DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 275 134 FL 016 031

AUTHOR Dodge, Diane T.; And OthersTITLE A Classroom Teacher's Handbook for Building English

Proficiency.INSTITUTION Creative Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C.SPONS AGENCY Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages

Affairs (ED), Washington, DC.PUB DATE Feb 85NOTE 60p.; For related documents, see FL 016 032-033.PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MFOA Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIPTORS Classroom Communication; *Classroom Techniques;

*Curriculum Development; Elementary Education;*English (Second Language); InterculturalCommunication; Language Proficiency; *Limited EnglishSpeaking; *Material Development; Media Selection;Second Language Instruction; Teaching Guides

ABSTRACTA handbook for teachers in small school districts who

are faced with the need to include increasing numbers of studentswith limited English proficiency (LEP) in their regular classroomprograms is presented. The handbook is designed to help teachersdevelop effective strategies to adapt curricula and instructionalmaterials to meet this population's needs. The handbook begins with adiscussion of common concerns of teachers, the rewards of teachingLEP students, and survival skills for the first few days of class.Subsequent chapters examine: the characteristics, testing, andlanguage-learning situation of LEP students; issues concerning theLEP student in the regular classroom (orientation, the classroomenvironment, classroom management, grouping, communication, andf_ross-cultural understanding); and adapting instruction and materialsfor LEP students (strategies for adapting instruction, identifyinggoals and objectives, identifying new concepts and vocabulary,selecting commercial materials and/or preparing simplified readingmaterial, generating reinforcement activities, and selecting methodsfor teaching reading skills). (MSE)

***********************************************************************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

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A Classroom Teacher'sHandbook For BuildingEnglish Proficiency

Developed by

Creative Associates, Inc.Washington, DC

Bilingual Education Instructional and Training Materials Project

funded by:

Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language AffairsU.S. Department of Education

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIDNAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

IK This document has been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating IL

0 Minor changes have been made to Improvereproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated In this document do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.

February, 1985

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLYHAS :EEN GRANTED BY

gt.JA1TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

A Classroom Teacher's Handbook for Building English Proficiency was producedunder a contract with the U.S. Department of Education, the Office of Bilingual Educationand Minority Language Affairs. Opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect theposition or policy of !he Department, and no official endorsement should be inferred.

Acknowledgements

A Classroom Teacher's Handbook for Build-ing English Proficiency reflects the ideas andexperiences of many skilled teachers, administra-tors, and trainers who served as project staff, asmembers of a technical team, and as expert re-viewers. These individuals provided samples ofmaterials they had developed and used, partici-pated in conferences and retreats, attended nu-merous meetings to help identify the direction andcontent of the handbook, and reviewed both out-lines and drafts. Diane T. Dodge assumed the leadresponsibility for developing the Handbook. Spe-cific sections were written by Leonor Guillen,Kathie Panfil, Theresa Bran, and Brenda Bryant.

Technical Team

Arlington Public

Sally Bass ler

June Brasse

Susan ConnersMarsha DaleEmma de Hainer

Melissa King

Sharon McCririe

Schools

Secondary EnglishTeacher

ESOL/Primary HILTTeacher

Elementary HILT TeacherESOL Resource SpecialistESOL Curriculum

SpecialistElementary Resource

SpecialistElementary HILT Teacher

Shirley Morrow

Peggy Taylor

Secondary HILTCoordinator

Former Teacher CorpsStaff DevelopmentCoordinator

Alexandria Public Schools

Mary Neale Garrett Curriculum Specialist forESOL/ForeignLanguages

Georgetown Bilingual Education Service Center

Christine Newman laterials Specialist

Reviewers for TrainingMaterials

Mary BakerAnna Chamot

Cheri Majors

Virginia Collier

HILT/HILT ExtensionCoordinator for Research

Information Services,National Clearinghousefor Bilingual Education

Elementary TeacherJan BurdellElementaryHILTAssociate Director of the

Center for Bilingual/Multicultural Educatinn,George MasonUniversity

Jean Lewis

John Nelson

Project Staff

William PlittBrenda Bryant

ESOL Trainer, Office ofRefugee Resettlement,Catholic Diocese ofRichmond

Director of ESOLProgram at Universityof the District ofColumbia

Project DirectorProject Monitor

Kathie PanfilDiane T. Dodge

Leonor GuillenTheresa Bratt

Etta Johnson

Patricia Loy

Project SpecialistTraining and Materials

Development SpecialistResearch AssociateResource Specialist,

Secondary LevelResource Specialist,

Elementary LevelAdministrative Assistant

Finally, we would like to acknowledge Elisa-beth B. Glover for layout and design, and EmilyKohn for editorial ass:stance.

The Bilingual Education InstrucTTraining Materials Project was funded it.1982, by the Office of Bilingual and Min LacyLanguage Affairs (OBEMLA) in the U.S. De-partment of Education. Over a period of two-and-a-half-years, the project demonstrated how a schooldistrict can respond effectively to the challenge ofa new student populationspecifically, studentswith limited English proficiency.

The project represented a collaborative effortbetween Creative Associates, Inc., a minority-owned firm specializing in the development ofhuman resources, and Arlington Public Schoolsin Virginia, a small suburban school district facinga large increase in its limited English proficient(LEP) student population. A Technical Team thatincluded teachers of English for Speakers of OtherLanguages (ESOL), and curriculum specialists inthe Arlington Schools, Creative Associates' staff,and representatives from the Alexandria Schools,George Mason University, and the GeorgetownBilingual Education Service Center worked to-gether to

describe, pilot test, and validate a processapproach to the development of curriculumand instructional materials;

produce training materials that will be usedby trainers in helping teachers develop cur-riculum and instructional materials using aprocess approach; and

prepare a set of instructional materials suit-able for use with LEP students.

rIreface

The project began with a state-of-the art review' the literature. Drawn from that research were

these conclusions:

Classroom teachers and all personnel in-volved in the education of LEP students needmaterials which are suitable and adaptable toteaching limited English speaking students.

Because the lInguage minority populationchanges often, educators must constantly adaptboth locally developed and commercial ma-terials.

Teacher involvement, administrative sup-port, and teacher training are major factorscontributing to the success of local instruc-tional materials design.

Locally developed curriculum and instruc-tional materials rarely are shared widely withother potential users.

National needs, the priorities of the OBEMLA,and tht findings of the literature study providedan impews for the development of several productsdesigned to assist other school districts, particu-larly oiral and small suburban districts, that areexperien.;rts a sudden influx of LEP students.Each product reflects the research findings and theexperience-based beliefs of Arlington PublicSchools personnel that instructional innovationscannot be accomplished in a vacuum. Educationalchange, to be successful, must be placed in thetotal context of program planning and implemen-tation to assure the creation of a permanent system

6

to respond to the needs of new srident populationsor new educational priorities and concerns.

The r 1:is which result' -m this projectare descr below.

A Literature Revielv

This document presents a review of curriculummaterials in the resource centers of the ten schoo'districts in the Washington, DC metropolitan area.It also reviews teacher training materials from theBilingual Education Service Center at GeorgetownUniversity and the Bilingual Center at the Uni-versity of Maryland. It includes documented in-formation and an assessment of the needs andpractices of widespread materials development atth local level. The document provides ve.ificationof the process approach implemented in the Ar-lington Public Schools.

A Process for Meeting theInstructional r leer's of Special StudentPopulations

Addressed to educators in school districts facedwith the need to respond to student populationsnot previously served, this document provides adescription of how Arlington Public Schools re-sponded to the need for change. It outlines thefive stages in the change process and illustratesthese descriptions with events as they took placein Arlington.

Instructional Materials

Beginning Social Studies for SecondaryStudents: Building English Proficiency

This set of instructional materials, designed forstudents with very limited English proficiency,includes a Reader, a Student Workbook, and aTeacher's Manual. The Reader is a collectionof illustrated reading selections that reinforce read-ing skills through social studies content. The Stu-dent Workbook includes pre- and post-readingactivities to help reinforce reading and study skillsusing concepts introduced in the Reader, TheTeacher's Manual provides general teaching

strategies that take the teacher step-by-step throughtin: presentation of lessons. Instructions includere&xed workbook pages containing the answersto the exercises followed by objectives for eachlesson, and appropriate teaching strategies. TheTeacher's Manual also contains pre- and post-tests for each unit with answer keys and scoringinstructions.

Training Materials

A Classroom Teacher's HandUo,Building English Proficiency

This practical handbook is addressed to teacherswho work in small school districts and who mustaccommodate students with limited English pro-ficiency in their regular classroom programs. Itspurpose is to help teachers develop effective strat-egies and to adapt the -irriculum and instructionalmaterials to IT.- of this special studentpopulation.

A Trainer's Guide to Building EnglishProficiency

Part One of this book, addressed to school ad-ministrators, examines the decisions and tasks re-quired at each stage in the process of change. PartTwo, addressed to those who provide support toteachers, provides strategies to assist teachers inadapting instruction and materials for LEP stu-dents. Part Two must be used in conjunction withthe Handbook.

A Resource Book for Building EnglishProficiency

Designed as a supplement to the Handbook andTrainer's Guide, this book includes articles, an-notated references, and resources for those whowish to explore topics more extensively. It offersboth theoretical discussions and practical adviceon who to call and where to look for assistance.It provides the research and a theoretical basis forinformation in the Handbook and the Trainer'sGuide.

7

Thc L hart bc,-. *rates the relationship between the three components of thetraining laaferials.

Building English Proficiency'fraining Materials

Handbook Trainer's Guide Resource Book

s, k !ding English Proficiency 1-34 3.37

Apriv riating 39-50 3-11

Learning About the LEP Student: Cultural Issues 10-14: 36-37 53-56 39-47

Learning About the LEP Student:First 8t Second Language Acquisition 22.28 57-59 65-75

Assessing the LEP Student 15.22 61-64 27.37; 49-61

IdentifYing Gedls and Objectives 42-43 65-68 13-23: 63-64

Selectint! Teaching Strategies and ClassroomManacement Techniques

5-8: 29-36;40-42; 49-50 69-72 77-86

Teaching Reading Skills 46-49 71-72 84. 85. 86

Selecting/Adapting/DevelopingInstructional Materials 44-46 73-76 91.111

A Classroom Teacher'sHandbook for BuildingEnglish Proficiency

Table of Contents

Introduction 1

I. A Place to Start 3

Common Concerns of Teachers 3The Rewards of Teaching LEP Students 4Facing Reality 4Surviving the First Few DaysA Starter Kit 5Summary 8

U. What are LEP Students Like? 9

Overview 10Cultural awl Educational Differenccs 10Assessment 15What It's Ulm To Learn a Second Language 22Summary 28

III. The LEP Student in Your Classroom 29

Overview 30Orientation 30Classroom Environment 31Classroom Management 34Grouping 34Communication 35Cross-Cultural Understanding 36Summary 37

IV. Adapting b struction and Materials for LEP Studerts 39

Overview 40Strategies for Adapting Instruction 40Identifying Goals and Objectives 42

Identifying New Concepts and Vocabulary 43

Selecting Commercial Materials and/or Preparing Simplified Reading Material 44Generating Reinfortement Activities 45

Selecting Methods for Teaching Reading Skills 46

Summary 49

Index SI

0

Introduction

A Classroom Teacher's Handbook for Build-ing English Proficiency is addressed to teacherswho work in small school districts and who mustinclude students with limited English proficiency(LEP) in their regular classroom programs. Itspurpose is to help teachers develop effective strat-egies and to adapt curricula and instructional ma-terials to meet the needs of this special studentpopulation.

If you have never worked with LEP students orif you have some experience teaching LEP stu-dents and wish to expand your knowledge andskills, you will find the Handbook informativeand full of ideas and suggestions. The format ofthe book encourages you to record your ideas andexperiences, thereby making the document botha personal journal and a reference.

The chapters which follow lead you through aprocess of developing the skills and knowledgerequired to meet the needs of LEP students. Theprocess begins where you are likely to start

addressing your concerns about the effects of thisnew student population on the classroom program.Thus, the Handbook offers survival strategies forthe first few days and a frank discussion of whatchanges will be required.

The remainder of the Handbook describes LEPstudents and discusses how they can be integratedinto the classroom and how you can adapt instruc-tion and materials to meet their needs. Becausethe Handbook builds on what you already knowabout different learning styles, lesson planning,and efiective use of instructional materials, dis-cussion of each issue begins with a self-assess-ment. The self-assessments establish your indi-vidual knowledge base. All teachers have theirown set of beliefs, their own approach to teachingstudents, and the knowledge and skills they havedeveloped over the years. Th.! Handbook willhelp you build on the foundation yOU have estab-lished to help you develop effective approachesto meeting the needs of LEP students.

11

I. A Place to Start

Most teachers facing a new challenge have realconcerns about what changes they will have tomake and how their style and approach to teachingwill be affected. If you have been asked to inte-grate into your classroom students who do notspeak English, you probably have concerns whichare not unlike those of other teachers who havefaced the same challenge. It's important to realizethat you are not starting from scratch. If you havebeen teaching for several years, you already knowa lot about how students learn and how to adaptthe curriculum tn meet instructional needs andlearning styles.

Common Concerns ofTeachers

The list below highlights some common con-cerns of teachers when they are first confrontedwith students who do not speak English.

How will I communicate with students whodo not speak 'inglish when I don't spe: k theirlanguage?

I don't know the first thing isbout teachingEnglish as a second language.

How can I meet the needs of LEP studentswithout causing a negative impact on myother students?

How much will I have to change my teachingtechniques?

What teaching techniques are recommendldfor LEP students?

Will I need to change the curriculum andinstructional materials I use?

What materials can I use with LEP student%and how should I use them?

In which group(s) will I place these students?

How can I teach reading to a student whodoes not know the language? (an elementaryteacher)

I only have the students for one period a day.How can I teach my subject (math, science,social studies) if I have to be concerned aboutdeveloping English ovmficiency in a few stu-dents? (a high mit lacher)

How will the LEI tlt lents understand myclassroom rules ar,1 expectations?

How will LEP s ents be able to followdirections given in ...nglish?

Should I expect LEP students to achieve thesame ,oals and objectives I set for the otherstude s7

Wh vcific goals and objectives can I setfor L e students?

How %;an I assess what they already know?

How can I assess progress?

1 2

How can I grade students?

What criteria should I use for promotion?

Who is responsible for students' program/progress when neither teachers nor guidancecounselors can communicate with them?

Where can I find an interpreter?

If your concerns are similar to those listed above,you can feel comfortable knowing that you are notalone. These concerns and others are addressedin the pages which follow. If you have other con-cerns, you may want to list them below.

The Rewards of TeachingLEP Students

Teachers who have worked with LEP studentssay that there are many benefits to integrating thisspecial student population into the classroom.

Teaching LEP students can be very reward-ing. Because of the number of skills thesestudents need to learn, their progress is as-tounding and encouraging to watch.

American students benefit from the oppor-tunity to help others, and in the process, theyenhance their own learning.

LEP students often bring fresh ideas to theclassroom. Their input provides an oppor-tunity to incorporate cross-cultural under-standing into the curriculum. You and yourstudents can develop a greater appreciationof your own cultures :Ind a sensitivity to dif-ferences.

LEP students may be the mosi IA., '1, niotivated in your class. They often takL ome-work very seriously and are eager to ch :grawork copying and memorizing.

Most LEP parents back the teacher 100E4support all efforts to teach and discipline t rchildren.

Many LEP students have a high regard forteachers. Their respect and appreciation arerefreshing and encouraging.

Facing Reality

Let's take a realistic look at what teaching theLEP student in your classroom will involve andhow it will affect your teaching methodology.

