligence and Job
performance of call center leader. Ellen (2013) conducted a study on the impact of Emotional
110
intelligence and Executive coaching on leader effectiveness. Coetzee and Schreuder (2011)
conducted a study on the relationship between career anchors, emotional intelligence and
employability satisfaction among workers in service industry. Ismail, Suh-Suh, Ajis and Dollah
(2009) carried out an empirical study to examine the relationship between occupational stress,
emotional intelligence and career development among academic employees who worked in
private institutions of higher learning in Kuching City, Malaysia. Ogundokun and Adeyemi
(2013) conducted a study on emotional intelligence and academic achievement, the moderating
influence of age, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Megerian (1999) looked at the self-awareness
component of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The review of the
empirical works on emotional intelligence revealed that studies were carried out on various angle
on emotional intelligence but this study Emotional intelligence and implication for career
development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria remain unique. Therefore,
this study stands to close up gap in knowledge.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents an overview of the method used to obtain the relevant data, It encompassed
the overall research plan and design that guide the process of data collection and the range of
approaches used to collate the data. Specifically, the chapter consists of research design, sources
of data, area of the study, population of the study, sample size determination, description of the
research instrument, data analysis techniques, validity of the research instrument and reliability
of the research instrument.
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
Asika (1991) views research design as useful tool which the researcher uses in developing a mental
image of the structure for gathering data and their analysis thereof in a research work. This study is
designed as a “Cross- Sectional Survey” design. Under this method, a cross section of the entire
population was sampled for the study given the limitation highlighted in chapter one. This will
involve a systematic collection, presentation, and analysis of the data from individual respondents
which will serve as basis for drawing conclusion.
3.3 SOURCES OF DATA
The research data were collected from two major sources: primary and secondary sources.
Primary Source – Primary data is defined as the data gathered for a specific research. They are
first hand information which the researcher generated for the purpose of the study. The primary
source of data collection consists of information obtained from questionnaire and oral interview.
Data were collected through the administration of questionnaire; observation and the holding of
personal interview which are instruments of the survey method of research.
Secondary Source – Secondary data involve the use of existing but related data, which were
produced by earlier researchers before now, for the purpose of contributing their quota to the
problem under study. Secondary data were collected from several sources which include books,
journals, magazine, newspapers and internet.
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3.4 AREA OF THE STUDY
Uzoagulu (2011) states that the area of the study is the geographical area or boundaries where the
study will be carried out. The geographical coverage of this study is South- East Zone of Nigeria:
Abia State, Anambra State, Ebonyi State, Enugu State and Imo State. The study will be
conducted in five selected federal Universities in the south- east zone which include Michael
Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike, Federal University of Technology Owerri,
University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka and Federal University Ndufu-
Alike Ikwo.
3.5 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
A population is the total of all the individuals who have certain characteristics and are of interest
to a researcher (Anikpo,1986).The target population of this study is comprised of Academic and
non-Academic staff of the selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. The total
population for the study is eleven thousand two hundreds and eighty four (11,284).
Table 3.1 Breakdown of the Population.
Name of Federal Universities Population Total
Academic Non-
Academic
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike,
352 823 1175
Federal university of technology, Owerri 488 1841 2329
University of Nigeria Nsukka, 989 4586 5575
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka 604 1216 1820
Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo 188 197 385
TOTAL 2,621 8,663 11,284
Source: Field Survey, 2014
3.6 DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
It is always difficult and too expensive to study the whole population. Consequently, a sample size is
the act of selecting and observing only a specified subset of the population unit (Ugwu: 2003). Based
on the population, the sample size for this study is determined using the finite population formula of
Godden (2004). The sample size is determined viz:
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SS = Z2 (P) (1-P) ----------------------- (equation a)
C2
Given =
SS = SS ---------------------- (equation b)
(1+ (SS-1)
Pop
Where:
SS = Sample size
Z = Confidence level (95%)
P = Percentage of population picking a choice (worst case % of the sample 50% or .5)
C = Confidence interval = 0.05
Pop = Total population (11,284).
Godden (2004) rule criteria states that this formula is best applied where the population is less than
50,000.
Substituting:
Z = 95% (1.96)
P = 90% (.9)
C = 0.05
SS = 1.962 (.9) (1- 0.9)
0.052
SS = 3.8416 (.9) (.5)
0.0025
SS = 691.
Pop = 11,284
∴ New SS = 691
1 + (691 – 1)
11,284
= 691
1.061 = 651
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A stratified sampling method was adopted so as to give a fair representation to the designated
organizations. The Bowley’s proportional allocation formula is given as:
nh = n Nh
N
Where: nh= Number of units allocated to each firm/staff category.
