DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 247 920 IR 011 270

TITLE Development Communication Report. No. 46, Summer1984.

INSTITUTION Agency for International Development (Dept. ofState), Washington, D.C. Clearinghouse on DevelopmentCommunication.

PUB DATE 84NOTE 15p.PUB TYPE Collected Works Serials (022) Viewpoints (120)

Reports - Descriptive (141)JOURNAL CIT Development Communication Report; n46 Sum 1984

EDRS PRICE MF01/DC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Agriculture; *Communications; *Developing Nations;

Foreign Countries; Health Services; *InformationSources; Literacy; Microcomputers; Microfiche;*Technological Advancement; *Technology Transfer

IDENTIFIERS *Development Communication; Peru; Sierra Leone

ABSTRACTA variety of articles address the use of

communications in development, including (1) "Policy Considerationsin Global Telecommunications" (Sandra Lauffer); (2) "SharingInformation for Rehabilitation in the Third World" (M. Miles); (3)"Growing More Rice in Sierra Leone: Baseline Survey Guides MediaCampaign" (Gary O. Coldevin); (4) "The A.T. (Appropriate Technology)Microfiche Reference Library: Information When You Need It" (KenDarrow and Michael Saxenian); (5) "Literacy Work in Peru" (GaryColdevin); and (6) "Microcomputers and Health Improvement inDeveloping Countries" (Aziz El Khoiy and Salah H. Mandil). BarbaraMinor reviews five recent documents available through ERIC, and fourbooks on development communications topics are reviewed in "ACommunications Checklist." Announcements are included on UNESCO'sneed for instructional materials on nutrition, a free developmentcommunications catalog, a scriptwriting contest, and a 1984 summerseminar on new technologies. In "Radio Coverage Statistics," WilmaLynn summarizes research findings on the number of broadcastingstations and receivers in less-developed countries around tbe world.( LINN )

*-***************************************************************4.******Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.**********************************************************************t

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41,

developmentcommunicationreport

Policy Considerationsin Global Telecommunications

cpmiby Sandra Lauffer

,011111

Telecommunication and infor-mation technologies have beensteadily accumulating over re-cent years an unprecedented

=and to some extent unanticipatedpolitical

utind economic status in countries all over theorld. This heightened status is due at leastin part to the introduction of new technolo-gies that are changing the contours of thetelecommunication and information land-scape, blurring distinctions and erasingboundaries that have neatly separated thefields for years.

A major question to be addtessed in map-ping the future is whether the dvonced com-munication and information technologiescan provide the impetus to development thatis so desperately needed in so many coun-tries. Can these technologies, if carefullyplanned and applied, help countries to accel-erate the development process to any signifi-cant degree? Or will they instead be detri-mental to national development when all ofthe implications are taken into consideration? For example, many of the new te,:hnolo-gies require fewer workers than traditional sys-tems, albeit those few must be highly skilled.Will this mean fewer john? Will it mean dif-ferent levels of jobs with vastly differenttraining requirements? Will it mean that theicarce supply of trained manpower can bespread more widely over other sectors, even-tually advancing the whole society to anotherlevel of development? The answers are notyet clear, but they are being pursued on anumber of' fronts and need to be taken intoaccount in the planning proLess as theyemerge.

The Changing Technologies

tt is generally acknowledged that the mostprominent characteristic of the new technol-ogies is digitalization, which essentially pro-vides a single language for handling all infor-mation, whether that information he voice,data, or graphics. As a result of digitaliza-tion, transmission media arc expanding in

both capacity and speed; voice, data, telex,and facsimile can all be integrated to travel ina uniform format. Data processing and mes-sage carrying are thus increasingly becomingintertwined and even virtually the same pi oc-ess. The computer and telecommunicationsindusnies are converging, and the competi-tion within and between these traditional in-dustries is intense and obvious, particularlyin the industrialized nations.