Remember first that LEP students are chil-dren, and they will respond as other childrendo. Your non-verbal communicationa smile,tone of voicewill convey interest, warmth,and caring. Holding them to high expecta-tions conveys your respect for their abilities.Secondary students will especially respondto tangible rewards such as success in schooland an opportunity to participate in activities.

English is a language you know well. Manyof you taught your own children to speak thelanguage, and you will find that there aredefinite similarities between first and secondlanguage acquisition. You will build on whatyou already know, and you will learn somestrategies for teaching English as a secondlanguage. You will also become more con-scious of how you speak.

Many teachers adapt and modify their cur-riculum and instructional materials to con-form to their own style of teaching and tobetter suit the learning needs of their students.They often use textbook lessons in creativeand innovative ways. If you are such a teacher,you will feel comfortable with adapting ma-terials and lessons for one more group withspecial needs.

13S.

You have probably established your ownground rules and expectations for behaviotin your classroom. It may help to write themclearly for all students. Most LEP studentsatz accustomed to strict contro4 maintainedby the teacher. Be sure all students under-stand your rules and methods of discipline.

You may already be aware of your own cul-turil identity and recognize the importanceof developing sensitivity to cultural differ-ences in all students. If so, the LEP studentsin your classroom enable you to extend yourknowledge, possibly to new ethnic groups.If you are accustomed to teaching studentsfrom only one culture, you may find it helpfulto learn more about your own cultural atti-tudes and biases as you learn about the newstudents in your classroom. You will havemany opportunities to learn firsthand howculture influences behavior and attitudes.

If you are an elementary school teacher, youhave the advantage of spending more timewith all your studen:-..

You are more likely to consider all aspectsof the child's development: emotional, so-cial, and cognitive.

You already know how to teach readingand language arts, and you can apply thisknowledge to teaching the LEP student.For example, you can expand your pre-teaching of vocabulary and new conceptsand provide more written and oral follow-up.

You have the advantage of working withyoung LEP students when the student-teacher relationship is often close and thereis more time allowed for developing lan-guage skills.

If you are a high school teacher, you mayhave your LEP students for only one perioda dayperhaps for less than an hour. Whileyou cannot be expected to bring each LEPstudent up to grade level in one year, thereis much you can do.

You can make effective use of peer tu-toring. Students can be a great support forLEP peers and for you.

You can call upon guidance counselors andother support personnel to holp coordinateother services LEP students may need, Theycan circumvent possible language prob-lems by involving institutions and indi-viduals in the community.

You can identify content objectives thatdo not require a high level of languageskills: e.g., map skills, computation skills.In that way, you can start teaching contentimmediately.

It is important to keep in mind that all yourstudents need to acquire good basic language andstudy skills. The suggestions in this book for mod-ifying lessons and materials for LEP students mayrequire some changes in your approach to teachingyour subjects, but these strategies will enhancelearning for all students.

For further information refer to the appropriatesections in the Resource Book.

Culture and the Classroom Teacher (pages39-47).

Learning a Second Language (pages 65-75).

Teaching Strategies for Working With LEPStudents (pages 77-86).

Surviving the First FewDays.A Starter Kit

You will probably be facing your LEP studentsbefore you have had time to read this Handbook.Therefore, we have put together a variety of ac-tivities to help you and your students weather thosehectic first days and weeks, until you have hadtime to develop a more comprehensive plan forinstructing this special needs group in your class-room. Some of the activities below can be usedat any time during the year. Some are especiallyhelpful when you want to involve new students.

If you have a volunteer or an assistant teacher,or if you can assign a buddy to the student, theycan do some of the activities. It is extremely im-portant, however, to set up a time during the daywhen you work with LEP students on a one-to-one or small group basis. This can be done whilethe other students work on their own.

14.11111111111ffilliiallIIIMir

Activities for Elementary SchoolStudents

Take the LEP students on a tour of the school.If you cannot do this, ask the cooperation ofa secretary, assistant teacher, media spe-cialist, or another school staff person. Thistour can also be conducted with the help ofa foreign student who already knows how tospeak English. While on the tour you can:

Identify by name each place you showthem.

Place a label on the door or wall next tothat place.

Show pictures that depict what activitiesoccur at each place.

Give older students a labeled map of theschool and help them locate each place onthe map.

Introduce the people who work at each oneof the places you visit: e.g., the secretary,the media specialist, etc.

Teach students basic survival expressions.

How to ask permission to go to the bath-room.

How to buy lunch; what are the names ofthe foods on the daily menu.

How to express greetings.

What to do when the fire alarm sounds.

Teach the names of common places and ob-jects.

Take students around the classroom, thecafeteria, the gym, the bathroom, and in-troduce the name of common places -.ndobjects.

If at all possible, label objects, furniture,and piaces in the classroom.

Give students flash cards with the namesof objects and places and ask them to showyou the objects or match them with pic-tures.

Ask students to write their name, address,and telephone number. If they can't writetHs information, first write it for them, then

,ve them copy it for you.

If sttidents have difficulty in copying orforming the letters, have them trace sand-paper letters or use a handwriting work-book. These activities are especially help-ful with illiterate students or with studentswhose language uses a non-western al-phabet.

Give students cut-out letters of the alphabetand ask them to put the letters in order. Thenhave students write the alphabet.

Give students magazines and ask them to cutout the letters of the alphabet and make theirown set of alphabet cards.

Using magazines or old textbooks, have stu-dents cut out pictures about a specific topicsuch as transportation, clothing, fruit, orcolors. Then have students prepare a scrap-book. Help students label the pictures andpronounce the names of the objects in thepictures. You might have to identify a picturein each category so that they know what tolook for. Next, have students make flash cardswith the names of the objects. After studentsreview the words, they can store the flashcards in a vocabulary bank (a folder or acardboard box). Later, students can reviewthe flash cards with the teacher or a buddy.

Use as many pictures as possible to representwhat you are talking about: e.g., if you areteaching the circulatory system, provide pic-tures students can label with the help of abuddy, volunteer, etc.

Place students in an intermediate reading groupand let them listen to you and the other stu-dents.

Point to the illustrations when they relateto what is being said or discussed.

Allow for a silent period.

Do not force students to answer completequestions about what is being read or dis-cussed.

15

Use simple exercises about colors, shapes,or other basic concepts.

Help students make color or shape chartswith labels or flash cards with the coloror shape on one side and the label on theother.

Have students match labels with colors orshapes on a chart, then have them repeatthe activity on a ditto.

Have students copy the words five timeson a piece of paper and memorize them.

Look for every opportunity to include LEPstudents in classroom activities: e.g., sing-ing, games, classroom chores, reading groups,hands on experiences, etc. Seat them closeto you so that they can see what you aredoing.

If you have a Language Master, have studentslisten to cards, then repeat and write the wordsor phrases. There are good ESL commercialcards available. (See Resource Book page104.)

Give students simple crossword or word-findpuzzles with the words they have learned thefirst few days: school-related vocabulary,clothing, food, colors, shapes, days of theweek, or the vocabulary of the lesson youhave taught.

Have students listen to stories on tape whilethey follow in the book. Filmstrip/tape storiescan also be used.

Provide a simple chart showing the numerals1-10, with the corresponding number words.Have students make individual sets of flashcards with the numeral on one side and theword on the other side.

Give students connect-the-dot activities; havethem name, label, and color the picture.

Give students fill-in number charts. Start fromsimple charts and work to more complex.

Make a point to display LEP students' workregularly on the hall or classroom bulletinboards.

Activities for SecondarySchool Students

Assign buddies to orient LEP students to theschool and to help them in class. A buddycan:

give a tour of the school;

take students to the cafeteria, health room,office;

introduce students to the counselor, thephysical education teacher, etc.;

orient students to important rules such asnot cutting in line, not leaving the schoolbuilding, getting to class on time, etc.;

help students open the book to the correctpage and direct them to the correct activity;

help students review vocabulary by mak-ing and using flash cards.

Give students a map of the school and helpthem locate important places.

Give students a map of the school with labelsand have them copy the labels onto a blankmap.

If students are pre-literate or do not know thewestern alphabet, refer to items 4, 5, 6 ofthe elementary school activities.

Provide simple graphs, maps, and word gamesor puzzles to help students reinforce whatthey have learned.

Have all students locate the country they ortheir families come from on a map or globe.Have the students locate the capitals of thosecountries.

Arrange for people who speak the LEP stu-dents' language and are knowledgeable aboutthe students' countries to tell students aboutthose countries and cultures. This activitywill sensitize all students in the class to thecultures of their classmates and will help in-tegrate the LEP students into the classroom

'activities.

16

IF students zre literate in their native lan-guage, give them a list of vocabulary fromthe lesson you are teaching and ask themto look for the meanings in a bilingualdictionary.

Assign copying activities these first days.The students can

look for certain words in a reading selec-tion and copy the sentences where thosewords appear;

copy the titles and subtitles of the chapterbeing studied and write under each thewords that fit from the vocabulary list youhave provided, using the textbook;

complete a cloze exercise prepared on aditto. The exercise can contain an excerptof a reading p.iection from the current les-son, with ke) vocabular, words missing.At first, stuaents ja.t copy the wordsfrom the textbook or look up words in abilingual dictionary,

use the textbook to do a set of short sen-tence completion exercises;

copy illustrations, graphs, or maps fromthe lesson being studied;

copy notes from the chalkboard;

Initially, in math classes, have students workonly on computation;

Refer to Chapter III, "The LEP Student inYour Classroom" for other suggestions.

This list is by no means exhaustive. Consultwith colleagues who have worked with LEP stu-dents, with the reading specialist, or with the ESLteacher in your school. As you find more activities,add them to your file and keep them on hand,since you will probably be working with new LEPstudents throughout the year.

Summary

You are embarking on a new challenge, andlike other professional challenges you have tac-kled, teaching LEP students will be demandingand enriching. Remember that many other edu-cators are experiencing concerns similar to yoursand they, too, are discovering ways to broadentheir teaching repertoires to incorporate a new spe-cial student population into the classroom. Youcan expect to have questions along the way; moreimportantly, you can anticipate numerous re-wards. Start by being realisticdo as much asyou can do, and start with simple instructionalstrategies you already know how to use. Othersin the school and community can assist and profitfrom the experience.

7

II. What AreLEP Students Like?

Students in your classroom come with their ownset of experiences, attitudes, and needs. Mostteachers make an effort to learn as much at; theycan about each student so they can teach to thestudent's strengths and help the student overcomespecial problems in learning and adapting to school.

Before reading this chapter, please take a fewmoments to reflect on the characteristics of thestudents you have taught in the past. For somequesuon. you may want to check more than oneresponse.

What My Students Have Been Like

1. The reading levels of my students have varied_ one to two grade levels._ three to four grade levels._ more than four grade levels.

2. My students value a good education and takeschool seriously._ all_ most_ some

3. The parents of my students value a good ed-ucat:on and take school seriously._ all_ most_ some

4. I have taught students who learn bestin self-directed activities.in teacher-directed activities.reading books.working with peers.when academic tasks are highlystructured.when academic tasks are minimallystructured.

5. I have taught students who require specialattention because they

learn more slowly._ learn through visual experiences.learn through auditory experiences.

____ learn best alone._ learn best in groups.learn through hands-on activities.

18

6. My students do their homework_ most of the time._ occasionally.

7. My t..udents turn their homework in_ on time._ occasionally late._ usually late.

8. I have had students who speak a languageother than English at home.

never_ occasionally_ often

9. Most of the students I have taughtfollow directions.are highly respectful.participate in class activities.talk back to teachers.have trouble paying attention in class.are independent.need direction.resist authority,

10. After school, most of my studentsparticipate in extra-curricular activities.work.hang out.care for siblings.go home.

Overview

As a teacher, you have undoubtedly workedwith students who vary widely in their abilitiesand experiences. In some ways, the LEP studentis simply another unique individual in your class-room. In other ways, students with limited Englishskills present special challenges to the teacher whois attempting to understand each child.

The behavior of LEP students, some of whomhave recently arrived in the T Inited States, is some-times puzzling to teachers. Their behavior (as ours)reflects their cultural upbringing and their previousexperiences in school and in life. The more youknow about these cultural and educational differ-ences, the better you will understand the reactionsof LEP students who enter your classroom and themore appropriately you can plan educational ex-periences.

In order to build on children's strengths andhelp them overcome six ial problems, you haveto know where to begin. Assessing LEP students'level of English proficiency and the extent of theircontent knowledge presents special challenges toteachers; teachers are often accustomed to childrenwho speak English as their native language andwhose test scores and transcripts reflect theirachievements.

Fir.:11y, understanding LEP students requiressome knowledge of what it is like to learn a second

10

language. If you have lived in a foreign countryor studied a language other than English in school,you have a basic understanding of second languageacquisition. If not, you will find that there arespecific strategies to help you teach English as asecond language.

Cultural andEducational Differences

There is an old folktale about the monkey wholived in the trees and knew only about life on land.One day, the monkey saw a fish in the water.Thinking that the fish was drowning, the monkey"rescued" it by scooping it from the water andbringing it onto the land,

Many of us are like the monkey. When con-fronted with differences, we assess the situationfrom our own perspective and try to convinceothers to be like us. In some ways we are right;students who come to the United States to live andwho attend American schools wi// have to adaptsome of their behavior patterns to fit into the newculture. But we must be cautious in making as-sumptions and jumping to conclusions before weknow more about what influences a student'sthinking and behavior.

Educational Experiences ofLEP Students

The schools many LEP students attended in theircountries of origin are often quite different fromAmerican schools. In addition, many LEP studentshave views and attitudes about education that aredifferent from those held by American students.While it would be inappropriate to generalize aboutthe experiences and attitudes of all LEP students,it may be helpful to identify some fair!:, typicalpatterns.

Many LEP students come from countries where

teachers are among the most respected peoplein the community.

education is held in high esteem.

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the student-teacher relationship is fornial andclasses are conducted in a traditional manner.

teachers are addressed as "Teacher."

te, ;re .hers lecture and students listen.

ten, , are expected to help students witht? ivate lives. (It's not unusual for astudent to call a respected teacher at hometo discuss personal problems and seek ad-vice.)

schools may be in session six days a week.

factual recall, rote memorization, and writtenwork are emphasized.

young students may receive three to four hoursof homework a night.

corporal punishment is acceptable.

students are not offered a choice in subjectsthey want to study.

schools arc s.parated by sex.

parents rarely participate in education. (Theytrust the teacher and only come to school inan emergency.)

schooling has been disrupted by wars. (SomeLEP students may never have attended school.)

How LEP Students View AmericanStudents

Considering these experiences, it is not sur-prising that many LEP students are shocked byAmerican culture and the behavior of students andteachers. One secondary teacher in Arlington, Vir-ginia, asked hcr LEP students to write an essayon the American teenager. She learned a greatdeal about how foreign students view Americanculture. These LEP students wrote that:

American teenagers behave poorly in schoolby

arriving late;

cutting classes;

making noise;

saying bad words to teacher;

not completing their homework,

American teenagers have no respect for theirparents who

don't know what their children are doing;

are afraid of their children.

Young people in America have too muchfreedom as evidenced by

theic unwillingness to listen to anyone ex-cept their peers;

their lack of interest in thc future and theirtendency to live only for today.

Teachers don't ask for respect because they

allow students to call them by their firstnames;

sit on desks and talk informally with stu-dents;

don't punish students who fail to do theirhomework.

Schools in the United States are informal andthere are few rules.

