Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
ED 094 243
AUTHORTITLE
INSTITUTION
PUB DATENOTE
AVAILABLE FROM
DOCUMENT RESUME
CE 001 776
Furter, PierrePossibilities and Limitations of Functional Literacy:The Iranian Experiment. Educational Studies andDocuments: No. 9.United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization, Paris (France).7360p.; For related document, see 'CE 001 775. Alsoavailable in FrenchUnited Nations Educational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization, 7, Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris,France (Order No. 92-3-101075-1, $1.95).
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRS. PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Adult Basic Education; *Adult Education Programs;
*Adult Literacy; Continuous Learning; CulturalFactors; Developing Nations; EducationalDisadvantagement; Experimental Programs; ForeignCountries; *Functional Illiteracy; Illiteracy;Illiterate Adults; Literacy; *Literacy Education;Pilot Projects; Program Development
IDENTIFIERS Iran; Work Oriented Literacy Programs
ABSTRACTThe study is a description of the activities
undertaken within the framework of the work-oriented adult literacypilot project in Iran, an evaluation of its first measurable results,and an examination of the problems of functional literacy in thelight of the Iranian experiment. The first chapter traces the effortsof the Iranian authorities over the years in extending literacy fromthe privileed to the entire population and describes the aims of thepilot project. The second chapter is devoted to the problems offunctional literacy training and the fuller utilization of humanresources, defining the frame of reference for educational action andthe noneducational conditions which govern it. Chapter 3 discussesthe purely educational level of integration and the development of amethodology with tables, illustrating programs, training sequences,and teaching materials. Chapter 4 deals with the confrontationbetween the old and the new, and the development of an evaluationprogram. The final chapter raises questions related to futuredevelopments, the concept of life-long adult education, and theinternational consequences of the Iranian experiment. An appendixincludes a bibliography and project documents. (MW)
No.9 Possibilities and limitations ofr,eN functional literacy
the Iranian experimentC;)
SCOPE OF INTEREST NOTICE
The ERIC Facility has assignedthis document for processingto: GIn our judgement, this documentIs also of interest to the clearinghouses noted to the right, Index,ing should reflect their specialpoints of WOW.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.EDUCATION I WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY
Unesco
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISCOPYRIGHTED MATERIAL BY MICRO.F I A bl3Sta.IRSLIT: D Byir
Unesco PreSTO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERATING UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONFURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDETHE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES FERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER "
EDUCATIONAL STUDIES AND DOCUMENTSNew series
Published in English, French and for titles marked withan asterisk in Spanish.
List of titles published or in preparation ..
I . Education in the Arab region viewed from the 1970Marrakesh Conference
1. Agriculture and general education3. Teachers and educational policy4. *Comparative study of secondary school
building costs5. Literacy for working : functional literacy
in rural Tanzania6. *Rights and responsibilities of youth
(also available in Russian)7. Growth and change : perspectives of education in Asia8. Sports facilities for schools in developing countries9. Possibilities and limitations of functional literacy ;
the Iranian experiment10. Functional literacy in Mali : training for development11 . * Anthropology and language science in educational
development11. Towards a conceptual model of lifelong education
In the field of education, Unesco also publishes thefollowing periodicals :
Prospects in EducationLiteracy NewsletterEducational Documentation
and Information: Bulletin of the IBE
Possibilities and limitations offunctional literacy :
the Iranian experiment
by Pierre Furter
Unesco
/
English edition ISEN92-3-101075-1
French edition ISBN92-3-201075-5
LC No. 73.281021
Composed and printed in 1973 in the Workshopsof the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization,Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France
Printed in FranceC Unesco 1973
Preface
Since the approval of the Experimental World Lit-eracy Programme by the General Conference ofUnesco at its thirteenth session, in November 1964,the pilot project in Iran has been among those whichhave aroused the keenest and most lasting interestamong experts in educational methodology. It maybe said to have been a testing-ground for the so-called "ecological" approach to functional literacy.This approach consists first in identifying the dif-ficulties which prevent productive workers fromreaching a particular priority development objective,then in finding solutions to those problems, and,finally, working these solutions into very specifictraining programmes.
The present study is a description of the activi-ties undertaken within the framework of the pilotproject in Iran, an evaluation of its first measur-able results and an examination of the problemsof functional literacy in the light of the Iranianexperiment. It thus follows on from the publica-tion, in the series "Educational studies and docu-ments", of a study on the literacy pilot projectin Tanzania, and should be of interest both to thosewho feel particularly concerned with the progressof literacy and to the ever-increasing number
of people who are seeking ways and means topromote a better adaptation of the educationalprocesses as a whole to the aims and requirementsof man and society.
The author of this monograph is Mr. PierreFurter, a former Unesco expert in Latin America,who has worked with the International Institute ofEducational Planning and who lectures in educationat the University of Neuchatel (Switzerland) and atthe African Institute in Geneva. The fact that Mr.Furter is both a practitioner and a theorist in edu-cation and adult literacy makes his judgments parti-cularly well-informed and acute. The author alsohas that faculty found among teachers and research-ers of raising fundamental problems and stimulatingtrains of thought. This said, his assessments ofvarious aspects of the Iranian experiment do notnecessarily reflect the views of Unesco and are notthe responsibility of the Organization.
We should like to take this opportunity of expres-sing our sincere thanks to all those who have contri-buted to the preparation of this study, in particular,Mr. Furter himself and the leaders and membersof the national and international team for the Iranianwork-oriented literacy project.
3
Table of contents
Foreword
Chapter I From one type of literacy training to the other 7
Chapter II Functional literacy training and the fuller utilizationof human resources . . . . .. 15
Chapter III The development of a methodology 27
Chapter IV The old and the new 45
Conclusions The future of the Iranian experiment 51
Annexes
I. Bibliography on adult literacy training and education in Iran
II. Documentation on the work-oriented adult literacy pilot project in Iran
III Studies and documents envisaged in the publications plan of the work-oriented adult literacy pilot project in Iran
Foreword
The Iranian contribution to the world literacycampaign has often aroused interest. It has beenthe subject of many reports, descriptions and evenin-depth studies both by Iranian specialists and byresearchers from all over the world(1).
In the specific case of the work-oriented adultl+teracy pilot project in Iran, a great deal of in-formation has already been established, eitherdirectly by the organizers of the project, who havebeen highly productive, or by consultants, membersof the Unesco Secretariat and intereste'4 outsiders (2).
Although during the first two years of the pro-ject, no archives or documentation system wereset up, the evaluation section has, since 1969,gradually organized the mass of available documentsand data. The International Institute for Adult Lit-eracy Methods also put its library and extensivedocumentation at our disposal. However, it wasnot enough, for the needs of the present study,simply to use this material; it was also necessaryto define our objective so as not to repeat what hasalready been said and written.
As a result of a visit to the field - no doubt tooshort for us to grasp all the implications of theinformation with which we were so liberally sup-plied - we adopted an approach which, like any pre-determined attitude, is open to criticism. Itseemed, however, to correspond best to the spiritof the Iranian project, which is one of inventiveness.By this we mean that the team working on the pro-ject has shown creativity and a pioneering spirit,even though they may not always have known how tointroduce, multiply and spread their discoveries,through lack of an innovation strategy.
Hitherto, on the basis of our experience in LatinAmerica, we had thought that the translation intopractice of the prospects for functional literacy re-vealed at the Teheran Conference had been muddled.It tF ,s came as a shock to us to find that this con-ception of literacy could in fact be achieved inpractical terms, when the national and internationalteams in charge of the experiment were willing totake a risk and adopt the working hypothesis thatfunctional literacy was something they had to create
for themselves, and that there could therefore beno question of applying ready-made formulae andeven. less of implementing plans established on ana priori basis. In describing the project, we hadalso to show that the present stage has only beenreached as a result of an operational action whichhas included many hesitations, fumblings and some-times mistakes. The results obtained, which wewould go so far as to say were not only interestingbut also positive, raise further questions; more-over, success has perhaps also hardened resis-tances, showing that invention is a calling in ques-tion of what has already been achieved and thatinnovation is more than merely the disseminationof new ideas.
All this confirms how difficult it is, especiallyin the field of education, to be inventive. But whilethis is sometimes considered as a reason for giv-ing up any hope of change or as the justification ofan over-cautious and sceptical attitude, the in-creasingly coherent and dynamic character of theIranian project proves, by the very tenacity of theteam in charge, who were determined to carry itthrough to its ultimate conclusions, that there arealso grounds for hope.
The plan and structure of our interpretationfollowed on from the approach we adopted.
The lengthy research which went into the pilotproject would not have been possible in any but theIranian context, in which civilization has alwaysprimarily meant written culture, even to the finalrefinement of transforming a means - writing -into an aesthetic end - calligraphy - in which formand content are perfectly merged. The first chap-ter of this study therefore emphasizes how much
1. Annex I proposes a selective bibliography of thematerial which is most easily accessible toforeign researchers.
2. Annex II gives a list of all the more importantdocuments which have come to our notice andwhich we have been able, at one time or another,to consult on the spot.
5
the pilot project has benefited from the constantdetermination of the Iranian authorities to extendto the whole of the population what has been furthousands of years the privilege of the literate alone.
Beyond this general aim, the pilot project hasmade it possible to define the contribution made byliteracy work towards the solution of the present-day problems of Iran, which claims not only to bemodernizing itself but also to be gradually drawingall the human resources of the country into thenational development projects. This objective,which is emphasized in the title of the project -"work- oriented" adult literacy pilot project - pre-supposes a high degree of integration of trainingwork with everything that can or should develop andpromote human potential in each of the actual devel-opment projects; the second chapter of our study isdevoted to the problems of this inter-sectoraloperation.
In addition to this first level of integration, whichdefines the frame of reference for educational actionand the non-educational conditions which govern it,there should also be a second level of integration,this time purely educational. As the Iranian projecthas particularly developed this aspect, we havegiven it a certain emphasis in Chapter III.
In a country where there are everywhere strongcontrasts between a glorious past and a presentwhich is becoming more and more closely associatedwith the so-called "modern" world, the pilot projectcould not avoid confrontation between the old and thenew. We have tried to bring this out in Chapter IV.
Finally, in the last chapter, which could alsoform the first chapter of a rww experiment, we haveraised the question of hov to complete an experi-mental project without en,liag it, i. e. how the endof this project could be the beginning of furtherdevelopment enterprises.
We hope that this interpretation will enable thereader to get a better idea of all that is involvedwhen a State freely decides to take part in the Ex-perimental World Literacy Programme. We shouldlike this study to arouse the curiosity and interest
6
of other researchers in such experiments, whichbring one into direct contact with the problem areasof what has been called the "world education crisis".However, we must acknowledge that our work canonly serve as an introduction, as seen by an educator.To show clearly where our interpretation begins andends, we have refrained from quoting any references,so as to assume sole responsibility. It is only whenall the documents included in the publications planof the project(l) have been published during thecourse of this year, and the evaluation team hascirculated the results of its detailed investigationsthat it will be possible to produce a systematic,interdisciplinary, overall work which we are con-vinced will make a decisive contribution towards therenewal, not only of the concepts of literacy and adulteducation but also of modern education in general.
Lastly, wk should like to express our profoundgratitude to all those who have helped to make thiswork easier: to the members of the Secretariat ofUnesco, who gave us the fullest possible freedomto carry out this mission and coped marvellouslywith all the material difficulties; to our Iranian andinternational colleagues, who opened all their dos-siers and replied with the greatest frankness andsometimes with disconcerting critical awarenessto our sometimes pointed or complicated questions;to the Resident Representative of the United Nationsand his associates, who solved all the practicalproblems in the field and smoothed the way for allthe contacts we wanted with the Iranian authorities;but above all to the Iranian authorities, who not onlyimposed no restrictions on us but, on the contrary,took an interest in this attempt to understand thefacts of the situation, which we should like to havecarried further had we had sufficient time and es-pecially if we had understood Persian. We hopethat the result of our work, however modest, givesa true picture of this project in which so manypeople have placed so much hope.
1. See Annex III.
Chapter I From one type of literacytraining to the other
As hereditary Head of State of one of the world's oldest civilizationsand representative of a thii.king which has for centuries identified thestruggle for the principles of truth, purity and light with that whichthe defenders of Good must wage against the forces of Evil, I cannotconceal my fullest solidarity w'th all men of goodwill who are todayengaged in the world struggle against illiteracy. "
A FAVOURABLE CONTEXT
If we were to draw up a balance-sheet listing thefactors that have favoured the development of theIranian project, the chief among them would proba-bly be the continued interest that the government -under the direct and personal influence of HisImperial Majesty the Shahinshah - has displayedfor the past decade in all the activities which havesought to vitalize, intensify and accelerate literacywork. It is a natural extension of this interest thatthe Iranian authorities, represented by Her ImperialHighness Princess Ashraf, should be closely asso-ciated with Unesco's undertaking, which seeks tounite all Member States in a common effort toeliminate this cultural inequality which, it is in-creasingly realized, is an intolerable injustice. In1965, on the initiative of the Shahinshah, Unescoconvened, in Teheran, a World Conference ofMinisters of Education on the Eradication of Il-literacy. Two years later came the institution ofthe Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Prize, intended toreward meritorious work in literacy teaching eachyear. Subsequently the International Institute forAdult Literacy Methods was set up in Teheran inorder to serve as a meeting point and a place fordiscussion and comparison by educators from allover the world engaged in various types of literacywork.
This commitment to the idea of international
(Message of H. I. M. the Shahinshah tothe thirteenth session of the GeneralConference of Unesco, October 1964)
co-operation was bound to have repercussions onthe Iranian experiment, in which there has beenan increasing concern for efficiency. Having takenon so much already, why not try to do still more?And since the country is endeavouring, in everyway, to advance by its own efforts along the pathof modernity - without, however, repudiating itsancient past - why not create a vanguard movementin literacy as well?
Iran's direct participation in the ExperimentalWorld Literacy Programme stemmed quite natural-ly from its cultural experience. A country which,in the course of its history, had so often assimi-lated influences, either freely accepted or imposed,and given them new creative force, could tacklenew experiments imaginatively. It was in thisspirit of fair competition, free from any animosityor hostility, that the work-oriented literacy pilotproject was devised, prepared and implemented.
Before describing the work achieved by the teamof national and international experts, it might beuseful to make a brief reference to the backgroundagainst which this action takes place and will beviewed. Granting that functional literacy work isbased on three conceptual premises - a survey ofresearch into illiteracy considered as a complexphenomenon whose salient features as a whole mustbe identified, an assessment of comparative studieswhich have revealed the limits of traditional litera-cy teaching methods, and a number of working
7
hypotheses, more especially those formulated atthe Teheran Congress - we should begin by askingourselves how far these have been carried in Iran.
v ej
The buden of illiteracy (Poster used in thepilot project in Iran)
THE MULTI-DIMENSIONALNATURE OF ILLITERACY
Bordering the Dezful sub-project area, about 30kilometres from one of the centres in which a newliteracy teaching methodology is being developed,stands a large roadside village. Were it not for itsname, Shush, it would certainly not claim our atten-tion. It is all that remains of the ancient Susa, whichbecame the winter capital of the empire of theAchaemenids under Dcrius the Great. But, moreimportant to us than the aura of the capital, is thefact that Susa was a site where, over millenia,several great cities succeeded one another andwhere, perhaps, the urban phenomenon emergedfor the first time. It may have been this inventionof the town that allowed the succeeding cultures toemerge. The organization, functioning and activi-ties of highly concentrated populations led to theuse of picture - writing, the origins of which must
8
go back to the proto-Elamie era, 1, e, &bout3,000 13. C. Today, 5,000 years later, the metro-polis which has become a village struggles alongin a region where 85 per cent of the population areIlliterate: the instrument of culture has not sur-vived the disappearance of the circumstancesattending its birth.
Iran, which is thus one of the countries in whichwriting was invented, has contributed to the develop-ment of this art at other periods in its history rswell. The Iranians continued to write in their ownPersian language, though in a script imposed onthem by the Arab conquerors, and indeed achievedsuch skill that they are reckoned among the mastersof Arabic calligraphy. The traditional importanceattached to calligraphy, with its complex and harmo-nious movements which encourage self-expression,did not escape the attention of the pilot projectorganizers, who tried to give it a special place inthe training methodology.
And yet, in spite of this aptitude for creativeassimilation, this civilization, in which writing hasbeen so important for thousands of years, has onlybecome aware of the problem of illiteracy withinthe last century. This was due to the fact that theuse of writing was restricted to privileged minori-ties. Whereas the purpose of writing could beutilitarian - even accounts were recorded on tabletsin ancient Susa - the re were other functions that tookprecedence over the utilitarian aspect. J. Goodyhas listed a dozen in the Mesopotamian cultures. Cl)
Table I. The traditional functions of writing
Recording data forfuture use
ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES
CODIFICATION OF LAW
FORMULATION OF A SACREDTRADITION FOR ANNALS
Communicationof data
LETTERS
ROYAL EDICTS
PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENTS
TEXTS FOR TRAINING SCRIBES
Communicationwith gods
1. J. Goody (ed) , Literacy in traditional socie-ties, Cambridge University Press, 1958, p. 21.
Most of these functions are conservative incharacter, writing being used to perpetuate customsand avoid innovations, It was also the preserve ofcastes who tended to emphasize its esoteric charac-ter. Ultimately, writing served only as a means ofcommunication between a handful of initiates - whichmeant that it remained a mystery to the masses,These cultural characteristics explain why eventoday illiterates are not bothered about their illitera-cy if an intermediary is available (the scribe, thepublic letter-writer in the village, etc. ). Hencethe reactions of the peasants in northern Iran whoasked to be paid for learning to read and write.They were not conscious of illiteracy as being theirproblem; it was somebody else's. The wide rangeof literacy's cultural functions also prevents theilliterate from seeing that it has any close bearingon the exercise of a trade,
To these cultural difficulties may be added thesociological gap, While the essential elements ofcivilization were transmitted from person to personby the traditional forms of communication in therural areas, the use of writing as a medium was notfelt to be necessary, Traditional agricultural tech-niques may therefore still be improved to a large*extent without literacy training, although this nolonger seems to be true for modern techniques. Theimportarce of literacy is undisputed in urban areas,where the density of population and the complexityof human relations make human exchanges, and con-sequently communication by word of mouth, some-what uncertain. It is here that writing becomes anecessary medium. As the differences between theurban and rural worlds recede, illiteracy will conicto be recognized as a problem. Similarly, the desireto integrate all the human resources of a country,to increase its capacity for development or to givea wider basis to nationalism, brings to light the il-literacy of a number of minority groups (in Iran,this was the case, for example, with regard to theintegration of the nomadic tribes).
This gap between the literate and the illiterate,which has come about through mutual ignorance andindifference, is wider in Iran on account of the factthat Persian has become an eminently literary lan-guage. As the great literary works, symbols andillustrations of the national culture, were writtenin Persian but in Arabic script, the present tran-scription, although it does not render the vowelssatisfactorily, has become untouchable. The expertsof the Iranian project found little response or under-standing when they sought to interest the linguistsof the country in the study of a number of technicaldifficulties such as the systematization of writtenforms (the pronunciation of certain homographsdepends on the meaning, which has to be deducedfrom the context). the simplification of the spellingof a language which contains a large number of signsand characters, or the revision of an excessivelycomplicated grammar.
In addition to these problems, which those res-ponsible for literacy work should consider when
they choose a frame of reference, (1) there are otherproblems which inevitably have far-reaching reper-cussions on the development of a methodology(2).Firstly, it would seem that illiteracy is linked, onthe purely psychological level, to a concrete andlargely non conceptual way of thinking, in whichthere is great difficulty in transferring acquiredknowledge from one situation to another. The il-literate is not good at understanding causal relation-ships and consequently has difficulty in graspingphysical and natural laws. This thinking is situatedat a behavioural level which may be described as"a-technical". There are other limitations, suchas the inability to interpret a visual image as arepresentation, which make the illiterate quite in-sensible to visual messages in the form of diagrams,charts, etc. Similarly the illiterate is sloppy andinaccurate in assessing measurements, Finallythere is the socio-psychological aspect, i. e, theinfluence of the group on the behaviour and changesof attitude of the individual, especially at this stageof cultural development.
So far this has not been shown systematically inIran, although direct observation of a number of theabove-mentioned facts has already served as apoint of departure for working out the methodologyof the Iranian project.
THE SUCCESSIVE STAGES OF LITERACYWORK IN IRAN
Up to the end of the nineteenth century, popular edu-cation in Iran was provided only by the Koranicschools ("mektab") which accepted adults as wellas children. Even today this informal system ofinstruction trains about 8.4 per cent of men in thetowns and 4 per cent in the country areas. It wasonly very late in the day that the Iranian Stateshouldered some of the responsibility for primaryeducation: in 1910 there were still only 113 schools,with 10,531 children. It was only under the reignof Reza Shah, from 1925 to 1940, that public in-struction for the masses became a speciallyfavoured instrument of a nationalist policy and avirtual monopoly of the State. Although, as a re-sult of this effort, the number of schools doubledand the number of pupils increased fourfold, thisexpansion was only felt in the major urban centresand made very little difference to the level of edu-cation of the country people. Even the eveningclasses for adults, which were started in 1936 bythe new Department of Adult Education in the Minis-try of Education, did not extend beyond the towns.
During the particularly difficult period whichfollowed, several attempts were made to improvethis situation: thus in 1943, assistant teacherswere introduced; in 1949 the length of compulsory
1, See Chapter II,2, See Chapter III,
9
schooling was reduced to four years, to make upfor the increasing lack of teachers, particularly inthe rural areas; in 1946 adult education was re-formed so as to enable the private sector to parti-cipate; and finally, In 1953, a Department of Basic
Education was set up, to look after communitydevelopment and popular education in rural areas.The census showed that 85 per cent of the populationwas illiterate - 78 per cent of men but 93 per centof women. (See table 2).