Another area where radical change can beanticipated is optical fiber technology, whichholds promise to be more competitive withsatellites than today's analog cables. Opticalfiber cables should prove to be highly eco-nomical for certain kinds of transmissionsand network configurations; one network isplanned for the North American/WesternEuropean route before the end of this cen-tury. Optical fibers are high-purity glass,each strand thinner than a human hair. 'Iwostrands can carry 2,000 telephone calls. Op-tical fibers also make it possible for telephonecables to carry broadband video signals. Op-tical fiber technology may he significant fordeveloping countries for several reasons: thefibers can he installed in narrower ducts than

(e.mtinued on page 2)

In this issue . . .Policy and Planning Issues in

Global Telecommunications 1Information Resources for Rehabil-

itation in the Third WorldBaseline Survey Informs

Media CampaignOn File at ERICStatistics: Radio Covetar.: in Less- '

Developed CountriesA Communicator's ChecklistAppropriate Technology Library

Available on Microfiche 12Micros and Health Management in

Dev,rloping Countries 16

2)1(-1 Strpot N

Stimmor l'404No -1t,

SharingInformation forRehabilitation in theThird Worldby M. Miles

People with disabilities in therural Third World ,nay be char-acterized as an economicallyweak and largely voiceless op-

pressed minority numberihg up to 300 mil-lion. Since the early 1970s there have been afew stirrings of interest in their situation, butthe difficulties of reaching and programmingfor this neglected section of the world's pop-ulation were io great, and the perceivedpriorities so low, that little work was done.Whatever was done was not replicated oreven communicated very widely.

The International Year of the Child (IYC)(1979) and the International Year of DisabledPersons (IYDP) (1981) turned the world's at-tention to the needs, and soon aid agencieswere hunting for suitable projects to fund.The major shortages revealed in the searchhave been of practical information and oftrained e'xpe'rie'nce'd personnel, Some prog-ress has been made in the past five years to-wards meeting these deficiencies, and it isworthwhile to attempt a sketch of rehabilita-tion in the Third World front the point ofview of information and know-how.

During the past 1(X) years there has been anexponential increase in the art and science ofrehabilitating people with disabilities, ineconomically developed countries. In thepast 15 years this body of knowledge, whichhad largely been the preserve of medical andeducational professionals, has increasinglybeen made public t nrough the efforts of dis-abled persons themselves awl families withdisabled members who wished to engage inhome, self-help rehabilitative action. At thesame time, and by interaction with this publicdissemination of knowledge, there has been areve lotion in aims and objectives of rehabili-tation and of attitudes towards disabled per-sons. In the past five yea' , there have beenmoves to export and adapt this knowledgeand experience to the more developed parts

continued on page 6)

a

A publication of the Clearinghouse on Development CommunicationSupported by the Bureau for Science and Technology of the U.S. Agency for International Development

2(ieecommunicatiot- cOnt 'd from page I)

previous cables: the tre i uuune to most intertererice; and calls travel further, in con'trast to other terrestrial systems, before thesignal nceds boosting, thus fewer repeatersare required. Because there is vet little xpc-rience with fiber optic technology itt tropicalenvironments, little is known about the ct-t'ects ut beat, humidity, and other tropicalcondit ions on the t cchnr ilugy

Poic Impileations

l'hc implications of such changes are e-tet1sIe for both deelopcd and developingcountne lor earnple, the use of micro-processors as universal components in indtis-trial processes results in increased productivi-is potential that can affect virtually all areasof ecnonnc act vitv. Micropweessors areprogrammed to be self-monitoring, self-ad -just ing, and self-diagnosing, thus they canprovide aut otnat k detection of breakdownsand damage. It therefore becomes more feas-ible. for eatnpk', to build iruni -factories intural areas, as thes do not require a hugecot ps of' highis skilled technicians to operatethem.

l-iosvever, the use of advanced informationtechnologies rcqui I CS e\cCpt tonall goodplanning; although such technologies getterally save capital outlay pet unit of output,they generally increase capital outlay persor.er etnpioytai. Inter national managementspecialist Juan F. Rada conjectures that,because ''the sa% ing of capital is a crucial fac-

tor tot the Fbi n d World, the tech noiogvcould be used hcnef.ciall proeithng i/wi theap/;/,cutiwr &oinj'I;e wit/i u well thou'ht-uiiip/wi ainu'J at /af/ifhn.,' i/u' ,u'eils ff i/u' ma-

(1/ the çpuiaIa./t (en t ph asi s ad dd I.Major disecnoriires may r esuit , liossever, if1w new in format ion echnologies at c intro -

d iecd randomly, ss it Ii mad equate at tent ionto sssteniatnc and L'o ererit nainOlial policies

ieehnokgieat Ucpendency

It is important to consider the impact ofthe rtc technologies on ho gap bet veeti theiL'h and poor count i ics. While mk'r och ps

nias increase hid fist rial productivity, theaiso alter production processes atd productshs hi ft rnz ntecharmkal elect run a-clnan cal,

and elecir U! uflhi ot proccsscs into rntcrr>processors. i'eehnologs transfer to less advanced coutitries thus becomes a more corn-pies process; or k ers cart riot u niders md and

deal ss it h iii icruch ps in their most undamental level. :\dapiat ion and maintenance ofthe microchip tinny ell stay in the domain ofhe titan in tact urer 1 ccli riological inter de

pendency may be increasing, hut cont tOi willreside where the functions of the utierochiparc understood.