Common Misunderstandings

Children who are acc:Istomed to a different ap-proach to education w undoubtedly misunder-stand some aspects of ,:ducation in Americanschools. Teachers who ar not accustomed toworking with LEP studet.A will also make mis-takes. No one can be expected to become knowl-edgeable in all cultural difierences. What is im-portant is to be sensitive to students' reactions andto recognize that beliefs or experiences may haveinfluenced their behavior. Here are some commonerrors in judgment teachers have made.

20

Haphazardly pairing students to work to-gether on a project.

In many Asian cultures, girls and boys arenever asked to work together; only stu-dents of the same sex are paired. In manyLa tin American countries, students are sel-dom grouped for academic projects.

11

Social Mills and political differences caninterfere with students' ability to work together.

Insisting that a student look you "in the eye"when you are talking.

Asian children are taught that looking anelder "in the eye" is a sign of disrespect.

Latin American children are taught not tomake eye contact when being scolded.

Using physical contact to reassure a studentand show affection.

Indochinese students may be insulted whensomeone touches them on the head.

Gesturing to a child to come to you.

To the Vietnamese, this hand gesture isused only to call animals.

To some Latin Americans, the same ges-ture means goodbye.

Giving lots of praise to a student.

Asians have a strong sense of humblenessand feel uncomfortable about acceptingcompliments.

Assuming that it's strange when two adoles-cent males walk arm in arm.

This is perfectly acceptable behavior inKorea and in the Middle East.

In Latin America, male students may walkwith their arm slung casually over theshoulder of another.

Assuming a student who doesn't volunteeror ask questions is withdrawn or shy.

Many LEP students are not accustomed tovolunteering or asking questions in class.

Discouraging dependency and the sharing ofpersonal problems.

Latin American students expect teachersto guide them, and they seek this type ofrelationship.

12

In Latin American schools, it is commonfor students to talk with their teachers about

`,111WOMIIIMINORMAI11.111.a

family problems, to stay after class andask the teacher's advice and assistance.

Assuming that it student who doesn't askquestions or claims to understand somethingactually does understand.

Students often think they understand whenthey don't.

Impassivity doesn't mean lack of emotion.

Asian students don't want to lose face infront of the teacher by asking questions ormaking a mistake.

Insisting that a student drink/eat milk prod-ucts or eat beef or pork.

Most Indochinese cannot tolerate tactic acidand will react to consumption of milk untiltheir digestive system adjusts.

Many Latin American students are not inthe habit of drinking milk and may dislikeit. (Often milk has been watered down andused in coffee or in cooking.)

Some cultures prohibit certain foods weeat all the timc.

Please add your own observations and "fauxpas" and share them with other teachers.

Encouraging/Discouraging Behavior

Recognizing cultural differences does not meanthat ahi behavior allowed in the student's countryof origin is allowed here. Some behavior is simplynot acceptable and must be discouraged. For ex-ample:

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We do not expect students to establish dom.imince among their peers through physicalstrength.

We do not allow "helping others" ss He tak-ing a test.

We do not permit a student to attack with aweapon, even if the student is defending hisfamily's honor and such behavior is ex-pected.

We do not permit cutting into line.

We do not expect -tudents to snap their fin-gers when they s t teacher's auenfion.

Some behaviors must be encouraged or explicitlytaught to LEP studInts.

Sitting quietly in clat,s may be appropriate inother cultures, out here students are expectedto participate, to volunteer, and to ask ques-tions.

Explain that this is not showing off.

Give lots of experiences in oral give andtake in non-threatening situations.

Start with simple "yes" and "no" ques-tions first.

Teachers are addressed as Mror Ms. , not as "Teacher."

Students are not expected to stand up whenaddressed by the teacher or when addressingthe teacher.

In instructional situations, it may be accept-able to copy from each other and to helpanother student. In testing situations it is not.

You may have to separate students phys-ically during a test so they can't copy fromone another.

How to Extend Your Knowledge ofOther Cultures

While daily interactions and conversations withother teachers can help you learn a great deal about

22

cultural and educational differences, you may feela need for other sources of information. Yourcommunity is one place to start. You muy

visit students at home and talk with parents.

talk with community leaders from dirferentethnic groups and invite them to school totalk with a small group of intereste,1 teachers.

contact refugee organizations in your area:they will undoubtedly have staff memberswho would br glad to share ink iation

contact churches and temples whiA serve aparticular ethnic group.

check with universities or agencies 014 mayhave special resources, programs in bilingualeducation, or other programs for LEP stu-dents.

It's helpful to know what questions to ask whenyou set out to learn about cultural and educationaldifferences. Here are some suggestions, groupedunder five categories.

1. Educational System and Curriculum in theStudent's Country

Is education generally available? Compul-sory? To what age?

Is the curriculum centrally controlled? Bywhom?

What is the most frequently used teachingmethodology? (Kind of learning favored: e.g.,inductive, deductive, experiential)

Is there a phystcal education program? Whoparticipates Ls. L,orts?

Are there electhe courses? What are they?

What is the genoral attitude toward the teach-ing professioi?

Are there separate classes for boys and girls?

What is the school environment most fre-quently like? (traditional, open)

How are students disciplined?

13

2, Social Attitude%

What foints of addiess used fox; teacher=to-student and student.ro.sutdoo

What is the st:alent's attitude tosvaiii% teach-ors?

When are first names used in addressingsomeone?

How do studimts show %ourtesy to teachers?

What behavior is expected in clivs?

How do people show revect?

How do people show disagreement wit eachothet? With elders?

When do people smile? Frown? Show anger?What do these facial expressions mean?

3. Teaching-Learning Strategies

Are the students dependent on the teacher forinformation?

Is dictation frequently used?

Are students encouraged to ask questions whenthey do not understand?

To what extent is competition fostered in thelearning process? Cooperation?

Are team projects encouraged?

Is the learning situation visually oriented?Verbally oriented?

To what extent do students take the initiativein class?

Are students expected to contribute infor-mation to the class?

Are students allowed to ask other studentsfor assistance? To move around during class?Change seats? Talk during class?

4. Prom Ition and Grading System

How often are assignments given?

Are quizzes and tests usually oral or written?How often are they given?

When are examinations given? For what pur-pose?

14

What are the condnions olomotiou?

Is grading done by ktters om t4uMhet0 Whatdo the numbers or letters repiesenr/

What ktnds or written exatniniVioris 00 given?Objective? Essay?

S. Claoroom Management

What Is the usual physical arrangement rthe classroom?

How are the students' desks or benches ar-ranged?

Do boys and girls work together or do stu-dents work only with others of the Same sex?

Do students move from class to class or stayin the same room?

Where is the teacher in the classroom? Doeshe/she walk around? Stand up?

Are there breaks between classes?

How many students are usually in a class?

The Resource Book for Building English Pro-ficiency contains other sources of information oncultural and educational differences of LEP stu-dents (pages 39-47). Yo... nay want to read moreextensively about the specific ethnic groups inyour classroom.

As you learn more about the influence of cultureand education, you may find that you are alsolearning about yourself. This is an added benefit.All of us behave in ways that reflect our culturaland educational experiences. Because many of us(in the United States) have spent our lives livingin one culture, we tend to be less aware of howculture affects our behavior and beliefs.

Think over what you learned in this sectionabout cultural and educational differences. In whatways have your experiences and beliefs influencedthe ways in which you relate to students?

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Assessment

Which students arc LurHow much do they know?

When can they be mainstreamed?

Decisions about the education of LEP studentshave to be based on an assessment of who thcyarc, what they know, and what they need. Schooldistricts often assess LEP students tor many dliferent purposes. Students may be assessed to

identify the LEP population in a school Orschool district;

place students in a grade;

place students in a program;

determine level of language skills;

determine content knowledge;

measure LEP students' gains in a given pro-gram;

determine when the LEP student is no longerLEP;

identify learning problems.

Identifyikg the LEP Population

School districts need to identify their LEP pop-ulation to assess the extent of the need for a specialprogram and to decide on the services they willoffer. In general, the identification of LEP studentsis performed on the basis of demographic datasuch as age, socio-economic status, previous ed-ucation in their country and in the United States,date of entry to the United States, language spokenat home, and some measurement of English pro-ficiency. (See sample form on page 54 of theResource Book.)

Initially English proficiency can be determinedthrough an oral interview. Interviews, which canbe easily adapted to elementary and secondarystudents, can be taped and analyzed later. Resultsfrom the interview can provide a general idea of

a student's ability to understand and to commu-nicate orally in English. When analyiting inter-views, attention should it. paid to two types oferrors: those that interfere with communication,and those that are repeated frequently. (See sampleinterview on pages 55-61 of the Resource Book.)An oral interview might include questions about;

basic personal information: e.g., age, grade,address, family members;

directions such as sit down, stand up, openyour book to page, bring me the objeet.

Questions should elicit the use of basic struc-tures; e.g., present/past tense, singulseplurals. etc.

A MOM comprehensive assessment covering allfour basic language skills, as well as backgroundinformation on the students, should be made be-fore placing them into an instructional program.

Placing LEP Students in a Grade

In general, LEP students should be placed withtheir peers. Those students under 14 years of agewho have had little schooling and are thereforeacademically behind for their age group should bekept within one year of their chronological agegroup. Students in secondary school should beplaced according to their school records. If norecords exist, they should be placed in grade nineso that they have time to accumulate the creditsthey need to graduate from high school.

One common error in placing LEP students isto put them in classes several years behind theirage group. This is done for several reasons. Ad-ministrators may assume that this placement givesthe students more time to learn English. Anotherjustification is that many refugee students, panic-ularly from Asian countries, are smaller than theirAmerican peers; administrators may believe thatthe age differences will not be as obvious. How-ever, LEP students are generally as mature as theirAmerican peers, and placing them with youngerchildren can make them lose self-esteem and in-terest in school.

Secondary students with very low English pro-ficiency should be placed in ESL classes insteadof in courses that rely heavily on textbooks and

24 1 5

require a lot of readint.--for example, 443Cial 4tud,ies or non-laboratory seieticeti, Students should beable to panicipate in cotilles where they havedemonstrated skills or talents ouch a411141httil4tics,drawing, dance sawing. etc.

At the secondary level. it is important to realitythat the educational background of LEP studentsmight determine how well they progreis in ochool,For example, if students have had previouo edu .cation in their native language comparable to thatof their classmates, they might be able to fulfillgraduation requirements and graduate with theirage group. But if LEP students have had little orno education, the fulfillment of graduation re .quirements in four years or less might not be arealistic goal. They may have to complete theireducation under an adult education pogrom. Ern.phasis should be placed on mastery of speciallydesigned goals and objectives for obtaining credit.

The extent of native language development inboth conversational and literacy skills is also adeterminant of how well the student can do. Themore proficient the student is in histher nativelanguage, the better he/she will do in learningEnglish and the academic skills needed to succeedin school. Therefore, if the school cannot providefor the continuation of native language develop-ment. teachers should encourage parents to pro-vide an environment where the student can con-tinue developing skills in his/her native language.

Parents should encourage their children to speakthe native language at home, read, write to friendsand relatives in their countries of otigin, and watchnative language films and shows. Contrary to theearlier interference theory. recent research has foundthat development and maintenance of the nativelanguage aids in the acquisition of the second lan-guage.* For more information on this topic, con.sult Schooling and Language Minority Students:A Theoretical Framework. (See Resource Book,page 74.)

Placing Students in it Program

Litl. students need special Lnsitsli 14nouage snstruction, cv if it .s no more than 44 hour Oftwo a day, t,tip 'talent% will learn English moreioAly if .hvy Me given specific 11141ructiOn.Someone in the school or school district thtvitibe asoigned to provide this hervice. If it is nix.comity to 'pie a volunteer for language initruction1it is equally necessary to provide the volunicerwith oupport and guidance, Depending on thenumber of LEP student% at a given grade level,litudento can be grouped 1141.0$4 c1444144 (el.. allfourth grade studetIts together) or KM* aro WI,.7., 8.. and 9-year-olds placed together (or specialinstruction,) Care should be taken not to placestudent% who ate far apart in Aft even though theirlevel of proficiency in English might be the tame.

Before placing students, a school or school %fit.trict needs to perform a comprehensive amessmentof the students' English proficiency. This assess-ment should include testing for all (our basic lan.guilt skillslistening, speaking, reading, andwriting.

The section on "Assessment of LEP Students"in the Resource Book (pages 49.61) contains an.notated references of tests that can be used inassessing language proficiency.

Whether or not your school district has estab-lished language assessment procedures, you needto know how much the student knows so that youcan determine what needs you must address first.Knowledge and skills assessment is just as im-portant with LEP students as with other students.However, the means for assessing differ.

Teachers of LEP students engage frequently indiagnostic activities in order to keep the students'programs on track. Initially, teachers know lessabout LEP students because school records havenot been accumulated over the years. It is essernialthat the teacher or other education professionalsfind out about the student, both academically andpessonally.

*Cummins, James. "The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting Educational Successfor Language Minority Students," Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework1982. Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, Los Angeles, California (pages 3-49).

1 6 25

Aliwkins Lansudge Skills

DO Off 44.451$11whether the otudent io literate in hrolher own lan-guage, Many LEP students Come hien witvitichcountries whets they attended school sporadical!),if at all, To determine if a student is Wove inhisiber own language. you will need oomettongwritten in that language for the maim to read antisomeone to conduct the liWstiMeill and Miamithe moults, The 14600rVil Book page 53 comeini.muff information about the use of native languorspeaker, in testing LEP students,

When wooing LEP students for English lan,guar proficiency, informal methods are more re .ohmic guide.* than the standardised was that ateMen ,4t When soyet.40$ Wrap, pnificietw)informally. however, make sure you oval 10 cit.four skills; hooting. speaking, reading. and writins,

Listening and Speaking

Interviewing: Talk with the student individ-ually. Ask questions and give simple corn.mends, Have the student name objects, Hivethe student talk about himself/herself. Limnfor vocabulary. structures, and pronuncislion, Refer to page 15 in this Handbook formore details about the interview approach.

Dictation: Dictation can be very effective intesting a student's ability to process lan.gutigc Students must be able to hear anddiscriminate sounds and to reproduce themin writing.

To administer a dictation task you can:

1. Read the selection at a conversational pace2. Read the selection with pauses. preferably

at natural breaking points, and give punc-tuation.

3. Read again to give students the oppor .malty to check what they have %seinen.

Dictation can also be partial. with OW partof the selection printed and another blank forstudents to complete during dictation.

26

Fie how iiifivitialestiebtxd dictation mid Abetitasiks consult Mtn W. (Uerslss

IOW Tem oi ION No4262004t$ev pap 53 of' the Rsiscurce Nook foe acomplete Wilms!

Reeding

Saint ?leading few Compteitessinn: If theotudent can engage in convolution, ask himiher to mad a page from your test or from agraded reader. Atter the student has mad, askdifferent type* of questions; e.g.. recallingfacts. drowing conclusions, making ilifilroOMOI. dei*Ittlitinift the titk or main idea.

Another way a using Went reading for comeprthensiOri is to have the student read a pa-use silently and then retell the story in hivher own words

These techniquas art designed to help youdraw gefirral conclusions about the student'sability to comprehend what reads, Stu-dents may fall into one of the following tateclones: unable to recall information: able toreaH infoemation bat not able to make in-terraces; or able to process all comprehen-sion questions.

informal Realm Inventoey: The InformalReading Inventory ORD ti a MIXT complexreading assessment which 1eSSS both oralreading and comprehension. The IRI is basedon a set of graded readen, beginning withreadiness and proceeding throuah grade sixor higher. The student proceeds thi Jails eachlevel until an instructional oe frumation lewlis reached. Before attempting to use this ap-proach. make sure to ask the assistance at areading specialist in your school or schooldistrict.