Table 2. Numbers and percentages of literates by age group in 1956
Age groupTotal
Numbers
354
224
177
297
187
108
66
35
Urbanpopulation
RuralpopulationIii F
10 . 14
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 34
35 .4445 - 5455 -6465 and over
Total'
513
316
237
382
223
123
73
39
1 910
593
236
302700
049544
480995
513
818
318
536
992
897
229
845
159
91
59
85
35
14
7
4
080418
984
164
057
647
251
150
369
237
184
280
160
87
49
25
036
996
620
369
303
814
623
813
144
78
52
102
62
35
23
14
557
240
682
331
746
730
857
)82
630 1 453 676 456 954 1 396 150 514 480
Percentages
10 - 14 28 36 19 59 I215 - 19 22 32 13 46 9
20 - 24 16 25 8 33 6
25 - 34 13 21 6 31 5
35 - 44 11 16 4 27 5
45 - 54 9 15 2 19 455 - 64 7 13 16 4
65 and over 5 9 12 3
Total' 15 7 33 6
Source : Population census 1956 Vol. III. Population aged II) years and over. including unspecified age-groups.
The results of the population census arousedpublic interest. Awareness campaigns wereorganized; a "holy war" was declared on illiteracy;intensive courses were set up and the number ofclasses for adults multiplied. Thus between 1956and 1964 some 4 million illiterates, of whom morethan half .)assed the final examinations, were in-volved in the literacy campaign. Finally, and aboveall, large numbers of primary schools were built,although it was not always possible to find the neces-sary teaching staff, particularly in the country.Thus in 1961-1962', when 79 per cent of children ofschool age could attend school in the towns, only 24per cent could enrol in the rural areas. So as to
10
eliminate once and for all this gap between thecountry and the towns, H. I. NI. the Shahinshah pro-posed a programme of reforms which was adoptedin January 1963. This "white revolution" led tothe establishment of a number of "revolutionarycorps" - the Health Corps, the Development andExtension Corps, the Literacy Corps, etc. Amongother objectives, the "white revolution" aims toachieve electoral reform, including votes forwomen; it introduces the right of workers' partici-pation in enterprises; and above all it aims for thenationalization of the crown estates and agrarianreforms. The "Literacy Corps" (or EducationCorps) was set up to stimulate local political
activity, to fill the gap caused by the dispossessionof the big landowners, and above all to use all thecountry schools, even the most isolated, and toprovide basic primary instruction for all children,This corps, like the others, also has to organizeliteracy classes for adults. It gives secondary'school leavers the choice of doing their militaryservice as primary school teachers ("sepahis")after a six-month period of initial training. At theend of their military service, they may, if they sowish, take up education as a career and be employ-ed by the Ministry of Education as school teachers.
The contribution of the "sepahis" has been con-siderable. In 1969-1970 - i, e. seven years aftertheir establishment - 21 per cent of the schoolchildren in rural areas were being taught by sepahis,but the extent of their school teaching duties doesnot give them much time for literacy work or foradult education. In 1969-1970, while they had res-ponsibility for 11,942 classes totalling 386,765children, they were only conducting 3,973 classesfor 72,530 adults. Moreover, the purely scholas-tic syllabuses and rather elementary teaching tech-niques in which they have been trained somewhatlimit their action: despite their goodwill, they canhardly provide more than a fairly sketchy form ofliteracy instruction. The following example does
a) Female population
711111,616._.
Two Literacy Corps sepahis talking to a peasanttaking part in the pilot project
not seem to be exceptional: out of 2,026 adults whoregistered for the first-year course, only 44 atten-ded the second part of the course.
These first large-scale efforts have neverthe-less produced a marked improvement in literacy,as shown by the 1966 census. (See table 3).
Table 3. Literacy 1956.1966
1956 1966
Populationof 10 yearsand over
Literates Populationof 10 yearsand over
Literates
Country as a whole
Urban areas
Rural areas
6 241 850
2 014 408
4 227 442
456 954
414 263
42 691
7,3
20,6
1
7 989 606
3 209 182
4 780 424
I 320 384
1 156 741
163 643
16,5
36
3,4
b) Population as a whole
1956 1966
Populationof 10 yearsand over
Literates Populationof 10 yearsand over
Literates
Country as a whole
Urban areas
Rural areas
12 784 031
4 186 881
8 597 150
1 910 630
1 396 150
514 480
14,9
33,3
6
16 535 844
6 746 439
9 789 405
4 649841
3 310 769
1 339 072
28,1
49,1
13,7
Source: Iran Altnanach 1969, p.496
11
Although these results were encouraging, theywere not considered sufficient. In January 1965,therefore, the National Committee for Literacy wasset up; after the Teheran Congress, this becamethe National Committee for the World LiteracyProgramme(I). With 11. I. M. the Shahinshah, asPresident, represented by H. I. H. Princess Ashraf,Vice-President, the Committee began to prepare anational campaign, organizing an initial experimentin the Kazvin region near Teheran, then a secondin the Shiraz region. Without waiting for the re-sults of an evaluation of the two experiments, theCommittee considered that they were a sufficientbasis for the finalization of its teaching material.It then launched the National Campaign and exten-ded its activities over the whole of the country,through a network of regional and local committees,
At local level, each of the 150 committees nowin existence has to fulfil numerous functions, ofwhich the most important are:(a) to collect statistics on children from 6 to 12
years who have not been able to enrol in schools -the latter have priority over those over the ageof 13, who are considered as adults;
(b)to train "monitors" who, when employed, arepaid on a pro rata basis according to the numberof their pupils who pass the final examinationscertifying that they are literate;
(c)to supervise classes, the complete syllabus ofwhich extends, in theory, over two six-monthperiods (which should enable pupils to reach alevel of education equivalent to that of the fourthyear of primary school).The National Committee is responsible for
evaluation and the preparation of programmes andof teaching materials and for ensuring the financingof the programme, partly through voluntary contri-butions, but largely through a subvention grantedby the Plan Organization and calculated on the basisof 2,000 rials per successful pupil. These resourcesare supplemented by a levy from municipal authori-ties which amounts to 5 per cent of their revenue.
The National Campaign as organized at presentcorresponds fairly closely to the criteria which theTeheran Congress had proposed for traditionalliteracy campaigns:its action is widespread, i. e. it seeks to reach the
greatest possible number of illiterates;pupils are selected on a purely territorial basis;its action is extensive, since it seeks to transmit
to adults a level of knowledge which correspondsexactly to the contents of the primary schoolsyllabus;
its objectives are essentially scholastic and, in thisparticular case, are restricted to reaching thelevel of the fourth year of primary education;
so far only one textbook has been used but, underthe influence of the pilot project, an effort hasbeen made to vary the material, beginning withthe readers.
12
(
now three first readers are used (one for ruralareas, one for urban areas, and a third for thepopulation of Azerbaijan) and 19 supplementarybooklets.
Although no definitive evaluation study has beenmade giving an objective picture of the results ob-tained after four years of work, it is neverthelesspossible to state that the National Campaign is run-ning into increasing difficulties, which include:the rise in the cost of literacy work, due to the in-
creasing rate of dropping out and repeating;the marked decrease in initial enrolments for the
courses;poor retention of knowledge;the very high percentage of women and children
among the participants.Following the National Conference on the Elimi-
nation of Illiteracy, the Government decided thatthe National Committee would no longer be respon-sible for the implementation of the programmes.Its competence would be limited to the planning,financing and supervision of so-called "traditional"literacy activities.
This very brief summary of the efforts whichIran has made to encourage the cultural develop-ment of its least privileged citizens is, we think,sufficient to show that this country has tried allthe methods so far used in the sphere of popular edu-cation. It was therefore not surprising that Iranwas one of the first countries to show interest inthe principles laid down by the Teheran Congress.As none of the previous national efforts had beensubjected to rigorous evaluation, it was hoped thatIran's participation in the Experimental WorldLiteracy Programme would encourage critical re-flexion whilst diversifying the methods used andextending the range of possible comparisons.
THE PRINCIPLE OF FUNCTIONALLITERACY TRAINING AND THE AIMSOF THE PILOT PROJECT
The Teheran Conference, in 1965, defined functionalliteracy in terms of three criteria, which were tobe adopted from then on in all literacy trainingprojects. Functional literacy was any literacytraining operation which was centred on develop-ment, and integrated in it, and which entered as acomponent into a specific development project.This formula, as we see, did not define the termfunctional or indicate how literacy could be madefunctional.
When the Iranian Government submitted its re-quest to the United Nations Development Pro-gramme in 1966 the definition was still very vague.
1. Also called the National Committee for the WorldCampaign against Illiteracy.
It might be summed up as a programme going beyondmere literacy training. In other words, functionalliteracy training was literacy training along withsomething else which it was precisely the functionof the pilot project to try to identify. The 1967 Planof Operations does this by a process of elimination.Functional literacy will not be confined to learningthe elementary mechanisms of reading, writing andarithmetic, but will give adults of both sexes thegeneral and technical knowledge necessary for theindividual, vocational, social and cultural trainingwhich will make it possible to transform societythrough development. It was not until the Iranianproject was revised, in 1970, that a positive andprecise definition was given: functional literacytraining was defined as a technical and culturalpromotion activity, integrating vocational training,an introduction to science, mathematical instruc-tion, civic and socio-economic training and thelearning of reading and writing in a synchronizedprocess, designed to encourage increased produc-tivity on the part of workers, facilitate their inte-gration in a society undergoing rapid modernization,and hasten development.
On the basis of the trends emerging from theTeheran Conference, the Secretariat preparedguidelines for the execution of this work-orientedliteracy project. The strategy was to be selective,the type of training intensive, and the contents ofthe educational programme were to be integrated.When it came to submitting the request in 1966(1)the purpose of the pilot project was expressed invery vague terms:it should help to set up an intensive, work-oriented
literacy training project linked with economicdevelopment in Iran;
it might comprise a central administration, a re-search centre in Teheran and three pilot experi-ments in different parts of the country.The Plan of Operations drawn up on this basis
entered into greater detail:the pilot project should assist the Iranian Govern-
ment in developing a work-oriented adult literacypilot project in an irrigated agriculture develop-ment zone and an industrial zone;
as part of the experiment, the pilot project wouldestablish two permanent training centres for theinstructors required for its implementation.However, here too, it was not until the project
was revised that two precise aims were formulated.These were to help the Iranian Government :to devise, prepare and implement a series of func-
tional literacy training programmes for workersof both sexes aged from 14 to 45 in homogeneoussocial and occupational groups ; and
to evaluate the impact of these programmes. on eco-nomic growth and social change in the two re-gions selected for the experiment, in particular,by measuring its effects on the behaviour, atti-tudes and qualifications of workers.
1. The request was re-formulated following aUNDP-Unesco mission, the Iranian Governmentdeciding, in particular, to forego the third pilotexperiment originally planned.
13
Chapter II Functional literacy trainingand the fuller utilizationof human resources
"What is the craftsman's duty? ", the wise man asked the Spiritof Wisdom.
The Spirit replied, "This is the duty of the craftsman, thathe should not undertake any work for which he is not fitted, andthat that work for which he is fitted, he should perform with careand ask a just wage for it. He who insists on doing work forwhichhe is not fitted spoils the work and makes it worthless; ifin addition he is satisfied with his work, then it even leads himinto sin.
THE FRAME OF REFERENCE OFFUNCTIONAL LITERACY TRAINING
At first glance, functional literacy work has some-thing reassuring about it: since it is a part of some-thing else, of a project which has already been plan-ned, organized and programmed, it should be enoughfor the educators who carry it out to know that frameof reference in order to deduce the educational needsand the means of meeting them. Experience shows,however, that this is not always so clear and thatthe educator is well advised, if he wants to avoidsubsequent disappointments or inextricable diffi-culties, to ask himself a series of questions with aview to finding out whether the educational work forwhich he is responsible is actually implicit withinthe frame of reference, or is considered as a pos-sibility or overlooked altogether. Some of thesequestions are simple. Is there sustained economicgrowth guaranteeing the permanence of the econo-mic projects during the fairly long period (4 to 5years) required for establishing the literacy train-ing projects linked with them? Is this economicgrowth planned? Is the development of human re-sources taken into account in such plans? Is therean employment policy? There are other, moredifficult questions. Is the employment policy, for
Dadist An f MenOg f Xrad(VIIth century, Sassanid period)
example, applied at regional and local level? Whatbodies apply it? Does it extend to all sectors of theeconomy? Should all development projects keep toit? Sometimes questions arise which cannot beanswered, at least not officially, for instance, whyhave there been several changes of direction inemployment policy?
We realize of course that it is not for the educa-tors to answer these questions alone, and still lessto search for solutions to problems outside theirsphere of competence. However convinced an edu-cator may be of the need to develop human resourcesif economic growth is to become real development,it would be technically and politically difficult forhim to propose a human resources policy. On theother hand he is entitled, we think, to ask for, evento demand answers to these questions from the ap-propriate bodies, so as not to spend his timetraining people who will subsequently be unable tofind employment, not to make mistakes in the se-lection of candidates for admission to courses andeven, as we shall see in the following chapter, notto devise methods which are ultimately as remotefrom the realm of reality as the most traditionalschool curricula. That is why, as an educator, Ihave asked these questions in connexion with theIranian pilot project.
3
gr.
0-j
ti
/Ks
Expectation: farmers at a pilot project course
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTIN IRAN
Seen as a whole, Iran's development over the pastten years is reassuring to the educator. If one takesper capita income, Iran is one of the front-runnersamong the developing countries with $245. Not onlyhas the rate of economic growth been remarkablyrapid and regular, but it even seems to be becomingmore rapid. Between 1959 and 1965, the GrossNational Product increased by 6. 6 per cent and bythe end of the Third Plan (1963-1967) the rate ofgrowth was estimated variously at from 8 to 12 percent. This growth is doubtless due mainly to theextraction and processing of oil and natural gas,which still account for 11 per cent of the GNP. Themassive contribution which this sector makes to theeconomy - oil is the main source of public invest-ment - will probably continue in the near future inview of Iran's favourable situation on the oil market,particularly following the recent Teheran agree-ments and the country's extensive accessible re-serves. In addition, it will soon be possible to workthe deposits of copper anti other non-ferrous oreswhich have been discovered.
16
Nevertheless, the diversification of the Iranianeconomy also contributes to the growth and develop-ment of exports which, in addition to petrol, haveso far included cotton, carpets and dried fruits.Relatively speaking, the fastest-growing sector isthe industrial sector; this may be a result of theintroduction of new light industries or of themodernization of traditional branches of industrysuch as textiles, or again it may be due to thesetting-up of large complexes of heavy industrywhich, it is hoped, will later have a multipliereffect. While the contribution of agriculture to theGNP fell between 1959 and 1966 from 34 per centto 24. 5 per cent, during the same period industry'scontribution almost doubled (from 8. 7to 14. 2 percent). It is therefore reasonable to expect thatthere will be increasing need for skilled labour inindustry, which will involve both the acceleratedtraining of a specialized labour force and the furthertraining or re-training of the traditional labourforce, or alternatively the occupational conversionof that part of the population which was previouslyliving in a rural environment, but has now movedto areas where industrial complexes are being setup from scratch.
The situation is very different in agriculture.Not only does this sector produce only one quarterof the GNP while employing half the available labour,but its growth rate is 2. 4 per cent, i. e. less thanthe population growth rate (2. 6 per cent). The in-adequate level of productivity in agriculture forcesthe government to import rice, sugar, vegetableoil, etc. It might give rise to serious problemsif the food deficit were to increase. There aremany factors involved in this situation. Despiteits size, Iran has hardly 4 per cent of cultivatedland, since the greater part of the country's sur-face-area is covered with high plateaux which aresemi-deserts, and large salt deserts. Of the 19million hectares of cultivated land, half arereckoned to be lying fallow, and a quarter givenover iu pasture. This is why, while the averagepopulation density is 15 to the square kilometre,it is 360 to the square kilometre of cultivated land.Moreover, not only is there a lack of land, butthere is an even more serious shortage of water:suffice it to recall that three-quarters of agricul-tural production comes from irrigated land. Final-ly, we can assume that ignorance of modernmethods in the production and marketing of pro-ducts is also creating a bottleneck in the develop-ment of the agricultural sector. The governmenthas accordingly carried out wide-ranging structuralmodifications. Thus the agrarian reform introducedin the framework of the "white revolution" forbadethe big landlords to own more than one village, andruled that they must sell off any excess land. Else-where, the construction of dams has allowed thedevelopment of irrigation systems and the replace-ment of traditional systems of water distributionwhich in some cases dated from the very earliestperiod of Iranian civilization.
Table 4. Breakdown of the economically active poupulation among occupationalgroups by educational level
Occupational IGroups
WorkingPopulation
IlliterateWorkingPopulation
Literate Working Population Total
Primary School(4,
Secondary School Higher Education
0. Agriculture 46.2 55.4 27.1 3 0.9 21.2
I. Extractiveindustries 0.74 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2/3. Manufacturingindustries 18.5 18.4 21.7 12 6.7 19
4. Construction 7.4 8.1 6.6 2.3 3.3 5.6
5. Electricity,gas, water 0.8 0.5 1.4 2.2 1.9 1.6
6. Trade 8 5.3 16 15.6 6 15.5
7. Transport 3.3 2.3 6.1 6 2.2 5.9
b Services 13 8.1 18.4 '55A 75.2 28.3
9. tither and unspe-cified groups 1.8 1.6 2.2 3 3.3 2.4
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Source : A. Ahmadi, Etude de la situation de la population active en Iran : Ministry of Higher EducationResearch Centre, 1969
1. 0 = primary sector1 to 5 = secondary sector6 to 9 = tertiary sectortotal of secondary sector = 27.1 per cent of the active populationtotal of tertiary sector = 26.7 per cent of the active population
After this short review of the salient facts ofIran's recent development, then, we can concludethat the country has entered on a phase of changeenabling her to make fuller use of her human re-sources. However, the schemes and developmentplans to which we referred would not seem in allcases to have been sufficiently systematic, or tohave resulted in the definition of a clear policy forfuller utilization of human resources. Indeed, itwas only in 1968, i, e. two years after the start ofthe Iranian work-oriented literacy project, that theFourth Plan (1968 -1972) stressed the need to estab-lish a better balance between the educational systemand the increasing and diversified labour require-ments of the various sectors of production. It wasalso this Plan which first pinpointed the basic dif-ficulties encountered in the overall development ofthe country:the illiteracy and low level of occupational qualifi-
cations among peasants (Chapter VII, para-graph 5);
the need to increase agricultural productivity byspreading modern production and farming tech-niques throughout agriculture (Chapter VII, para-graph 6);
the improvement of productivity in industry (Chap-ter VIII, paragraph 20);
the vocational training of mine workers (ChapterVIII, paragraph 25).We shall perhaps have to wait for the Fifth Plan
(1973-1977), which is at present in preparation,before a start is made on other basic problemssuch, for example, as full employment in a countrywhere the economically active part of the popula-tion makes up scarcely 28 per cent of the total,and where the youthfulness of the population (55per cent of inhabitants are under 20) is going topose the problem of finding employment for youngadults. Thus, according to a study of employmentin Teheran, carried out in 1966, whereas under-employment is estimated at 4. 6 per cent among-men and 4.0 per cent among women, for the wholepopulation over the age of 15, the rate is twice ashigh in the case of young adults between 15 and 24:9. 3 per cent among men and 10. 3 per cent amongwomen.
Another important task with which the Fifth Planis apparently going to be faced is the regionalizationof development, as indispensable in such a variedcountry as it is difficult in the context of a
17
traditionally centralized political and administrativestructure, This might result in a complete reorien-tation of the extension phase of the pilot project ,which up to now has been planned in the traditionaladministrative framework of the "ustan" (provinces).
It is in this context, full of promise but also ofchange and uncertainty about precise aims, that theIranian literacy project was conceived early in 1966(request to UNDP), defined at the end of 1966 (Planof Operations) and implemented until 1970 when thePlan of Operations was revised. Thus the Iranianproject must be seen in the context of a period whichcovers the completion of the Third National Plan andthe beginning of the Fourth.
THE OPERATIONAL AREAS AND SEC-TORS OF THE IRANIAN WORK-ORIENTEDLITERACY PILOT PROJECT
In the form in which it was first conceived, and inwhich it appears in the Iranian request to UNDP,the project covered three experimental areas whichhad been chosen for the following reasons :
they seemed to correspond to three typical situa-tions of change in Iranian society;
the experience acquired could easily be used in othersimilar situations in Iran;
in each of the three cases, illiteracy was hamperingthe economic growth of the area in question.The first project with which we are concerned
was the Greater Dez irrigation project in the pro-vince of Khuzestan, a purely agricultural regionwhich was going through a period of rapid changebecause an irrigation network connected to thePahlavi dam, on the river Dez, had been construc-ted and brought into service. This pilot area, situa-ted near the town of Dezful, might be the model forfourteen other irrigated areas in Khuzestan, as soonas the dams on the rivers Karun and Marun werebrought into service.
The second experimental area was the town ofEsfahan, which was chosen because it is the secondtown of Iran, and because it has a dense concentra-tion of traditional craft workshops and textile fac-tories which are in process of modernization. Theinstallation of the metallurgical complex seems notto have been the focus of attention. It was felt thatthe experience acquired in the area of craftworkcould be used in the neighbouring towns of Shahrezaand Najafabad; but it was also felt necessary to ex-tend the pilot project to the surrounding rural area,since the metallurgical complex would be drawingon labour from that area. An additional reason wasthat the Esfahan area seemed to be growing fast andthat its development would be multi-dimensional.
There was also a possibility that some of theexperience acquired at Esfahan might be applied toneighbouring towns like Shahreza or Najafabad, andconceivably to Shiraz and even Tabriz, in the northof the country.
18
Lastly, three districts bordering on theCaspian - Badol, Shahi and Sari, in Mazanclaranprovince - were chosen. This is a very denselypopulated agricultural region, where the landformerly belonging to the Imperial Crown was soldto the farmers as part of the "white revolution".The Omran Bank, au agricultural development andco-operation bank, was put in charge of the adminis-tration of the operation. The bank established asystem of agricultural credit and set up an agricul-tural extension service. It looked possible to ex-tend the experience acquired to other districts ofthe same province, or to districts of the provinceof Gilan, with the help of the same bank.