I ncrcasi rigl y, advanced contirnu ni icat ionand in formation technologies are purchased,rather thun transferred; the information pro-cessing field abounds with "black boxes"

I

1 urn key projects,'' which tend to limite use of domestically produced equipment

arid move the purchasing countries awayfrom manufacturing their own componentsor into manufacturing only supporting corn-potien ts.

The new technologies also hold sgriificaitnimplications for the labo f'orce in all coun-tries. Whereas developing countries may haea relative advantage in production processesbecause their labor costs are low, that advantrage can diminish as industrialtied countriesbecome more able to lower their own laborcosts by using robots and other advancedproduction aids. l)evelopig count ries thusneed to anticipate these and other impacts ofmicroelectronics, possibly focusing their ct-forts on usitig advanced inf'crmariori process-'s to process their raw materials in order tornaintan a competitive poSition in the globalmarketplace. In terms of t'iucat ioTual plan-ning, it is important to begin now to train thelabor force that will be charged ss ith imple-ment UIg the new technologies.

I he less developed counrric ate becomingalert to the dangers of dependenc iii tInesoft ware area. t)eveiopirig countries are r clv-mg on industrialiied countries to a high de-gree for data processing, research, and desitritutict ions. Not only does 111 iS 11105 e themaway t'roni achieving their own res'arch anddevelopment crpahilities, it also makes them'. ulncrahk to the risk ot losing legitimate access to vital in for mat ion t hrough the select is crelease of data, And it is a it ernentious drainon hard currency i esoun ces.

Imported or atronti lechnolog'.

i)es eloping count ties arc faced ss it h aseries of cornples and oft en con tiret ug protlenis assnehaled with impo: trig new lchnolOgICS, while at the Smile t uric supporting t reproduction of t heit own echnolot' limitedecoflunitic lesoul ces tend to I aor importedtechnology, which has already been testedand which has had its des ctoment costsspread over the large e 151mg mimi kets in theindustrial iicd cmiii tries.

I Iarroldo ('urn en tie Mattos of Brai 1 hasout Ii tied the process of developing tint ionnaltechnological capacity, which he sees as oc -cur ring in tour distinct phases. The first is itphase of technological rbsorp ncn . hi ss huchthe user is exposed to the t'quipmettt , nit airsa degree of fannuliarit y with its part', arid cornportents, and learns to opeint c anti nun in tart iit, In t hi' second phase, the ads cut of iriLlusU uahi,ation, the user begins to explore andcouit rol t h technical char'cternst ics of theeq unpntent . 1 he third phase is I hi' hegi nnnnnnof des elopnnent , with efforts to urn or alt ICthe technology by substituting n it innrti coatponents for imported out's. 'Ihe f'ourt Ii is theresearch phase, wherenn ''the espert begins todicelop his scientific skills nd creates adequate conditions to achieve the technologicalindependence of his country '' The Rraiiiian

strategy for encouraging the development ofnat;Onal industrial development has includedgiving local manufacturers longer deliveryterms, more favorable payment conditionsarid ordem guarantees. and limiting the rise ofcompetition thtough p ides such r's importrestrictions.

Benefits ot the Ne'.'. Tcvtrnoiogies

Ihe benefits that will accrue ft urn the newtechniologie.s are significant. Adv;u'cd infor'matuon technologies pave the way toward un-proved accuracy, reliability, and timeliness ofstatistical ifl format ion, which mak's it moresal uahk' for decision niak i rig and pIanniri.Such technologies also serve to teduce thetime lag between events and their evaluation,increasing the potent ml for more relevant de-e.siOtis, policy design, and understanding ofteal feedback and reward processes. Agricul-tural marketing is an example of a scetoralapplication that cani heticf'it suhst ant iallyfrom advanced information processing anddiscmination capahm ities - or example, theinstallation of a satellite cart It stat jun on anAlaskan island enabled the local fish packingp1 art t t get current t iii formation omi demandand prices in the East ('mist seafood mat kctand t herebv to rid tm sI tt s cijtch Advancedtechnologies ma also help to optimiie the al-location and use of nesouncts by tracking in-dustnal processes tnoie et tecitelv.