Ciao Tests: Tbe Cloze Test is a very reliableand versatile method of assessing compre-hension and reading. It can be used at alllevels and far a variety a !purposes:

to judge readability of muerials:

to estimate reading comprehension:

Ii

4 to estimate overall language proficiency;

to evaluate student progress.

For taw!, detailed information about the manyuses of Cion tests, consult John Oiler's Lan-guage Tests at School, 1979, pages 340-380.(See Resource Book page 53.)

To administer a Cloze Test, select a self-contained passage from a text or your owncurrent materials. The passage should treattopics assumed to be within the experienceof the examinees. Go through the passageand systematically delete every fifth, sixth,or seventh word. Skip proper names and tech-nical words; just go to the next word andcontinue deleting. To supply a beginning andan ending for each passage, leave the firstone or two sentences and the last one or twosentences intact.

Because a Cloze Test is a power test, not aspeed test, it should be administered on anuntimed basis. Give clear instructions to thestudents. You may wish to put a few samplesentences on the chalkboard before beginningthe test.

To score, count the number of correct re-sponses. Responses are correct if they arecontextually appropriate. Do not look for ex-act word respons, Calculate the percent ofcorrect answers.

If you are using the Cloze test to determinereadability of the material, refer to the fol-lowing table for interpretation of the results.

Writing

Functional Writing: To test the functionalwriting ability of a secondary student, pro-vide a simple form for the student to fill inhis/her name and address, age, sex, familymembers. If the student cannot fill out tht:form, give an alphabet test. Ask the studentto

Fill in the blanks (use upper and lowercase letters.)

ABC_ EFG_ HIJ_ etc.Point to different letters ou of sequence.

Copy the letters of the alpilabet.

More Difficult Writing Tasks (Secondary):

Ask the student to write a paragraph onany topic: e.g., my family; my first dayin school; two differences between mycountry of origin and the United States.

Ask the student to retell in writing a storyhe or she has recently heard.

Assessing Elementary Students:

Use the alphabet test mentioned above.You can also show the student a pictureand ask him/her to write five sentencesabout it.

Additional Writing Assessment Task:

Ask students to fill in the details in anincomplete story. This task can be usedwith students at any level.

Percent of Correct Answers

53% and above

44% to 52%

Below 44%

Comprehension Level

Independent Level: Material is not difficult forthe student; student can read and understand with-out help.

Instructional Level: Material is challenging butnot too difficult for the student to read and un-derstand; student will nee0 occasional help.

Frustration Level: Material is too difficult forinstructional purposes.

2 7

It is important to observe not only what thestudent does, but how long it takes, how she/heholds a pencil, handwriting, directionality, andmotor skills. When scoring writing samples, al-ways look first for the idea the examinee has triedto convey.

Determining Level of Proficiency

The previous suggestions for assessing a stu-dent's understanding and level of speaking, read-ing, and writing skills are helpful in identifying ageneral level of overall proficiency in English.The following categories may be useful in deter-mining what level the student has attained in Eng-lish proficiency.*

Beginning Proficiency (minimal compre-hension)Can pick up previously learned vocabularyfrom the general blur of English. Can followsimple directions and conversations.

"Sit down."

"Erase the board."

"Good morning."

"How are you?"

Can express ideas, ask and give simple di-rections related to home, school, daily rou-tines.

Intermediate Proficiency (marginal com-prehension)Recognizes phrases and can usually grasp thegeneral topic of conversation on non-tech-nical subjects. Can ask for and understandexplanations in simple terminology.

"Can I go to lunch?"

"Please do pages 11-13 in your notebook. "

Can talk in some detail on concrete subjectssuch as own background, family, current

events, school, and other familiar places. Canread simple material. Can write but has manyerrors.

Advanced Intermediate Proficiency (min-imally functional comprehension of content)Able to attach meaning to clauses and sen-tences. Understands general spoken languagebut has vocabulary deficits in subject areasand often in some areas of general infor-mation.

Advanced ProficiencySpeaks lar 'age with sufficient structural ac-curacy and vocabulary to participate in mostformal and informal conversations on school-related and social topics. Can do many of theassignments. May read and write with vary-ing degrees of difficulty.

Assessing Content Knowledge

Teachers of older students will need to assesscontent knowledge. A way of learning about thestudent' s academic subjects knowledge base isthrough a review of transcripts from the schoolsthe student attended in his/her country or the coun-try he/she carne from. If transcripts are not avail-able, you might want to use an informal placementtest that is given in the native language throughan interpreter. You will first need to determinewhat concepts or skills you want to test and preparea sequence of questions or a task for the studentto complete. Some simple tests to assess arithmeticskills follow.

Ask the student to count.

Have the student fill in thc missing numbers.0, 1, 2, , 4, 5, 6, , 8, 9, 10, ,

12, etc.

If the student cannot fill in the sequence ofnumbers, ask him or her to copy the numbers.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

*Adapted from Jonz, Jon, An Overview of the Language Assessment Materials. Prepared in cooperationwith the School District of Lancaster, Bilingual/ESL Program, 1975-76; and Taylor, Harvey M. , "Learn-ing to Listen in English."

28 19

Give the student simple addition and sub-traction problems.

O Give division problems in a format the stu-dent understands. Many students are taughtto divide in this manner: 538/2,6 instead of26/..M. When correcting students' work withdecimals, make sure you don't misinterprettheir use of commas and periods. In manycountries, students learn to use commas toseparate decimal points and periods to in-dicate thousands.

Measuring Student Progress

LEP students' gains in a given program shouldbe assessed on the basis of the objectives and thematerials that have been covered in class. Whenconstructing tests, teachers must first define whatis being tested so that the student is not short-changed. When constructing tests for LEP stu-dents, you should

20

be specific about your purpose for testing.

be sure you are testing the skill you wish toassess and not the ability to foilow the di-eections.

consider the mode of the stimulus and re-sponse in light of students' language abilityand developmental levels.

be consistent in wording of directions, andin stems of items.

be aware of the difference in level of languageprocessing required for completion items andquestion items.

be aware that in a multiple-choice test; thelonger the stem and the greater the numberof choices, the more language the student hasto process.

teach test-taking skills by constructing sometests using format and directions similar tostandardized tests.

Use the same language in the test that hasbeen used in class when the topic was taughtand discussed.

be sure students are familiar with the formatof the test: e.g., multiple choice, true andfalse, essay.

score the test on the basis of content, con-centrating on the idea the student wanted toget across, not the form.

Group administrated standardized tests are notrecommended to measure achievement. Their pur-pose is not to determine how much a student haslearned, but to describe how this student compareswith other students in his/her age and grade levelin some general skill area. Standardized tests areoften normed on groups of students who havedifferent backgrounds from your LEP students, somost probably those norms do apply to yourstudent. Most of the assessmc techniques de-scribed in the previous pages call be used beforeand after lessons or units to measure gains in lan-guage development between major pre- and post-tests.

The article, "Tests, Achievement, and Bilin-gual Students" by James Cummins gives an over-view of the inadequacies of the use of ability andachievement tests with LEP students and presentsreseasch findings that explain the relationship be-tween language proficiency and academicachievement. (See Resource Book, page 52.)

Determining When a StAvient Is NoLonger LEP

School districts need to establish assessmentprocedures to determine when a student is readyto be mainstreamed completely. Researchers havefound that if a student comes to a second languagesituation after the age of six, he/she will probablytake two years to learn the basic conversationalskills needed to function socially, and from fiveto seven years to acquire the academic skills neededto function at the level of his/her peers. The timeneeded to learn both the conversational and aca-demic language skills depends also on the state ofnative language and academic development at thetime of arrival. As was discussed earlier, the moreadvanced those skills are, the faster the student

29

will transfer them into the acquisition of thoseskills in the second language.*

Some of the implications of these findings are

Students will show a faster development ofconversational skills than of academic skills.

Some students will be ready to be main-streamed faster than others.

Some students will probably need specialsupport all through their schooling in theUnited States, especially if they come to highschool with low academic background.

To determine if a student can be completelymainstreamed, a school or school district needsto determine entry/exit criteria. Entry/exit criteriacan be developed on the basis of a battery of teststhat would assess the extent to which the student'slistening, speaking, reading, and writing skills willpermit him/her to achieve academically.

Identifying Learning Problems inLEP Students

Teachers who have not worked with LEP stu-dents before find it very difficult to differentiatebetween lack of language development and learn-ing disabilities. These teachers tend to refer LEPstudents to Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR) orSpecial Education classes because they do not seethem progressing at the rate they may have antic-ipated. School districts should be cautious in as-sessing learning problems in LEP students so thatthey do not place them in programs where theydo not belong and where they would be drawnfurther behind in their language and academic de-velopment.

The assessment of learning problems of LEPstudents should be conducted by certified psy-chologists who know the language of the studentand who are knowledgeable about the tests that

can be used with these students. School districtsshould consult with the National Clearinghousefor Bilingual Education or their Bilingual Edu-cation Service Center (BESC) before a LEP stu-dent is tested for learning disabilities.

Looking Back on Assessment

Assessment of students is, at best, a difficulttask. Even with English-speaking students, manyfactors can influence how a student performs atany given time. With LEP students, there are in-finitely more influencing factors. Consider the fol-lowing suggestions in assessing your LEP stu-dents.

Trust your observation skills as a teacher.You can learn a great deal from observingthe student in your classroom. For example:

Does the student arrive with a notebook,a dictionary, pens and pencils?

How quickly does tia . student learn to fol-low a schedule?

Does the student relate to other students?

Does the student take notes and copy fromthe chalkboard as you lecture?

Does the student appear to be concentrat-ing on the lessons or do his/her eyes glazeover after the first few minutes?

How "mature" is the student's handwrit-ing?

Recognize that progress in English is not al-ways an indication of ability to function. Somestudents learn the basic social language skillseasily. This ability does not necessarily meanthe student is prepared to function academ-ically.

Often, in order to avoid embarrassment, stu-dents will say they understand when, in fact,they do not. Therefore, use more than maapproach to assess understanding.

*Curmnins, James. "The Role of Primary Language Development in Promoting Educational Successfor Language Minority Students." Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework.1982. Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center, Los Angeles, CA.

30 21

Do not use written work as a guide unlessyou saw the student do it.

Some students are reluctant to ask for helpbecauw they are afraid the teacher will thinkthey are stupid. Therefore, it is best to offer

.1p as you see it is needed.

4? Don't compare studentseach will learn athis or her own pace.

The profile of the abilities and skills of a LEPstudent can only be drawn from a combination ofassessment measures that take into considerationcultural, educational, and socio-economic back-ground as well as measurement of language andacademic skills.

What It's Like to Learn aSecond Language

If you have ever studied a second language inschool, you know that some people pick up a newlanguage easily and others have to struggle withboth meaning and pronunciation. You probablyknow some people who "have an ear" for lan-guage and speak it "like a native." Others can'tmake their lips and tongue move correctly to pro-duce the strange sounds no matter how hard theytry. Think about your own experiences learning asecond language. How were you taught? Did you

memorize vocabulary lists out of context?

spend hours conjugating verbs?

write the same vocabulary words 50 times?

repeat meaningless phrases over and over inmindless drills?

memorize rules you never had to apply?

memorize exceptions to the rules you neverhad to use?

learn and remember content that was irrel-evant to your life?

hear the new language spoken by only oneperson, your teacher?

forget most of what you learned?

If you checked most of the questions above,you may not have fond memories of learning asecond language . . . .and probably, you didn'tlearn it! If, however, you successfully learned asecond language, the chances are you

learned new vocabulary in a meaningful con-text;

heard the second language spoken by manydifferent speakers;

had many opportunities to communicate withothers in the second language;

engaged in action-oriented activities to clar-ify meanings and functions of the new lan-guage;

used repetition as it occurred naturally in songs,poems, games, stories, and rhymes insteadof repetitive drills (especially appropriate foryoung students);

spent some time on drill work (especiallyappropriate for secondary students);

were highly motivated to learn the secondlanguage;

took advantage of every opportunity to prac-tice the new language, regardless of level offluency;

learned to read and write the language as youlearned to speak it;

If the second list parallels your own experi-ences, you know firsthand how students learn asecond language. But regardless of how successfulor unsuccessful your own experiences were, goodcommon sense and your instinctive knowledge ofhow children learn can guide you in helping stu-dents with limited English proficiency learn a sec-ond language. It's important to know that

there are similarities as well as differencesbetween first and second language acquisi-tion.

a lot of language learning takes place natu-rally in conversations and through lessons inthe content area as well as lessons in English.

3.1

there are four aspects of language that theLEP student must masterpronunciation,structure, vocabulary, and style;

social and affective factors influence howquickly a student learns a second language;and

there is a difference between academic andconversational language.

Similarities and Differences BetweenFirst and Second LanguageAcquisition*

Observing how a young child makes sense oflanguage and learns to speak provides us someunderstanding of how children learn a second lan-guage. Children need to listen to language for along time and begin to make some sense of itbefore they are ready to attempt speaking it. Theiractions show that they understand long before theyuse the words themselves.

It is a well-established fact that students whohave a good understanding of their first languagewill usually be successful in learning a secondlanguage. Their skills in reading, writing, andspeaking their first language are readily transferredto acquiring fluency in the second language. Thisfact has important implications for teaching LEPstudents. If resources e.g., books, bilingual in-structorsare available in the school to strengthenthe student's first language, his/her cognitive de-velopment as well as the ability to learn Englishwill be advanced. If such resources are not avail-able, parents should be encouraged to read to theirchildren in their language of origin and to teachthem concepts. Contrary to popular belief, it isnot necessarily a disadvantage if parents of LEPstudents do not speak English.

The key to both first and second language ac-quisition is meaning. Children remember languagethat is meaningful to them. As children begin to

talk, they do so for a functional purpose: to getsomething they want; to obtain or provide infor-mation; to express emotions and feelings. Childrenneed to see an immediate and practical purposefor the language they are learning. One way manychildren can practice meaningful language is throughsocial interactions with their peers.

Another similarity between first and second lan-guage acquisition is the way children form newwords and phrases. Rather than simply imitatingwhat they hear, children learn by putting togetherbits of language in order to communicate. Theydo not begin with perfectly formed, grammaticallycorrect sentences. Errors are a natural part of learn-ing language. We can expect incomplete or in-correct language prom children learning either afirst or second language. As they attempt to matchthe language to the models around them, they willgradually correct themselves.

The more opportunities children have to practicelanguage, the more quickly they acquire fluency.Children who enjoy playing with language, re-peating sounds, rhyming words even nonsensi-cally, are often the best language learners.

The most obvious difference between first andsecond language acquisition is the age of the learner.Older students bring more experiences and skillsto the learning process. They are developmentallymore mature and can abstract the rules of grammarmore quickly. They know how language worksand how to use it to meet their own set of socialneeds. This knowledge helps them to learn to com-municate in a second language. Howeve- :-tudentswho have gaps in the prerequisite I.. uowledge ofgrammar, vocabulary, and readini, .ikills ii theirfirst language need special help or tutoring to beable to read, write cohesive compositions, do li-brary work, work in a group situation, etc. Youngerstudents, on the other hand, tend to learn correctpronunciation and oral language more easily. Theyare more receptive to learning the strange soundsand to practicing nem in play situations.

*Adapted from "Applications of Second Language Acquisition Research to the Bilingual Classroom"by Anna Uhl Chamot, FOCUS, National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, No. 8, September1981. (See Resource Book pages 66-73.)