Apparently, for administrative reasons, theIranian Government preferred to cut down the num-ber of experimental areas. The pilot project there-fore covered only two areas, which, in the Plan ofOperations, became the Dezful sub-project and theEsfahan sub-project.
Thus, in the form in which it got under way atthe end of 1966, the Project, according to the Planof Operations, comprises various sectors: tworural development sectors - one at Dezful, the otherin the Esfahan region - and three industrial develop-ment sectors, also in that region.
The work to be carried out under the Dezful sub-project has the advantage of being, at least in itsearly stages, clearly defined. North-east of Dezfulis the biggest dam in Iran, the Mohammed RezaShah Pahlavi dam, work on which started in 1962,and which has recently been filled With water. Thisdam is to supply both electricity to a province infull growth (because of the oil in the south of theprovince) and water to an area which, although ithas been fertile since the earliest times, had atraditional system of irrigation that no longer al-lowed the land to be used to the best advantage.The "dry farming" method, too, is no longer satis-factory there, because of the rainfall characteris-tics. The aim of this vast development operationis to ease the passage from traditional agricultureto modern mechanized agriculture over an area of125,000 hectares, 85,000 of which are cultivable.By introducing intensive methods of cultivation andstock-breeding, present productivity could be con-siderably improved, and present production con-siderably diversified (flowers, sugar cane, modernstock-breeding and fruits - all products yielding ahigh return). In short, the market value of the out-put of the region, according to a report by the WorldBank, would rise from 4. 4 million dollars to 18.7million dollars, which would not only raise annualincome per family from $75 to $350, but wouldalso bring about the development of agro-businessand the setting up of industries for pro- ssing agri-cultural products.
This project also presupposes profound changesamong the population of all the region (approximate-ly 100,000). New habits must be learned - forexample, how to use the water supplied by the newcanal system, consumption of which must be paid
IRAQ
r KERMANSHAH \
KHUZESTAN
MAZANDARAN
TEHERAN
MOHAMMED REZA SHAHPAHLAVI DAM .
*ESFAHAN
MESHED
(Sub-project 3:Agriculture)
DEZFUL (Sub-project 2:(Sub-project 1: - Industry)Agriculture)AHWAZ
KHORRAMSHAHR I%. ABADAN,
SHIRAZ
IRAN
AFGHANISTAN
Location of the areas originally selected for the pilot project in Iran
for, and the economical use of electricity. The pea-sants must be given guidance so that they accept newfarming techniques and learn about new crops. Asit happens, the extension agents of the body res-ponsible for setting up, co-ordinating and organi-zing this project (Khuzestan Water and PowerAuthority: KWPA) are dealing with people who havea particularly low level of education (illiteracy inthe region is the highest in Iran: 80-85 per cent),who have lived under a system of land tenure thatthe "white revolution" hardly changed (the landlordsalready owned no more than the permitted amount),in particularly unsatisfactory sanitary conditions ,and in a very harsh climate. This situation isworrying, especially as attention must be paid, inthe very near future, to the gradual training offarm-workers for the agro-business units, driversand mechanics to operate and maintain agriculturalmachinery and tractors, and even a labour forcefor the planned processing industries.
The work-oriented literacy pilot project took inhand 43 villages out of the 58 situated in the 22, 000 -
hectare irrigated pilot area which the KWPA isusing as a sector for demonstration and experi-ment in agricultural development. Of those 43villages, with a total population of about 10, 000,ten were chosen in which it proved possible toachieve a strict balance of theory and practice ,because the schools there already had availablelarge enough tracts of land to be used as demon-stration fields, The other agricultural develop-ment sector is in the region of Pir Bakran, nearEsfahan, in the Zayanderud irrigated area whichcovers approximately 50,000 hectares and in whichthere are 80 villages with a total population of ap-proximately 40,000. The surface of the area willbe doubled after the filling of the Shah Abbas Kadirdam. In this sector, functional literacy teachingis linked with a modernization scheme which aimsto improve farming techniques, diversify produc-tion, achieve more efficient use of water resourcesand acquaint the inhabitants with marketing methods.
Among the operational sectors which come underthe heading of industrial development in the Esfahan
19
BarrageMOHAMMED REZA SHAH PAHLAVI DAM
LEGEND
Pilot area
Sugar project
Dez irrigation projectFertilizer project
Transmission lineRoad
Rail road
Iran boundary
River:41:17=-C
=
Operational sectors in the Dezful sub-project
20
sub-project, the inns t interesting from the point ofview of experiments in functional literacy teachingis the establishment of Iran's first metallurgicalcomplex at Reeze, about 30 kilometres south-westof Esfahan. For the construction of the huge infra-structure required, more than 25,000 workmen,most of them from the rural areas of the region,were taken on. It was therefore necessary to layon instruction to get them used to a different rhythmof work, allow them to adapt to their new occupa-tional environment (so as to reduce accidents), andto give them some pre-training to make them morecapable of using the machines. The management ofthe project, moreover, supported this scheme bycounting time spent in training as working time paidat the normal rate. In addition, it has carefullyconformed to the law which requires a 5 per centwage-rise for those who learn to read. This pre-liminary vocational training can theoretically becontinued in the apprenticeship schools of the com-plex, which train some of the 8,000 workers thatthe steel works will need as soon as the first blast-furnace is put into service. It was expected that by1971, the works would be producing some 750,000metric tons of cast iron and steel, and this figureshould rise to 3 million tons under an extension plan.It can be expected that those who, although they have
6
Agricultural extension activities at Destena,near Esfahan
been trained, do not find work at the steel worksitself will be able to go into the satellite industries(cement, gas, petrochemical, asphalt, etc. ) whichit is intended to install between Reeze and Esfahan,or into the building of the new town of Aryachar,which is to have a total population of 300,000.
Esfahan is also a textile centre. A large part ofIran's textile industry is concentrated around thisformer capital: of a total of 800,000 spindles and16,000 weaving looms, there are 250,000 spindlesand 6,000 looms in the Esfahan mills. Nearly halfof the industriallabour force of Esfahan province -approximately 20,000 workers - is employed in thissector. However, almost 60 per cent of theseworkers are illiterate and their level of training is
extremely low, This situation can only be prejudi-cial to the proper functioning of the factories, thequality of the output and the upkeep and operationof the plant. It is therefore not surprising thatcost prices are too high and that the Esfahan tex-tile industry is very uncompetitive. The situationappears all the more serious when we considerthat the Iranian Government has decided to takesteps to increase capacity by between 10,000 and20,000 ultra-modern spindles. Esfahan industryis also threatened by a national policy of muchgreater selectivity in the protection measures itapplies, in order to favour those high-quality pro-ducts which can stand up to the competition onforeign markets. These various measures arecausing a serious crisis in the textile industry ofthe area. Looking beyond the further training ofthe labour force, consideration must perhaps begiven to providing conversion courses, in order tohelp workers out of a very difficult situation. Theintroduction of new textile industry equipment willinvolve considerable redundancy, and those affectedwill not necessarily find work in related branchesof industry.
The third operational sector is that of arts andcrafts, of which Esfahan is a famous centre. Un-fortunately, statistics on the labour force employedin this sector are somewhat imprecise. They donot take sufficient account of the fact that some partof the work is done at home or during the time thatthose concerned have off from their principal oc-cupation. Nevertheless, those in charge of theproject estimate the number of people engaged incraft production at about 30,000, to which can beadded several tens of thousands of workmen whowork in repair shops, joiners' workshops, etc.There are other difficulties in this sector. Thus,apparently, a considerable proportion of the workingforce still consists of children and minors. Further-more, most of the workshops are on a very smallscale, and their potential customers few and farbetween.
In addition to these industrial sectors proper,there are now two others of increasing importancein the Iranian project. Esfahan is a rapidly grow-ing town. At the time of the 1956 census, it had254,700 inhabitants; in 1966, there were already425,000, and it is reckoned that the present popu-lation is over half a million. This means, firstly,an influx of people from rural environments whoare entirely without preparation for town life oroccupational training. On the other hand, in sucha young population, there are more and moreadolescents and young adults who start out in lifewithout finding a place in productive employment,not having received adequate schooling or any voca-tional training. In response to this new, admittedlysomewhat ill-defined demand for vocational pre-training, an industrial pre-apprenticeship sectorhas had to be planned in the rural region of PirBakran, next to the area where the metallurgicalcomplex is being set up.
21
7
INTENSIVEAREAS
ZAYENDEH
REEZE AREA
PIR BAKRANAREA
Estimated Active YoungAdult IlliteratePopulation - 51,000
Target - Total Coverage
ESFAHAN SHAHRESTAN
Total estimated Active Young AdultIlliterate Population 200,000Target - 100,000 (Including 51,000in Intensive areas)
Operational sectors in Esfahan sub-project
Other specific work has been undertaken, notin connexion with any particular sector of economicactivity, but in response to the needs of a socialgroup which is especially isolated in Iranian society:women. Women in Iran merit special attention,owing to the segregation from which they still suffer,more particularly in the humbler ranks of Iraniansociety. Such segregation limits their development,both at the stage of schooling and in the matter ofemployment. Thus in the textile industry less than10 per cent of the workers are women. Any cam-paign based purely and simply on vocational trainingwould only make this section of society even more
Table 5. Craftsmen's workshops by numbers ofworkers employed
Number Number of workshops % of totalof workers
Under 5 14 248 89
5 to 9 1 353 8
over 10 308 3
22
of a marginal group; incidentally, we know what animportant part it plays in promoting or hamper'ngany policy for social progress, for the improvementof family life and, above all, for the vocationalguidance of the young.
NON-EDUCATIONAL PREREQUISITESOF FUNCTIONAL LITERACY WORK
So far in looking at the relationship between theframe of reference and functional literacy work wehave employed a single approach, which we mightcall "centripetal". The working hypothesis is thatonce the socio-occupational framework has beenadequately defined, it is possible to deduce fromit the fundamental components necessary to pro-gramme the teaching work on a strict basis. Thisapproach, as we shall see in the next chapter ,exactly matches the methodological approach bywhich the Iranian project works out the programmein question. Now, it is certain that education thusdefined is a response to demand; however, thatdoes not mean that the training supplied is thengoing to be accepted and recognized, or, moreparticularly, that it is going to be integrated. In
other words, if functional literacy teaching is to beeffective, i. e. , if the improvement In trainingwhich it brings with it is to be recognized as such,a number of non-educational requirements must befulfilled. It is perhaps no exaggeration to say thatthe functional character of the training establishesa social contract between educators, workers andemployers, which forces the socio-occupationalenvironment also to alter, reorganize itself andeven change completely. Without claiming to treatthis question fully - it is one of the most importantraised by functional literacy - we should like toindicate at least four points on which the IranianProject has come to make requirements of thatenvironment which it was supposed simply to serve.
First of all, the problem of educational premises.Of course, in theory, the place of work should it-self be the place of study. Such integration isprobably possible in a small craftsman's workshop(see illustration No. 8); but in a larger firm, it isseen to be impracticable. Sometimes, as in spin-ning mills, noise is the factor which prevents com-munication. On other occasions, the space is socluttered with machinery that it is quite impossibleto gather a group together, Most important, how-ever, the simplest teaching aids, the simultaneouslearning of writing and reading, writing exercises,etc. , assume that there is a place where, if onlyfor a moment, one can sit down, use tables or havea proper support to write on. It happens that theonly place available in most firms is the canteen -and one disadvantage of this is that, to start with,it means training must be done in leisure time. Atworst, there are badly lit premises, arranged inthe stereotyped school-room way - benches or linesof chairs facing a blackboard. Another problemthat can arise concerns the space available for in-dividual work - absolutely none in the Esfahanworking man's environment.
This last aspect brings us to the second vitalpoint: the synchronization of training time andworking time. This has been made easier in themetallurgical complex by including training time innormal working hours. In the rural developmentsectors, it was possible to fit the training pro-grammes in with the agricultural calendar by hold-ing courses in cycles of a few months each year,and dividing thein into functional units which wererelatively independent of each other. For instance,in the plant protection programme, the specialistseven drew up a calendar of plant diseases, and usedit to achieve the maximum possible synchronizationin this subject, in which the conditions are not im-posed by man, but by a much more capriciousNature. The worst muddle, however, was the man-made muddle which reigned in the textile sector.Textile firms work continously in three shifts (2to 10 p. m. 10 p. m. to 6 a. m. and 6 a. m. to 2 p. m. ).Not only do workers regularly change shifts, but theyare always in a hurry to leave the factory. Indeed,they sometimes live so far away from their placeof work that if they missed the firm's bus, they
Combining learning and working space in acraftsmen's workshop
would lose many hours: and to many, if not most,of them time is particularly precious because theyspend a few extra hours each day at another job tosupplement their exceptionally low wages, For thisreason, functional literacy classes could be heldonly from 6 - 7 a. m. and 1 - 3 p. m. , each sessionlasting one hour, five times a week. Workers onone of the shifts cannot therefore attend the course.
This vital question of the timetable brings us tothe third problem, which relates to the fact thatteaching work, according to the functional literacyconcept, directly challenges working conditions asa whole, i, e. , the management of the enterprise,Despite the insistence of the Government and in-structions from H, I. M. the Shahinshah that work-ers' participation be increased, management hasremained very autocratic or, at best, bureaucratic,In some sectors which had enjoyed the benefits ofa protectionist policy - as had the textile sector,in fact - the absence of any stimulus from com-petition was causing real apathy, whilst plant andmachinery were aging. So it is not surprising thatthe management reacted with more than indifferenceto having what to them could only seem to be sub-versive elements invading the shop floor. Thosewho learn to read are not even given a bonus, des-pite the fact that the law stipulates a 5 per centwage-rise for workers who pass their examinations(85 per cent). It is considered highly undesirableto promote them within the firm, and this causesconflicts, as in the case of the worker who, havingasked d technical question of his foreman and re-ceived no reply, told him the answer which he hadrecently learned in the functional literacy classand then walked out of the factory, declaring thathe could no longer take orders from an ignoramus.In such a situation, it is obvious that to providetraining for workers alone will only increase theirritating imba ances between the various occupa-tional groups. It is absolutely essential to re-train,if not simply to train, foremen and charge-handsas well as, and at the same time as, the workers,
23
to win over the middle-level personnel, who oftenshow considerable .Iultural resistance towards theworld of their subordinates, and in particular totake steps to put management in the picture. Suchactivities, considered as a whole, although theycertainly go beyond the limits of the pilot project,could nevertheless find a place in that project, pro-vided it starts out from a specific problem (forinstance, the preparation of standardized technicalvocabulary in Persian, which could play a very im-portant part in the integration of language into tech-nical training).
We now come to the fourth point we wish to men-tion: to what extent can those in charge of functionalliteracy teaching and the directors of modernizationprojects be sure that it is possible to bring aboutchanges, for example, among peasants quickly andprofoundly enough for them really to be able to takean active part in the implementation of those pro-jects within the allotted time?
This is a difficult question, but one that is basicto the continuity of training. This is proved by thecrisis which arose at the Dezful sub-project inNovember 1969, when the KWPA decided to transfermore than half the irrigated area involved, some13,000 hectares, to agro-business. This decisiondeprived some villages of any hope of cultivatingtheir own irrigated land, and reduced the scope ofthe pilot project to 31 villages with 9,000 hectares,to which were later added 11 other villages that havenot yet been linked to the irrigation network. Ap-parently this was not due to any animosity on thepart of the KWPA towards the pilot project, but totwo fundamental divergencies: one concerning quickreturns on the considerable capital invested in thebuilding of the dam and the creation of the irrigationnetwork; the other relating to the potential of theregion's human resources. To the KWPA econo-mists, the peasants' standard of living has been solow for so long and their cultural horizon is solimited that they are steeped in Ignorance and apathy.The KWPA technicians no longer believe that changecan come rapidly, and this results in an impatiencewhich expresses itself in a distinctly authoritarianattitude towards most peasants - an attitude whichconflicts with the essentially educational nature ofthe pilot project work. The irrigated land is slot-ted by the KWPA for a limited time; they lay downwithout consultation the type of farming and the tech-niques to be used. In short, the KWPA techniciansbehave as if their only object was to attain high pro-ductivity regardless of the means. Probably theywould admit that a select minority of peasants couldbe employed in the agro-business units as farmworkers. There they would not only learn new tech-niques, but could save up capital from their wagesto invest in their own land. The actual effect of thiswould be an alliance between big business and apeasant elite, and indeed such an alliance couldindubitably be the means of achieving the econo-mic targets envisaged, but only at the price ofthe majority of the peasants at present living
24
in the region becoming a marginal group.
THE LOGISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL LITERACYTEACHING IN THE IRANIAN PROJECT
to put into operation a project comprising so manyfactors, some of them unknown, caused some un-certainty about the work plan. Although the requestto UNDP suggested a total duration of four and ahalf years, this was cut to four years in the Planof Operations, and was finally extended to five yearsin the draft amendment.
Similarly, the order of the various stages hasbeen radically altered. In the request, it was re-commended that implementation of the projectshould begin between March and June 1966. Aftera six-month preparation period, two two-yearliteracy teaching cycles were planned. Each ofthese periods was to be used to train a group ofnational specialists. The request was thus basedon the assumption that there would be no difficultyin working out the methodology.
The Plan of Operations lengthened the prepara-tion period to one whole year (1967). After a singleoperational period of two years during which themethodology was to be put to the test, it allowedone year for the evaluation and preparation of theextension of the project.
The draft amendment to the Plan of Operationstakes into account the lessons learnt from past ex-perience. After three years of research (December1966 - September 1969), the project works out amethodology which is systematically applied to 19programmes over a period of one year. FromSeptember 1970 to the end of the project, the pro-grammes are to be extended both to the Dezful dis-trict, with a population of about 190,000, and toEsfahan province, with a population of about oneand a half million. The latter modification willdoubtless involve a radical alteration in the budget,which under the Plan of Operations was to have been$ 2,880,346 supplied partly by UNDP ( $1,356,000 )and partly by the Iranian Government ($1,532,000).
A functional literacy project, furthermore, hasspecial organizational requirements. Although itis purely and simply an educational campaign which,as such, comes under the educational authorities,depending on its specific orientation it will alsorequire the participation of various ministries andof the many institutions for literacy teaching oradult education which, as we have seen, are on anespecially large scale in Iran. In the request, thedelicate problem of inter-ministerial co-operationwas solved by putting the administration of the pro-ject under the direct responsibility of the PrimeMinister. Since the request envisaged three almostequidistant projects, the centre of the operation wasnaturally located in Teheran. The request also en-visaged close links between the Teheran UniversityInstitute of Social Research, working under contract,and the Plan Organization.
Both the Plan of Operations and its 1970 amend-ment opted for a completely different administrativeapproach, placing the project, which hrs financialand administrative autonomy, under the authorityof the Ministry of Education. This solution madeit possible for the Iranian government employeesseconded to the project, the instructors responsiblefor the literacy courses and the training officersfor the training of those instructors to be chosenfrom the employees of the Ministry and for theirsalaries to be paid by the latter. Even though theproject undertook responsibility for payments sup-plementary to salaries, this device made it possibleto increase considerably the resources earmarkedfor the project by the Iranian Government. There re-mained the problem of inter-ministerial co-operationand co-ordination. For the first three years, the Min-istry of Education was to organize a Consultative Co-ordinating Committee, which was to meet at leastonce every three months. This institutionalizedco-ordination did not come up to expectations, andin April 1970 the Prime Minister decided to set upan Inter-ministerial Co-ordinating Committee,under the chairmanship of the Deputy Prime Ministerwith responsibility for economic affairs. The Com-mittee consisted of representatives of the PlanOrganization, the Ministry of Science and HigherEducation, the Ministry of National Education, the
Ministry of Culture and the Arts, the Ministry ofEconomic Affairs, the Ministry of Labour and SocialAffairs, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministryfor Agrarian Reform and Co-operatives, the Minis-try of Industry, the Ministry of Public Health, andthe Ministry of Information.
This inter-ministerial committee is specificallyresponsible for:making recommendations on the means whereby the
implementation of the project is to be linked tothe aims of the National Development Plan;
co-ordinating the work or the departments and autho-rities concerned with workers' training and theactivities undertaken under the project;
defining the part to be played by functional literacyteaching in the drive to make full use of humanresources with a view to the reform d education,which constitutes one of the basic items in the"white revolution".Lastly, the cancellation of the third sub-project
radically altered the part to be played by the ad-ministration headquarters, which has since beenresponsible mainly for contacts with the governmentauthorities and with the other United Nations agen-cies. One of the results of this administrative re-adjustment was to lay more and more stress on theEsfahan sub-project, which has indeed become theintellectual focal point of the whole Iranian project.
25
Chapter III The development ofa methodology
"When the Teheran Conference ended, I was sure of only one thing:literacy teaching cannot be an end in itself, but must serve otherends. That was all.
AN EDUCATIONAL LONG MARCH
The brief operational history of the Iranian Projectwould be an opportune reminder, if any were needed,of the fact that innovation in teaching is neither aneasy nor a rapid process. Doubtless the principlesof the Teheran Conference, and more particularlythe educational implications of those principles, hadbeen and still are presented in terms of thesis andantithesis, with each innovation of functional literacyteaching contrasted with some fault in the traditionaltype of literacy teaching. But doing the opposite ofsomething that was wrong is not the same as doingsomething right. In addition, such an approach tellsus nothing about the resources to be brought to bearor the path to be followed.
The experimental nature of the programme ofwhich the Iranian project is part might have justifieda cautious approach: a pause for reflexion mightfirst of all have made it possible to carry out basicstudies to determine which sectors might best betackled, to analyse training requirements, to seekadequate methods for translating those requirementsinto targets, to organize the methodology of training,to make a start on briefing and training the instruc-tors, and then and only then to start classes. Thiswould have been an acknowledgment that functionalliteracy presupposes a far longer phase of research,preparation and briefing than that provided in tradi-tional literacy teaching, where the purpose is onlyto translate, adapt or on occasion write a primeror a single textbook. It would also have meant de-laying demonstrative action. However, althoughsuch an approach might be possible in a region orcountry where there has been little educationalactivity, it would have been very difficult in Iran
Dr. Birjandi
where, as we have seen, there has long been a sus-tained will to action in the spheres of literacy andadult education.