('ountries might also consider the positiveimpact of telecoriimunicarion-coinptiter link-

ages on labor to ice deseloprtienut and job crc-

atiort. lot exanriple', corporations in thcnit cii States are hegmninr to see t hiC

ecomiornic advantage of havtng such func-tions as won ti processing and nt :ii Ii ng listnmaritlenanice per tot niied h ss or ket s in court -

tries where abor costs an' not as hrgh,capital i/tug urn the ri sung quality and d-ct easi hg cost of the nntt erntat ortal telephonesyst ciii to liii k tIne iii to that dust ant workforce. Ibis has a parallel negative curnise-q uenee, in that it corn r ibuf es to u nenriploy-inert in t lie Un it id St rites -

'I here art' also positive cost t niplicat ions as-suciatt'd with the ness digital techtiolcgcs.I hl ss st ems art' estimated to he 21) timesriot e reliable t ftutni elect ronnechartica! sss-

n'tns; they akc less space and less time to ittstall, base lower open at itt g aid maintenancecosts, arid off ci a Ii igher quniT its of er vice.t"ut tImer, sst cnn e'ipanisionm Co accommodatemew eustonli'; s and sen-S ices cart be modularrind his inns 1101 require a i edesign of' thesysi cnn

lt'kconlniunieatu)ns anit t)&'%ek)pflleflt

I he gross trig stat us u teicconumunicat nuns1ntct mat nonmalls is also it I ribut able to it grossirir recognition itt the nmportance &sI teleconit-rrtunnicnilion 'o all aspects of a tint on's tic-S COPtItCOt -to Irgi Rult ure, t'ducat ion, It ai'is-

portan ion, lit-alt h care, rimrnr 1/urban in ign a-(emit inued on page ii)

I-

Growing More Rice in Sierra Leone:Baseline Survey Guides Media Campaign

by Gary 0. Coidevin

Sierra Leone, like the majorityOf West African nations, is pri-marily agriculturally oriented.Approximately 75 percent of its

3.9 million people live in the countryside. Butwhile farming accounts for 30 percent of the(lross Domestic. .!)roduct, most of it is stillbased on shifting cultivation. Small farmsaverage about three acres per unit, and farm-ers use traditional implements and slash andburn methods. As a result, the growth of thiseconomic sector has been slow, averatingonly about 1.5 percent per annum sine,. inde-pendence in 1961. Population increases

currently estimated at 2.6 percent- -harebeen greater, so that by 1974 the demand forfood hart outstripped national production.

Rice is the staple crop in Sierra Leone andprovides for 80 percent of the total food eon-sumpticee The current annual rice produc-taai is estimated at over 300,0(X) milled tons.About 380.0(X) tons are required to adequate-ly feed the nation, leaving a deficit of about80,4)0 tons which have to be imported andpaid for with foreign exchange. If SierraLeone were self-sufficient in rice production,the funds now used for importing rice couldhe used to generate an export marketeconomy.

With this background in view, the governmerit of Sierra Leone has made increasedyields, increased acreages, and more produc-tive rice farming key development priorities.About 60 percent of the csirrent rice produc-tion is through the ao called "upland"farms, but the area for expansion of thisecology is limited. Lxperts from the UnitedNations Food and Agriculture Orgarmotion(FAO) suggest that to expect even a ;0 percent increase over current levels from thissource is optimistic. The inure immediate so-lution lies in expanding and improvinaswamp land rice farming. Current catimatesindicate that of the 1.7 million ac. as ofswamp land potentially available for develop.ment, only 13 percent are in use. Thus thearea available for expansion is considerable.Equally important, the yield from an acre ofswamp land is six times that which one couldexpect from an acre of an upland farm.Ministry of Agriculture officials suggest thatup to one third of the nation's total ricerequiraments could be grown on s aamplands. Their primary problem is one c edu-cating the farming community about this po-tential resource and providing informationand training about appropriate farmingmethods and high-yield seed varieties, This isnot an easy task, given the existing communi-cations infrastructure and estimated 95 per-

cent illiteracy rate of the nation's 300,((X)mall farmers.While agricultthat extension agents a, e

often an effective way to ru onion: agr icy'.tura; innovations to far: .. they have riotbeen particularly suecesst. -;ie-ra Leone-,because of the low agent-to-farmer ratio.Currently, about one extension agent is avail-able for every 500 farmers, volereas a ratio of1:250 is recommended. In addition, transpor-tation facilities are lacking and print inforration is poorly distributed amoiig theagents. Dicect action among the farmingcommunity has been haphazard as a result.