Nh = Number of employees in each firm/staff stratum in the population
n = Total sample size
N = The total population size under study
Michael Okpara University of
Agriculture umudike, 1,175 x 651 = 68
11,284
Academic staff = 352 x 651 = 20
11,284
Non-Academic staff = 823 x 651 = 48
11,284
2. Federal university of technology
Owerri = 2,329 x 651 = 134
11,284
Academic staff = 488x 651 = 28
11,284
Non-Academic staff = 1,841x 651 = 106
11,284
3. University of Nigeria Nsukka 5,575 x 651 = 322
11,284
Academic staff = 989x 651 = 57
11,284
Non-Academic staff = 4,586x 651 = 265
11,284
4. Nnamdi Azikwe University Awka 1,820 x 651 = 105
11,284
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Academic staff = 604x 651 = 35
11,284
Non-Academic staff = 1,216 x 651 = 70
11,284
5. Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo 385 x 651 = 22
11,284
Academic staff = 188 x 651 = 11
11,284
Non-Academic staff = 197 x 651 = 11
11,284
Table 3.2 Breakdown of the Sample Size
Name of Federal Universities
Academic
staff
Non-Academic
Staff
Total
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture umudike,
20 48 68
Federal University of Technology, Owerri
28 106 134
University of Nigeria Nsukka, 57 265 322
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka 35 70 105
Federal University Ndufu-Alike Ikwo 11 11 22
TOTAL 151 500 651
Source: Field Survey, 2014
3.7 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
The major research instruments used for gathering data for this study are structured questionnaire
and oral interview. The questionnaire was formulated considering the research questions. The
questionnaire has two (2) sections. Specifically, all the questions in section A were general
information of the respondents while the remaining questions in section B were meant to directly
address the research questions. In the design of the questionnaire, likert scale format was
adopted. 651 copies of the questionnaire containing 26 questions were distributed to academic
and non-academic staff of the selected tertiary institutions in the south east. The researcher
conducted an oral interview with some of the staff in the selected tertiary institutions in order to
obtain additional information.
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3.8 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
In this study, the descriptive statistics such as frequency counts with simple percentage was used
to analyze bio-data of the respondents and the five research questions. At the inferential level of
analyses, Chi-square was used to test hypotheses 1 and 3, hypothesis 2 was tested using Z-test,
hypothesis 4 was tested using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient while linear
regression was used to test hypothesis 5, through the application of Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS 17.0 windows).
X2 = ∑I (Oi – ei)
2
ei Where
Oi = observed cases of frequencies
ei = expected cases or frequencies
∑I = summation of all items to I term
The degree of freedom: it is the assumption of a certain level of confidence or error margin. The
degree of freedom which is significant in the use of chi-square is presented in this form
(r-I) (c-I)
Where r = number of rows
C = number of columns
Decision rule in the use of Chi-Square (X2).
If the computed or calculated value of the test statistics (X2i) is less or equal to Chi-square (X2
o)
critical values accept the null hypotheses. However, if the computed or observed is greater or
equal to Chi-square critical value, the null hypotheses should be rejected, thus accepting the
alternative hypothesis.
Reject Ho, if X2i > X2
o
Accept Ho, if X2 i < X2
o
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Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
r = nΣXY - (Σ x) (Σy) nΣX2 - (ΣX)2 nY2-(Σy)2
Z – TEST
X -µ
Z = Sx N
Where
X = Population Means
µ = Sample Means
S = Standard Deviation
n = Sample Size
3.9 VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Onwumere (2005) defines validity as the extent to which a measuring instrument on application
performs the function for which it is designed. To make sure that the research instruments
applied in this work are valid, the researcher ensured that the instrument measure the concept
they suppose to measure. A proper structuring of the questionnaire and a conduct of a pre-test of
every question contained in the questionnaire was carried out to ensure that they are valid. Also
design of the questionnaire was made easy for the respondents to tick their preferred choice from
the options. Response validity was obtained by re-contacting individuals whose responses appear
unusual or inconsistent.