32 J 23

The similarities und differences between firstand second language acquisition have several im-plications for teaching, Teachers should

expect errors as a natural part of languagelearning and not be overly concerned atriacorrecting these errors;

model correct use of English;

respond to what they think the studenttrying to communicate;

create situations in which students can learnlanguage for functional purposes;

expect a "silent period" in the beginningstages of the language learning process, andplan listening activities before expecting stu-dents to speak;

provide repetition when it occurs naturally ingames, songs, and rhymes rather than re-petitive drills, especially for younger stu-dents;

allow students to use words from their firstlanguage to communicate as they are learningmore of the second language;

111111expect that younger students may learn tocommunicate more quickly In thc second lan-guage than older students; and

expect that older students will learn the syn-tax of the language more accurately and soonerthan younger students,

Learning Language Throughis Conversation

Students can learn language natur throughconversations with their peers and teachers.In this context, students acquire a new languageholistically rather than as a set of linguistic rules.The more opportunities they have to practice, thequicker they will learn the new language.

Linda Ventriglia* describes the language-learn-ing strategies children employ in their conversa-tions. The chart on the following pages outlinesthese strategies and their implications for teachers.As you think about the LEP students in your class-room, consider if you have observed them em-ploying these language-learning strategies. Thenask yourself, "Have I encouraged students to usethese strategies in my classroom?"

*Ventriglia, Linda. Conversations of Miguel and Maria, How Children Learn a Second Language.Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1982.

3324'1111=1111k.

Students learn a second language by:

Bridging: tying English words to concepts whicharc known in their first language.

Chunking: picking up and imitating chunks oflanguage, phrases, or units of more than one wordthat are remembered as a whole. The chunks serveas a transition from labeling to sentence fluency.

Creating: forming original utterances from pre-viously learned words and chunks with language.Students do this best in conversations or in game-like situations where language is used meaning-fully.

Therefore the teacher should:

Teach words in meaningful contextswithconcrete objects or pictures.

Group words by concepts.

Utilize all senses in teaching vocabulary (touch,smell, sight, etc.).

Provide opportunities for students to imitatelanguage chunks they hear in meaningful ac-tivities involving concrete materials, i.e., chartsand games.

Act as a model, constructing appropriate lan-guage chunks, responding to each student's rep-etition of chunks, reinforcing and validatingverbal responses.

Provide opportunities for students to engage inrole-playing activities where they can hear anduse the language.

Comment on group activities and engage stu-dents in communicating about what they aredoing.

Structure language lessons around interpersonalcommunication in meaningful situations.

Listening and Sounding Out: learning language Proceed from receptive understanding to ex-through listening for an extended period of time pressive practice.before producing it.

Provide group activities that develop listeningcomprehension: storytelling, music, drama,rhymes, and oral reports.

Provide individual activities such as listeningto records or tapes accompanied by vicual aids,short stories, or filmstrips.

34

Students learn a second language byl

Following the Phrase: using familiar phrases overand over. Student practices known phrases andvaries them by changing words that follow thephrase: e.g., I like cookies. I like grapes. I likeyou.

Socializing: learning social expressions as chunksimitating expre.,,siolia heard in social exchangesand applying them in appropriate social settings.The learner is motivated by a desire to becomepart of the social world of English speakers.

Using Cues: using gestures, context or other vis-ual clues as hints to determine the meaning of newwords or phrases. Students learn to scan the en-viromnent for a cue, make a hypothesis, assessthe probability that the inference is correct, andreadjust to later information.

Peer Prompting: repeating words or phrases apeer has used untilit is said correctly. Studentscorre to rely on peers as language models. Peerprompting gives the learner feedback on the cor-rect words needed in a given situation.

26

Therefore the teacher should:

Provide opportunities for students to generateand use patterns in social situations.

Teach children a phrase such us "I eat ---..."and apply the phrase in a relevant manner usingconcrete objects and pictures.

Provide many Opportunities for students to in-teract with native English speakers,

Emphasize active language use in all activities.

Group students so that those with limited Eng-lish are learning and those with greater abilityare teaching and using what they have learned.

Encourage participation in extracurricular ac-tivities.

Use all types of cues to help students obtainmeaning.

Make your teaching methods as visually ori-ented as possible.

Foster and encourage learning in which studentscan freely exchange ideas on common intellec-tual tasks.

Pair LEP students with English-speaking peersfor small group activities.

35

Four Aspects of Languuge Learning*

The first challenge in learning a new languageis to learn to widerstand and pronounce strangewords, At first, the sounds of another languageare a meaningless stream of sounds. It takes timefor a student to begin to recognize familiar sounds,to discriminate between sounds, and to learn howto reproduce the sounds that involve unfamiliarlip and tongue movements. Students must learnto hear the differences between sounds and toreproduce the sounds so that they can be under-stood.

Learning a new language also involves learningits structuree.g., how to link words in sen-tences. Students will haw difficulty communi-cating if they learn vocabulary and how to pro-nounce words but not how to use words in agrammatically correct sequence. Consider a lettersent to the Center for Applied Linguistics:*

"I'm is refugees from Vietnam please help megives some books . . . "(page 76)

When people do not know the correct sequencefor linking words, they will arrange words in thesequence that is correct in their native language.Students must be taught correct sentence structuresin English. For example:

This is aTht se areIs this aAre thew' 9

A third aspect of learning a new language islearning vocabulary. New vocabulary is most ef-ficiently learned in context. Memorizing lists ofvocabulary words is not as effective Ls using wordsover and over in meaningful situations. The veryfact that LEP students are attending Americanschools means they will be exposed to English inreal life situations. However, they must be spe-cifically taught the correct terminology for eachsubject area.

Finally, students must be able to use variousstyles of English. In the classroom, the style ofEnglish taught is formal and similar to writtenEnglish. However, in real life, students often learn

a different style, komotimesreferred to as "play-ground English." Conhision over which style ofEnglish is appropriate in a given ituation is acommon problem for students learning a secondlanguage. It's important to help students recognizethe different styles and learn when they are ap-propriate.

Social and Affective Factors inLearning a Second Language

Motivation is a key factor in determining howquickly students learn a second language. Studentswho wish to participate with the dominant culturalgroup and have positive feelings toward Americanpeers can usually overcome most of the obstaclesto learning English. Those students who have lessthan positive feelings about native English-speak-ing peers and who feel discouraged about achiev-ing success in American schools may find it ex-tremely difficult to acquire English proficiency.

The implications for teachers are obvious.Teachers should

promote caring and positive attitudes be-tween LEP students and their American peers;

provide opportunities for students to work insmall groups on cooperative activities;

ensure opportunities for social interaction be-tween LEP students and English-speakingpeers;

promote understanding arid acceptance ofcultural differences; and

encourage children to practice the languagethey are learning.

Academic vs. ConversationalLanguage

The language needed for successful academicwork is not necessarily learned through conver-sations or social situations. Reading and writingskills and the vocabulary needed for academicsubjects must be taught in the context of learningactivities in each subject area.

*Adapted from Indochinese Students in U.S. Schools, Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC,1981, pages 74-78.

36

It is important to differentiate between the Me-CUM involved in using language for informal in-terpersonal communicafion and using language inacademic situations, Many LEP students, espy-daily younger children, develop an ability to corn-municate in everyday situations quite rapidly,leading teachers to believe that they also possessthe academic proficiency needed to succeed inschool, when, in fact, they might have not de-veloped that ability.

The language used in everyday situations it eas-ier to acquim because it becomes meaningful throughthe support of non-verbal and external contextcues. The language used in academic situations,on the other hand, relies almost exclusively onlinguistic forms.

Students develop language proficiency in in-tercommunicative situations with peers and adultsboth outside and in school. This initial languageability, which is almost completely developed byage six, needs to move into an ability to processlanguage without the help of contextual and non-verbal cues. Academic language proficiency isneeded to succeed in cognitive tasks such as dis-cussions, reading, and writing.

For further information, consult the article "TheRole of Primary Language Development in Pro-moting Educational Success for Language Mi-nority Students" by James Cummins in Schoolingand Language Minority Students: A TheoreticalFramework, Resource Book p. 74. Also see thefollowing sections in the Resource Book:

so. Culture and the Classroom Teacher (pages39-47.)

Teaching Strategies for Worldng With LEPStudents (pages 77-86.)

* Assessment of LEP Students (pages 52-61.)

Learning a Second Language (pages 65-75.)

SummaryIn your experience as a teacher, you have taught

many students whyse needs, interest!. . and skillsvary. The LEP stueent is another indittival forwhom you will adapt your teachinIn meeting the instructional needs students,however, you wiii .nt to be receptive to culturaland educational differences and to the special ex-

28

perience in which they are engaged learning asecond language.

A4 a teacher of LEP students, you will learn tovalue and capitalize upon cultural and educationaldifferences in the classroom. You will find outabout schooling in other countries, and you willlearn about your own classroom through the stu-dents for whom the classroom is a new and some-times strange experience.

You will need to try to recognize your ownbiases and assumptions and be a bit slow in judgingthe behavior of students who are unfamiliar withAmerican customs and practices. At the same time,there will be rules and values you want to protect,and you must teach these basics to LEP students.

When the pace of getting started slows, you willwant to learn more about the culture and educationsystem in the countries of origin represented inyour classroom. You may want to take someto explore the basic structure of the school systemand the standard curriculum, some social attitudesas they are reflected in the schools, the predom-inant teaching and learning strategies, proc., luresfor promoting tuid grading students, and classroommaragement techr Tije%

ss isment w c particularly important inteaching LEY rtol Tests can be formal andinformal, pros 1, wide range of trAful infor-roation. Minimally, asessment of students shouldtell you about their language ..:ompetency, knowl-edge of content areas. and personal backgroundincluding schooling h.story, family information,special needs and interests, and biographical data.

As you launch yclir i:,structional program, youwill want to understand what learri,.s, a secondlanguage is like so that you can tea with sen-sitivity to the LE? student's rkltds. Learning asecond languagr not unlike learning a first lan-guage. Howevc r, because students are older andmore experiencW, they bring both talents and in-hibitions to the classroom. They need opportu-nities fo- ..,)nversation. They need to hear andbecome F. ..iiiar with the sounds, rhythms, andpronunciation of words and phrases. They needto lean: basic str-..(tures, vocabulary, and variousstyles of English suitable to environments in whichthey live, As with other types of learning, languagelearning requires a supportive climate where astudent can tryand try againwith rewards andfeelings of success when mastery is achieved.

37

Ill. The LEP StudentIn Your Classroom

Your classroom environment is the setting forlearning. How you welcome students into yourclassroom, how you organize the furniture andmaterials, the rules you establish for living andlearning within this environment, and how yougroup students for instruction all create the contextfor your program. Before reading this chapter,please take a few moments to reflect on how youmanage your classroom. For some questions youmay want to check more than one response.

How I Mam.ge My Classroom

I. A resrmt for cultural differences is evidentin my classroom from

p1/2ctures showing people of different

_ lessons (raising on other cultures, in-iin ccntributinnr V various groupstki.* .:omnuoity the country.

ptaact.. and encouragement of be-v by the kraily (e.g., co-

OpeVoil vor:., manners, respect forehlern).cc among students of differentcultures.

2. The physical environment of my classroom_ conveys a relaxed atmosphere where

students can work in small groups andbe comfortable.

_ seems somewhat chaotic until you getaccustomed to it; has a structure andorganization that is not apparent to thecasual observer.

_ is orderly with everything in its placemost of the time.conveys the fact that most informationis given in lecture format.

3. I make my classroom as visually oriented aspossible by

using a chalkboard extensively duringclass.displaying many pictures on the walls.bringing in concrete objects or pictureswhich usually represent what we arestudying.

4. Rules in my classroom arestated and enforced fairly._ irregularly enforced._ discussed, understood, and then posted._ unstated and flexible.

5. The daily schedulevaries from day to day.

. is consistent from one day to the next._ is consistent with some variations.

6. I group students_ according to reading ability._ in pairs for special assignments ortutoring._ in small groups to work on projects._ for special instruction with a teacher orvolunteer.

38 29

Overview

e way yoL ;;;Mlaite you4 loinKun reflectsa panicular style or approach to teaching that hasbeen developed over years of e trrornee snd study,It would be inappropriate t 10,140. Mai you changedramatically or adapt your classroom managementtechniques to suit a new student population. Manymanagement techniques you have established areapplicable to tesching LEP students or can be madeapplicable if modified slightly.

This chapter will examine ways of orienungLEP students to the classroom, using the class-room environment effectively, establishing andreinforcing rules, and grouping LEP students. In.1,3ition, it will discuss two areas of importancewhen including LEP students in your classroomactivities: how to communicate with these studentsand how to promote cross-cultural understandingin your clauroom. All of these elements set thestage for learning.

Orientation

The school environment, as well as your class-room, will be unfamiliar and confusing to all newstudents, even to those who speak English. Stu-dents attending a new school will need to learnabout

the school schedule;

bus routes and schedules;

restroom facilities;

absentee procedures;

use of the library;

rules regarding physical education class;

fire drill routines;

report .;ard systems;

guidnnce office services;

30

eAllisCUrriCula Ak.n U aprtUW,WO witm;booI4. itqunion wit I

In your Ii1W00111, moi twcolooroniliar with

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MrNed...M.W.eal.c4r1T,,InaeTI Wrgm..Mmim

When welcoming students who do not speakEnglish into your classroom, you will need to becreative, Here are some strategies you might try.

For all students (IC 12th grade):

Be yourself. A warm and friendly msnnerwill put students at east.

Allow for a "settling in period." The dif-ferences between students' previous schoolsand the current one may be exrnsive. It willtake time for students to learn what is ex-pected of them.

Find out what name the student wants to becalled and learn to pronounce it correctly.

Assign a buddy to each new student, perhapsa rotating buddy to give all students an op-portunity to be helpful. A buddy can take thenew student around and "show him or herthe ropes." A native English-speaking stu-dent who is sensitive and gets along well withothers can be very effective in this role.

Draw a map of the school (and perhaps ofthe immediate community) to help studentsbecome oriented.

Do not expect foreign students to be com-fortable initially with open classrooms, groupactivities, individualization, informal teach-ing styles, and class paricipation.

or young students;

Show viim pcoonoi 'myth furl 4WE flyptywn$ these feeling" will go s long saotnaking itudents teI comforieW

Anin imple closrootti Julie* to helpdents i4tel they UV a pan of the clio" te #-erasing the chalkniwill.

Monate the shethile of daily 1 tile* sftpictures,

Walk studeno around the idiool to Ouluthem the location of important placts .

For older students;

Provide orientation handbook". preferablywritten in the LEP student's primary Ian.guise. that contain general -school informs.non such as

graduation requirements;

school calendar;

rules and regulations;

discipline procedures.

Have non-native English-speaking studentswbo have been in the school several year"and made the adjustment develop -WelcomeHandbooks" in the native language. Thesehandbooks can in,:;lude personal advice basedon real experiences. Students Mil work inteams and brainstorm responses to topicssuch as

what it felt like coming to a strange school..

how to relate to teachers and other stu-dents;

important school rules;

cultural differences that must be consid-ered;

O ls 00 40* 10 104fit Cit

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Classroom Environment

in ytr eliosto".. n, y*iu hiv artinged thenoun and sh0011416 Hi a way that works for youand that conveys a message about how you expectstudents to behest and imam If you prefer tolecture, you have probably placed students so thateach one can see you and any materiels thy youwill display Moot likely this means that chairsan arranged in rows facing the front of the room:If you prefer to have students working in smallgroup% or on individual proocts, you have prob.ably arranged the furniture in chasm io variousparts of the roam where groups can work withsome sense of privacy. If you feel that studentsshould have access to materials and resources, youhave probebly organized the materials and re .sources in a way that invites students to use them.