Radio is receiving increasing attention assupport for extension services. There are anestimated 2f,3,000 radios in the country, orone receiver for every 15 people. Radios po-!ential access to adult farmers is thusreasonably high, and with its ability to slicethrough problems associated with illiteracy,radio is perceived as the only effective way toreach the rural community on a nationallevel.6 6 Radio is perceived as the

only effective way to reach therural community on a nationallevel..."Radio broadcasting began in the mid-50s

when Britain established a radio studio and10 kw. medium wave transmitter in Free-.town, the capital city. This service waslimited to the southern portion of the collo.try. With the construction of a 250 kw. short-wave transmitter in 1973, radio coverage wasassured on a national level, although recur-ring problems with fuel supplies to operatethe facility have precluded a reliable trans-mission schedule.

Agricultural RadioRegular agricultural broadcasting began in

1976 with the creation of the Publicity Unitof the Ministry of Agriculture. Its initial ob-jeca ,'es were to explain the aims of g wern-mem policy to farmers and to provide .rileinformation on farming methods. More re-cently, in 1982, it was renamed the Agricul-ture Communication Unit and given a revisedmandate: to support extension services andkey agricultural development sectors.

The basic radio production format consistsof four 15eninute programs per week.Broadcast under the banner of "FarmingMagaaine" at 7:30 pm from Tuesday throughFriday, each of the four main ranguagegroups in the country occupies a particularevening. Interviews and other material suchus market reports are interspersed vdthpopular music and assembled for transmis-sion simultaneously on the medium- and

4WK. 1!

short-wave services. A "one message per in-terview'' format is common. Topics are re-gionally based and planned around seasona:activities and current information needs.

The Unit alto produces posters, pam-phlets, and slide-cassette programs, whichprior to the current campaign were mainlyused at agriculture fairs.

FAO AssistanceWhen the Communication Unit was cre-

ated it was severely hampered by its lack oftranu-ci production staff, audiovisual equip-ment, end raw film stock. Transportation fa-rilitic virtually nonexistent. On the pos-itive acie, the Ministry provided for addi-tional staff to establish communication sec-tions in the seven administrative regions ofthe country. Their role would be to produceaudio segments for radio broadcasts and toorganize extension communication supportservicea such as cassette listening groups andslide-tape presentations.

The FAO was approached in this contextfor technical and training assistance. Produc-tion equipment and supplies were purchasedto strengthen the audio and ph Itographicsections, and a Land Rover was supplied forthe Unit's exclusive use. External consultantswere brought in to conduct six-week work-shops in rural radio and slide-tape produc-tion.

The FAO's third innovation was to recruita media evaluation consultant to assist theUnit in deterMning baseline levels offarmers' knowledge and practice of, and atti-tudes toward, key agriculture developmentpriorities. The Unit would subsequently pro-duce materials tot a multi-media campaignba,ed upon the recommendations of thesurvey The campaign would last betweentwo and three months, after wlaah anothersurvey would lo taken to asses impact.

rue Baseline Survey

The FAO evaluation consultant arrived inSierra Leone to begin the six-week i.iission inDecember 1983. Initial discussions with theCommunication Unit centered on the topicor topics to be included in the baseline surveyand information campaign. Two importantdecisions were made: 1) The survey should becentered on ant' priority area of develop-ment, and 2) the information campaignshould spearhead a drive which could be re-inforced primarily by extension workers, butwould also in:lude regional agricultural of-ficers and a variety of organizations with cen-tral theme projects (U.N. Agencies, thePeace Corps, Integrated Agricultural De-velopment Projects, the Seed MultiplicationProject, etc.). Folloadng the rationale out-lined earlier, planner:, made expanding andimproving swamp rice production a majordevelopment priority, and that activity there-fore became the immediate focus of the in-quiry.