In December 1966, even before the Plan of Opera-tions had finally been signed, (1) the pilot projectwas operating literacy classes which continued un-changed until April 1967. This involved 700 classesof which neither the aims nor the methods corres-ponded in the least with those of the experiment inprospect.
Once the handicap of this false start had beenovercome, the project got itself organized. AtEsfahan in July 1967, a plan of action for the fourremaining years was worked out, with three pro-grammes for three distinct but heterogeneousgroups of adult learners:a home economics programme for housewives, with
a view to imoroving the status of women;an industrial vocational pre-training programme
(i. e. literacy teaching plus general introductionto industrial life);
a general agriculture programme,These were still very general programmes but
by working them out it was possible to see whatproblems would be raised by the more specificmethodolcgy of functional literacy teaching. Theprocess also served to give both Iranian specialistsand instructors the feel of the new approach - untilthen they had been doing literacy teaching on entire-ly different lines. This stage did not go beyond thesomewhat vague and traditional framework, asformulated in the 1966 Iranian request and the 1967
1. It was signed in January 1967.
Plan of Operations. In all three programmes, theaim was to make the knowledge acquired throughliteracy teaching more useful and more effective,by adding an "extra something" which is hard todefine.
A new step forward was taken in January 1968,when the project educators planned and organizedmicro-experiments in precise situations, the natureof which was generally defined by their setting with-in a particular enterprise, for homogeneous socio-occupational groups of adult workers. Several ofthese experiments came to a premature end as aresult of the teachers' inability to cope, the difficultworking conditions, and the fact that workers hadnot enough lime available. Two of the experiments,however - one of them in a modern Esfahan textilemill, the Taj fUctory, and the other in Dezful -were successfully completed, and this enabled theproject specialists to draw some very importanteducational conclusions.
Critical reflexion on these experiments - eventhough they could not be submitted to as strict anevaluation as might have been desired - was asource of creative inspiration. The various sectorsof the pilot project, whilst using the same methodo-logy, drew up a number of programmes specificallyplanned in relation to certain occupational activities.From September 1969 onwards, the Iranian projectintroduced a much wider range of differentiatedprogrammes (four at Dezful and 12 at Esfahan)
The basic elements of the functional training system
a, b, c, d, e : working session
1, 2, 3, 4 ... : sequence
I, II, III, I V . . . . functional setA, B : training cycleA + B : training programme
28
alongside the general programmes which them-selves were re-oriented to take certain objectivesof social development into account (hygiene, nutri-tion, family planning, etc. ). In addition, the sub-projects were reorganized so as to take more ac-count of the common methodology. In the case ofEsfahan, this occurred in October 1969, in that ofDezful in 1970. Now the pilot project as a wholeis using a single methodology as a basis of reference,while experimenting on a limited scale with othermethods for purposes of comparison. Thus it tookmore than three years for the Iranian project todevelop its own methodology, and almost four yearsto become fully aware of it. One of the results ofthis latter stage was that in November 1970 a draftamendment to the Plan of Operations was prepared:this was the first official document to refer expli-citly to the methodology of the Iranian project, andit also gave a brief definition of that methodology.We shall now try to describe it here(l).
A CONTINUOUS STRATEGYOF TRAINING
If functional literacy teaching is to be the point ofdeparture for a continuous training process - andparticularly one of self-training - for adults whoseworld has been altered by the impact of economicgrowth, social change or political events, it is neces-sary to fit this first stage of training into a wholecontext which is defined by cultural development;the aim must be, in the words of J. Dumazedier,to develop to the full the intellectual and symbolicresources of all the people in a given society, sothat they become the responsible and consciousagents of overall development. Indeed, it is amatter of developing not only cognitive attitudes,but also the capacity to invent and to decipher sym-bols and signs, the great importance of which weare rediscovering with ivicLuhan,
This is a long-term aim. Perhaps it will needa generation, perhaps more, for such culturaldevelopment to become irreversible. This also
1. This description is the author's digest of variousreports, his own observations in the field, and,more especially, his long conversations with theman who was the moving spirit behind this work,Dr. Camilo Bonanni. While the author thoughtit essential to try to describe the methodologyin question in order to show the richness anddiversity of the educational contribution made bythe Iranian project, he does not claim to go intoall the details nor to answer all the questions orall the objections which might occur to the reader.For further details and more precise information,readers are invited to consult either the reportsquoted in Annex III, or the writings of Dr. C.Bonanni which are now in course of publication.
means that training will not be continuous, but willperhaps take the form of a series of "cycles", eachcorresponding to a new project, or to a new stagein the development of a project, e. g. , work on theinfrastructure (railways, roads, dams, etc. ) willbe followed by the actual assembly of a steel works,the commissioning of the works, the constructionof a workers' housing estate, the installation oflight and medium industry, etc. There might beone or two training cycles corresponding to eachof these separate objectives, each cycle lastingbetween six and eight months (so that in rural areasthe training periods would not slash with seasonsof intensive agricultural work). So far the pilotproject has envisaged at most two training cycicsper programme.
Each cycle comprises between five and seven"functional sets" the content of which must be suchas to help towards the elimination of some obstacleor hindrance to the achievement of the objectivesaimed for by the training cycles. The functionalset may be spread over one or two months, accor-ding to the problem to be solved.
Each of the different components of the solutionof the problem to be treated is the subject of a"sequence" which constitutes the basic functionalunit. In theory, a sequence corresponds to oneweek (six daily sessions of two hours at Dezful;five sessions of one and a half hours at Esfahan).Sometimes, depending on the content, the workingsequence may comprise ten sessions, i, e. two
weeks; when general problems are being dealt with,
Contextof trainingrequirements
Overallintegrateddevelopmentobjectives
Set of problems
.00
Set of problems f?oA
Problems
Elements ofa solution
E
E
ro
0
Sequence(functionalunit)
Functionalset of a programme
1st cycle 2nd nd cycleProcess oflife -Ionaeducationself-instruction
Diagrammatic representation of continuous functional training
29
10
it may be spread over as much as a month.The learning, then, can be organized on the basis
of these functional units, particularly when adultshave been adequately prepared and have acquiredcertain habits of individual intellectual work andthe teaching material has been fully worked out.The present Chief Technical Adviser of the pilot
project, Mr, Pierre Henquet, has even consideredsetting up a "sequence bank", from which groupsor even individuals could draw the basic elementsrequired for programme self-instruction, Theduration of training can be estimated approximatelyas follows:
Table 6. Estimated length of training
1 daily session
2 hrs. in Dezful11/2. in Esfahan
1 sequence 10-20 hrs. in Dezful
5 to 10 sessions 8-15 hrs. in Esfahan
I functionalset 40-120 hrs. in Dezful
4 to 6 sequences 20 to 60 sessions 60-90 hrs. in Esfahan
1 cycle 200-840 hrs. in Dezful
5 to 7 functionalsets
20-42 sequences 100-420 sessions 150-630 hrs. in Esfahan
DETERMINING THE REQUIREMENTSAND PROGRAMMING THE TRAINING
In theory, literacy teaching, if it is to be functional,e. tailored to meet the difficulties which illiterates
have to overcome, presupposes a detailed, probingstudy of the environment which has been chosen asthe sector of operations.
According to the Plan of Operations this firstphase of the Iranian project should be under thecontrol of the evaluation group, since that groupwas to have done a "baseline survey", diagnosingeach area involved. But innumerable difficultiesarose. In the first place, the development objec-tives had been defined only at the national level,and as a result, when they were transposed to theregional or local level, not only did they becomevery vague, but there was no non-central planningbody in charge of them. The outcome was that noorganization would take direct responsibility forthem. Then, as we have seen, since the develop-ment of human resources had neverbeen the subjectof detailed studies or of decisions preparatory toa long-term policy, there were not even any statis-tics at the local level from which to calculate
30
exactly how many workers there were in each sec-tor. Some particular projects either had no expli-cit employment policy or were apt to switch policyabruptly without taking into consideration the re-percussions on the planning of training. In additionto these uncertainties, there were difficulties whicharose within a team whose members, whetherIranian or international, had never before donework of this type and did not even know the methodo-logical processes involved. Finally, it becamemore and more obvious that any programming basedsolely on a list of the requirements within a parti-cular enterprise would be of only limited signifi-cance, since it would be difficult; at such a level,to distinguish between permanent and occasional,temporary or even purely contingent needs. Allthese reasons explain why, for the first three yearsof the project, there was so little diversificationof the training and why, in short, it was not veryfunctional at all.
It was agreed that, in order to get out of thisstalemate, a range of specific programmes shouldbe established, the operational sectors being dis-tinguished in accordance with an economic typologydevised in relation to the intermediate development
objectives of the pilot project areas, as they couldreasonably be deduced from the overall objectivesof the third and fourth National Plans. In each of'he sectors it poked possible to identify socio-,ccupational groups that were sufficiently uniformvith regard to their working situation as to have:ommon training requirements and large enough to-nake viable teams. Once these groups were formed,.t would be possible to work out models which couldsubsequently be applied to other groups whichemerged in the course of development and of contactwith economic reality.
For the last two years of the pilot project, 15specific programmes were thus selected andorganized right down to the details of every sequence.
Parallel to this movement towards diversifica-tion, which made it possible to bring literacy teach-ing into an increasingly close relationship withspecific vocational training, and the details of itsprogramming into closer relationship with variousactual situations, it was felt necessary, neverthe-less, to keep some so-called "general" programmesin the Iranian project. Using this approach, thesectors of operation were selected on the basis ofa socio-economic typology which showed there wasan urgent need for the social advancement of a groupwhich was obviously much more heterogeneous thanin the specific programmes. Although these pro-grammes did not strictly fit in with functional crite-ria, they had the advantage of bridging the gapbetween functional literacy and traditional literacyteaching and adult education campaigns in Iran.These general programmes take into account theexistence and objectives of a number of Iranianinstitutions concerned with literacy teaching, andwhose work could be more efficient if, within it,literacy teaching was associated with other tech-niques. This is true, for instance, of the NationalWomen's Organization (literacy teaching for womenand improvement of their status; literacy teachingwith home economics, literacy teaching with voca-tional pre -training), the Department of AgriculturalExtension of the Ministry of Agriculture (literacyteaching and extension work) etc. Such programmeskeep to the educational principles of functionalliteracy teaching, so as gradually to give officialsand instructors who have not yet had any practicein the methodology of functional literacy teachingthe feel of the work.
In the course of this first stage, the Iranian pro-ject succeeded in establishing the framework for itsoperations and deciding what target populations toaim for. From that framework, it will be able todeduce a number of requirements generated by thedynamic of the development project, and of requestswhich might be formulated by employers and offi-cials of the firm and which will be supplemented bysuggestions from specialists in vocational trainingor further training. From the type of target popula-tion, on the other hand, the project will be able toarrive, by inductive reasoning, at a knowledge ofthe problems that face the adult pupils admitted to
the project courses. It will also be useful to putmore detailed questions to the members of the tar-get populations to find out their aspirations andmotivations. This double-purpose inquiry into theneeds and hopes of those involved is also importantfor collecting information about what the peopleconcerned already know, particularly when theyhave had no chance to show it. These two sides tothe problem - needs and hopes - must finally belooked at while keeping in mind the continuousstrategy on which the team responsible for educa-tional action bases its work. In conclusion, giventhe requirements implicit in the objectives, andkeeping in mind the needs to be met and the re-sources at present available, it should be possibleto work out what new contribution training shouldbring about.
A group of women taking part in one of thegeneral programmes
As a result of this frequently arduous work ofappraisal, the pilot project's interdisciplinary teamis able to identify, define and analyse a series ofproblems which are the expression, in educationalterms, of the main obstacles likely to arise in thecourse of a development project and to prevent theachievement of its objectives. A difficult task mustthen be performed: of tiles) problems, the educa-tors must single out those and only those whichdepend essentially for their solution on educationalaction. These are then arranged into a system,i.e. a coherent set of hypothetical relationshipsbetween clearly defined elements. In this way, thebasic materials for framing a training programmeare brought together. Each training programmecomprises two cycles. Each training cycle isfocused upon a series of problems arranged accor-ding to an internal logic. For each problem thereis a corresponding "functional set" comprising aseries of sequences, each of which is designed tofind an effective solution to one of the elements ofthe problem.
31
Table 7. The specific programmes
Sector
PRIMARYSECTOR
Programme title
I.. Plantprotection
2. Sugar beet
3. Irrigationtechniques
4. Elementaryagriculturalmechanization
5. Market gardening
6. Stockbreeding
7. Horticulture
8. Mines
Objectives Sub-project Outside support from :
Improvement ofproductivity
Double yield andincrease sugar content
Better use ofwater
Training farm workers
Improvement of tools
Improvement of fodder
Introductionof fruit and flowergrowing
Vocational trainingfor miners
Esfahan
Esfahan
Esfahan
Esfahan
Dezful
Dezful
Dezful
Esfahan
Karidj Faculty of Agronomyand Evans Institute
Engineers from the Esfahansugar factory and KaridjFaculty of Agronomy
Ministry of Water andKabutinbad AgriculturalCollege
Ministry of AgricultureInstitute for AgriculturalMechanization
KWPA experimental farm
KWPA experimental farm ;Hayderabad Stock-breedingCentre ; and Razi AnimalDisease Institute
Engineers from the zinc mineand the Teheran PolytechnicInstitute
SECONDARY 9. AgriculturalSECTOR mechanics
10. Automobilemechanics
11. Building trades
12. Iron and steelindustry
13. Textile industry
Preparation for employment Dezfulin agro-business
Maintenance of mobileconstruction plant
Improvement ofconstruction techniques
Esfahan
Esfahan
Training future workers Esfahan
Familiarization withmaterials and techniques
Esfahan
KWPA maintenanceworkshop
Reeze complex mechanicalworkshop
Technical school, Esfahansteel-works
Reeze complex technicalschool
Ministry of Economics,Textile Department
TERTIARY 14. EmbroiderySECTOR
15. Craftsmanship innon-precious metals
Economic advancementof women
Creation of a modeltraining programmefor craftsmen
Esfahan
Esfahan
Embroidery craft co-operative
Division of Crafts
32
Table 8, The general programmes
Title of programme Target population Objective Sub-project
Vocationalpre-training
Adolescents not enrolledin school and out of work
To facilitate the adaptation Esfahanof young people from ruralareas to industrial environ-ments
Women's education Workers' wives Advancement of women in Esfahan/Dezfulthe fields of nutrition, healthand birth control ; modelfor the "sepahis" of theHygiene Corps
Civics and socialintegration
Workers without steadyemployment and men invillages in which no specificprogrammes exist
Introduction to modern Esfahanurban life
Generalagriculture
Farmers in regions whereno special developmentproject exists
improvement of productivity Esfahanmodel for the "sepahis"Literacy Corps
THE INTEGRATED APPROACH
The programming of education in terms of needsentails the diversification of the forms of educa-tional action, the effect of which is to make train-ing programmes increasingly specific. Since theaim is, ultimately, to make individuals respon-sible for and capable of training themselves to meetthe requirements of the situation in which theyoperate, there is strictly speaking no limit to diver-sification - the final result of which would be to doaway with all collective training institutions. TheIranian project does not, however, go to this ex-treme. Its methodology also serves to unify thedifferent programmes, in so far as these are basedon a common structure. This aspect is alreadymanifest in the linking and intermeshing of thevarious elements which, starting from the sequence,lead on successively to the training cycles. Thisunification is not characteristic only of the organi-zation of training; it also reflects a shared concep-tion of the learning process which emerges clearlyat the level of the basic unit of instruction, thesequence.
This shared conception of learning can be re-duced to three basic principles:whatever the length and position of a sequence, all
operations which are considered as being crucialto the individual's development must of necessitybe included in it;
the operations must, irrespective of the relativeweight given to each one and the specific content
of a sequence, fOrm a coherent series, the logicof which is consonant with that presumed togoverir the adult's learning process;
at whatever point in the sequence, i. e. in whateversession of that sequence, the different opera-tions must always relate to an overall learningpattern - a requirement which pre-supposes avery high degree of integration of the items ofknowledge,
Whether the sequences are merely formal unitsof instruction or whether they are an element ofcrucial importance in the learning process dependson the extent to which these principles are appliedin their programming.
Each sequence does, in fact, bring into play allthe basic elements involved in the development ofthe adult's personality, obliging him, within a shortspan of time, to go over all the different aspectsof a given subject and highlighting the interrelationsbetween the different aspects of knowledge.
What, then, are the operations which the Iranianproject, at the present stage of its methodologicaldevelopment, has selected as basic? They areseven in number:
1. the theoretical and practical study of thetechniques, working tools and, where appropriate,the models required for the proposed vocationalin-service training;
2. improvement of students' knowledge as re-quired for purposes of communication, in whichoperation literacy work will, at least initially, playa central part; this involves both enhancing the
33
Table 9. Time-table of a training cycle
Functional sets Daily sessionSequences
Problems to be solved Central theme Technical element Basicoperation
fo decrease the frequency of The cooling I. Introductionavoidable breakdown of plant system its to the cooling Registration session
and equipment. maintenance system Registration session
To achieve the more economic and commonise ofconsumable materials. faults Purpose and simple functioning Tech.
To decrease the rate of absenteeism of the cooling systemand employment fluctuation.-o decrease the accident rate and Radiation Scie.
ime off for injuries. Engine block Draw 6zTo increase productivity by better Volume units Ca lc. ..,t
..--1
utilization of time and by better Responsibility Soci.
o-operative efforts and team work.
2. Leakage inthe cooling Leakage points & Tech.
system causes & preventionConvection currents Scie.Radiator Draw 6zBolt-tightening order Cale. <aTreatment of burns Soci.
3. Thermostat - itsfunctions and Function of thermostat Tech.
possible faults Expansion and contraction Scie.Thermostat Draw c'z''
Temperature scale Cale. :44
Temperature - general Soci.
I:T-Seasonalservicing Flushing system and Tech.of the use of antifreeze
cooling Freezing & boiling Scie. dsystem Fan Draw z
Simple proporation Calc. :114
Planning Soci.
I-
.
c
34
quality of the spoken language and giving trainingto decipher technical documents (graphs, technicaldiagrams, etc. ) ;
3. an introduction to elementary mathematicsand training in the processes and terms needed inquantification;
4. "scientific acculturation'', i, e. a groundingin chemistry, physics and biology, all useful in thesolving of technical problems;
5, an introduction to the process of symboliza-tion, which starts with a ground in graphic repre-sentation and should lead on to training in concep-tualization;
G. a grounding in socio-economic analysis, toenable adults to distinguish other than purely oc-cupational factors in the definition and solution oftechnical problems and to learn to take account ofthem in the limited context of the job situation;
7. lastly, the extension of the operation into thesocial and cultural spheres, the aim being to movebeyond the job situation in order to apply the methodsand, where appropriate, solutions already devisedto other situations.
17
\ .11111.
i.
'147
ys
tiallNrimm-1
The integrated approach in the Taj factorymicro experiment
We must now examine in detail the progressionplanned by the educators from one of these opera-tions to another in order to establish a proper se-quence of operations - that is, a coherent series
which takes account of the adult psychology oflearning.
All sequences begin by a group discussion,serving to clarify the subject-matter, taking intoconsideration the previous experience of the mem-bers of the. group. It is in fact essential to estab-lish as soon as possible how much the group knows,in order to avoid all superfluous repetitions and tomake maximum use of what has already been learnt.The instructor thereby avoids giving the impressionthat such previous experience is of little importance.These initial discussions also enable the instructorto identify any mental conceptions which are likelyto hamper the transition from the technical demon-s,ration to the process of quantification and, sub-sequently, to the scientific interpretation of thephenomena observed.
Once the group has been motivated and, con-sequently, consolidated, its attention must be heldand concentrated either by a "live' demonstrationor by exercises or again by means of a visual re-presentation of the proposed technical solution.This can equally well take the form of learning agesture or manual operation, gaining familiaritywith an apparatus or mastering a technique, etc.This purely visual and oral activity also providesan opportunity to develop students' communicationskills. Everything can serve this purpose: thelearning of new technical terms, the definition ofconcepts, the formulation of working rules or thestudy of a diagram. This may be illustrated by anexample taken from the first training cycle, devotedto the repair and maintenance of vehicles. Onceattention has been focused by the group discussionon the problem of the over-heating and cooling ofthe motor and the function of the thermostat havingbeen perceived, the group must learn to identifythe thermostat and to understand the mechanicalprinciples of expansion and contraction by which itworks. To take another example, in the spinningdepartment of the Taj mill, the various blends ofyarn are specified by number and name, and inorder that a specific production batch be reproducedcorrectly, the specifications must be adhered tofaithfully. In order, therefore, to teach the spin-ners something more than mechanical skills, in-struction in colour names, the factory colour code,and the yarn mix codes must be given. The pro-gression of words or letters cannot be dependentupon formal laws relating to the learning of thealphabet, building of syllables, and so forth.
The next stage is to elucidate the rules whichwere used in order to distinguish their scientificimplications. In our first example, the thermostatserves as an introduction to physics and, moreparticularly, to concepts relating to temperatureand to its measurement. The mathematical con-cept directly involved is that of the scale;
This leads on to the central stage, namely, tothe sessions in which sentences are built up usingterms related to the subject which have alreadybeen introduced during previous sessions. This
35
consolidation of 11w students' knowledge will bebacked up both by the representation of the problemand its solutions in diagram form and by an intro-duction to the different processes involved in thewritten language.
During the following session, the group is intro-duced, firstly, to the study of the complex processby which a problem and its solutions are governedby other factors and, secondly, to the extension ofthe learning process to fields which lie beyond thegroup's working horizons. In the first examplechosen, the session is built around the theme of thetemperature of the human body, which is developedin its applications to health control, the way in whichconditions of life are affected by it, and so forth.Reference is also made where possible - and whenthere is time - to industrial accidents, in particularto those involving burns.
re
z
From analysis of a problem to the practicaldemonstration of its solution
The final sessions of the sequence are devoted torevision and consolidation (where necessary, bymeans of semi-programmed exercises) and to carry-ing out a first assessment of the work done by thegroup. Behind this strictly educational assessment,however, there lies the concern to return to prac-tical matters - for example, to workshop activitiesor to practical application of the technical skillsacquired by the group. The group is prompted todraw the immediate, practical lessons from thesequence. The instructor may, where necessary,get the group to establish a simple plan of operationsto be carried out. The,final session is thus already,in a way, the first 'stage in transcending an artifi-cially created educational situation, and a first steptowards constant improvement of skills in the actualjob situation.