3.10 RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals when required
with the same test on different sets of equivalent items, or under other variable examining
condition (Ikeagwu, 1998). To ensure reliability of the instrument, a test-retest method of
reliability was applied. However, the reliability test was done through the use of pilot study. The
test-retest was carried out using fifteen (15) copies of the questionnaire prepared and
administered to staff (respondents) of the selected Federal Universities. After some days, the
same (15) copies of the questionnaire was re-administered on the same respondents. The first and
127
second sets of scores were correlated using Spear Man Rank order correlation coefficient as the
statistical tool. The result gave reliability index of 0.69
Spear Man Rank correlation coefficient r = 1 - 6 Σd2
n3- n
Where r = correlation co-efficient to be determined
6 = constant
Σ = Summation
d2 = Sum of squares for variable d
n = Number of questions
n3 = Sum of squares of variable n
1 = constant
Table 3.3 Reliability test using Spear man rank order correlation coefficient Questions X Y d d2
What are the significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
Leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
11 8 2 9
Emotional intelligence is essential for leadership 16 14 2 4 Emotional intelligence is required in management of conflict 10 7 3 9
What are the implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
The implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress.
12 11 1 1
Emotional intelligence creates self discipline among non academic staff.
8 6 2 4
Emotional intelligence enhances interpersonal relationship in non academic staff.
17 15 2 4
What attributes of emotional intelligence enhance academic staff career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development.
12 9 3 9
Self awareness is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development.
14 12 2 4
128
Social skill is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
13 11 2 4
What is the extent of the relationship between motivation and training?
There is significant positive relationship between motivation and training
5 3 2 2
A person can be motivated to undergo a training if the outcome of the training is positive.
4 4 1 1
People with high emotional intelligence can develop patience that is needed to achieve success in training
3 3 1 1
To what extent does emotional intelligence affect career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
7 8 2 10
Emotional intelligence is a positive tool for career advancement. 5 3 1 3 Emotional intelligence enhances career development 5 2 1 3 TOTAL 68
r = 1 - 6 Σd2 n3- n
r = 1 - 6 (68)2 113 - 11
r = 1 - 408 1320
r = 1 - 0.3091
r = 0.69
129
REFERENCES
Anikpo, M (1986) Foundations of Social Science Research: A Methodological Guide for Students. Enugu: ABIC Publishers.
Asika, N (2001) Research Methodology in Behavioural Sciences, Lagos: Longman.
Godden, B. (2004) Sample Size Formulas: http://williamgodden.com
Ikeagwu, E.K (1998) Ground work of Research Methods and Procedures,” Enugu: Institute for Development Studies, UNEC.
Onwumere J. U. J. (2005) Business and Economic Research Methods, Enugu: Vougasen Limited.
Ugwu,A. (2003) The Use of Accounting Information for Management Decision Making, Enugu: Gostak Printing and Publishing Co.Ltd.
Uzoagulu A.E. (2011) Practical Guide to Writing Research Project Reports in Tertiary Institutions, Enugu: John Jacob’s Classic Publishers Limited.
Yamane T. (1964) Statistics: An Introductory Analysis, New York, Harper and Row.
130
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The essence of this chapter is to present and analyze the data collected for the study. The
presentation and interpretation of data were based on the questionnaire administered to the staff
and management of Selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria. From a total of six
hundred and fifty one (651) copies of the questionnaire distributed to the respondents, six
hundred and six (606) copies representing 93.1% were duly completed and returned while forty-
five (45) copies representing 6.9% were not returned.
Table 4.1 Distribution and Return of the Questionnaire.
Organisations Number Distributed
% Distributed
Number Returned
% Returned
Number not
Returned
% Not Returned
Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike
68 10.4 59 9.1 9 1.4
Federal University of Technology, Owerri
134 20.6 123 18.9 11 1.7
University of Nigeria Nsukka
322 49.5 310 47.6 12 1.8
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka
105 16.1 95 14.6 10 1.5
Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo
22 3.4 19 2.9 3 0.5
Total 651 100 606 93.1 45 6.9 Source: Field survey, 2014.
131
Table 4.2 The significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Options Agree Strongly Agree
Disagree Strongly Disagree
Total
1. Leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
425 135 30 16 606
2 Emotional intelligence is required in management of conflict.
53 24 396 133 606
3 Emotional intelligence is essential for leadership.
505 88 9 4 606
4 Emotional intelligence regulates one’s mood.
345 205 35 21 606
Total 1780(73%) 644(27%) 2424
Source: Field Survey, 2014.
Table 4.2 shows that 1780 (73%) indicated agreement while 644 (27%) indicated disagreement,
this shows that leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require
emotional intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
132
Table 4.3 The implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Options Agree Strongly agree
Disagree Strongly disagree
Total
5 Implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of Nigeria Federal Universities are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
338 257 6 5 606
6. Emotional intelligence creates self discipline among non academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
45 32 448 81 606
7.