At the beginning of this chapta you assesbedyour classroom. Perhaps when you made this as-sessment you did not have any LEP students inyour room. It may be helpful to take a secondlook at your environment, this time from the per.spective of the L.EP student. The chan on thefollowing pages provides a framework for ex-amining your classroom. It identifies how LEPstudents typically view the classroom, suggestsquestions you might ask yourself, and offers con-crete ideas for organizing the classroom enviroo-meat. You may or may not have the flexibility tomodify your classroom environment. However,many of the ideas do not require major rearrarge.menu and in most instances, are probably Cotstyou already have adopted.

*Adapted from What to Do Before the Books .4 ,,rity by lean D'Arcy Maculaitis and Mona Scheragor,Alernany Press, San Francisco CA., 1981.

4 0 31

The LEP Students' Perspective Questions to Consider Classroom Environment

Most LEP students are accus-tomed to traditional classroomswhere the teacher lectures at thefront of the room.

Some LEP students are confusedby classrooms that lack structureand organization. They may in-terpret this to mean that anythinggoes.

LEP students are visually ori-ente and need the reinforcementof concrete materials.

32

Will students understand howmy classroom is organized?

How can I help LEP stu..:,ntsadapt to my classroom ar-rangement?

How traditional is my class-room arrangement?

Is there a logic to the way I'veorganized materials?

How cluttered is my class-room?

What message does a visitorget?

How often do I use pictures,the chalkboard, or other me-dia?

How much do I depend onverbal communication inteaching?

Do the materials and displaysin my room convey what isbeing taught?

Do I face students when Ispeak, especially when givingdirections, so they can see myexpressions and lip move-ments?

41

Try to eliminate clutter. Ifnecessary, store extra mate-rials in covered containers orbehind a curtain.

Organize materials neatly andplace them near the area wherethey will be used.

Use the chalkboard exten-sively and make stre studentscan see it.

Consie-r using a variety ofmedia: overhead projectors,filmstrips, tapes, slides andtape recorders.

Use bulletin boards ci.ea-tively; make them colorful anduncluttered. Include displayssuch as: topics, being taught;vocabulary being learned;students' work; labeled pic-tures of places in your localcommunity; a map of the worldshowing students' nativecountries.

.11.11.14.

The LEP Students' Perspective Questions to Consider Classroom Environment

Most young LEP students are Have I used space effectively?uncomfoitable in large emptyspaces. Is empty space encouraging

students to run in the class-room?

Much of what happens at firstwill be incomprehensible. LEPstudents are likely to feel lost,alone, and confused.

V/hat other ways can I arrangethe furniture?

What areas can I set up forLEP students to work on theirown or with another student?

How can I arrange activitiesfor a few students while I'mteaching a lesson to the rest ofthe class?

Use furniture to define areasof the room.

Try to eliminate empty space--it' s usually wasted space andit encourages behavior betterreserved for a gym.

Set up an art center with mag-azines and old workbookswhere students can mike theirown picture dictionaly andbooks.

Provide a game center withsimple games students can playwith peers: Lot , What'sMissir Conce- :ion.

Arrange a handwriting centerwhere students can practicethe alphabet or new words.

Equip a listening center withcassette tapes, records, lan-guage masters, and filmstrips.Record simple stories so stu-dents can listen to English andlook at books.

Set up an activity center withsubject-related activities stu-dents can do on their own: fillin the blanks, check lists, vo-cabulary lists.

What are changes or adaptations you can make in your classroom? Use the space below to list ideas.

42

Classroom Management

Classroom management involves the expecta-tions or rules you establish for behavior of studentsin your classroom. For many teachers, especiallythose who work with older students, rules maynot be verbalized or written down, but they areunderstood by all. Students quickly learn what youwill tolerate in your classroom and what you won't.However, with younger students, you must bemore specific about the ruks that govern groupliving.

What are the rules you have established in yourclassroom?

How do students learn these rules?

LEP students may have trouble learning therules in your classroom for a number of reasons.Most obvious is the fact that they do not understandthe language and therefore cannot understand rulesthat are written or verbally explained. In theirefforts to conform, LEP students often mimic be-havior of other students. Sometimes unknowingly,the behavior they choose to emulate is unaccept-able to others, and they become confused by theteacher's negative reaction.

Another reason LEP students may have troublelearning the rules is that many rules are unwrittand culturally based. American students intut-

34

tively kno. / how far they can go. They beginse-ool with a bas knowledge of what is ac-ceptable in school and what is not, and they canquickly adapt to an individual teacher's style. Forexample, American students know that it is notacceptable to cut into line, to look at another stu-dent's paper during a test, or to be overly familiarwith the teacher. LEP students may have to beexplicitly taught these common rules of behavior.

In helping LEP students learn the rules in yourclassroom, consider some of these strategies:

Look at the rules you have established foryour classroom and add any unwritten rulesthat existthose you assume students willknow instinctfvely.

Identify the most important rules you wantLEP students to understand.

Consider how you might illustrate these rulesperhaps with pictures or demonstrations.

Use peers who know the LEP students' lan-guage to convey the rules.

Select a native English-speaking student whocan act as a role model to help LEP studentslearn the rules.

Be firm but understanding about helping LEPstudents conform to your expectations for allstudents.

Be patient and allow time for students tobecome familiar with the rules. Expect somemistakes.

After LEP students learn the rules, treat themthe same as you treat other students in termsof consequences.

Grouping

Grouping of students for instruction is oftenflexible and variable. How you group students willdepend on a number of variables including

the number of LEP students in your class;

the number of LEP students in your school;

43

111111111MENGIMMINIMINEMIIM

the variety of levels of English proficiency;

the resources available within your school:specialists such as an ESOL teacher, foreignlanguage teacher, reading specialist, curricu'um specialist, or volunteers.

For classroom activities, LEP students can bepaired with peers. Peers who speak the same lan-guage can work on tasks together; English-speak-ing peers can serve as tutors. Peer tutoring ar-rangements are beneficia7 to both LEP studentsand their American peers. American students havean opportunity to reinforce their own knowledgeand to help someone else. Older students whoassume responsibility for adapting lessons for LEPstudents can sometimes receive extra cre(dt fortheir work. For example, peer tutors can

help LEP students understand the readingsby

showing them how to find key sentences;

simplifying words or phrases to clarifymeaning;

writing the key sentences in outline form.

help LEP students with homework assign-ments and library work by

clarifying directions;

helping to locate information;

correcting mistakes.

You probably group your students in differentways, depending on the activities and subject mat-ter. LEP students can often participate more suc-cessfully in math or manipulative lesfons than inlanguage lessons. When you make decisions ongrouping LEP students, consider the followingissues:

It is important to find ways for LEP studentsto excel, because so often they feel incom-petent. For example, provide social activitiesor opportunities for LEP students to teachAmerican students about their culture andtraditions.

44

LEP students already feel lonely and outsidethe mainstream. When you conduct class-room lessons beyond the LEP students' abil-ity, consider having them work on a task withanother student rather than alone. Consid-ering the child's social needs by providingthis type of interaction often promotes learn-ing more than isolated activities.

Communication

It's natural for teachers to take for granted thatthey can communicate with their studems. Whenyou work with LEP students, you are serving asa model. Students learn English by copying yourspeech and that of other students, in much the waya young child learns to speak. It is important tomonitor your use of language and the way youcommunicate with LEP students.

You are a good model of the English languageif you

speak in a natural tone and pace;

articulate carefully but do not exaggerate pro-nunciation;

repeat words, phrases, sentences;

present concepts in different ways;

use gestures, facial expressions, and concreteobjects to convey your meaning;

speak in simple sentences, demonstrating ifnecessary "Please open the window" in-sten,' "Would you like to open the windowfor

seize every opportunity to use language todescribe what the student is doing and toengage the student in conversation;

use correct grammar;

say what you mean; don't assume the studentwill get an indirect message"I like the waythe class is so quiet today"when you meanthey are too noisy;

are careful to explain slang expressions whenyou use them.

35

In building the communication skills of LEPstudents, it may be helpful to keep in mind thefollowing:

Use every opportunity to involve LEP stu-dents in language experiences, even if youhave to answer your own questions.

Work first on basic communication needs.

Classroom comments, directions, and con-versation:

"May I get a drink of water?""Sit clown.""How are you?"

Basic concepts (e.g., Boehm concepts):

top-bottomabove-below; over-under; in front of, bzhind,next to; inside-outsidenear-far; away from-close toright-left; side; corneraround; together-separated; throughforward-backwardfirst, second, third, . . . last; before-after; inorder-out of orderbeginning-end; middle, center, between; nowmost-least; more-less; equal, as manyPairpart; half, whole, allnvery; wary; how many; several; some; few;zero; aLnostwide-narrow; medium sizedsame-different; alike; match; othernever-always; sometimes

Personal identification:

address, phone number, agefamilybody partscommunitysafetytimeholidays

Identify the key vocabulary in every lesson.

Teach new words in context, not in isolation,e.g., not "chair", but "This is a chair," or"Sit in the chair."

36

Use the same vocabulary in many contexts,and provide opportunities fol students to seeand use new words over and over.

Avoid synonyms and alternative ways of say-ing things until one way is mastered, e.g.,"This is England. ' Do not introduce the term"Britain," "United Kingdom," or "GreatBritain."

Be sensitive about correcting a student. Tryto understand what he/she wants to com-municate first.

How you communicate with LEP students setsa tone for the rest of the class. Other students willquickly pick up your approach and imitate it whenthey talk with LEP students. It might be interestingto monitor your speech by taping yourself or hav-ing another teacher observe you and give you feed-back.

Cross-Cultural UnderstandingLEP students allow you to enrich the curriculum

by incorporating activities which promote cross-cultural understanding. In elementary school, whereone teacher is responsible for all instruction, it isnot too difficult to adapt the curriculum to includeactivities on understanding other cultures. At thesecondary level, how you adapt the curriculumwill depend on your area of instruction. Somesubject areas lend themselves to adaptation betterthan others. But because secondary students areolder, the variety of possible activities is muchgreater.

Listed below are some suggestions for activitiesthat can be incorporated into the curriculum topromote cross-cultural understanding. You willneed to remember, however, that some studentsare not informed about their own cultures. Somemay have been in the United States for severalyears and have begun to be assimilated into thedominant culture. In addition, especially at thesecondary level where peer pressures are verystrong, students may not want to be singled outas "different" or to be seen as foreigners.

Recognize or celebrate cultural holidays whichmay differ from mainstream traditions. Show

45

1

how mainstream traditions are celebrated indifferent ways.

Create opportunities for students to learn avariety of dance steps, perhaps from one an-other. International clubs are good vehiclesfor sharing different aspects of culture.

Plan thematic assemblies and special school"days" which feature a variety of culturalard individual interpretations, expressions,or experiences within the same theme, sub-ject, or form.

Compare customs, such as gift-giving pro-cedures or table manners; discuss how theconcept of what is appropriate differs fromculture to culture. (Examples: Eating withthe left hand in the lap is considered rude inmany Hispanic cultures, whereas it is quite"proper" in Anglo cultures. In many Asiancultures, gifts are presented and received withboth hands, and the polite behavior is not toopen the gift in the presence of the giver.)

Ask bilingual students to share "words" whichare the same in English as they are in theirnative languages. Compile a list to post ona classroom bulletin board.

Actively involve students, parents, and mem-bers of the community as culture "consul-tants" in classroom activities.

Take field trips to local museums, exhibits,or festivals which demonstrate a variety ofcultural experiences, values, or contribu-tions. Design activities that help students torecognize, appreciate, understand, or valuedifferences along with similarities.

Plan multicultural or international "potluck"socials which feature displays, programs, orother learning activities along with the food.

Create opportunities for students to research,write about, or illustrate their own or anoth-er's cultural or ethnic history or unique ex-periences.

Develop a map-reading unit, using localcommunity or area maps. Create opportun-ities for students to learn about or researchthe origins of names of streets, subdivisions,schools, libraries, parks, public buildings,

4 6

stores, nr other landmarks. find out whichnames reflect the environment. Which arenamed after events? Which are named afterlocal citizens? Which are named after his-torical leaders? Discuss how these names re-flect the cultural diversity and ethnicity of alocal community.

Teach students the "interview" process.Create nnportunities for students to interviewfamily members, other students, or membersof the community concerning their ethnic orcultural backgrounds or experiences. (For

l t uor

example, plan an oral history project.)

Show how modern American English is acombination of many languages and reflects

moan

(For example, point out how

fthewy

es .

sins of foods on a typical fastod restaurant menu reflect wide linguistic

and cultural diversitY: "Hamburger" - Ger-man; "Barbeque" Haitian; "Frankfurter"- German; "Potato" South American; "Bun"- Irish; "Mustard" French; "Sesame" -African; "Catsup" Malay; "Relish" -French; "Tomato" Mexican; "Onion" -French; "Lettuce" French; "Coleslaw"Dutch; "Spaghetti" - Italian; "Cereal" -Greek; "Chowder" - French; "Candy" -Sanskrit; "Punch" Indian; "Coffee" - Ar-abic; "Tea', _ Chinese; Cola" - Africa;"Sugar" Persian; "Apple" Teutonic;"Tangerine" _ African; "Orange" - Arabic;

-

"Garlic': Old English;"Coconut"- Spanish;"Vanilla" s Spanish; "Chocolate" - Mex-ican;"Str awherry'l Angio-Saxon; "Salt"- Anglo-Saxon; and Tepper" - East Indian).

For further information, see "Culture and theTeacher"Classroom (Resource Book, pages

39-47).

SummaryWhat happens in your classr000m greatly in-

fluences the learning not only of LEP students,but of all students. What you expect, how theroom looks, when activities are planned, and howstudents are organized are some of the questionsthat you need to answer. Finally, as the teacher,you are a model and what you say and do has areal impact on Your students' behavior and per-forMance.

37

IV. AdaptingInstructionand Materialsfor LEP Students

The curriculum and instructional materialsteachers use are often determined by the schoolsystem. Some teachers rely quite successfully onsuggestions in teacher's guides, while others liketo adapt the instructional materials and/or developtheir own to suit specific needs of the childrenthey teach.

Before reading this chapter, please take a fewmoments to refect on how you plan lessons anduse instructionai materials in your classroom. Inconsidering t'i questions below, you may wantto check mo nail one response.

How I Plan Lessons and Use Materikis

I . In planning lessons, I_ plan one lesson for the class as a whole._ plan for small groups._ plan for the class as a whole and forsome children individually._ plan some lessons for the whole groupand others for small groups.

2. In using textbooks, I_ follow the instructions in the teacher'sguide carefully._ follow the instructions in the teacher'sguide with some modifications.use the teacher's guide as a startingpoint but plan my own activities.don't use the teacher's guide at all.

3. In developing goals and objectives for a les-son, I

_ plan the same goals and objectives forall students.identify specific objectives for studentswho are more advanced or who havespecial learning problems.present objectives in writing so all stu-dents know what I expect them to learnin a particular lesson.

4. After presenting a lesson, I reinforce the in-formation by

assigning the activities in the textbookas homework.developing my own reinforcement ac-tivities for students to use on their own._ repeating parts of the lesson.

5. I feel that basic language skills_ are the most important skills I can de-

velop in students.have little to do with the subject I teach.can and should be embedded in anysubject matter.are the responsibility of the languagearts or English teacher.are skills I don't have time to developin my content-area classes.

6. I feel most comfortable conveying informa-tion through_ lectures._ structured activities._ discussions._ following the student's interest.