We have been able so far to determine how muchground the sequence is designed to cover, operationby operation, and to outline the order in which theoperations are arranged.
It remains for us to consider the phasing of thelearning process in each session. This requires
36
particularly careful handling, as a balance mustbe struck in the relative weight given to the variouselements of each operation which takes account ofthe difficulties of assimilation - by no means alwaysforeseeable - experienced by students. In eachsession, particular importance must be given toone particular operation, while ensuring that it tiesin with the others. In order to simplify this taskand to provide instructors with an adequately clear-cut plan of operations, the time-table of work forthe Iranian project was organized according to thefollowing classification:
I. Technical instructionII, LanguageIII. CalculationIV. ScienceV. Technical drawingVI. Socio-economyVII. Socio-cultural extensionIt should be stressed that this classification does
not re-introduce the "disciplines", "branches" and"subjects" so favoured in traditional schooling, Thedifferent items do not correspond to a breakdown ofprogramme content; they serve simply to specifythe time which the working group should on averagedevote to each operation during each session.
Until now, we have considered only the first twomethodological principles; there remains the third,namely, the integration of knowledge. This prin-ciple entails two requirements. Firstly, themethodology of functional literacy work must reflectthe repercussions which the different branches ofknowledge all have on each other. Secondly, it callsfor the integration of all the elements involved intraining in a unified learning process which givesspecial weight to vocational training. We shall con-sider the consequences drawn by the Iranian projectfrom these requirements with reference to threeparticularly important aspects:the integration of language learning and technical
training;the integration of mathematics and technology;the integration of technical drawing and technical
programme content.With regard to the integration of language learn-
ing and technical training, the first stage is toassess and analyse the understanding shown by thegroup of the technical terms and concepts whichthey use, in order to familiarize them with a moreprecise and better articulated technical vocabulary.It should be recalled that this language learning goesbeyond the linguistic effort proper, extending to thelogical structures of adult thought. It constantlytranscends the strictly literary aspects, rising tothe level of the language of symbols.
In the second stage, what is considered to be thekey element of the sequence is always linked with aposter, the significance ofwhich is expressed in acorresponding sentence. This sentence is recopiedand learnt as a unit. During the third stage, it isbroken down into its constituent words, syllables,
Table 10. Timetable of three sequences included in the firsttraining cycle : "Maintenance and repair of vehicles"
SEQUENCE 2 Day one Day two Day three
Revision of previoussequence
Tech. 20 min. Tech. 50 min, Cale. 40 min.Calc. 20 min. Soci. 15 min. Draw. 40 min.Lang. 40 min. Lang. 55 min. Scie. 20 min.
Lang. 20 min.
SEQUENCE 12 Day one Day two Day three
Revision 15 min. Calc. 30 min. Tech. 30 min.Introduction new topic 20 min. Scie. 60 min. Calc. 20 min.What group knows 20 min. Lang. 30 min. Draw. 20 min.Implementation group plan. 20 min. Soci. 30 min.Tech. Inst. 45 min. Lang. 20 min.
SEQUENCE 22 Day one Day two Day three
Revision 35 min. Tech. 50 min. Tech. 25 min.New topic 10 min. Draw. 30 min. Soci. 20 min.Group knowledge 15 min. Lang. 40 min, Calc. 35 min.Implementation 10 min. Lang. 40 min.Tech. Inst. 50 min.
Day four Day five Day six
Tech. 35 min.Ca lc. 20 min.Scie. 25 min.Lang. 40 min.
Soci. 30 min. PracticeCalc. 30 min. Consoldn. 120 min.Scie. 60 min. Revision
Table 11. Timetable of a sequence included in the firsttraining cycle : "Plant diseases"
SEQUENCE 2 Day one Day two
Revision of previous sequencesIntroduction of the new topicCommon plan for implementingthe sequence target
25 min.35 min.
30 min.
Technical instruction 20 min.Calculation 30 min.Language 40 min.
Day three Day four
Technical instruction 20 min. Technical instruction 20 min.Calculation 25 min. Calculation 25 min.Language 25 min. Language 25 min.Science 20 min. Socio-economy 20 min.
Day five
Technical instruction 25 min.Consolidation and revision 65 min.
37
Tab
le 1
2. I
nteg
ratio
n of
lang
uage
lear
ning
and
tech
nica
l kno
wle
dge
PO
ST
ER
PO
ST
ER
PH
RA
sER
ELA
TIN
GT
O P
OS
TE
R
PH
ON
ET
ICT
RA
NS
LAT
ION
EN
GLI
SH
TR
AN
SLA
T IO
N
WO
RD
SY
LLA
BLE
S
LET
TE
RS
AN
DV
OW
EL
PO
INT
S
EX
ER
CIS
ES
NE
W W
OR
DS
FIR
ST
SE
QU
EN
CE
SE
CO
ND
SE
QU
EN
CE
TH
IRD
SE
QU
EN
CE
FO
UR
TH
SE
QU
EN
CE
FIF
TH
SE
QU
EN
CE ...
...
N.B
. ON
E S
EO
U'N
CE
= O
NE
WO
WE
EK
ON
E W
OR
KIN
G W
EE
KIF
IW
OR
KIN
G D
AY
S
LEV
EL
OF
AC
HIE
VE
ME
NT
AT
TH
IE
ND
OF
TH
E F
IFT
H W
EE
K
PH
RA
SE
S L
EA
RN
ED
GLO
BA
LLY
.E
LEM
EN
TS
ExT
RA
CT
ED
FR
OM
TH
E A
BO
VE
ME
NT
ION
ED
-P
HR
AS
ES
AN
D L
EA
RN
ED
BY
AN
ALY
SIS
al W
OR
DS
5hl
SY
LLA
BLE
S 9
d LE
TT
ER
S 1
6 V
Ow
EL
PO
iNT
5dl
SH
AP
ES
28
BA
SIC
SY
NT
AC
TIC
ST
RU
CT
UR
ES
IP
HR
AS
ES
12
3IS
UB
J -
VE
RB
OB
JEC
T)
II P
HR
AS
ES
4 5
ISU
FU
VE
RB
-C
OM
LEM
EN
TI
NE
W A
C.O
UtS
iTiO
NS
.
-WO
RD
S C
OM
PO
SE
D O
F T
HE
LE
TA
LRE
AD
Y L
EA
RN
ED
. 22
PH
RA
SE
S C
OM
PO
SE
D O
F T
HE
WI
ALR
EA
DY
LE
AR
NE
D 2
Nee
000
AB
OU
T S
TE
EL
MIL
LD
EV
ELO
PM
EN
T O
F lE
EZ
EC
HA
NG
ES
IN W
OR
KIN
G H
AB
ITS
SA
FE
TY
TE
AM
WO
RK ... ..
..!`
r; .
, e
ir'
.. _ .
...... ,
.
1I
1.1
1.Li
1I
.-1.
......
, t "
,./..,
../
.1...
1.-.
....!.
!,...,
1_,..
4.-
-,__
_1.;.
?";..
....,/
--:_
.--:
-_-_
-6--
-(1,
..,/-
....
,
'''?-t
--t-
Irc.
r.-:
.?,-
..
SA
AT
JA
IGO
ZIN
E K
HO
R-
SH
ID M
ISH
AV
AC
DA
R K
AR
BA
HA
MS
HA
RIK
HA
ST
IMIN
K U
R E
H A
ST
MA
YE
K S
HA
HR
EJA
D ID
MIS
AZ
IMA
HM
AD
DA
RM
AR
AD
E K
HA
TA
R A
ST
WE
WO
RK
IN U
NIS
ON
TH
IS IS
TH
E B
LAS
T F
UR
NA
CE
TH
E C
LOC
KR
EP
LAC
ES
TH
E S
UN
AH
MA
D IS
IN D
AN
GE
RW
E B
UIL
D A
NE
W C
ITY
51
23
4.
!./.0
r__
.-,
---)
-4',1
).-,
rt"e
'..""
'C.,.
.,0,
_..P
rre
':-.
......
4,...
.0... ...
.
re
z.-
.-.
..
,...
--2,
,,:.
..-*
..f
...,
-I,
..,
....
, -
I t 7
. -
1 1
1111
i._,..
r.,-
-: .
. . .
" .
. . 1
. -
; i )
.11
;:i.::
10,4
..fA
vb:
1-4r
1...
.) :
Le -
I ...
it../
..% ..
..1.1
4 .1
JP ..
/; ".
13 ..
./..1
.2,9
2.1
rto1
.};
.2.."
2 la
12
.rt
"..."
..?*_
.1..,
.211
.II
I
,....,
:,..
DA
R S
HA
HR
HA
ST
IM
WE
AR
E IN
TH
E C
ITY
21f.;
1.../
v./.A
P 4
,./...
..41-
RK
ING
VE E
RS
RD
S
letters and vowel-points, and analysed, In a finalstage, the instructor' invites the group to composefurther sentences on the same subject, to enableeach adult member to test his ability to expresshimself freely and without prompting, The pilotproject staff consider that, with a st Ick of approxi-mately 200 newly learnt words, tires students can,during this final stage, take their first independentsteps in expressing themselves in writing,
In this way, the elements involved in intellec-tualization (reading, writing, symbols) are inte-grated with the technical, vocational and socio-economic elements, In this process of integration,moreover, educational programming is completely
subordinated to technical programming, Literacywork thus serves a purpose in so far as it facilitatesand, in some cases, speeds up the process of intel-lectualizing technical problems,
In the second case under consideration, integra-tion may be particularly thoroughgoing, as is indi-cated by the initial sequences of the first trainingcycle of the general agricultural programme.
Lastly, with regard to the third case, we havechosen a purely visual example which illustratesperfectly the integration of technical drawing withtechnical programme content, The illustrationoverleaf concerns a sequence linked to the centraltopic of the circuit.
Integration of mathematics with a programme's iechnical content
Technical topics Identification of themathematical conceptsInherent in thetechnical content
Finding edults'related practicalexperience
Elicitation ofrule or formula
inventory of principaloperations entailedIn the mathematicalconcepts
Basic mechanical operationsto be Impartedduring the first 11 weeks,listed In a didactic progression
1. Allocation of landfor various uses
Area Adults' own problemswith fields andland apportionment
Area. Length x Width NumerationLinear measurement and its unitsAddition, multiplicationLinear measurementDivision, subtractionTime unitsDistanceSpeedDivisionMonetary unitsMultiplicationDivisionWeight and volume unitsWeight unitsAreaMultiplicationVolume, speed, timeWeight, volume, divisionFractions, division, etc.Basic processes a abovePercentage, time, etc.YieldScaleGraph readingPlans
NumerationAddition
2. Planting out Arithmetical andgeometrical progression
Adults' own methods ofplanting field
Length Distance SubtractionNumber between plants
3, Ploughing or digging Speed, depth, time,money, angle
Adults' experience indigging and ploughing
DistanceTime Multiplication
x.Speed
4. Application offertilizer
Proportion, fraction,weight, volume, area
Adults' own methodsand experience
Rule of three Division
.-5. Spraying Pressure, volume, area Adults' experiences In
these mattersQuantityQuantity
Linear measurementWeight measurement=Area x
Unit area
a, Irrigation Rate of flow, volume,time
Adults' traditionalmethods and knowledge
Volume Speed, timeF'" ' Unit of time
7. Harvesting Yield per unit of area Adults' own experience Weight or volume perunit of area
Area
8. Quality and wastage Fraction and percentage Adults' own experience Pert related to wholeand 100 as unit
Volume
9. Marketing Costs end prices Multi' own experience Prof it, selling price,overheads, etc.
Fractions
10. Storage and ensilage Maximum exploitationof/ products
Adults' own experience Cost, benefit, etc. Percentage
II, Credit Interest Adults' own experience Interest rates Monetary units
39
14Note : This shows the simplest BOX OPEN
form of circuit but it may "REAL" CIRCUITbe developed to show more SHOWNcomplex layouts as required
SWITCH
WOODENBLOCK
LAMP
BOX CLOSED
0 "real" terminals, switchtoggle, and top of lampshown through holes,"wires" drawn on lidto complete circuit
Blank paper placedover box with "real" itemsshown dimly through
The diagram of circuit is drawn over thepaper, by following the "real" items
Sheet used alone as® a working tool
DRYBATTERY
WOODENBLOCK
Integration of technical drawing with technical programme content
40
THE TE A CH ING MATERIALS
In view of the teaching method selected for the Iranianproject, the question of materials had to be lookedac from an entirely new standpoint. It was difficult,indeed, to adopt the solutions - so readily available -of a set type of curriculum, spelling primers andreader or readers for the pupils and manuals forthe instructors. Methodology of a complex kinddemanded materials that would be clear and sys-tematic enough to reassure the participants in thegroups and; at the same time, be so imaginativeand stimulating that they would be encouraged touse their own initiative.
After numerous experiments, a set of teachingmaterials was worked out for each sequence by theIranian project team, consisting of:A set of short texts "C" accompanied by the essen-
tial graphic material. This set corresponds to
the objective content of the sequence, arrangedin accordance with the basic operations. It isprimarily intended for the information and train-ing of instructors.
For group work, concise material "G" consistingof a poster summarizing the theme of the se-quence, and one or two sheets for each partici-pant, to serve as technical notes. By collectingthese sheets each adult can make up his own book.
Semi-programmed material "A", which includeseither individual evaluation cards or work sheets.Adults can use these to go on studying, so thattheir initial instruction may be continued by in-dividual effort.
Teaching notes "I" for instructors. They drawattention to certain difficulties in the sequence,suggest lines of action to be followed and appro-priate explanations and, lastly, provide the pre-paration for their evaluation work.
N
IM
POSTI22
Programme Code
Stage
Sequence No.
Page of sequence
CONTENT:TECH : TechnicalDRAW : DrawingSCIE : ScienceSOCI : SocialCALC : Calculations
GROUP
PAGE : PagePOSY : Poster
IM
22
lM
INST
22
ADULT
WS : Work sheetHS : Handout sheet
INSTRUCTOR
System of classification of teaching materials
E5
41
Although the preparation of models and the massproduction of teaching aids have been intensivelydeveloped, the use of audio-visual media, on theother hand, has been fairly limited in the Iranianproject, even though a key role was assigned tosuch methods in the Plan of Op ations.
Although traditional art in .sfahan is highly de-veloped in regard to miniatut es and calligraphy, itwas found difficult to get rtists and craftsmen tohelp with the pilot projec , as, for example, in theproduction of the numerous posters demanded bythe method selected. There was accordingly a con-siderable delay in the production of this importantvisual material, which, apart from a few examples,has been of rather poor quality. Use of colour is,moreover, practically non-existent.
Nor have radio programmes produced the expec-ted results, despite interesting experiments in whichthe hearing of new words is associated with theirgraphic representation on posters. The Iranianproject has not succeeded in coming up with a prac-tical solution to the classic problem of synchronizingbroadcasting and listening times. Attempts to ar-range broadcasts to coincide with the group time-table have been abandoned, since each time theworkers changed their shift their time-table wasaltered accordingly. In addition, differences intraining levels have meant that audiences have hadto be split up and this reduces the number of oc-casions when all groups could really benefit fromthe same broadcast.
Radio, like the cinema, has been used essential-ly as a means of strengthening motivation (explain-ing the purpose of the project to the general public,encouraging adult participation or arousing interestin literacy in general). There is, however, a pos-sibility in the near future - when the project reachesthe post-literacy phases - that experiments inorganizing cultural activities can be undertaken byusing, for example, the transmitter that will befunctioning shortly in Dezful.
WORKING WITH OTHERS
One of the most fascinating aspects of the methodo-logy applied in the Iranian project is the fact thatit is the result of what has been fundamentally groupwork. Educators, the traditional authorities fordealing with educational issues, have thus beenobliged not only to work in conjunction with those inother professions and to take account of factorswhich lie outside their control, but even at times tobow to demands of a non-educational kind. For sucheducators, their practical task is the difficult pro-cess of learning how to work with others instead offor them - and even, ultimately, through them.
This means first of all, working with the"pupils". They-are no longer mere "illiterates"
e. defined by the knowledge that they lack - butadults who have sometimes achieved a high degreeof skill in traditional techniques, notwithstanding
42
their educational handicap. Probably because sur-vey techniques do not have a sufficiently practicalbasis, plus the fact that hardly any of the inter-national experts knew any Persian, the project hasonly occasionally succeeded in obtaining the parti-cipation of adults in the drawing up of programmes.In Dezful, however, there are already a few in-stances in which new literates have, in turn, be-come instructors. The participation of adults canalso be obtained indirectly through evaluation pro-cedures which can serve as a feedback system,modifying the initial programming in the light oftraining results.
Then there is work with the specialists. As hasalready been pointed out, the Iranian project hasbeen assisted by several outside institutions. Un-fortunately the period of such co-operation (undercontract) has not been long enough to ensure thatspecialists and educators have developed a reallyclose working relationship. The work of the Iranianspecialists 1..s also been restricted by difficultyin obtaining the secondment for field work of expertsfrom other ministries. In addition there is thewell-known fact that specialists are not always inthe habit of seeing problems in terms of futureeducational work. Lastly, most of the specialistsinvolved in the pilot project had no previous ex-perience of combining vocational training with theprocess of learning to "intellectualize".
Between these two categories are to be foundthe project's "foot soldiers", i, e. the instructorswho work directly with groups of 25 to 30 adults.
An Iranian specialist talking to a farmer
16
Ideally, it had been hoped to recruit mainly"monitors" drawn from the same social and occupa-tional spheres as the students themselves, in orderto ensure that vocational training proper and theother aspects of training went hand in hand, butthere were not many takers. Tensions also arosewith the "supervisors", recruited from the formaleducational system, who found it difficult to acceptthat persons who were not teachers by profession
could be competent educators. Nevertheless, cer-tain experiments ernuloying monitors, particularlyat the Reeze metallurgical works, have yielded re-markable results,
Be this as it may, in view of the fact that thenational staff of the pilot project are directly res-ponsibleponsible to the Ministry of Education, almost allthe instructors were recruited from among primaryschool teachers and, occasionally, former" sepahis"of the Education Corps. At Dezful, a considerableproportion of the instructors were married couples,who were thus able to reach all members of thevillage communities, unrestricted by the segrega-tion of the sexes which has proved such a barrierin other Iranian programmes. Thanks to the com-prehensive nature of their action, these coupleswere able to play the part of "animateurs" or com-munity project organizers, which resulted in somecases in the formation of small community nuclei,the forerunners of future cultural centres.
To be sure, the mere fact of finding themselvesin a working environment so far removed from thatof the school is in itself a salutary experience forprofessional teachers, who tend to shut themselvesoff in the highly artificial world of the school sys-tem. But functional literacy work involves morethan this. It raises the question of how to give theseteachers an awareness of, and a grounding in,
technology. What special training should be providedfor them and for how long? Though those respon-sible for the Iranian project all agree that the aimmust be nothing less than the re-training of theseteachers, two different approaches have emerged.Some advocate an initial training period long enough(up to a month) to provide them with a solid ground-ing, to be followed up and supplemented duringmonthly sessions organized to prepare the sequences,at the rate of one half day of instruction, demonstra-tion and practical exercises for a single sequenceper month. Others propose that initial training bereduced to one or two weeks, with provision wherenecessary for regular week-long periods of furthertraining organized in "centres of excellence"; thesewould be set up at key points of the pilot project andplaced under the responsibility of instructors of out-standing worth, who would be able to give practicaltraining to their less-gifted fellow teachers.
Whatever the solution adopted, it is clear thatthe question of the training (considered as a con-tinuing process, embracing further training) of theinstructors is crucial to the effort to extend theproject. It is not impossible that this re-trainingof primary teachers may one day have a consider-able, and moreover highly desirable, impact uponthe entire educational system. For the moment,however, there is little sign of this happening.
Place
Grouppremises Voluntary
workers
Staff
Local Centre Instructors(full time)
Duration // hrs. persession ;
/ 5 to 6 days/ per week
Area centreTrainingofficers(full time ? I
Number ofparticipants
25 - 30
2% hrs. oncea week (2nd.or 3rdol themonth)
Sub-projectcentre
Nationalspecialists
25. hrs. oncea week (1st ofthe month)
10.20
4th weeks01 the month
Diagram of the continuous system for training pilot project personnel
43
17
In order to expedite the solution of this problem,efforts were focused on decentralizing training andfurther training by means of a supervisory systemoperated by training officers. This sytem is alsodesigned to secure the feedback of information fromthe grass-roots to project centres. Each group ofsome 6 to 15 teachers is directed, guided and sup-ported by a full-time training officer. These train-ing officers, who have received the equivalent oftwelve years of schooling, are responsible for theinitial re-training of the teachers, for their con-tinuous refresher training and, needless to say,for supervising their work. They thus act as
44
educational counsellors. There are between ten andtwenty operating in each sector, themselves direct-ly responsible to the national members of the sub-project team responsible for a given operationalsector. The training officers thus serve asintermediaries between the centre and the outpostsof the pilot project, conveying information and feed-ing it back. This system of action and reactionbetween the field workers and the central teamconsequently involves a continuous process ofrefresher training for all staff working on the pro-ject, whatever their individual educational leveland their functions.
Chapter IV The old and the new
"In villages, towns, and cities, literacy classes have reached tensof thousands of people, mostly adults who have never had the advan-tage of any schooling. But the ability to read and write is merelya tool and can easily do more harm than good if not used in the rightway. This had led to broaden our outlook on the literacy questionand to institute a programme of fundamental education which stres-ses the application of literacy skills to real life situations. I seemarvellous prospects here, of which we must take full advantage. "
H. I. M. the Shahinshah (Maemuriat barayevatanam - Mission for my Country)
A PROJECT WHICH CONTINUOUSLYTRANSCENDS ITS OWN LIMITATIONS
The operational history of any development projectshows that it is vain, and perhaps even mistaken, towish to abide at all costs by initial intentions asthese are set ,out, for example, in a plan of opera-tions. Indeed,' we venture to suggest that to clingobstinately to them is perhaps the most effectiveway to bring a project to grief. This does not meansigning a blank cheque, but it does mean that theprocess of revising a plan of operations might beless long-drawn-out and above all less drastic.