Emotional intelligence enhances interpersonal relationship in non academic staff of Nigerian Universities
255 287 34 30 606
8 Emotional intelligence is the ability to persist in the face of frustrations.
501 68 24 13 606
Total 1783{74%} 641{26%} 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.3 shows that1783 (74%) indicated agreement while 641{26%} indicated disagreement,
this shows that implications of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
133
Table 4.4: Attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career
development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.4 shows that 1821 (75%) indicated agreement while 603 (25%) indicated disagreement,
this shows that Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence
that enhance academic staff career development in selected Federal Universities in South East,
Nigeria.
Options Agree Strongly agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Total
9 Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development in Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
444 123 19 20 606
10 Social skill is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
51 34 500 21 606
11 Self awareness is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
531 65 6 4 606
12 Self management is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development.
264 309 24 9 606
Total 1821(75%) 603(25%) 2424
134
Table 4.5: The extent of the relationship between motivation and training.
Options Agree Strongly agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Total
13. There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training
540 60 4 2 606
14. People with high emotional intelligence can develop patience that is needed to achieve success in training
20 10 450 126 606
15 A person can be motivated to undergo a training if the outcome of the training is positive
523 68 6 9 606
16 People can be motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward.
570 25 6 5 606
Total 1816(75%) 608(25%) 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.5 shows that 1816 (75%) indicated agreement while 608 (25%) indicated disagreement,
this shows that there is significant positive relationship between motivation and training
Table 4.6: The extent to which emotional intelligence affect career development in selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Options Agree Strongly agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Total
17 Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
274 276 39 17 606
18. Emotional intelligence enhances career development
48 52 346 160 606
19 Emotional intelligence is a positive tool for career advancement.
580 15 5 6 606
20 Emotional intelligence leads to career goal and success.
490 110 4 2 606
Total 1845(76%) 579(24%) 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
135
Table 4.6 shows that 1845 (76%) indicated agreement while 579 (24%) indicated disagreement,
this shows that emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected
Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
4.2 TEST OF HYPOTHESES
The five hypotheses postulated in chapter one were tested with various test statistics aided by
computer applied Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS: 15.00s version) of Microsoft
environment. Specifically, Chi-square was used to test hypotheses 1 and 3; hypothesis 2 was
tested using Z-test; hypothesis four was tested using Pearson product moment correlation
coefficient, while linear regression was used to test hypothesis 5.
Test of Hypothesis One
H0: Leadership, negotiation and decision making are not significant areas that require
emotional intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East,
Nigeria.
H1: Leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional
intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Table 4.7: Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis (1) Referred Table 4.2
Options Agreement Disagreement Total 1 Leadership, negotiation and decision
making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
560 (445) 46 (161) 606
2. Emotional intelligence is required in management of conflict
77 (445) 529 (161) 606
3 Emotional intelligence is essential for leadership
593 (445) 13 (161) 606
4 Emotional intelligence regulates one’s mood.
550 (445) 56 (161) 606
Total 1780 644 2424
Source: Field Survey,2014
136
Table 4 .8 Chi-Square Tests
Value Df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 136.379(a) 20 .000
Likelihood Ratio 149.723 20 .000
Linear-by-Linear Association
46.039 1 .000
N of Valid Cases 2424
Table 4.8 is the output of the computed Chi-Square values from the cross tabulation statistics of
observed and expected frequencies with the response options of agree and disagree all based on
the responses of the research subjects. Pearson Chi-Square computed value (X2c= 136.379) is
greater than the Chi-Square tabulated value (X2t =31.419) with 20 degrees of freedom (df) at 0.05
level of alpha (X2c =136.379, p,< .05)
Decision Rule
The decision rule is to accept the alternate hypothesis if the computed Chi- Square value is
greater than tabulated Chi-Square value otherwise accept the null hypothesis.
Decision
Since the Pearson Chi- Square computed X2c= 136.379 is greater than Chi- Square table value
X2t =31.419, the null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted. Thus, we
conclude that leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require
emotional intelligence in the management of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
Test of Hypothesis Two
Ho: The implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff of selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria are not team work, job satisfaction and management
of stress.
H1: The implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff of selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of
stress.