(continued on page 4)

3

4(Swamp Rice continued from page 3)

Fhe basic parameter for selecting the sam-ple was tha respondents should be heads ofhousehold :aid either involved in, or having,high ilotentral access to, swamp rice fanning.We then set about a stratified sampling whichwould "yield subjects in three stages of swampfarm development : f I rally Developed (goodirrigation structures, drainage, And watercontrol), 2) Partial to Sem/ De veioaed (rangMa from cleared areas for planting to sonicir7igation structures and drainage), and ?)

'fide$'eloped or Traditional (no irrigationiructures, no drainage, seeding mainly byroadcasting, or scattering seed about),

also included a group of uniquely uplandfarmers in the Traditional group, farmerswho had ready access to undevelopedswamps should they choose to farm 'hem.The main focus of the information campaign'.would be directed toward the Semi-Dcveloped and Undeveloped categories withthe Fully Developed stratum serving as a cri-tenon or reference group.

The initial target sample was set at aminimum of 25 subjects- -chosen a, random.in each stratum for each of four districts(minimum of 75 for each district, 300 overall)to represent a good cross-section of the coun-_tra/ at various levels of swamp developmen..Final sampling tallies were 121 subjects (34percent) in each of the Fully Developed andUndeveloped categories and 114 (32 percent)in the Semi-Developed group. Fifty-twouniquely upland farmers were inaluded in theUndeveloped category. In addition, we in-cluded a control group having no access toswamp farming to test the knowledge and attau& portions of the questionnaire.

The survey instrumeat consisted of six seetions: identification (name, district,location of house or farm); basic dei ogruph.ic data (4,e, sex, religion, marital status,education, literacy levels; type, site, andtenancy of farm); Practices, information lev-els and parcer red information needs; otti ude

and mformution sources.In deciding, how to structure the practices

and it formation levels sections, we compileda listing of the key stages of swamp farmingand ordered it into what w termed "in-dicators of swamp rice development." Sevenindicators were included: Land Preparation,Seed Selection, Nursery Management, Trans-planting, Fertiliser Application, Weed Con-trol. and Flarvestinga With the indicators inplace, the fir Portion of the questionnairesection relevant to each asked the respondentto describe his or her current or projectedpractice. In this manner a score indicating thelevel of recommended practices could becompiled for each individual, with a max-imum score of ten possible.

Next came information questions aboutthe particular indicator which tapped re-spondents' knowledge levels of recom-mended techniques and practices advocated

by the Ministry of Agriculture. 'These ques-tions were generally open-ended but precoded to incorporate the range of correctanswers possible. A total score of $11 waspossible.

Aft et completing the practice and inorma-tion level questions, each subject was askedto enumerate Iris or her perceiva d informa-tion needs about each of the indicators. Therationale employed here was to place the in-dividual in a state of analya,ing his or lief cu.rent practice, then to allow an expressioa atknowledge of "correct" techniques for eachindicator be/Ore being asked about specificinformation needs. lauther, by Hockingpractices, knowledge levels, and informationneeds separately for each indicator, the re-spondent was able to focus clearly on catchissue at hand, which would not have been thecase if all practice questions had been a,.kedtogether, followed by all information te se:questions, and finally all in nee.'s.

Attitude postures were assessed through aten-item attitude .cale treated from the aa::-able literature _ad surveys on positive andnegative features of sw amp rice farming. ALiken-type rating seal.. followed each statemeat, but rather than using the standard fivepoint scale, we opted for a three point re-sponse format, namely, Disagree UndecidedAgree, since we wanted an instrumentwhich would be simple to understand and ad-minister, two important points to considerwhen dealing with a "hard to get at" andbusy gioup of farmers. .A maximum score of3() was assigned for these scales (ma for I)is.agree to three for Agree for positi,e directionstatements).

The section of the instrument as-sessed media exposure levels, kinds of info!--m anon available, levels of contact with ex-tension agents, preferred media and inter-personal sources, and aerceived utility of allavailable sources of agricult ural information.