It would seem, in fact, that the practice followedhitherto allows for revision only when the executionof a project is disturbed by an external event, as forexample when it becomes apparent that the prepara-tory studies for the plan of operations have grosslyunderestimated the magnitude of the obstacles, orfailed to make adequate provision for surmountingthem. Such situations have affected the Iranianproject, as for example when the KWPA reappro-priated a section of the irrigated area where it hadbeen planned to locate the experimental zone of theDezful sub-project, or again when the attempt wasmade to found the Esfahan sub-project on the de-sire - illusory, as it turned out - of the managersof certain of the city's industries for modernization.
We have, however, also seen that the objectives
and the work plan of the Iranian project were con-stantly readjusted as a result of:an effort to clarify its overall aim, its "philosophy"
as expressed simply in the definition of functionalliteracy (Chapter I);
a strengthening of the ties between the educationalactivities and the frame of reference within whichfunctional literacy operates (Chapter II);
a systematic effort to work out a specific methodo-logy (Chapter III).
This concern to go beyond the results alreadyobtained created in the Iranian project an attitudeof mind favourable alike to self-criticism and toimagination, producing a climate which provedmost favourable to experimentation, even if, as weshall see later, the experiments carried out as partof the project did not always abide sufficiently bythe rules governing rigorous scientific experimen-tation. It is, in fact, only since 1969, when theevaluation section was taken firmly in hand andbecame capable of keeping a check on the experi-ments, that methodological experimentation hasgiven measurable results.
In taking such a resolute course it was, moreover,inevitable that established professional practice,the habits and theoretical assumptions of all thoseworking on the project should be called in question,thus causing reservations and even resistance on
45
the part not only of the Iranian but also of the inter-national staff. Naturally, then, tensions and con-flicts arose, but there was also, and far moreseriously, a much too rapid attrition of internationalstaff, which resulted in an excessive turnover,Those responsible for the management and evalua-tion of the project have been deeply concerned bythis situation and have put forward a series of mea-sures designed to enable Unesco to minimize thiswaste of talents. It would, for example, be helpfulto rethink the post descriptions for experimentalprojects, so as to make them more specific and toallow of their being reframed in accordance withthe changing objectives of the operation.
The first difficulty is to define exactly what skillsare required. Which scientific disciplines shouldas a matter of course be represented in the basicteam? Would it not be advisable to specify certainspecialized educational qualifications? An "adulteducator'', for example, is not necessarily an adulteducation programming specialist, nor even neces-sarily capable of coping with the difficult methodo-logical problems involved in integrating the trainingprogrammes and finding new solutions to them. Con-versely, a programming or methodology specialistis not necessarily a specialist in the training ofinstructors. Such categories doubtless do not evenexist in most of the countries which are able to pro-vide international experts, This is the reason whythe Iranian project has attached increasing impor-tance to enlisting the temporary services of consul-tants. Precisely for this reason, Unesco mightperhaps encourage the training of such specialistsby transforming the pilot projects carried out underthe experimental programme into project schools.
The second difficulty is in making the transitionfrom a multidisciplinary conception of the integratedapproach (that is, the conjunction of coexistingskills) to an interdisciplinary approach (based onthe give-and-take between different methodologies ).This is particularly true in the case of experts inthe different development sectors. It is one thingto analyse a socio-occupational sector and to identi-fy the various bottlenecks; it is quite a differentthing to break down a professional problem in orderto determine the basic elements of the trainingcourse content and to grasp how they fit togetherat the psycho-sociological level, with a view tohelping the methodology specialist to establish thesequences of the learning operations. It might wellbe advisable, therefore, before posting an expertto a functional literacy project, to provide him, inaddition to the customary briefing, with a practicalgrounding in the specific working method used onthis type of project?
The third difficulty is bound up with the crucialimportance of the quality of the expert's relation-ship to the community in which he is to work. Thefunctional approach, excluding as it c,lyes alla priori assumptions, entails:familiarity with the distinctive structural features
46
and particularly with the attitude of the country'sadministrative authorities;
sufficient knowledge of the language to permit di-rect communication with instructors and adults;
an informed and discerning understanding of thedistinctive features of the national cultural back-ground, especially complex in Iran's case,With benefit of hindsight, it can be said that the
fact that not one of the international experts posses-sed a satisfactory knowledge of Persian and thatthose who succeeded in acquiring a smattering werefew and far between was at the root of the profes-sional misunderstandings and the cultural obstacleswhich engendered not only a feeling of isolationamong the international experts but also occasionaloutbursts of mutual impatience. If this view -which we fully share - is granted, then it followsthat all functional literacy pilot projects should setaside a fairly lengthy period - a minimum, say,of six months - for the linguistic, cultural andmethodological training of the basic team. It isevident that this requirement would probably entaila re-examination of the methods of recruitment ofinternational staff, with a resultant lengthening ofappointments.
EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION OREDUCATION BASED ON EXPERIENCE?
There are probably few more controversial ques-tions today than that of experimental education,particularly if its purpose is to make educationalaction more effective by ensuring that it is carriedout in compliance with the criteria of scientificexperimentation.
It in fact pre-supposes a model to be tested, aseries of hypotheses to be verified, the existenceof experimental groups and test groups, a set ofvariables - limited if possible - to be taken intoconsideration, the systematic recording of obser-vations for future filing and classification and,lastly, an evaluation which culminates in concretemeasures designed to correct the educational actionwhere necessary and to set standards governingits application and extension. Teachers do nottake readily to this discipline, either because theyhave grown accustomed to mistaking their strokesof ingenuity for rigorous experimentation or be-cause they are fearful of being bound by laboratory-type situations - concerned as they are with theurgency of action - or, finally, because theyconsider themselves to be first and foremost"inventors ".
The Iranian project was not exempt from suchtensions, which increased as the evaluation sectionwas built up and succeeded in devising a practicalmethod of checking results. They were, moreover,compounded by other, more specific factors. When,at the beginning of 1967, the pilot project jumpedthe gun, the result was, as has been seen, a
thorough confusion of methods, conventional solu-tions coexisting with ideas which, though ingenious,were too lacking in cohesion. Confronted by whatthey considered to be absolute chaos, and convincedas they were that the Teheran Conference had mark-ed a break not only at the theoretical, but also atthe practical level between the so-called traditionalconception of literacy and that implied in the prin-ciples guiding the Conference, the educational di-rectors of the pilot project made it their exclusiveconcern to work out an original methodology. Toachieve this, they had to demonstrate that if certainprinciples were adhered to, a totally new methodo-logy, a new method of organizing learning and newteaching tools must, of necessity, be adopted.
In the previous chapter, we saw that this two-fold effort to take a creative and at the same timecoherent approach not only yielded fruitful resultsbut was, moreover, achieved in the field. In so faras all the new ideas were tried out in practice, itcould be said that this educational approach hadbeen put to the test of experience, but it is still nottruly experimental in the sense of having been putto the test of comparison. Indeed, we can say thatit has hardly been open to comparison throughoutthe first three years during which it was worked out.This is borne out by the discussion which arose in1970, when the directing staff of the pilot projectagreed to the possibility of using three separatemethods of learning to read and write at one and thesame time.
The advocates of a "purist" conception of func-tional literacy teaching considered that only onemethodology, that of supervised self-instruction,suited the purpose, concluding from this that asingle method of learning to read and write wasrequired. This was a look-and-say method usingfrom the start sentences which transmit a completemessage linked to the technical content of the course,These sentences gradually increase in number andcomplexity, and are used for the purpose of identi-fying the basic structures of language. It is thusessential, in the view of these educators, to teachthe adult from the outset to read and write(' ) theliving language which serves as the medium of ex-pression for his thought, his experience of life and,in the case of functional literacy, his professionalknowledge. For reasons of principle these educa-tors consider it inconsistent to acknowledge theother two methods of learning to read and writeproposed by their colleagues.
The first of these - advocated by the internationalexpert B. Lamto (ILO) - is designed to provide agrounding in the shortest possible time (six weeks)in the basic processes of reading and writingPersian. It involves setting aside a period solelyfor this purpose prior to the start of the integratedlearning programme, and taking as a starting point94 key-words, drawn from the technical vocabularyinvolved. Although these may be employed to dis-cuss a specific technical topic, they are not sorigorously linked to the progression of the technical
content as in the case of the method propounded bythe "purists", These words arranged by syllables,are set out on two discs which, when manipulatedby the student, cause the words to appear one afteranother, at the same time drawing the student'sattention to one of the letters of which the word isformed.
The second method (devised by the Iranian en-gineer Soraya) is based on words and sentencesrelated to the technical programme content, butchosen for their phonetic progression. It startsby introducing each of these key words, highlightingone of their constituent letters. These letters arethen used gradually to build up other words, thensentences, always referring back to the technicalcontent. This method limits the transmission oftechnical messages, particularly during the firstmonths, inasmuch as the sentences are built uponly of words composed with letters that have al-ready been learnt.
These discussions had the merit of winning oversome of the doubters and posing in clear-cut termsthe question of experimentation. As a result ofthese conflicts, those responsible for the pilot pro-ject decided to take the plunge. At the end of 1970,urged on by the evaluation section, they decided toembark upon genuine experiments. The purpose ofone of these is to compare the results of the so-called traditional method used by the IranianNational Committee and those of the "pure" func-tional literacy method applied by the pilot project.The experiment is being conducted in a zinc mineand is designed to assess:the process of learning to read, measured by re-
ference to variables depending on the literacyprogramme;
the development of students' knowledge, measuredby the number of words which they have under-stood and assimilated and are capable of de-fining;
the retention of literacy skills;the changes of attitude of the workers.
Comparison will be based upon the results ob-tained with two sets of homogeneous and balancedgroups of 30 workers, some of them belonging tothe first working team and applying the IranianNational Committee's method, the others belongingto the second team and using the pilot projectmethod.
It would thus seem that the pilot project hasindeed gone beyond the stage of invention, but hasit achieved the transition from invention to systema-tic innovation? Has it acquired the capacity todisseminate its inventions, to win their acceptanceby other groups, and to make them understood bythe instructors, regardless of their educationallevel? And is it capable of bringing about changesin the structures which reject them?
1. Note the emphasis on writing.
47
FROM INVENTION TOSYSTEMATIC INNOVATION
As the Iranian project has so fai been carried outunder the auspices of the Ministry of Education, thespecialists, training officers and instructors em-ployed on it have almost all been chosen from amongthe personnel of that Ministry. There has accor-dingly been no question of setting up a completelynew national team. Staff not only needed refreshertraining but indeed, in many cases, retraining.From the outset, the Iranian project was facedwith problems of innovation. Should it succeedin finding a solution to these problems, it would gaindirect access to a professional community which hashitherto been little amenable to change, to saynothing of the multiplier effect such innovation mighthave on the regeneration of education as a whole inIran.
In a civilization in which education is based onrigidly authoritarian and hierarchical relationships,this is no easy task. Authoritarian structures arebuilt into the entire educational system and, inparticular, into its conception of "inspection" - aterm which we prefer to see replaced by "supervi-sion". Instead of providing him with an opportunityto offer guidance, the supervisor's function is seenas being a purely administrative one of "checking up"and one which involves certain rights over others.We have ourselves witnessed training officers who,not content to act simply as animateurs, have takenover from the instructors. It was all the more dif-ficult to break these traditions and to introduce newhabits in that most of the instructors are not em-ployed full-time on the project, but go in for func-tional literacy teaching as a sideline to their nor-mal teaching duties. Likewise, the training officerswere hard put to it to break free from the traditionalpattern of inspection which they had seen practisedby the supervisors. This gave rise to regrettablesituations, like one we saw at the iron-works, wherea training officer criticized an instructor' - himselfa foreman - for failing to live up to his image of the"good teacher".
Uncertainty as to the training officer's role alsoconstitutes a serious obstacle to determining howthorough an understanding the majority of instruc-tors have gained of the methodology. Some haveundoubtedly grasped it perfectly, but many otherscling so obstinately to their usual teaching methodsthat they appear rather to be reeling off instructionslearnt by rote than making use of properly masteredtechniques. What will happen once supervision isrelaxed? Will not a great many instructors return,for example, to the National Committee's method,which has the virtue - albeit relative - of makingthem feel more at home? Are we certain that theinstructors are themselves well enough educated tobe able to provide instruction in the fairly extensivespheres of knowledge that functional literacy entails?And how many of them find themselves having totalk about instruments and machines which they have
48
no experience in handling? How many do more thansimply imagine a working environment in whichthey have probably never set foot? These doubtsconcerning the project's "foot soldiers" are all themore serious inasmuch as it is soon to enter a stageof development in which, instead of the few dozen in-structors per sector, there will be several hundred.
As several consultants have suggested, this dif-ficulty experienced by the teaching community inadapting itself is possibly the result of a too dogma-tic approach to their re-training. The pilot projectsought to win supporters for its own method, insteadof allowing a gradual process of understanding,deepening awareness and change to take place inpeople whom it was first and foremost necessaryto convince of the need for change. Another causeof the difficulties encountered was the tendency toconsider the teaching community as a homogeneouswhole, onto which was superimposed a group oftraining officers responsible primarily for super-vising and not educating the teachers. Would it nothave been advisable to make more of the proposalsput forward by C. E. Beeby, who advocated a moreeducation-oriented approach to the teachers them-selves? His policy was to single out those instruc-tors who had grasped the idea, giving them a full-time, key position in the establishment of theproject, in what he termed "centres of excellence".These centres would be attended regularly by asecond category of instructors, who, though theyhad not yet fully mastered the methodology, weresufficiently concerned to improve themselves to beable to grasp the essential principles rapidly. Forthe less gifted instructors forming the third cate-gory, who primarily needed reassurance, the pro-gramming of courses was to be as detailed as pos-sible so as to avoid the most obvious mistakes,without, however, their being required to undergoa thorough re-training in the new methodology. Thetraining officers were to be responsible for thisthird category of instructors, making it their busi-ness to help them little by little to overcome theirlimitations. Lastly, there would be instructorsengaged on the other Iranian campaigns who wouldcontinue their regular work, following traditionalmethods. A number of those who were willingmight be selected to receive a grounding in the pilotproject method.
An obvious prerequisite for a training strategyof this nature is the establishment of objectivecriteria for selection and advancement, if promo-tion is to be based on the quality of the professionalperformance contributed by the teachers to thedevelopment of the pilot project. This presupposesthe existence and observance of a minimum bodyof regulations for those in the public employ. Inthis respect, the Iranian project is far from havingachieved more than has been achieved in traditionalgovernment departments. It was really asking alot to expect a pilot project to have something whichnot even an entire Ministry has got.
This is the reason why the solution of the conflicts
between the old and the new had on several occasionsto be sought in an administrative reorganization ofthe project. This sometimes involved genuine ad-ministrative independence, or the project's beingmade the responsibility of ministries which weremore sympathetic to the demands of modernizationinvolved. The Iranian authorities have shown them-selves to be fully conscious of these difficulties.They considered, however, that their solution wasunlikely to be found in a direct confrontation withthe existing school system.
THE IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION
Evaluation is the key stage in any experimentalprogramme, because in the end it decides not onlywhether the programme has "succeeded", but whe-ther it has any significance. It also decides whatlessons are to be learnt from the programme. Eva-luation is also directly involved in the furtherdevelopment of the programme in that it providesa continuous feedback. Lastly, it is used by theproject experts to see how they stand in relation toother experts and to the project as a whole. Thislast point is crucial if one wishes to understand thehistory of the pilot project, and must therefore beelaborated on.
In the first" place, evaluation looks at what hasbeen done and compares it both with the objectivesand with the hopes and wishes of the target popula-tion. Then it measures the "internal efficiency"
e. how the aims compare with the achievementsin terms of training, thus making it possible todraw immediate conclusions about the educationalstandard of the teaching, in this case about themethods used. But evaluation is "external" too,when it is used to compare the training that hasbeen given with the needs of the development pro-cess within which the planners were working.
Take first the "internal" evaluation of the pilotproject. It would probably have been easier to getout of the stalemate of which we spoke in the lastchapter, if evaluation had been able to play its fullpart right from the start. However, it was onlyfrom autumn 1969 onwards, two years late, thatthe evaluation section was able to discharge all its"internal" evaluation functions. To do so it needednot only the right methods, but also a complicatedorganization for which the minimum requirementswere to work out objective ways of observing andmeasuring how the adults learnt, to check informa-tion sent in by the basic groups, to initiateinstructors and training officers into the techniquesand, above all, inculcate in them the spirit of self-evaluation.
But what had been happening before this radicalchange? As we said above, the educators in thepilot project had endeavoured to concentrate alltheir joint efforts on working out a single method.As a result, they were not very attentive or recep-tive to comparisons. What is more, there had
come to be something of a rift between the teachingsection and the first evaluation team as a result ofthe delay in producing the basic diagnosis. In thePlan of Operations, the idea had been that theevaluation section would, during the preparatoryperiod, work out a baseline survey which wouldgive the educators the indispensable informationwithout which they could not plan their programmes.
This work took the evaluation team, using onlyits own resources, along time to complete. Espe-cially at Esfahan, it did not even go far enough withits analysis, The educators, consequently, gotused to fending for themselves, occasionally takingup some hint or other from the evaluation documents.We should also note that the working habits of theeducators did not make the evaluation team's workany easier. For instance, for the educators, whatwas important was to have working groups whichworked, even if there was a constant turnoverbringing in new members to replace the adults whodropped out. This almost perpetual change in groupmembership (encouraged by instructors who wantedto keep the numbers in their group up to an optimumlevel, so as to keep up their wages) did not inter-fere too much with the working out, trying out anddissemination of methods. For evaluation purposes,on the other hand, such a "group" loses any valueas a statistical unit. In extreme cases, it preven-ted objective experiment.
In 1969, Mr. Bazany was thus faced with aconsiderable task. The evaluation section hadfirstly to be reorganized. Next, strict rules hadto be laid down to provide for systematic collectionof objective data from the grass-roots level - whichinvolved defining the indicators, fixing and ob-serving deadlines for the various reports from thegroups, and regularly checking the information,the sources of which were very varied and whichwas in some cases being doctored to suit the pro-fessional interests of those submitting the informa-tion. But there were also more complicated pro-blems to be solved. Thus, in any experimentalproject, the very development of the methodologyinvolves a continual modification of aims, eventhough some of those aims remained unchanged.Finally it had to be recognized that in the particu-lar situation in which the project found itself, fartoo many factors were still unknown or little known.The only alternative was to opt for a set of assump-tions which would continually be tested. This situa-tion could be summed up by saying that the evalua-tion of the Iranian pilot project has since 1969 been
9erun on the very mod n principle of relativity.By the end of 1 9, the system was'already
starting to work. Gradually the evaluation sectionwas making up the ground lost by the previous team,so that at the end of 1971 an overall evaluation ofthe previous two years' work (1969-1970) waspossible.
It is thus probably too late for the fiAings tohave any feedback effect on the teaching activitiesnow under way. Some feelings of frustration might
49
be stirred up among the educators, who might thinkthat they are there only to provide data, withoutever being able to find out the results of the analysesand interpretations. We think it would be possibleto overcome this difficulty by organizing a perma-new training and refresher training system whichwould, as a matter of course, include feedback ofinformation right down to the most elementarylevels of teaching work. On the other hand, it mustbe stressed that these evaluation results come atthe right time for the preparation of the extensionof the project planned for the period of the FifthNational Plan.
So far we have considered only internal evalua-tion. However, as has been pointed out already inthis chapter, there is also external evaluation.From the very beginning of work on the pilot pro-ject and in accordance with the World Programme,such evaluation has had very different aims fromthe other type. It had to check whether functionalliteracy teaching could contribute directly to socio-economic development better than "traditional"literacy teaching. In order to answer this question,the evaluation team had to undertake additional in-vestigations on the following four levels :at the national level, to collect facts and figures on
population and the economy;at the level of each sub-project, to obtain data on
its socio-economic characteristics and on thedevelopment prospects in each sector of activity;
at the level of the communities concerned,to describethe new problems raised by development trends ;
at the level of the individual programme participantsto see exactly what the motivation of the adultswas and to discover the psycho-economic factorswhich were exerting a favourable or unfavourableeffect on the success of training.From these various investigations, the evaluation
team had to extract indicators which would allowthem to measure the changes which had come aboutand which appeared to be the direct or indirect con-sequence of the functional literacy teaching work.
The least one can say is that the plan was very' ambitious. As it was difficult to isolate the experi-
ment from its context in order to take into accountonly those elements which depended on the work ofthe pilot project, and as it was not possible with themethodology initially suggested to achieve the ob-jectives, Mr. Bazany and his co-workers verywisely decided to change their strategy completely.Instead of giving priority to external evaluation,they chose to take internal evaluation as far aspossible. Since 1969, evaluation, therefore, hasconsisted primarily of checking whether t emethodology laid down and worked out in the projectis viable and what the measurable results of thatmethodology are.