137
Table 4.9: Contingency Table for Testing Hypothesis (2) Referred Table 4.3
Options Agreement Disagreement Total 1 The Implication of emotional intelligence
on non academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
595 (445.75)
11 (160.25)
606
2. Emotional intelligence creates self discipline among non academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
77 (445.75)
529(160.25) 606
3. Emotional intelligence enhances interpersonal relationship in non academic staff of Nigerian universities
542 (445.75)
64(160.25) 606
4 Emotional intelligence is the ability to persist in the face of frustrations.
569 (445.75)
37 (160.25)
606
Total 1783 641 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.10: Descriptive Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum
The Implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
2424 1.8248 1.23528 1.00 5.00
138
Table 4.11: One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test
The implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
N 2424
Normal Parameters(a,b) Mean 1.8248 Std. Deviation 1.23528 Most Extreme Differences Absolute .336 Positive .336 Negative -.252 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 10.723 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000
a Test distribution is Normal.
b Calculated from data.
Table 4.11 is the output of the computed Z- test values from the cross tabulation statistics of
observed and expected frequencies with the response options of agree and disagree based on the
responses of the research subjects from the selected federal universities .Z computed value (Zc=
10.723) is greater than the Z- tabulated value (Zt= 1.96) at 0.05 level of alpha (Zc=10.723, p,<
.05)
Decision Rule
The decision rule is to accept the alternate hypothesis if the computed Z- value is greater than
tabulated Z- value otherwise accept the null hypothesis.
Decision
Since the Z-test computed= 10.723 is greater than Z- table value = 1.96, the null hypothesis is
rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted. Thus, we conclude that The implications of
emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected federal universities in South East,
Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
Test of Hypothesis Three
H0: Self regulation, motivation and empathy are not attributes of emotional
intelligence that enhance academic staff career development in selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria. .
139
H1: Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that
enhance academic staff career development in selected Federal Universities in South
East, Nigeria.
Table 4.12: Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis (3) Referred Table 4.4
Options Agreement Disagreement Total
1 Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development in Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
567 (455.25)
39(150.75) 606
2. Social skill is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
85(455.25) 521(150.75) 606
3 Self awareness as an attribute of emotional intelligence enhances academic staff career development
596(455.25) 10(150.75) 606
4 Self management is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development.
573(455.25) 33(150.75) 606
Total 1821 603 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.13 Chi-Square Tests from the frequency cross tabulation
Value Df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 186.364(a) 20 .174
Likelihood Ratio 8.163 20 .086
Linear-by-Linear Association
1.885 1 .170
N of Valid Cases 2424
Table (4.13) is the output of the computed Chi-Square values from the cross tabulation statistics
of observed and expected frequencies with the response options of agree and disagree based on
the responses of the research subjects from the selected federal universities. Pearson Chi-Square
computed value (X2c= 186.364) is greater than the Chi –Square tabulated value (X2t =31.419)
with 20 degrees of freedom (df) at 0.05 level of alpha (X2c = 186.364, p,< .05)
140
Decision Rule
The decision rule is to accept the alternate hypothesis if the computed Chi- Square value is
greater than tabulated Chi-Square value otherwise accept the null hypothesis.
Decision
Since the Pearson Chi- Square computed X2c= 186.364 is greater than Chi- Square table value
X2t =31.419 , the null hypothesis is rejected and alternate hypothesis is accepted. Thus, we
conclude that self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence
that enhance academic staff career development in selected federal universities in South East,
Nigeria.
Test of Hypothesis four
H0: There is no significant positive relationship between motivation and training
H1: There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training
Table 4.14: Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis (4) Referred Table 4.5
Options Agreement Disagreement
Total
1 There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training
600 (454) 6 (152) 606
2. People with high emotional intelligence can develop patience that is needed to achieve success in training
30 (454) 576 (152) 606
3 A person can be motivated to undergo a training if the outcome of the training is positive
591 (454) 15 (152) 606
4
People can be motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward.
595 (454) 11 (152) 606
Total 1816 608 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
141
Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
Motivation 2.6261 2.26043 606
Training 2.9065 2.26713 606
Table (4.16) shows the descriptive statistics of the motivation and, training with a mean response
of 2.6261 and std. deviation of 2.26043 for motivation and a mean response of 2.9065 and std.
deviation of 2.26713 for training and number of respondents (606). By careful observation of
standard deviation values, there is not much difference in terms of the standard deviation scores.
This implies that there is about the same variability of data points between the dependent and
independent variables.
Table (4.15 ) is the Pearson correlation coefficient for motivation and training. The correlation
coefficient shows 0.645. This value indicates that correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2tailed)
and implies that there is a significant positive relationship between motivation and, training (r =
.645). The computed correlations coefficient is greater than the table value of r = .195 with 604
degrees of freedom (df. = n-2) at alpha level for a two-tailed test (r = .645, p< .05). However,
since the computed r = .645, is greater than the table value of .195 we reject the null hypothesis
and conclude that there is a significant relationship between motivation and training (r =. 645,
P<.05).