4 7 39

Overview

Having come to this point in the book, you knowthat teaching LEP students is much like teachingthe students with whom you are more familiar.You must plan lessons in much the same way youhave always done. However, there will be somedifferences. This chapter on adapting instructionand materials begins by reviewing some ways thatlessons might be different if you are teaching LEPstudents. It provides specific and practical strat-egies for adapting instructional materials you cur-rently use so that they are appropriate for LEPstudents.

Strategies for AdaptingInstruction

The following are general guidelines for adapt-ing instruction to meet the special needs of LEPstudents. Their appropriateness for elementary (E)and secondary (S) student. has been noted. Asyou think about these guidt.istes, remember thatregardless of the grade or se; ject you teach, theemphasis is on languageleaining and using lan-guage as a foundation for academic development.This emphasis is as important for LEP students asit is for native speakers.

Plan lessons that provide opportunities for lis-tening, speaking, reading, and writing. An ef-fective instructional sequence follows.

Pre-reading. Before beginning a new lesson,discuss relevant concepts and write the vo-cabulary necessary for conceptual develop-ment on the chalkboard. Refer to students'experiences and background on the topic ofthe lesson. Practice new vocabulary in phrasesand sentences. See, say, and write new wordsin context, and provide practice reading wordsin context. (E,S)

Survey a selection by looking at pictures,reading titles, sub-titles, first paragraph, andlast paragraph. Have students make a list ofquestions after surveying the selection. (E,S)

40

Reading. Have students read the selection,keeping in mind the questions derived di gthe survey. (E,S)

Post-Reading. These activities develop com-prehension and expand on knowledge gainedfrom the selection. Begin with general ques-tions: Who? What? When? Where? or ask"yes" and "no" questions. Then use activ-ities that progress to higher levels of thinking,such as selecting the main idea. (E,S)

Written Exercises. Use supplementary work-sheets, workbooks, and other print materialsfor review and reinforcement. (E,S)

Involve all the senses in learning.

Write all objectives and vocabulary on thechalkboard. Write questions and answers onthe chalkboard if it is practical. (E,S)

Use visual materials liberally. Pictures, film,slides and photographs, graphics, illustra-tions, picture books, and print symbols, aro!.especially useful instructional resourc 3. (72,S)

Provide a variety of listening activities: listenand speak; listen and write; listen to followdirections; listen for sounds and rhythms; lis-ten to learn new words and phrases. Makeuse of records, tapes, and conversations daily.(E,S)

Include learning activities that involve touchand movement: tracing in ale air; copying;engaging in d, amatic play; classroom gamesthat require small and large muscle coordi-nation. (E)

Teach language in context, and avoid isolationof letters, sounds, and words.

Teach vocabulary, phrases, and sentences indirect, obvious con texts. If new vocabularyhas a direct physical referent, is easilylearned, even more so than words used inphrases and sentences. (E)

Do not dwell on a phonics approach to read-ing by isolating sounds from the words.Phonics is helpful only after students havedeveloped a good speaking vocabulary. (E)

4R

Although teaching the letters of the alphabetin sequence won't help in teaching reading,knowledge of ihe alphabet is an essential ref-erence tool. (E,S)

Start students reading structures and vocab-ulary they encounter orally. Let studentspractice whole sentences they will use ineetyday life. Much later, introduce new wordsinto the reading passages. At this time, pointout phonetic contrasts. Limit new vocabularyand in roduce it slowly, after the studentshake learned grammatical structures. (E,S)

Select reading material with careful attentionto cultural emphasis, complexity of structures,and vocabulary. Plan to simplify or enhance in-structional materials for LEP students.

Explain cultural phenomena (e.g., a holiday)in advance. Reinforce concepts in a varietyof ways. (E,S)

Be especially careful when selectin readingmaterial for beginning students. Mpt vocab-ulary and structure should be controlled. Asstudents progress, they can move into lessgructuraily-controlled passages. (E,S)

Materids can be somewhat above the stu-dent's perceived ability to speak the lan-guage. Students can leata to comprehendstructures long before they feel comfortableusing them. (E,S)

Sugges! that students read material on topicscovered in their subject area courses. (S)

Be aware of weak areas ir the students' vo-cabulary: (E,S)

Names: Pronunciation and spe.: ig of Eng-lish names are foreign to LEP ludents.Names are difficult for students to remem-ber, whether they hear them or t,ee themon paper.

Family and home: Many basal readers andlanguage arts books feature family eventsthat may be quite different for LEP ctu-dents. B..cause they speak another lan-guage at home, LEP students have muchless need for the words that am most fa-miliar to English-speaking students.

Food: At home, non-English-speakingstudents will use words from their ownlanguage for mealtime conversation. Inschool, there is not always much oppor-tunity for talking about food,

Holidays: Holidays are different from ours,and students may not celebrate our holi-days for a while. In addition, holiday vo-cabulary is specialized and used only oncea year.

Content-specific vocabulary: LEP studentsneed to learn and practice content-specificvocabulary before a new lesson is intro-duced.

Provide for practice and repetitior.. Commercialmaterials and meterials that are commonly usedwith mainstream studentt do not contain enoughchill and repetition for LEP studeAs. In addition,often the grammatical coastructions are not ap-propriate for the studen:' 3 tage of language de-velopment. Students neeti w repeat language anduse it in different ways. (E,S)

Build feedback into lessons. Students need toknow how they are doing and to be able to checktheir progress frequently. Self-checking materialsare excellent for this purpose. Additionally, test-ing, in geneM, is a sound instructional practice.Testing lets teachers know when to provide re-mediation or acceleration. Testing should be agood learning experience. (E,S)

Devise activities to relax students. While themotivation for learning may be quite high, thereis a prat deal of anxiety in learning a language.

Do breathing and stretching exercises duringbreaks between activities. (E)

Role play common situations that studentsexperience every day. (E)

Vary the kinds and length of activities. (E,S)

Create an atmosphere where students are notembarrassed by their errors. The older the stu-dents axe, the more. sensitive they are to criticism.

Reinforce correct answers. (E,S)Be supportive all responses. (E,S)Guard against c -iticism by peers. (E,S)

9

Discover what students attach importune, toend value. A student's ability to learn is oftenaffected by conflict between the student's cultureand the newly-rflopted social mores. This is par-ticularly true for secondary students. (E,S)

As you probably recognized, the preceding gen-eral strategies are reminders. They will help youtarget your instruction to the needs of your LEPstudents.

The following sections describe a process forac Ang instniction and materials and suggest waysto incorporate the general strategies in this process.The process has ..ur steps.

Step 1: Identifying goals and objectives.Step 2; Identifying new concepts and vo-

cabulary.Selecting commercial materials; and/or preparing simplified readingmaterials.Generating reinforcement activi-ties.

Step 3:

hep 4;

Identifying Goals andObjectives

Your local school district has identified goalsand objectives for each subject and grade level forthe schools in your area. If you have LEP studentsin your classes, you need to examine these goals

and objectives and identify those that you .'an workon in the classroom. It is just as critical to idArdygoals and objectives for LEP students us it is forother students in your class. After all, your LEPstudent will also Ix expected to meet school districtgraduation requirements.

It may be useful at this point to review somebasics about goals and objectives. A goal, gen-erally the school district's goal, is usually a broadstatement of an expected competency, e.g., stu-dent will demonstrate mastery of basic readirgskills. An objective is a much more specific def-inition of what the student will learn, expressedin behavioral, measurable terms, An objective in-cludes a description of the condition under whichthe student will be judged, the tasks involved, andthe acceptable level of performance. For a unit onExplorers and Discoveries, an objective for thestudent might be as follows:

Given the names of three explorers, the stu-dent will be able to write a paragraph de-scribing the contributions made by each ex-plorer to the development of the New World.The paragraph should include an introductorystatement, at least two supporting ideas, anda concluding sentence.

Writing objectives for LEP students usuallymeans breaking down the objectives intended forthe rest of the class into discrete prerequisite ob-jectives. Let's examine a sample school systemgoal and a local school objective and see how youcan adapt them for your LEP students.

School System Goal: To assure adequate petformance in basic reading skills.

Your local school objective for on-level 9th graders:

Considering that your 9th grade LEP students willnot be reading at grade level, you might developtne following objective:

42

Seventy percent of the student.s enrolled in on-level 9th grade courses will score 70% or betteron a test measuring reading comprehension skills.

Seventy percent of the LEP student enrolled inmy class for an entire school year will improveat least two grade levels in reading.

Or

Seventy percent of the LEP students enrolled inmy class for an entire school year will score 70%or better on a test measuring reading comprehen-sion skills. This test will be designed to test skillsat students' reading levels.50

In order to achieve the goals of adequate per-formance in basic reading ,kills, you win have towork on three main aret.s: word analysis and iden-tification, vocabulary, ii1 comprehension, Undercomprehension, for ex1i ole, you might have thefollowing objectives:

liven an illustrttion of a reading selection,students will answei at least eight or ten ques-tions about the selection,

Given a mading selecth r., students will iden-tify the topic of thh.i selection.

Given a list of ten main events in a readingselection students will arrange them in cor-rect sequevce.

Given a reading selection, students will iden-tify the main idea of that selection.

For every lesson you plan, yo must considerthree areas: language developmel . ly skills,and content,

Language. The vocab lary riet . Li, un-derstand a new lessi. conce2t, or topicmust be taught and rk inforced through-out the lesson.

Study Skills. S. ,dy skills ob.; ..'ives (e.g.,learning o LISC the -": .ta'og whilewriting a report about famous leadersduring the Revolutionary period) can beembedded in content lessons for all stu-dents. For LEP students, it is vital tolearn study skills, since their previousschool work in another country may havebeen predominantly rote learning.

Content. Like other students, LEP studentsneed to master the content you teuch.Eventually, they must be able to do longdivision, read a newspaper, or write upa chemistry laboratory experiment. Theirlack of English and background infor-mation usually means the content ob-jectives will be less substantive than thosefor other students, but they should havesome content mastery and should knowthat mastery is expected.

When the student's English language profi-ciency is severely limited1 the content goal wouldhe to provide initial exposure to the topic. Beyondthat, the tkiveloptnent of Audy skills should takeprecedence. Content should be used to help stu-dents develop the study skills they need to succeedin school.

The following is offered as an example of pre-paring content objectives for a secondary levelWilli studies lesson on Christopher Columbus.Objectives are listed for all students; those starred(*) are for LEP students.

Goal: Students will learn how and why the NewWorld was colonized.

Objectives:

Identify Christopher Columbus.*

State what people believed about the earth'sshape.*

Describe Columbus's voyages and discov-eries.*

State opinions as to why people take on seem-ingly impossible challenges.

Relate the experiences of a modern ex-plorere.g., Sally Rideand compare toColumbus' experiences.

Idk.,ncifying New Concepts andVocabulary

The next step in preparing to teach a lesson forany group of students i n ientifv the majorconcepts and important vocabulary wo-ds studentswill need to t. derstand. This requirel; a review ofthe reading m, terials you have selected and anunderstanding of what colcepts and vocabularyhave already been reviewed with students.

When you teach LEP students, the list of vo-cabulary and concepts will no doubt be more com-prehensive than for native English-speaking stu-dents. It is helpful to write new words on thechalkboard so that all students can refer to themduring the lesson.

51

In the lesson on Christopher Columbus, the fol.lowing concepts and vocabulary might be selected.

New concepts:

discovery

colonization

feelings of discouragement, frustration, fear

New vocabulary:

IndiaEuropevoyage

sailorssuppliesfrightened

goldrichdiscover

Selecting CommercialMaterials and/or PreparingSimplified Reading Materials

Materials on a given subject are available for avariety of reading levels. Some students can bereading about Christopher Columbus in a textbookon grade level, while other students BN readingthe same content in readers prepared for a muchlower level of reading ability. The rust step inselecting content area materials is to determine theEnglish proficiency level of your LEP students.Generally speaking, LEP students fall into one ofthree broad categories.

I. Students who have either spent a year or morestudying at a school in the United States, orwho have studied English for three or fouryears in their own countries: These studentsare fairly proficient orally, but they cannotread very quickly and they have difficultywriting grammatically correct sentences. Theymay read at about a 5th or 6th grade readinglevel in English, although their reading levelis probably much higher in their native lan-guage.

2. Students who have had some exposure to Eng-lish: These students can't communicate verywell orally, they can only write basic sen-tences, and they probably read at about a 2nd

44

or 3rd grade level in English. Their readinglevel in their native language may be muchhigher.

3. Students who have had no training in Englishat all: These students may or may not beliterate in their nitive languages,

If your LEP studcut ialls into the first group,review the materials used by students in your schoolwho are not reading at grade leve!. Remember thata LEP student may be at grade level conceptually,but lack the necessary vocabulary and languagestructures to understand the materials you are usingin class. For this reason, you would not want toplace this student in a class with low achievingAmericans. Rather, allow your LEP student to usematerials written at a lower reading level to sup-plement your text and the other materials that youare using with the class. This will allow the LEPstudent to follow class discussions and answerquestions about the topic being covered.

If your LEP student is in the second group,examine commercially prepared materials writtenfor adults, but at a 2nd or 3rd grade reading level.Students in this category will be able to read andanswer questions about the same topic the rest ofthe class is studying, but at a simplified level. Itis important to remember that although the LEPstudent is reading below grade level, he/she canstill acquire basic concepts. A peer tutor can rein-force the necessary vocabulary and concepts onan individual basis with LEP students.

If your LEP student is in the third group, youwill need to piepare a simplified reading activity.You will need a peer tutor or a volunteer in additionto his/her language teacher.

Preparing Simplified ReadingMaterial

Students who have had very little training inEnglish, those in the third group, will require asimplified and very basic introduction to the con-tent area. It may be impossible to find commercialmaterials appropriate for students at this beginninglevel. A tutor or volunteer can be very helpful in

52

preparing materials that teach beginning conceptsin the content area before a student is ready toread the simplified materials,

It may be helpful to follow some guidelines indeveloping simplified reading materials.

A simplified reading

introduces underlying concepts;

presents events in a clear sequence;

provides a clear focus;

simplifies sentence structure;

has illustrations for main ideas if possible;

repeats key vocabulary;

avoids use of pronouns; and

avoids mntent not absolutely necessary forcomprehension.

In a lesson on Christopner Columbus, for ex-ample, you may locate or make uncluttered maps,and write a simple reading explaining the fourdirections and showing that the earth is roundbefore a student would understand the conceptsdeveloped in a reading on Columbus.

Generating ReinforcementActivities

A key strategy in adapting your teaching toaccommodate LEP students is the amount of repe-tition and reinforcement you build into every les-son. You will want to use every opportunity toincrease students' exposuie to language and torepeat and practice syntax and structures. There-fore, you need to provide many different ways togive students a chance to work with wordslis-tening, speaking, reading, writing.

Reinforcement activities should

focus on the objectives of the lesson;

use the same language as the reading selec-tions; and

allow for different levels of comprehension.

Most comnwrcial materials come with one ortwo workbook pages or supplementary worksheetsthat students can complete independently or witha peer or volunteer help, If these worksheets atenot sufficient to reinforce the lessons for LEPstudents, it may be necessary to develop additionalactivities and worksheets,

Some examples of reinforcement activities in-dude the following:

53

Fill in the blanks (Cloze), Copy tie simplifiedstory omitting every ninth word. Have kW.dentS till In the blanks

Find the "people" words in the story: men,sailors, Columbus, American. Have studentscopy a semence that contains each word.

Main idea. Direct students to copy the sen-tence telling the main idea of each paragraph.

Use configuration clues. Have students writethe appropri %le word in each configuration.

Europe voyage India

111111

ms..nor

ommoolo

*or ammo.,

1.01Ih

411111111111.

sentence packets. Build sentences from wordcards.