This wise decision, however, does not excludethe possibility that the internal evaluation may comeup with findings having a significance which goesbeyond the educational framework of the methodo-logy. This can be seen very clearly in the draftamendment to the Plan of Operations. The more
50
precise definitions of aims in the draft amendmentgave the evaluation section of the Iranian projectan opportunity to take greater account of the parti-cular circumstances of the country, where ulti-mately the basic question is whether functionalliteracy teaching has made any new contributionto the methods which have been used hitherto inIran. This question involves a whole series ofother questions. Is functional literacy teachingmore expensive than other types, and why? Whatare its advantages? What are its limitations?What are the overall costs, direct and indirect,which it involves? Those in charge of the pilotproject, whilst not omitting to measure the impactof the programmes on economic growth and socialchange, set the evaluation section a number ofprecise tasks:to measure the relative effectiveness of traditional
literacy teaching, of vocational training withoutliteracy teaching and of functional literacyteaching;
to check which methods, techniques and instrumentsof literacy teaching are best suited to the socio-economic and socio-occupational circumstancesof the social groups affected;
to study the links to be established between the tech-nical programme content and the practical workinvolved in the training process, and also theeffects of reinforcement and feedback;
to estimate the contribution of the various informa-tion media and of audio-visual aids ;
to establish types and levels of instruction corres-ponding to various types of need (selection,training and further training methods);
to analyse the circumstances of the participation ofilliterate adults (motivation, stimulation andmaintenance of interest), and to compare homo-geneous groups with heterogeneous ;
to determine the optimum length of training cyclesin relation to a particular criterion;
to study the question of which structures and tech-niques of organization and administration arebest suited to the requirements of functionalliteracy teaching;
to calculate the costs and benefits of the variousfunctional literacy programmes ;
to set standards and criteria to facilitate the sub-ordination of language-learning, from the pointof view of vocabulary and grammar, to the tech-nical content of the vocational training and agri-cultural extension programmes;
to analyse the measures taken to ensure that readingand writing skills are retained, and to encouragepost-literacy work.Obviously this evaluation programme will also
depend on the rate at which the project develops,which will in turn depend on the decision to extendthe scheme, taken at the end of 1970. It is not im-possible that the planned expansion could cause anexcessive flurry of activity, and assessment wouldagain be made very difficult. The only advantagewould be to demonstrate the efficacity of functionalliteracy teaching by spectacular results.
Conclusions The futureof the Iranian experiment
"Might we not set aside the traditional assumptions and imaginea new programme to train a new type of worker-doctor, lesssophisticated perhaps, in the style of what we are trying to doin the functional literacy programme? For the result couldlead us seriously to consider the use of methods similar tothose employed in the regeneration of education in other areas,including medicine and public health".
A PROTOTYPE OR A MODEL?
In the logic of an experimental programme, a pro-ject must be completed if possible within the timelimit so that a balance-sheet may b?. drawn up andconclusions drawn which will confirm or otherwisethe assumptions on which the whole was based. Inthe case of a project that is a constituent part of aworld experimental programme, it is even morenecessary. It is essential to call a halt if the pro-ject is to be compared with other projects.
But to apply this reasoning to the Iranian pilotproject would have been to overlook the expectationsaroused in the country by the project, expectationswhich were every bit as great as the resistancewhich, as we mentioned above, it encountered.
The pilot project might fairly be regarded asbeing like the first phase in the building of a proto-type. During such an initial phase, money wouldbe no object. Neither effort nor expense would bespared, since the only important consideration isthat the prototype should be successful. However,as is well known, and as we in fact were told byone Iranian official, a prototype is always expensive.On the other hand, the same man went on, theprototype stage would become financially viablewhen we entered a second stage, the purpose ofwhich would be to determine suitable conditionsfor volume production.
It is therefore not surprising that the projectteam has been, since about 1970, reflecting(1) on
H. E. Mr. M. Rahnema,Iranian Ambassador
the prerequisites - and costs - of a transition froma project of relatively modest size to projects on anentirely different scale. We should, nevertheless,note that the argument that the cost of a prototypeis recouped by reproducing it in large numbers hadalready occurred to those responsible for the micro-experiment at the Taj factory, i, e. one of the veryfirst experiments in the project. They had evenestimated that the cost per participant, which hadamounted to some 13,000 rials, could be reducedto 6,000, in the case of a 25-strong group of workers,and even to as little as 681 rials in the case of a1,000-strong group. Be that as it may, if we areto find an answer to such questions, we must startoff by costing the project.
This idea of the "prototype", in our opinion, ex-plains why costing and the assessment of perform-ance were not a major preoccupation in the mindsof Iranian officials. Another, more serious reason,explains the relative lack of interest in such matters.Iran's overall expenditure on the pilot projectbetween 1967 and 1971 inclusive represents only amodest, not to say insignificant, proportion of thecountry's total expenditure on education: whereas
1. The increase in such interest enabled M. J. Smyth,from whom we have taken some of the figuresquoted here, to analyse the costs and assess theperformance in record time and to prepare areport which we await with the greatest interest.
51
between 1067 and 1971 Iran was spending between126 and 467 million rials each year on the NationalLiteracy Campaign, only between 4 and 55 millionrials were being spent on the pilot project.
In fact, much more important than the cost perparticipant or total costs is the use to which theresources made available for the project have beenput. We should like to take up two points fromM. J. Smyth's analysis. The first is that, as mighthave been expected, the capital equipment involvedis very small (2. 4 per cent). Indeed, functionalliteracy teaching needs no heavy capital equipment,much less any costly infrastructures. It stands orfalls by virtue of its method. The second point isthat the siting of the project's Central Office atTeheran was off-centre in relation to the Esfahan-Dezful axis, and involved excessive costs.
The Iranian Government, however, does notconsider the project merely as a prototype, butalso as a model, i. e. a structure which could bereproduced elsewhere. The Government has alwaysstressed that it wanted to repeat this experiment.Although the principle of continuity, then, is ac-knowledged - which in itself is a proof of thegovernment's support - no details are yet forth-coming as to what form the further developmentshould take. In fact, what must first be taken intoaccount is the national five-year plan, the executionof which begins in 1973. The next thing will be todraw the necessary conclusions from the expertreports of the consultants, analysing the methodswhich the project provides to ensure the multipliereffect. Finally, the choice will have to be madebetween various options:expansion by sectors, whereby each of the specific
programmes established for each sector mightbe applied in the same sector, but to all il-literate workers;
geographical expansion, whereby the general pro-grammes might be extended to the whole of thecountry, using the work of the Literacy Corps,Health Corps, etc. as a basis;
extension, i. e. transferring all the project activi-ties to some other region, for example the re-gion for which such work was planned in Iran'soriginal request to UNDP.From another point of view, which is in fact
complementary to the first, the development ofthe pilot project might start with the setting up ofpermanent institutions to be responsible for thegeneral extension of functional literacy teachingwithin the framework of the Fifth Plan, to whichthe "prototype" would be handed over. Such insti-tutions might take the form either of a completelyoverhauled Department of Adult Education withinthe Ministry of Education, or of a National Insti-tute for Vocational Training and Further Training,or might comprise a specially established, indepen-dent institute.
A further step might even be taken. We haveseen that functional literacy teaching, especially
52
In the setting of an enterprise, also calls in ques-tion all levels of training and skill improvement.Some overall scheme seemed necessary to us, notonly in order to keep the balance between the variousoccupational groups, but also to create the best pos-sible career prospects for the newly literate. Thereis no reason why we should not think in terms ofanother kind of expansion, this time at the level ofstructures, at which level the pilot project could wellserve as a general model for the training of humanresources, whatever the level of education or thebranch of activity of those concerned. The pilotproject would thus contribute to the training ofmiddle-level personnel which, in areas as differentfrom each other as public health and industrial pro-duction, are so sadly lacking in Iran. Finally, thiuapproach has the advantage of making us reconsiderthe "post-literacy" problem.
FROM FUNCTIONAL LITERACY TOLIFF-LONG ADULT EDUCATION
The close association of functional literacy teachingand vocational training assumes that the post-literacyfollow-up is given at least as much importance asthe continuity of the learning process. During therecent International Education Year (1970 ), Unesco,indeed, repeated once again that functional literacytraining is only the first stage in a life-long processof training. This principle was to some extent ap-plied in the Iranian project, for instance, in the sys-tem provided for the continuous training of teachers,or in the very spirit of the methods that were workedout with the purpose of encouraging supervised self-instruction.
It is therefore surprising to say the least that thisline of approach was not clearly developed either inthe Plan of Operations or even in the draft amend-ment. When the latter document refers to it at all,it is in the "post-literacy" context, i, e. the contextof a series of operations with the main aim of in-creasing the retention of literacy, as if it were astock of acquired knowledge to be looked after or,at most, a capital which should be made to yielddividends.
As to the work actually done, there are reportsfrom various places of co-operatives being timidlyorganized, but so far nothing systematic has beenplanned. There has hardly been any reference evento such things as the setting up of libraries andlending facilities and the preparation of readingmaterial for the newly literate. The same appliesto the recent setting up of cultural centres in ruralareas. These shortcomings can be attributed withcertainty to the fact that systematic functional litera-cy teaching started too late to have produced large,succe ,sive cohorts of the newly literate as yet. Thatis why the question of the post-literacy follow-uphas really only had an echo in the Dezful sub-project,
e. in those communities where the work had beengoing on for a long enough time.
Even if such work only comes second itt chrono-logical order, should it not already have beenthought out? Is it not inconsistent to work out thefirst stage in such detail without knowing anythingexact about the following stages? The task is allthe more urgent in view of the fact that some Iranianofficials are already alive to this problem. Forthe moment let us try to gather together the ques-tions that we have heard asked.
Firstly, should a large-scale influx of the newlyliterate into existing educational institutions be en-couraged? Alternatively, ought we not to take therisk of setting up a "parallel" system, distinctfrom the present school system, thus reducing thecall made on the existing institutions and enablingnew institutions to be set up? Could not such aparallel system bring together the various adulteducation movements in Iran and offer them newtraining institutions, which would give them theopportunity of prolonging their training? In otherwords, would this not offer a chance to try out asystem of life-long education?
Whatever alternative is chosen, it will againforce the project to break out of the present ad-ministrative framework, unless it is simply decidedto link up with the present school system, i. e. toabandon the functional principle in the phases fol-lowing literacy teaching proper.
Looking at it from another angle, ought not post-literacy work be seen in terms of an integratedapproach which makes it part of the developmentof a cultural environment? Experience at Dezfulshowed that educational work called for supportfrom such diverse quarters as criches and kinder-gartens, that it required the existence of placessuitable for communication, in the first instancepurely and simply meeting places, then culturalexchange centres. Would it not be useful to extendsuch work to include cultural activities - in an areawhich is particularly lacking in cultural facilities?At the same time the problem of leisure arises -men with time on their hands during the off season,and women without enough free time. The imminentbringing into service of the Dezful sub-projecttransmitter might perhaps offer an opportunity fora new surge of crativity.
THE INTERNATIONAL CONSEQUENCESOF THE IRANIAN EXPERIMENT
Now that the Iranian project has clarified its inten-tions and worked out its own methods, and now that,with the impetus given by the new evaluation section,it has started a process of comparison and will haveto solve a whole series of problems connected withinitial training, continuous training and the periodic
in-service training of a huge teaching staff, it haseverything necessary to make it a project that otherswill come to study - except that there are no facili-ties for receiving them. The international expertshave often expressed regret at having no time todeal adequately with the trainees and associate ex-experts who have been through the project. Never-theless, the Iranian project has contributed to thetraining and the preparation of personnel sensitiveto the problems of functional literacy teaching inthe framework of a symposium organized by theUnesco Regional Bureau of Education at Bangkok in1969 for 11 Asian educators. If the Iranian projectis to make a greater contribution to the training ofinternational staff, of whom there is such a shortagein this area, it will be necessary to create specialadditional facilities. It would also be possible togive the International Institute for Adult LiteracyMethods, Teheran, responsibility for organizingcourses making good use of the rich fund of docu-ments which the Institute possesses and of the ex-perience acquired in the experimental sub-projectsand the other Iranian experiments in adult training.
Another future use for the pilot project would beas a research laboratory using material collected bythe evaluation section. Such research might be ofinterest to international research workers, andmight be carried out in close co-operation withIranian research institutes. Thus the Institute ofSocial Science of the University of Teheran has al-ready planned a series of studies on the comparativecosts of the various methods of literacy teachingtried in Iran, on the capacity of the staff and theadministrative apparatus of the Ministry of Educationto accept and understand the methods used in func-tional literacy teaching, on the consequences ofinternational co-operation, and on the conditions ofinter-ministerial collaboration. It is probable thatafter the progress made in the evaluation of theWorld Programme, other subjects of study will bedefined. This, in itself, raises the problem, forthe project, of the storage of information, for whichno provision has as yet been made.
As observed in the foreword, the Internationalsignificance of the Iranian project will depend on thefinal study which, in our opinion and without wishingto be paradoxical, will be as important as the achieve-ments themselves. It is only on the basis of evalua-tion that it will be possible to draw up an objectivebalance-sheet, whichwe have refrained from doinghere. What we have tried to do at most is to indi-cate the problems encountered by the Iranian andinternational team in its endeavour to develop theTeheran principles, the solutions that it has alreadymanaged to put forward, and the prospects which itsuggests to any educator who is concerned not onlywith invention but also, and principally, withinnovation.
53
Annexes')
I. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ADULT LITERACY TRAININGAND EDUCATION IN IRAN
A. GENERAL
Abbas, E. Program for the improvement of elemen-tary education in Iran. Minneapolis, Minn. , Uni-versity of Minnesota, 1953. (Dissertation).
Ahmadi, A. Barresi savad jamiyate faal dar IranStudy of the effects of literacy teaching on the
working population of Iran/. Teheran, Ministryof Higher Education, 1968. (Mimeographed).
Arasteh, Reza. Education and social awakening inIran (1850-1968). 2nd ed. Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1969.237 p.
Bazargan, F. Etude comparee de la politique com-parative et des problemes scolaires dans six paysd'Orient. Universite de Lausanne, 1963. 239 p.(Dissertation).
Bibliographies sur l'Iran. Paris, Organisation decooperation et de developpement economiques.Centre de developpement. Paris, 1965. 305 p.
Borhanmanesh, M. "Literacy campaign in Iran",Prospects in education (Paris, Unesco), vol. 1,No. 2, 1970, p. 60-63.
Brolin, K. G. The reorganization of the educationalstatistics in Iran. Final report of the Unescomission in Iran. Teheran, Ministry of Education,1959.
Conference Paykar ba Bisavadi /Conference sur leprogramme d'alphabetisation/, Teheran, February1970. (Persian only).
Fattahipour, A. Educational diffusion : moderniza-tion of an ancient civilization. Chicago, Ill, , Uni-versity of Chicago, 1963. 400 p. (Thesis).
Goody, J. (ed. ). Literacy in traditional socieiies.Cambridge, Mass. , Cambridge University Press,1958. 350 p,
Hanna, Barbara. Der Kampf gegen das Analpha-betentum in Iran. Opladen, C. W. Leske Verlag,1966.
Luebke, Paul T. (ed. ). Identifying problems affec-ting adult literacy training programmes in theCENTO Region. Report of the CENTO Seminaron Illiteracy held in the National Museum, Tehe-ran, November 16-21, 1963. Teheran, GeneralDepartment of Adult Education, Ministry of Edu-cation, 1964. 126 p.
Machayekh, Farideh. La planification de Palpha-betisation des adultes dans le cadre du develop-pement rural. (Avec l'exemple donne surParis, Institut international de planification del' education, 1970. 41 p. (Doc. IIEP/Int. /70. 15).
Projections a long terme de 1'education en Iran.Rapport de la mission consultative regionale del'Unesco pour la planification de Peducation enAsie. Bangkok, 1965. 117 p.
Rassi, Jafar. Education and extension education inIran. Logan, Utah, Utah State University, 1966.X 4-333 p. (Dissertation).
Role of women in education in Iran (The). Teheran,Women's Organization, 1970. 12 p. (Inter-national Women's Congress, Madrid, 1970).(Mimeographed).
(1) The greater part of this bibliography, which isfar from complete, has been compiled thanksto the co-operation of the Director and staff ofthe International Institute for Adult LiteracyMethods (B. P. 1555, Teheran). We shouldlike to express our particular appreciation to -Miss Masoodeh Tafazoli for the willingness andamiability with which she carried out this U. k-less task.
`5.--1/55
Tafazoli, Masamieh. A report on the literacy cam-paign in !ran. Teheran, International Institute forAdult Literacy Methods, 1970, 12 p,(Typed).
Training school for women rural workers. Teheran,Women's Organization, 1969, 14 p. (Mimeographed).
B. THE EDUCATION (LITERACY) CORPS
Ahcloh, Jalal. Campaign against illiteracy. Teheran,Ministry of Education, 1968. 14 p.
l3anaie, Hossein. Education Corps. Teheran, Minis-try of Education, 1970. 51 p.
Bella, Sita. Education Corps wages war on illiter-acy in Iran. Unesco Features, No. 447,30 October 1964, pp. 7-10.
13illerbeck, K, et al. Community development inIran. Be Hill, Deutsches Institut Mr Entwicklungs-politik , 1966.
Birjandi, Amir. L'Armee du savoir de PIran. Unprogramme de cieveloppernent rural. 4e ed.Teheran, Ministry of Education, 1966, 40 p.
Blandy, Richard ; Nashat, Mahyar. The Edu-cation Corps in Iran; a survey of its socialand economic prospects. InternationalLabour Review. (Geneva, InternationalLabour Organisation), vol, 93. No. 5,May 1966, p. 579-589.
Farmane Homayooni Ghanoune Khadamate ejtemaiezanan, 24 Tir, 1347 LShah's Decree on SocialService for Women/. Teheran, Ministry ofEducation, 1968. (Persian only).
Hallak, J. ; Cheikhestani, M. ; Vorlet, M. The fi-nancial aspects of primary education in Iran.Paris, Institut international de planification dePeducation, 1970. 60 p. (Mimeographed).
Harris, Ben M. Iran's gamble to conquer illiteracy.International Review of Education (Hamburg,Unesco Institute for Education), vol. IX, No. 4,1963-1964, p. 4 30-437.
}Iedayati, Hadi. Education Corps organization.Teheran, Ministry of Education, 1968.
A holy war against ignorance. Teheran, 1966.20 p. (Also in German, Arabic, French andRussian).
Iran Almanach 1968, 1969, 1970. Published by theEcho of Iran, Teheran.
Jahanshahy, Iradj. Rahnamaye Khedmat dar dehfA guide for men of the Education Corps work-ing in villages/. Teheran, Ministry of Educa-tion. (Persian only).
Number of schools, teachers and students in ruralareas since the beginning of the Education CorpsProgramme. Teheran, Ministry of Edu6 P. (Mimeographed).
56
Op't Land, C. Social research and literacy cam-paigns. International Review of Education(Hamburg, Unesco Institute for Education),vol. LX, No. 4, 1963-1964, p. 418-429.
Rieze mavade barnamehaye taalimatiye SepahianeDanesh Dokhtar /Women's Education Corpstraining programme/. Teheran, Ministry ofEducation, 1970. (Persian only, mimeo-graphed). .
Salgarde Sepahe Danesh Frirst anniversary ofthe Education Corps/. Teheran, Ministry ofEducation, 1963. 304 p. (Persian only).
C. THE NATIONAL CAMPAIGN
Iranian National Committee for the World LiteracyProgramme. ivIohammad Reza Pahlavi Prize.Teheran, 1970. 16 p.
Iranian National Committee for the World LiteracyProgramme. The literacy programme in Iran.Teheran, 1970. 24 p.
Facts and figures on the spread of education inIran, 1957-1967. Teheran, National Committeefor the World Literacy Programme.
Ghaseini, A. Alphabetisation des adultes en Iran.Report submitted to the Unesco inter-regionalseminar in Denmark. July 1969.
. Education des adultes en Iran. Re-port published by the Iranian National Committeefor the World Literacy Programme. October 1970.85 p. (Translated from Persian; distributionlimited).
. The seminar of directors of adulteducation of the countries of Asia, Esfahan,October 1969. Revue trimestrielle de la com-mission nationale de l'Unesco en Iran, nos. 8et 9. 1969.
. The principles of adult education.(Manual for teachers, to be published by theIranian National Committee for the World Liter-acy Programme. 100 p. )
Gozaresh-e-arzeshyabi pishraft no-amouzan LRe-port on the progress of the newly literate/.Teheran, Iranian National Committee for theWorld Literacy Programme, 1969. (Persianonly; mimeographed).
Gozaresh -e- Barresi -e- masaeleh atfal-e-vajeb-al-taalim / Report on the problems of school-agechildrenJ. Teheran, Iranian National Committeefor the World Literacy Programme, 1969. 9 p.(Persian only).
Iran Almanach and Book of Facts - 1967, 1968,1969, 1970. Published by the Echo of Iran,Teheran.
Khanlari, P. N. Assasnameh va ayien-nameh. Ko mitePaykar ba Bisavadi. rilules of the IranianNational Committee for the World Liter-acy Programme/. Teheran, 1964. 32 p.(Persian only).
Messages from H. I. M. Mohammad Reza Shahinshaliof Iran to all Heads of State and to the thirteenthsession of the General Conference of Unesco con-cerning the World Literacy Campaign. Teheran,69 p.
Pahlavi Foundation. Literacy campaign in thePahlavi Estates. Teheran, Bank Melli IranPress. (Publication no. 4).
Tafazoli, Masoodeh. A report on a visit to Natio-nal Committee classes (from 14th to 19411 De-cember 1969). Teheran, International Institutefor Adult Literacy Methods, 1969. 9 p.(Typed).
II. DOCUMENTATION ON THE WORK-ORIENTEDADULT LITERACY PILOT PROJECT IN IRAN
Alexander, Ramy. Carpet weaving in Iran. Obser-vations. Esfahan, 1970, 13 p. (work-OrientedAdult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran, GeneralDocuments, 8). Mimeographed.
. Crafts in Esfahan and functionalliteracy. Esfahan, 1970. 60 p. (Work-OrientedAdult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran, GeneralDocuments, 7). Mimeographed.
Baseline community survey. Dezful rural area. Pre-pared by A. Ghasemi. Translated from thePersian by Zahra Najmabadi. Teheran, 1968.72 p. (Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Pro-ject in Iran). Mimeographed.
Bazany, M. Statistical reporting for literacy eva-luation purposes. Esfahan, 1970. 24 p. (Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran,Evaluation Studies, 1). Mimeographed.
. ; Kaufmann, H. D. ; Khosrowshahi, K. Re-gistration participation and attendance in functio-nal literacy courses, Esfahan, 1969-1970. Esfa-han, 1970. 96 p. (Work-Oriented Adult LiteracyPilot Project in Iran, Evaluation Studies, 2).Mimeographed.
; Safavi, A. Comparison of cer-tain demographic characteristics of populationinterested and non-interested in functional lite-racy programme in rural area. Esfahan, 1970.60 p. (Mimeographed).