Table 4.15 Correlations
motivation Training
Motivation Pearson Correlation 1 .645**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 606 606
Training Pearson Correlation .645** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 606 606
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
142
Hypothesis five
Ho: Emotional intelligence has no significant effect on career development in selected
Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
H1: Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria.
Table 4.17: Contingency Table for testing Hypothesis (5) Referred Table 4.6
Options Agreement Disagreement Total 1. Emotional intelligence has significant
effect on career development in Federal Universities in South East, Nigeria.
550 (461.25)
56 (144.75)
606
2. Emotional intelligence enhances career development
100 (461.25)
506 (144.75)
606
3 Emotional intelligence is a tool for career advancement.
595 (461.25)
11 (144.75)
606
4 Emotional intelligence leads to career goal and success
600 (461.25)
6 (144.75)
606
Total 1845 579 2424 Source: Field Survey, 2014
Table 4.18 Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
career development
1.9053 .77286 606
Emotional intelligence
2.0526 1.18832 606
Table 4.19 Correlations
Career
development Emotional intelligence
Pearson Correlation Career development
1.000 .700
Emotional intelligence
.700 1.000
Sig. (1-tailed) Career development
. .000
Emotional intelligence
.000 .
N Career development
606 606
Emotional intelligence
606 606
143
Table 4.20 Model Summary(b)
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson
1 .700(a) .491 .485 .55451 .148
a Predictors: (Constant), Emotional intelligence
b Dependent Variable: Career development
Table 4.21 ANOVA(b)
Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 27.551 1 27.551 89.602 .000(a)
Residual 28.596 604 .307
Total 56.147 605
a Predictors: (Constant), Emotional intelligence
b Dependent Variable: Career development
Table 4.22 Coefficients(a)
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients T Sig.
B Std. Error Beta B Std. Error
1 (Constant) .970 .114 8.509 .000
Emotional intelligence
.456 .048 .700 9.466 .000
a Dependent Variable: Career development
R = 0.700
R2 = 0.491
F = 89.602
DW = 0.148
Interpretation
The regression sum of squares (27.551) is less than the residual sum of squares (28.596), which
indicates that more of the variation in the dependent variable is not explained by the model. The
significance value of the F statistics (0.000) is less than 0.05, which means that the variation
explained by the model is not due to chance.
144
R, the correlation coefficient which has a value of 0.700, indicates that there is a positive
relationship between the emotional intelligence and career development. R square, the
coefficient of determination, shows that 49.1% of the variation in the career development is
explained by the model.
With the linear regression model, the error of estimate is high, with a value of about 0..55451.
The Durbin Watson statistics of .148, which is not tends to 2 indicates there no is
autocorrelation.
The emotional intelligence coefficient of 0.700, indicates a positive significance between
emotional intelligence and career development, which is statistically significant (with t = 8.509).
Therefore, the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted that
Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in selected federal
universities in South East, Nigeria.
4.3 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Hypothesis one was tested using chi square, to assess the significant areas that require emotional
intelligence in the management of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria. With a
computed result (X2c = 136.379 > X2t = 31.419,p < 0.05).The null hypothesis was rejected and
alternate hypothesis was accepted resulting in the conclusion that leadership, negotiation and
decision making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of
selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria. Supported by George (2000) which states
that emotional intelligence plays an important role in leadership effectiveness and proposes that
the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in oneself and in others theoretically
contributes to the effectiveness of leaders. Emotional intelligence enhances leaders’ ability to
solve problems and to address issues and opportunities facing them and their organization. A
leader high in emotional intelligence is able to accurately appraise how their followers feel and
use this information to influence their subordinates’ emotions, so that they are receptive and
supportive of the goals and objectives of the organization.
Hypothesis two was tested with Z- test in order to assess the implication of emotional
intelligence on the non-academic staff of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria,
with a computed result ((Zc = 10.723 > Zt = 1.96 ; p < 0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected and
the alternate hypothesis was accepted resulting in the conclusion that the implications of
emotional intelligence on non-academic staff of selected federal universities in South East,
145
Nigeria are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress. Supported by Cooper et al,
(2001) which states that Emotional intelligence is the ability of expressing feeling, expressing,
understanding, and sentiment regulation. An employee with high emotional intelligence can deal
with work environment stress
Hypothesis three was tested using chi square to ascertain the attributes of emotional intelligence
that enhance academic staff career development in selected federal universities in South East,
Nigeria (X2c= 186.364 X2t =31.419, P<.05).The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate
hypothesis was accepted resulting in the conclusion that Self-regulation, motivation and empathy
are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development in
selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria. Supported by Herzberg (1966) which states
that managers ought to be aware of the issues that boost employee morale. On the one hand, it is
important to have a conducive and comfortable work environment for employees to work well
and on the other, it is imperative for managers to show a sense of recognition of their employees.