Radio Producers Conduct Inter'eAs

The instrument was pretested whit tenfarmers at various levels of swamp develop-ment near Freetown. In the actual field ad-ministration, all interviews were conductedby seven radio producers who had attendedthe FAO rural radio pioduction workshopand who were soon to be posted to their re-spective regional headquarters. This processyielded several positive benefits: I) It shar p-ened interviewing skills with regard to askingfocused questions and probing for additionalinformation, techniques which the producerscould transfer to the preparation of radioprograms, 2) it provided an excellent oppor-tunity to meet their potential "FarmingMagazine" audience and to assess felt infor-mation needs first hand, and 3) producersbecame familiar with the agricultural com-munity in the districts where they were to beemployed.

1401-

Results

As expected, Me majority of the samplewas in the 40 plus bracket in term:: of age (74percent) but deviated considerably from na-tional norms in terms of educational back-ground, with 31 percent having attended aformal educational program. As a result, lit-eracy levels were high, with 26 percent beingahle to read and write onglish, the officialnational language. Interestingly, the bulk ofliterate and educated respondents were owners or renters of Fully Developed swampfarms.

Only 24 percent of the total sample had aworking radio in their houses (another 9 per-cent had radios which were not working faecause of the lack of, or high cost of, batter-ies). An additional 55 percent, however, saidthey listened at neighbor s' homes to bring t hecurrent active radio audience to 79 percent.Ninety-seven percent of these indicated most-ly evening listening, with "Farming I'vlaga-rine" occupying almost 9() percent of pro-gram preferences. Many, and especially thosein the north, indicated "occasional" listeningonly, a result of the sporadic s-a-viee availableon short-wave. Uric can assume that the fte-quency of listemoa would r ise in direct proportion to the frequency of broadcastinggiven this overwhelming preference for agri-cultural programs.

The extension agent ranked as the mostpreferred interpersonal source of ill forna-non t79 pereent) and radio as the most prefeared media source (76 percent). When askeuto name the moist useful of all availablesources of information, the rankings were, inorder, extension Nor 'Net (61 percent), ne;gh-bors k 47 pereenta and radio (45 percent)..data Our, support the dominance of interper-sonal so ces in general among tire rural pop-ulation. Radio is surprisingly strong in thiscontext, however. and presumably is rank-ing would he improved further with a morerelia`ole national service.

A predictable pattern was revealed amongthe Mean scores generated for practices ofrecommended swamp rice farming, tech-niques with the Fully Developed farmersscot ing Senu-Deaelop.d 6.76. and Un-developed 2.61An identical trend was riotedin knowledge levels although the averagesacross all three groups and most indicatorswere low (24.4, 19.4, 11.6 respectively out ofa possible score of 83). Notably weak areaswere knowledge and practice of adoption ofnew seed varieties, tr ansplanting seedlings,and the use of fertrliterti. Au it ride scores, onthe other hand, were surprisingly uniformacross all three groups, and with the exaep-lion of three areas (belief that swamp `.arm-ing causes health problems, interferes withtraditional ceremonial rites during the dryseason and that t Lilly developed s vampfarms can be cared for by women anO chil-

(continned on page 14, co). 2)

On File at ERICMcurnents recently entered in the ERI

It(Educational Resources ltifOrmation Centt 1tiles Mclude instructtms fOr making a dusing low-C .st instructional tnaterials, aig,,ort On coopetution among regional comnUill',';"'on talinin inStillI11011.S. (1 paper on,lie rieraatizten: of informarirn manpower,a ciu.icli.st of items required for planning anc-tioPial communication system, and a guideto onparing a computer search for ;Ile ERR'data4ave. .-1111ive a,-e available on microlii 'u..,(mi; OUT in pap', copy from the ERIC' Vocu-meat gproduction Service (1-...DRS1, P.C.:Bo %- 190, Arlington, Virginia 22210, U.S.A.Be sure to include the ED numbtr and pay-ment in U.S .funds to the price listed 21iisslu,ping. One is also available from the pub-lisher.