, Demographic cha-racteristics and interest in participation in func-tional literacy courses. Dezful 1969-1970. Esfa-han, 1970. 60 p. (Work-Oriented Adult Literr.cyPilot Project in Iran, Evaluation Studies, 4).Mimeographed.
. Motives of partici-pation in functional literacy courses.Dezful 1970.Esfahan, 1970. 27 p. (Work-Oriented Adult Li-teracy Pilot Project in Iran, Evaluation Studies,5). Mimeographed.
et al. Characteristics of participants in func-tional literacy courses. Esfahan 1969-1970. Es-fahan, 1970. 47 p. (Work-Oriented Adult Litera-cy Pilot Project in Iran, Evaluation Studies, 3).Mimeographed.
Beeby, C. E. Report on a visit to the functional lite-racy project in Iran, 20-30 November 1968. Wel-lington, New Zealand, January 1969. 23 p.(Mimeographed).
Bhadriah, N. History of the Dez sub-project. 15p.Bibliography of reports made by United Nations and
specialized agency technical assistance expertsto the Government of Iran, and published duringthe period 1951-1969. Teheran, United NationsDevelopment Programme, 1970. 75 p.
Bonanni, C. "Literacy for industrial workers ;noteson methods and techniques", Literacy Discus-sion (Teheran, International Institute for AdultLiteracy Methods), vol. 1, no.1, 1970, p. 11-35;vol. 1, no.2, 1970, p. 14-45.
. Principes, methodes et techniques du de-veloppement de programmes d' alphabetisationfonctionnelle : l'expdrience d'Isfahan. Paris,Ins-titut international de planification de Peducation,1971. 15 p. (Mimeographed).
. Writing versus reading in traditional andfunctional adult literacy processes. 1970. 8 p.(Mimeographed).
; Leven, C. J. ; Habibi, F. A descriptionof the Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Pro-ject in Esfahan. Esfahan, 1968. 29 p. (DocumentpreparPd for the Rome Seminar, 14-20Decem-ber 1968). Mimeographed.
Bureau regional de 1'Unesco pour Peducation enAsie. Visite d'dtude et colloque : Projet pilote (1' al-phabetisation fonctionnelle des adultes en Iran, 27ocinbre - 9 novembre 1969. Rapport final.Bangitpk, 1970. 66 p.
Ghasemi, A. Etude des problemes sociaux-econo-miques des villages de Dezful en vue de l'execu-ton du Projet experimental d'alphabetisationfonctionnelle. December 1967. (Distributionlimited).
. Le programme experimental de l'alpha-betisation fonctionnelle des adultes en Iran. Re-vue de Peducation (Teheran, Ministry of Edu-cation); vol. 38, No, 1 and 8, 1968.
57
Ghasemi, A. Les activites du Projet pilote d'alpha-betisation fonctionnelle en Iran. Revue de l'Odu-cation (Teheran,. Ministry of Education),vol. 39, no. 2, October 1969.
Les problernes poses devant le Pro-jet pilote d'alphabetisation des adultes dans laregion rurale de Dezful. Problemes de l'Iran.(Teheran), no.7 and 8, September-October 1969.
Ffenquet, P. Note sur les relations entre le projetpilote et la campagne nationale d'alphabetisation.Teheran, 28 juin 1971. 7 p. (Mimeographed).
Iran: literacy teaching in rural and industrialareas. Unesco Chronicle (Paris), vol. XII,no.3, March 1966.
Jazayery, Aghdas. Women's activities in both Dezfuland villages for 1969-1970. Dezful, 1969. 2 p.(Mimeographed).
Kusheshhaye gorouhe Tarhe azmayeshe - savad,pisheh va kar-amuzi %Activities undertaken inthe context of the work- oriented adult literacypilot project in Iran/. Esfahan, 1967. 13 p.(Persian only).
Lam-To, Bong ; Peyghami, M. A. ; Azari, B. Pro-gramme pour l'industrie textile. Esfahan. 111 p.(Work-oriented adult literacy pilot projectin Iran, Teaching material, 6). Mimeo-graphed.
List of didactic materials prepared from October1967-1969. Esfahan. 4 p. (Mimeographed).
Nouri, Mehrangiz. Tahghighi dar bar-e-zanan rThewomen of Esfahan - a study/. Esfahan, 1967.19 p. (Persian only), Mimeographed.
Functional literacy pilot project - Functional Liter-p.cy experiments in Iran. Paris, Unesco, April1970. (Literacy - Newsletter no. 2).
Rahnerna, Majid. Address to the second WHO Con-ference on Medical Education Eastern Mediterra-nean Region. Teheran, 1970. 7 p.
Report of the joint UNDP/Unesco mission to Iran,14 April - 2 May, 1969. 12 p.
Report on the activities of the agricultural sectionof the Dezful sub-project, October 1967 - July1969 and this year's programme, 1969-1970.Dezful. 12 p. (Mimeographed).
Requests to United Nations Development Programmein connection with assistance to a Work-OrientedAdult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran. 41 p.(Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran,General Documents, 1). Mimeographed.
Rules and regulations governing functions and orga-nization of the Work-Oriented Adult LiteracyPilot Project in Iran. 10 p.
Safavi, A. A brief report on what has been done bythe Evaluation Section in the Dezful sub-project.Dezful. 5 p.
Study visit and seminar for the experimental litera-cy pilot project in Iran. Esfahan, 1969. 22 p.(Mimeographed).
Tafazoli, Massoodeh. Moshkelate zane dahate Es-fahan. EWomen/s problems in the villages ofthe Esfahan regionj. Esfahan, 1969. 8 p.(Typewritten).
The Taj Group. A brief account of a functional li-teracy experiment in a textile factory. Esfahan,1968-1969. Esfahan, 1969. 20 p. + Annexes.(Studies and documents, 5). Mimeographed.
United Nations Development Programme. SpecialFund. Plan of Operation. Iran. Work-OrientedAdult Literacy Pilot Project. March 1967. 31p.(WS. 0367. 182 RIO/PRG).
Wagner, Ch, Sous-Projet de Dezful. Descriptionanalytique d'une methode d'approche. Dezful,1969. 19 p. (Mimeographed).
Wiesinger, Rita. The role and promotion of womenin Dezful village community. Teheran, 1969.71 p.
Women's education section. Summary record ofactivities, 1969-1970. Esfahan. 4 p. (Mimeographed).
Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran.Esfahan, 1969. 120 p. (Mimeographed).
Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran.Agricultural Vocational Section. Summary re-cord of 1969-1970 activities. Esfahan. 14 p.(Mimeographed).
Work-Oriented Adult Literacy Pilot Project in Iran.Industrial Vocational Section. Summary reportof the activities for 1969-1970. Esfahan. 6 p.(Mimeographed).
III. STUDIES AND DOCUMENTS ENVISAGED IN THE PUBLICATIONS PLANOF THE WORK-ORIENTED ADULT LITERACY PILOT PROJECT IN IRAN
General documents series
1. Text of the request presented to the UnitedNations Development Programme by the IranianGovernment (French)
58
2. Plan of Operations (1966) andAmendment to thePlan of Operations (1970) (French, English)
3. General description of the Project (French, Persian)
4. Report by Professor Beeby (English)
5. Résumé of the reports by the inter-agencymissions in April 1969 and April 1970(English)
6. Study on the role of women in the Dezful villagecommunities (English)
7. Crafts in Esfahan and functional literacy(English)
8. Carpet weaving in Esfahan (English)9. Hand block printing in Esfahan (English)10.Etude sur la situation de Pindustrie textile dans
la region d'Isfahan (French)
Educational studies series
1. Principles, methods and techniques for elabora-tion of functional literacy programmes (English,French, Persian)
2. Principles, methods and techniques for elabora-tion of functional literacy programmes (Modelscharts) (English)
3. The training of functional literacy staff (English,French, Persian)
4. The experiment Taj (revised version) (English)5. Une methode d'approche integree : etude de cas
(French)6. Experience d'alphabetisation acceleree dans l'in-
dustrie textile a Isfahan (French)'
Teaching documents series
1. Catalogue of the curricula of the work-oriented literacy programmes tried outunder the pilot project (preliminary version)(English)
2. Plant protection programme3. Vehicle maintenance programme
4. Textile programme5. Horticultural production programme6. Sugarbeet programme
7. General agriculture programme8. Vocational pre - training programme9. Hygiene, nutrition and family planning
programmel0.Civics and social integration programme11.Irrigation techniques programme12. Elementary agricultural machinery programme13.Mines programme14.Stock breeding techniques programme15.Horticulture programme1 6.Building trades programme17.Agricultural machinery programme18.Non-precious metal craftsmanship programme
Evaluation studies series
1. Stu'istical reporting for literacy evaluationpurposes
2. Registration participation and attendance in func-tional literacy courses (Esfahan 1969/1970)
3. Characteristics of participants in functional li-teracy courses (Esfahan 1969/1970)
4. Demographic characteristics and interest inpar-ticipation in functional literacy courses (Dezful1969/ 1970)
5. Motives of participation in functional literacycourses (Dezful 1970)
59
ArgentinaAustralia
AustriaBelgium
BoliviaBrazil
BulgariaBurma
Cameroon
CanadaChile
Colombia
Congo (People'sRepublic of)
Costa RicaCuba
CyprusCzechoslovakia
DahomeyDenmark
Arab Republicof EgyptEthiopiaFinlandFrance
French Weat IndiesGerman Dem. Rep.
Fed. Rep. of Germany
Ghana
GreeceHong Kong
Hungary
IcelandIndia
IndonesiaIranIraq
IrelandIsrael
ItalyJamaica
JapanKenya
Khmer RepublicKorea
KuwaitLiberia
LibyaLuxembourg
MalaysiaMalta
MauritiusMexico
MonacoNetherlands
Netherlands AntillesNew Caledonia
UNESCO PUBLICATIONS: NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS
Editorial Losada, S.A., Alsina 113 I, BUENtos AIRES.Publications: Educational Supplies Pty. Ltd., Box 33, Post Office. BnoogvaLE moo, N.S.W. Periodicals:Dominic Pty. Ltd., Box 33, Post Office, IbtoOKVALE 2100, N.S.W. Sub-agent: United Nations Associationof Australia (Victorian Division), 5th Floor, 134-136 Flinders St., MELBOURNE 3000.Verlag Georg Fromme & Co., Arbeitergasse 1-7, 1051 WIEN.Jean De Lannoy, t r2, rue du TrOne, Bann:DAS 5.Libreria Universitaria, Universidad San Francisco Xavier, apartado 212, SUCRE.Funtlavan Getalio Vargas, Servico de Publicacaes. caixa postal at 120 Praia de Botafogo 188, Rio DR J %Moto,G.13.Remus, Kantora Literatura, bd. Rousky 6, Sonja.Trade Corporation n.° (9).550-552 Merchant Street, RANGOON.Le Secretaire general de la Commission nationale de la Republique ficifrale du Cameroun pour l'UneacoB.P. 2061, YAOUNDg.Information Canada, 0 rrAwa (Ont.).Editorial Universitaria, S.A., casilla 10220, SANTIAGO.Libreria Buccholz Galeria, avcnida Jimenez de Quesada 8-40. apartado aereo 40-56, BonorA; DistrilibrosLeda., I'io Alfonso Garcia, carrera 4°, n. 36-I 19 y 36-125, CARTAGENA; J. German Rodriguez N.. Calle17, 6-59, apartado national 83, GIRARDOT (Cundinamarca). Editorial Losada Ltda., Calle t8A, n.° 7-37apartado stereo 582o, apartado nacional 931, BocorA. Sub-depots: Edificin La Ceiba, Oficina 804, MEDELLIN;Calle 37, n." 14-73 Oficina, 305, BUCARAMANGA; Ediflcio Zaccour, Oficina 716, CALI.
Librairie populaite. 13,1'. 277, BRAZZAVILLE.Libreria Trejos S.A., apartado 13(3, SAN Jose. l'elefunos: 2285 y 32ooDistribuidora Nacional de Publicaciones, Neptuno 674, LA HABANA.'MAM', Archbishop Nlakariom 1rd Avenue, P.O. Box 1722, NICOSIA.SNTL, Spslena 51, PRAHA 1 (Permanent display); Zahranicni literatura, t 1 Soukenicka, PRAHA I.For Slovakia only: Alfa Verlag, Publishers, Hurbanovo nom. 6. 893 31 BRATISLAVA.Librairie nationale, B.P. 294, Potrro Novo.Ejnar Munksgaard Ltd., 6 Norregade, 116,t KOBENHAVN K.Librairie Kasr El Nil, 38, rue Kasr El Nil, La CURE National Centre for Unesco Publication., 1 TlaaatHach Street. Tahrir Square, CAIRO.National Commission for Unesco, P.O. Box 2006, Amos ABABA.Akateeniinen Kirjakouppa , 2 Keskuskatu, FIF4111NKI.Librairie de l'Unesco, place de Fontenuy. 75 Pattii4-7.1. CCP 12508-48.Librairie 'Au Bout' Mich', a Rue Perrinon and 66 Avenue du Parquet, 972 FORT-DE-FRANCE (Martinique).Deutscher Buell-Export and -Import GmbH, Leninstrasa t6, 7ot LEIPZIU.Verlag Dokumentation, Postfach IA Jaiseratraase 13, 8043, MONLHEN.PULLACH. 'The Courier' (Germanedition only): Bahrenfelder Chausaee Ito, HAMBURG-BAHRENEELD. CCP 47 66 50.Presbyterian Bookshop Depot Ltd.. P.O. Box 195, Accitn; Ghana Book Suppliers Ltd., P.O. Box 7869,ACCRA; The University Bookshop of Ghana, ACCRA; The University Bookshop of Cape Coast; The Uni-versity Bookshop of Legon, P.O. Box 1, LacoN.Anglo-Hellenic Agency, 5 Koumpari Street, ATHINAI 138.SW1/14100 Hook L.., 13.13 Luck Road. !WW1-WW.Akadenuai Konyveabolt Vici u 22. BUDAPEST V.A.K.V. KOnsvtiros°1-. 13oltja, Neplt5ztirsassig utja 16, BUDAPEST VI.SnaelajOrn Jonsson & Co. II. F., Hafnarstracti 9, REYKJAVIK.Orient Longman Ltd.; Nicol Road, Ballard Estate, BOMBAY t; 17 Chataranjan Avenue, CALCUTTA 13;36A Anna Salai, Mount Road, MADRAS 3; 13-317 Aaaf All Road, NEW DELHI!. Sub- depots: Oxford Book &Stationery it Park Street, CALCUTTA t6; and Scindia House, New DELHI; Publications Section,Ministry of Education and Youth Services, 72 Theatre Communication Building, Connaught Place,NFU' DPI. HI 1.Indira P.T., II, Dr. Sam Ratulangic 37, JAKARTA.Commission nationale iranienne pour l'Uneaco, avenue Iranchahr Chomali n° 30o, B.P. 1533, Tbitaida.McKenzie's Bookshop, Al-Rashid Street, BAGHDAD; University Bookstore, University of Baghdad, P.O.Box 75, BAGHDAD.The National Ptess, z Wellington Road, Ilallshridge, DUBLIN 4.Emanuel Brown. formerly 13Iumstein's Bookstores: 35 Allenby Road and 48 Nachlat Benjamin Street, TELAviv; 9 Shlonizion Ilamalka Street, JERUSALEM.LICOSA (Libreria Coninussionaria Sanaoni S.p.A.), via Lamarmora 45, casella postale 552, 50121 FIRENZESangster'. Book Stores Ltd., P.O. Box 366, 1°1 Water Lane, KINGSTON.Maruzen Co. Ltd. P.O. Box 5050, Tokyo International. Tokyo.The ESA Ltd., P.O Box 30167, NAIROBI.Librarie Albert Portal', 14. avenue Houlloche, PHNOM -PENH.Korean National l'ommission for Unesco, P.O. Box Central 64. SEOUL.The Kuwait Bookshop Co. Ltd. P.O. Box 2942, KUWAIT.Cole & Yancy Bookshops Ltd., P.O. Box 286, MONROVIA.Agency for Development of Publication and Distribution, P.O. Box 34-35, TRIPOLI.Librairie Paul Bruck, 22 Grande-Rue, LUXEmBOURG,Federal Publications Sdn. Bhd., Dalai Berns, 31 JaIan Biting, KUALA LUMPUR.Sapienza's Library, 26 Kingsway, VALLerrn.Nalanda Co. Ltd, 30 Bourbon Street, Potur-Louts.CILA (Centro Interamericano de Libros Academicos), Sullivan 31 bis, NIt3trct3 4, D.F.British 1.ibrary, 3o, boulevard des Moulins, IVIoNTE-CARGO.N.V. Martinus Niihoff, Lange Voorhout 9, 's-GRAVENHAGF..G. C. 'I'. Van Dorp & Co. (Ned. Ant.) N.V., WILLEMSTAD (Curacao, N.A.).Repres S.A.R.L., B.P. 1572, Noma (A.
New Zeeland
NigerNigeria
Norway
Pakistan
Peru
Philippines:'oland
PortugalSouthern Rhodesia
Romania
Senegal
SingaporeSouth Africa
Spain
Sri LankaSudan
Sweden
SwitzerlandTanzaniaThailand
Togo
TurkeyUganda
U.S.S.R.United Kingdom
United StatesUpper Volta
Venezuela
YugoslaviaZaire
Government Printing Office, Government Bookshops: Rutland Street, P.O. Box 5344, AUCKLAND; 130Oxford 'Terrace, P.O. Box 1721, CHRISTCHURCH; Alina Street, P.O. Box 857, HMIII.loN; Princes Street,P.O. Box t roc DoNtints:i Mulgrave Street, Private Hatt, V11..LINtilON,Lihrairie Manclert, 11 P. 868, NiASIET.The University Bookshop of Ife; The University Bookshop of Madan, P.0, Box 286, IBADAN; The Universityof Nsukka; The University Bookshop of Lagos; The Ahmedu Bello Univetsity Bookshop of Zaria.All publications: Johan Cirundt Tunurn, Karl Johann gate 41/43, Ovl,o t. 'The Courier' only:A, S Narvesens Litteraturtieneste Box 6125, OSLO 6,The Vesi.Ptik Puldialiing Cn. Ltd., Unesco Publications House KO. Box 374. G.P.O., LAHORE.Showrooms: Urdu Bitraar, LAIlollF. and 57-514 Murree !Hallway, t, I I AMABAD. Pakistan PublicationsBookshop! Sarwar Itilad, ILAWAI HNIH; Mirza Book Agency, 65 Shehreh Quaid-e-azani, P.O. Box 729LAIRRik 3.The C,urier' onlv Editorial Losada Pentane, npartado 472, LIMA, Wirt publications: Distribuidora Inca
S.A., Fruilio Allhaus 470, Lince, cnsilln 31 t s,The Modern Book Co., u26 Rizal Avenue, P.O. Box 632, MANILA.Osrodek Rozpowzechniania Wytlawnictw Naukuwych PAN, Pelee Kultury i Nauki, WARszAws.Dina & Andrade Ltda., Libreria Portugal, run o Carnio 7o, LISBOATextbook Sales (PVT1 Ltd., 67 Union Avenue, Shimmy,I C.E LIRR1, Calea Vietoriei nr. t26 P.O. Box i34-135, BUCUREVEL Subscriptions to periodicals:Rompresfilatelia, Calea Victoriei nr. 29. Burtuttcsri.Le Maison du Livre, 13, avenue Bourne, B.P. 206o, DAKAR; Librairie Clarrafrique, B.P. 2005, DAKAR;Librairie 'Le Senegal', B.P. /594. DAKAR.lederal Publications Sdn Bhd., Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPIIIIR 9.Van S, haik's Bookstore (Pty.) Ltd., Libri Building, Church Street P.O. Box 724, PRETORIA..411 pohhearioro: Editiones lberoamericanas, S.A., cane de °nate 15 MADRID 20; Diatribucihn dePublicaciones del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientifiess, Vitrubio ih. MADRID 6; Libreria delComet() Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Egipclacas t5. BARrtti tiNA For 'The Courier' only:Edit:nine, Liber. sported° 17, °siphons (Viscava).Lake House Bookshop, Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Ma seta, P.O. Box 244, Cot.oson 2Al Bashir Bookshop P.O. Box 1118, KHARTOUM.All Publications! A BC.E. Frizzes Kuria IdovhoPhandel, Fredsgstan 2, Box 16356, 103 27 STOCKHOLM 16.For 'The Courier': Svenska EN.Forbundet. Skolgrind 2, Box t5o so, S-too 65 STOCKHOLM.Europa Verlag!, Ramistrnase 5, ZURICH; Librairie Prniot, 6 rue Grenus, 1211 UeNIvH tt.Oar es Salaam Bookshop, P.O. Box goio, DAR ES SALAAM.Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue. BANGKOK.Lihrairie evangelique, B.P. 378; Lomt; Lihrairie du Bon Pasteur. 11.P. 1164. LomA; Lihrairle moderneB.P. 777, Lon'I.Librairie Harhette, 469 Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu, ISTANBUL.Uganda Bookshop, P.O. Box 145, KAMPALA,Merhdtmarodnaja Kniga, Mosgvs,H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, LONDON SE1 WM; Government bookshops: London, Belfast,Birmingham, Bristol, Cardiff. Edinburgh, Manchester.Unesen Publications Center P.O. Box 433, New York, N.Y, toot6.Librairie Attic H.P. 64, Ouagadougou. Librairie catholique 'Jeunesse d'Afrioue', OUAGADOUGOU.Libreria I-Bootie, Monjaa Padre Sierra. Edificin Ovate a, n.° 6 (frente al Capitolio), apartadode correos7120- rot, CARACAS,Jugnslovenaks Knfign, Teraziie 27. RFUORAD. Drzavna Zalotha Sloveniie Moon' Trg. 26, LJUBLJANALa Librairie Institut national d'etudes pnlitiques, 8.P. 2307, Kmitkqk: Commlanion nationsle de laRdoubliQue du Zaire pour l'Uneaco, MinistSre de l'ilurae:on rationale K.sontsiti.