Workers need to feel that they are recognized, that their jobs help them achieve their aspirations
and that there are prospects of advancement in terms of career. These are what have come to be
known as the satisfiers, that is recognition, achievement and advancement.
Hypothesis four was tested using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient to determine
the extent of the relationship between motivation and training with a computed result (r = .645, P
< 0.05). The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis was accepted resulting in
the conclusion that there is a significant relationship between motivation and training. Supported
by Torrington and Hall (1987) which assert that training is necessary for effective performance
and job satisfaction.
Hypothesis five was tested using simple linear regression in order to examine the extent to which
emotional intelligence affect career development in selected federal universities in South East,
Nigeria (r = 0.700, t = 8.509, F = 89.602; p < 0.05), the null hypothesis was rejected and the
alternate hypothesis was accepted resulting in the conclusion that Emotional intelligence has
significant effect on career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
This was supported by Brown, George-Curran and Smith (2003) which state that the ability to
guide one’s thinking and actions through the use of emotions would be related to how to feel
efficacious when considering career-related actions.
146
REFERENCES
Brown, C, George-Curran, R. and Smith, M. L (2003) The role of emotional intelligence in the career commitment and decision-making process. Journal of Career Assessment, 11(4) 379-392.
Cooper, R. K and Sawaf, A (1998) Executive EQ: Emotional Intelligence in Leadership and Organisations Accessed 19/01/2011 from http://books.google.com.gh/books.
George, J.M. (2000) Emotions and Leadership: The Role of Emotional Intelligence. Human Relations, 53 (8) 1027-1055.
Herzberg, F. (1966) Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland: World Publishing Company.
Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1987) Personnel Management a New Approach, New York:
Prentice/Hall.
147
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter summaries the various research results which emerge from the study. The results
are aligned with the objectives and hypotheses set out in chapter one of the thesis. Conclusion is
drawn and necessary recommendations made from the research findings.
5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The Finding from the research work are summarized as follows:
1. Leadership, negotiation and decision-making are significant areas that require emotional
intelligence in the management of selected Federal Universities in South East Nigeria
(X2cal 136.379 >X2t 31.419, p < 0.05).
2. The implication of emotional intelligence on non-academic staff are team work, job
satisfaction and management of stress ( Zcal 10.723 > Zt 1.96, p < 0.05) .
3. Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that
enhance academic staff career development (X2cal 186.364 >X2t 31.419, P<.05).
4. There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training (r = 0.645, P
<.05).
5. Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in Selected Federal
Universities in South East Nigeria ((r = 0.700, t = 8.509, F =89.602; p < 0.05),
5.3 CONCLUSION
Emotional intelligence is the ability to process emotional information as it pertains to the
perception, assimilation, expression, regulation and management of feeling. Emotional
intelligence refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for
motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and our relationship.
Emotional intelligence develops innovational creativity in individuals and as a result, helps in the
improvement of people’s job performance. The role of emotional intelligence is to change
attempts, management effectiveness, training and the performance of organization. Emotional
intelligence assists people to choose their job properly in a right way and helps them to succeed
in the organization by augmenting the extent of their job performance.
148
5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
In line with the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made. These are:
1. Organizations should constantly send their employees on training, so as to motivate
workers in order to achieve organizational effectiveness.
2. Organizations should employ the process of managing their emotions, so that their
organizational goal will be achieved.
3. Organizations should map out strategies to manage worker’s stress, which will help in
career success.
4. Organizations should ensure that their programmes are proactive and not reactive.
5. Management should ensure that the concept of emotional intelligence is developed over
the life span of staff through enhanced training.
5.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
Researcher: Model of Emotional Intelligence and Career Development
Emotional intelligence refers to an effective understanding of our selves and others, have a good
relationship with other people, and to adapt and cope with their environment to become more
EMMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
ATRIBUTE OF EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
SELF REGULATION
MOTIVATION
EMPATHY
CAREER
DEVELOPMENT
AREAS OF EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
LEADERSHIP
NEGOTIATION
DECISIONMAKING
THE IMPLICATION OF
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
TEAM WORK
JOB SATISFACTION
MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
149
successful in dealing with environmental demands. It is also a part of social intelligence that
involves the ability to control emotions and feeling of own self and others, to distinguish
between these emotions, and use that information to guide the thinking and actions of a person.