Chetm-opkles- ,ZolvevAsiwi4.79:Aoreck At

[ Atster'ico.

Chrlstcyler

CdurabUIS

euiAerre.d

45

Make individual dictionaries. Hove prima);and elementary students compile picture dic,tionaries. Secondary students' dictionariescan vary in sophistication, dependine on theskill levels of the students.

Complete crossword purgles. Use teacher,made crosswords to Wes* particular vocah=Wary, Assign Enghsh-speeking studems tuwork independently Of in groups to createoriginal crossword punks to t04: as a MItutorine activity,

Selecting Methods forTeaching Reading Skills

The suggestions in the previous section idea*techniques that can be adapted to any age groupor subject matter area, in order to provide indi-vidualized instruction for LEP students in ele-mentary and content area classrooms. This sectiondeals specifically with reading. Historically, el-ementary teachers have taught reading and lan-guage skills as part of the daily curriculum. Eng-lish teachers in secondary schools have refinedand extended language skills. But secondaryteachers of math, history, chemistry, or other con-tent areas have not felt responsible for provifiinginstruction in reading ar 'he language arday, standardized test t s and commtnits n

college instructors and employers te40. 'heneed for continual and improved languagtion. As a result, all teachers, especially thos.have LEP students in their classrooms, must teachlanguage concurrently with content.

Methods for teaching reading and other lan-guage skills abound. Some are appropriate for theelementary level, some can be used at the sec-ondary level, and some are appropriate for usewith illiterate students. As you review each methoddescribed below, consider how you might use itwith your LEP students and your native English-speakers as well.

The Language Experience Approach toReading (L.E.A.)

This approach to reading was devised to tap thewealth of oral language the average native-lan-

4 6

otiose sis,year-old firings to hiszlier initial schoolestierietwe liii espot;i414 44401 sidi illiterateLEP students who hoe doeloped tiote sight so=coholory and with students in roily vothitg b4at4s,Its components afe

the stilt tilos.

the model;

t:opying arid illuotiong the story;

collecting the stories in a -hook" which be,comes the student's ' rint re

the word.bank;

onginal Writ*

The seinsilas is used tor MOttifitti011. OW maybe aft interesting picture, a toy of some ion, asouvenir from a vacation trip fe,g,, cowboy hat,coral. shell, rock, etc. or 4,11 important eventanything which might prove stimulating for yourparticular students,

Develop the model story from the stimulus. Theteacher helps students create sentences about thepicture. object. or event (1-3 sentences but no from,at first) on large chart paper that has been tapedto the board. For exampk. if the stimulus was atoy truck, the written story might be as follows:

The Toy Trot*The toy truck is red.It has four wheels.

Note the vocabulary is controlkd and the sea-tente structures are varied. The teacher reads thewhole story aloud once or twice, gliding a fingeror pointer in a left-to-right progression under eachword during the reading. The next step is to havethe student "echo" the stoxy, first one line at atime, then two or three lines together.

The next step is copying and illusvating thestory. The student copies the story on regular-sizedpaper. The teacher monitors this activity closelyto make certain that letters are formed correctlyand that students use a left-to-right progression.Once the story is copied. the student illustrates it.The illustration aids the student in identifying andrecalling the story content.

When enough stories have been collected, theymake a "book." The "book" becomes the stu-dent's first reader. It does not go home until the

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student can read all of the stories in the bookfluently.

Each story can be used to teach the languagearts skills applicable to the individual student'sneeds; for example, capitalization of title, capi-talization of the first word in a sentence, wordorder, sentence structure, punctuation, and para-graph indentation.

The word-bank is an integral part of L.E.A.and is a way to build a large sight vocabulary.The student develops a word-bank by copying thewords from an experience story onto individualword slips (lined composition paper cut into auniform size), and storing them in a large enve-lope, labeled with the student's name.

During the first weeks of instruction, the studentshould "clear" his/her word-bank daily; he/sheshould identify each word in isolation. If the stu-dent cannot remember a word, he/she is asked torefer to the word in context. When a word hasbeen learned, it may be removed from the word-bank. The word-bank vocabulary can be used toteach alphabetizing, matching words with similarphonic elements, building new sentences, parts ofspeech, etc.

Students can begin to create their own stories.One way to do this is to have the student tell astory on tape, and then transcribe the story withthe student. Peer tutors or older students can help.Original stories can be collected into a book ofreadings.

Assisted Reading (NeurologicalImpress)

Assisted reading is a one-to-one activity wherethe teacher or a good student reader reads withnormal speed and intonation to the LEP student.This is an especially good activity for developingauditory awareness of the rhythm, pitch, andphrasing of English. It can also be used to developleft-to-right progression.

Initially, the teacher guides the student's fingerunder the line of print while the story is read orally.Eventually, the teacher and student read in unisonwhile continuing the finger movement under theprinted word.

It is important to choose reading materials ap-propriate to the student's age level and vocabulary.

For example, if the student has limited vocabulary,reading material with ood illustrations and lessprint would be more suitable than a page full oftext.

For elementary sch ul children, reading ses-sions should be relati'vely short in duration, nomore than 15 minutes, and the teacher should bealert to signs of disinterest.

D.R.T.A. the Directed-Reading-Thinking ActivPy

This method for teaching at the elementary levelshould be started ont.e the LEP student is placedin an appropriate t.asi te;. This technique hasthree main steps: p. lad, and prove.

The teacher asks the 7'u,Jents to open their read-ers to a specific story, read the title (get the mainidea), and look at the picture clues offered on thetitle page. The teacher asks the students to usethese clues to predict what the story will be about.Next, the students read a given portion of the storysilently and are asked if they want to change theirprediction. They have to substantiate their re-sponses by reading orally the portion of the storythat applies. The teacher's role in the D.R.T.A.is to guide the students through the reading ex-perience, asking pertinent questions. The student'srole is to substantiate answers by locating infor-mation in the text and reading it orally.. If thestudent does not know a word, he/she is asked toread to the end of the sentence to try and determinethe meaning from the context. The D.R.T.A.teaches students to read for meaning, provides apurpose for oral reading, and encourages consid-erable group interaction.

Once the student feels comfortable with theD.R.T.A., the teacher may individualize the ac-tivity by allowing the student to select library ma-terial on his/her reading level to augment the basaltext.

Modeling

Modeling, a simple and reliable method forteaching language, is familiar to most LEP stu-dents who come from schools where learning isprimarily teacher-directed and not student-cen-tered. To use the modeling technique, the teacher

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does or says what he/she wants the student to doand say. After listening and watching, the studentimitates the teacher's words and actions. Thismethod requires the teacher to move around anduse a lot of expression so that the students canlearn visually and kinesthetically,, as well as aur-ally. To provide a reading experience, the teachermight show the words on cards while explainingwhat the students should do. Later the teachershows the cards without saying the ;;J:ds and asksstudenis to do what the cards say. Any area ofcontent is appropriate ft.. this type of drill.

The Whole Word Approach

This approach to teaching reading is especiallyeffective with illiterate students. This approachbegins with aural/oral activities as follows:

Introduce a full paragraph or story. Read italouu and discuss its meaning.

Introduce no more than five new words inthe lesscn; then focus on one word at a time.

Be sure that every vocabulary item is pre-sented with a visual aid, such as an objector pictures.

Introduce vocabulary items in context or incohesive relationships. For example: "pen-cil, eraser, paper;" "hat, gloves, coat;""spoon, fork, knife."

Include many physical and manipulative ac-tivities with realia and pictures to reinforceeach word. For example, provide a word,then have students pick out a correspondingpicture and hold it up or tack it onto the board.

Present a picture or situation that places vo-cabulary words in a larger context. For ex-ample, to teach the word nose, show a pictureof the whole body.

Review all previous items before introducingnew material.

Check for aural comprehension. For exam-ple, hold up a picture or object and name theitem either correctly or incorrectly; have stu-dents respond by holding up one finger for"yes," two fingers for "no."

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Check for a student's ability to produce aword orally when given visual stimuli.

Give students experiences with classification/categorization activities. For example, havestudents eliminate a picture or object thatdoes not belong in a group; when given twoor more domains, have students appropriatelyclassify up to five items.

itroductory activities should be completedntroducing the written form of the word.

Include some of these reading and writing activ-ities:

Present the written form of the word simul-taneously with the picture or object. (Be sureto select words with obviously different writ-ten configurations.)

Display labeled pictures or objects.

Direct students to match the label by super-imposing the word configuration on the label.

coat -- .ONE.

Have students form the written word with3-dimensional alphabet letters and a model(individual flashcards).

Include some of the following activities:

Trace words in sand or salt.

Form letters with pipe cleaners or clay.

Trace with finger on the desk.

Trace with wrong end of pencil.

Cut out sandpaper letters and mount oncardboard; then make rubbings from sand-paper words.

Cut up word cards to make word puzzles.

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Direct students to first trace 1 then copyon lined paper each word at least five times.

Give individual students different word cards.Then provide simple oral directions. For ex-ample: "Stand up/raise your hand/sit on thefloor, if you have the word shoe."

Display a chart with selected vocabularywords. Give students oral directions to circle/check/underline/cross out/put a box arounda given word.

Check for word recognition by having stu-dents select the correct word card to label apicture.

Check for visual memory by flashing a wordcard for three seconds. Then ask students towrite the word from memory.

Have students write words when they arepresented orally.

Have students write the word when given avisual stimulus.

Have students write simple sentences whengiven a visual stimulus. For example: "Thedog is big." "The jacket is blue."

Controlled Reading

Ccntrolled reading provides repetitive practicewith written materials. The paragraph and stepsthat follow illustrate this technique.Christopher Columbus was born in Italy in 1446.He wanted to be a sailor. He learned to makemaps. It was a long voyage. Columbus sailed tothe New World. He reached an island near thecoast of America in 1492.

Follow thesetechnique:

steps to use the controlled reading

Present vocabulary (underlined words).

Read entire paragraph.

Read paragraph sentence by sentence and askcomprehension questions.

Have class read sentence by sentence afterthe teacher.

Have individuals read sentences.

Have class read whole paragraph.

Seiect one or more of these closure activities:

Have students write the paragraph frommemory.

Have individuals write sentences on theboard.

Give the paragraph as a dictation exercise.

For more informkfion about methods of teachingreading to preliterate, literate, and illiterate stu-dents, consult the article, "Reading Instructionfor Language Minority Students" in Schoolingand Language Minority Students: A TheoreticalFramework. (See Resource Book page 85.) Alsosee Eleanor W. Thonis' Teaching Reading to Non-English Speakers (Resource Book page 85).

Summary

Teachers of LEP students must adapt their in-struction and materials to meet the needs of LEPstudents. In so doing, they are encouraged to givespecial emphasis to language learning by provid-ing numerous opportunities for listening, speak-ing, reading, and writing. InstrtEtion should en-gage all of the LEP student's senses while providingfor ample practice and repetition. Language shouldbe taught in the context- of meaningful units ofspeech (as opposed to teaching sounds in isolation)in a relaxed atmosphere where trial and error willnot result in embarrassing the student. At all timesthe teacher should be sensitive to cultural or valuedifferences among LEP students that affect theirresponses to materials or instrucfional practices.Finally, lessons should always include feedbackso that students can monitor progress and improvetheir skills.

Lessons developed for LEP students should in-clude clear statements of goals and objectives, butallow for simplifying expected outcomes so thatgoals and objectives are realistic and attainable.Teachers must take care to locate words and con-cepts that might be difficult for or new to LEP

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students and provide special instruction in thesewords and concepts. Where commercial materialsare used, lower grade level or adult basic educationmaterisls may be the best choice. Additionally,the teacher may need to prepare simplified readingmaterials and workbook activities as a means ofproviding extensive reinforcement with every les-son.

In teaching language, all teachers teach readingto some extent. Several reading methods are avail-able and, like general instructional methods forLEP students, the reading methods of choice pro-vide thorough and direct instruction, ample prac-

50

tice, repetition, contextual teaching, immediatefeedback, and involvement of all senses.

For further information on adapting instructionand materials for LEP students, refer to the fol-lowing sections in the Resource Book:

Teaching Strategies for Working With LEPStudents, (pages 77-86);

Developing Goals and Objectives for LEPStudents, (pages 63-64); and

Establishing Your Resource Center, (pages87-89).

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Academic vs. conversational language, 27-28

Age factor in second language acquisition, 23

Assessment, content knowledge, 19-20

Assessment, language skills, 17-19

Assessment, purpose of,assessing content knowledge, 19assessing language skills, 17determining level of proficiency, 19determining when student is no longer LEP,

20-21identifying learning problems, 21identifying LEP popu:ation, 15measuring student progress, 20placing students in grade, 15-16placing students in program, 16

Assisted reading activity, 47

Benefits of teaching LEP studentF. 4

Chamot, Anna, 23

Cloze tests, 8, 17-18, 45

Commercial materials, selecting, 44-45

Common concerns, 3

Communicationguidelines, 35-36modeling, 35, 47-48

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Index

Controlled reading ctivity, 49

Cultural differencescross-cultural understanding, 36-37extending knowledge of other cultures, 13-14misunderstandings, 11-12previous educational experiences, effects of,

10-11view of American students, 11

Cummins, James, 16, 20, 28

Curriculumassessment of student progress, 20, 28cross -;ultural understanding, 36-37general guidelines for adapting instruction,

40-42identifying goals and objectives,.42

Directed reading-thinking activity, 47

Disciplineclassroom management, 34encouraging/discouraging behavior 12-13strategies, 34

Educational differences, 10-14

Environment, classroom, 31-33

Goals and objectives, 42-43

Grouping, 15-16, 34-35

Identifying LEP population, 1551

Illiterate LEP studentsmethods for teaching reading to, 46-47, 48-

49

Illiteracy in first language, 6, 7, 16, 46, 48, 49

Informal Reading Inventory, 17

Interview, for assessment purpose, 15, 17

Instructioneffects on LEP students, 4-5general guidelines for adapting, 40-42grouping, 34-35identifying goals and objectives, 42-43materials development, 44-45new concepts and vocabulary, 43-44selecting commercial materials, 44steps in adapting, overview, 40teaching reading skills, 46-49

Jonz, Jon, 19

Language experience approach, 46-47

Language learning strategies, 25-26

Learning problems, identifying, 21

Management, classroom, 34

Materials developmentgeneral guidelines, 45reinforcement activities, 45-46simplified reading materials, 45

Methodologycommunicating with LEP students, 35-36general guidelines, 40-42teaching reading skills, 46-49tips for elementary teachers, 5, 6-7tips for secondary teachers, 5, 7-8

Modeling method, 47-48

Native language proficiency, importance of, 16,20-21, 23

01 ler, John, 18

Orientation to school environment, 30-31

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Peer tutors, 35, 44

Placement, 15-16, 34-35

Proficiency levels of English, 19, 44

Readability test, 18

Reading skills, teaching methodsassisted reading, 47controlled reading, 49directed reading-thinking activity, 47guidelines for developing simplified reading,

44-45language experience approach, 46-47modeling, 47-48readability test, 18whole word approach, 48-49

Reinforcement activities, 45-46

Second language acquisitionacademic vs. conversational language, 20,

27-28age factor, 23native language proficiency, importance of,

16, 20-21, 23personal experience, 22similarities and differences to first language

acquisition, 23-24social and affective factors, 27structure, 27styles of English, 27through conversation, 24-26understand and pronounce, 27vocabulary, 27

Self-assessmentsclassroom management, 34common concerns, 3-4lessons and materials, 39students, 9-10

Social and affective factors in languagelearning, 27

Starter kit, 5-8

Ventriglia, Linda, 24

Whole word approach, 48-49

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