Emotional intelligence can be utilized in leadership, negotiation and in decision making.
The most essential attributes of emotional intelligence are self regulation, motivation and
empathy. The implication of emotional intelligence are seen in teamwork, job satisfaction and
management of stress.
To be effective in leadership, negotiation and decision making, one need to utilize team of
reasonable people to assist, job satisfaction and minimize stress.
Self regulation, motivation and empathy are required to be successful in teamwork and in career
development.
Also leadership, negotiation and decision making is required in career development.
5.6 SUGGESTED AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDIES
This study recommends the following for further studies;
1. Assessing the Implication of Emotional Intelligence on Leadership of Nigerian
Labour Congress.
2. Assessing the Implication of Emotional Intelligence on Performance of Selected
Manufacturing Firms in South West, Nigeria.
3. Gender Implication on Career Development in North East, Nigeria.
150
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160
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE
Department of Management, Faculty of Business Administration, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
Dear Respondent
I am a postgraduate student of the above mentioned University, currently conducting a research
on Emotional Intelligence and Implication for Career Development in Selected Federal
Universities in South East, Nigeria. The research is strictly academic. It will be of immense
assistance if answers to the questions in the questionnaire are given without bias. Your response
will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be used solely for the purpose of this
research.
Thanks in anticipation
Yours Faithfully,
Ayogu Deborah Uche
161
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A
1 Sex (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
2 Marital Status (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Widowed [ ]
3 Educational Qualification (a) SSCE [ ] (b) OND/NCE [ ]
(c) HND/BSC [ ] (d) MBA/M.Sc [ ] (e) P.hD [ ]
4 Age (a) Under 30 years [ ] (b) 31-45 years [ ]
(c) 46-55 years [ ] (d) 56 years and above [ ]
5 Category of staff (a) Academic (b) Non-academic
6 Work experience (a) 0-5 year [ ] (b) 6-10 [ ] (c) 11-15 [ ] (d) 16-20 (e) 21-26 [ ]
SECTION B
INSTRUCTION: please tick the option which matches your opinion. Use the responses of
Strongly Agree (SA) = 5, Agree (A) = 4, Disagree (D) = 3, Strongly Disagree (SD) = 2,
Undecided (U) =1
SA A D SD U What are the significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of
selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
7 Leadership, negotiation and decision making are significant areas that require emotional intelligence in the management of federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
8 Emotional intelligence is required in management of conflict
9 Emotional intelligence is essential for leadership
10 Emotional intelligence regulates one’s mood.
What are the implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff of selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
11 The implication of emotional intelligence on non academic staff are team work, job satisfaction and management of stress
12 Emotional intelligence creates self discipline among non academic staff.
162
13 Emotional intelligence enhances interpersonal relationship in non academic staff.
14 Emotional intelligence is the ability to persist in the face of frustrations. What attributes of emotional intelligence enhance academic staff
career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
15 Self regulation, motivation and empathy are attributes of emotional intelligence that enhance academic staff career development
16 Social skill is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
17 Self awareness is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development
18 Self management is an attribute of emotional intelligence that enhances academic staff career development.
What is the extent of the relationship between motivation and training?
19 There is a significant positive relationship between motivation and training
20 People can be motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward.
21 People with high emotional intelligence can develop patience that is needed to achieve success in training
22 A person can be motivated to undergo a training if the outcome of the training is positive
To what extent does emotional intelligence affect career development in selected federal universities in South East, Nigeria?
23 Emotional intelligence has significant effect on career development in federal universities in South East, Nigeria.
24 Emotional intelligence enhances career development
25 Emotional intelligence is a positive tool for career advancement.
26 Emotional intelligence leads to career goal and success.
163
INTERVIEW GUIDE
1. What are likely reasons why your institution embark on emotional intelligence?
2. What necessary approaches were used by your institution to manage emotional
intelligence?
3. How does emotional intelligence enhance career development?
4. What benefits does your institution derive from career development?
5. What type of relationship exist between motivation and training?
6. What type of relationship exist between emotional intelligence and career development in
your institution?
7. What are the benefits gained from implementing emotional intelligence?
8. How does career development improve employee job satisfaction?
9. Does emotional intelligence have any effect on career development?