1. ow ('(,st I.ducational ,Waterials: Howto Make, How to Use, How to Adapt,

Inventory. Volume II. 19t12. 123 pp. (El) 237059)

This guide provides instructions for mak-ing and using 52 low cost indigenous teachingmaterials and deeices developed during a sec-ond series of national workshops held inBangladesh, Indonesia, the Republic ofKorea, Papau New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Thai-land, and the Socialist Republic of Viet Namin 1979 and 1980, and also during the secondSub-Regiobl Workshop on EducationalTechnology held in Dacca ia 1980. Each de-scription lists the subject area, objectives,materials needed, and source. Instruction':tell both how to make the item and how touse in and describe possible modification,where applicable. The items described in-clude handnade maps; models and displays;educational toys and gamer; and science ap-paratus, including a thermoscope, simpleelectroscope, simple micoscope, oanoscope,plastic beaker, bamboo thermoflast, com-mon pump, spring pendulum, and balances.Instructions are generously illustrated withlitre drawings, This guide from Unesco'sAsian Centre for Educational Innovation forDevelopment In Bangkok is available fromEDRS in mi rot'iche for 97C or in paper copyfor $9,15. Volume I of this publication (Et)205 166), which was pablished in 1980, con-tains instructions for 85 products. It is avail-able from EDRS in microfiche only for Wee

I/eating of Lltperi.S On (.0-operationLinton,s; Regional C'ommwucution Train-

ing Institutions. final Report, Paris., Trance,April 19-22, 1983. 1983. 19pp. (ED 237 0671

Cooperation among institutions, ways offacilitating exchanges of specialists and exne.-rience, and the joint development of learningresources were examined in a meeting of lead-

s from 31 regional training institutionsvin all world regions. Part of Unesco's

long-term concern with the training of media

professionals, the meeting opened with apresentation by Antonio Pasquali, DeputyAssistant Director-General for the Commu-nication Sector, who discussed Unesco's pro-fessional training programs. Reports pre-sented by participants in plenary sessionsfocused on specific regional training prob-lems and needs, with eatphasis on the trainerand training methods, curricula, !rainingmaterials, new :echniques, and the treed forgreater regional z.nd inter regional eo.operation. Participants then separated intotwo working groups to In/ululate reeommen-lations concerning cooperatioa .with interna-tional and iegional communicanoit trainingorganizations, staff develapment, curricula,textlatel: and trainia materials, specialistneeds, .tie men in tl.e media, research andevaluation, and clearinghouses and miscel-lance us needs. The 36 consolidated recom-mendations that resulted were adopted by t)1._pateiripants at the final plenary session. Anannex lists participants, observers, organiza-ions of the United Nations System, and riteUnesco Secretariat. This Unesco report isavailable from E. )RS in microfiche only for97C.

Farid, Mona. The Development of in-formation Alunpover Resources. 1982.

16pp, (ED 235 833)This paper examines the training and edu

cation of information manpower in the for-mal educational institutions cf Latin Amerieca, Africa, and the Middle East. The naturecil the information, social, and economic in-frasn uctures to developing countries is alsoexamined, It is suggested that potential infor-mation users must be made aware of its im-portance a, d how to access it; simply makinginformation available doeS not constitute initself a necessary and sufficient condition forits use and the proper utilization of tech-nology. Shortcomings in edireational pro-grams for information manpower are identi-fied as the organizational structure of libraryand information science schools; the well-de-fined lines between disciplines; the shortageof uualified faculty; methods of teaching; thelack of proficiency in the western Europeanlanguages in which much of na. literature iswritten; and the absence of a systems ap-proach methodology. Eight recommenda-tions are presented for improving the educa-tional levet of information specialists in orderto convey the maximum social benefits to de-veloping countries. A 25-item bibliography isincluded. This 16-page paper is availablefrom EDRS in microfiche for 97C or in papercopy for $2.15.

Rah i n , Syed A, Data-Bose for C'om-munic'ation Nanning. The Basic and

Statistical Data Required for the Habcrotionof a Plan for a Nation;:1 Communication vstem. 1978. 28pp. (ED 235 816) and codes, and educational level descriptors.

Barred in part on a list developed by Unesco b (continued page 13, col. 3)

for use in Afghanistan, this guide presents acomprehensive checklist of items of statisticaland descriptive data required for planning enational communication system, it is notedthat such a system provides the vital informa-tion component for the mobilization am?utilization of matter and energy in the proc-ess of development, ana that the system in-cludes postal set vices; telecommueications;radio; television; satellite services! computertelecommunications links and online data-bases; libraries aria documentation centers;the press; books and other publications; rec-ords, cassettes, and videotapes; films and-newies; other audiovisuals; popular clatureevents; organized inter personal communica-tic a; meteorological communication; com-mercial and trade communication; adver-tising; and admiaistrative and security com-munication services. The checklist of infor-mation items required is divided into sixareas; societal values, goals, objectives, andinstitutions; societal context: internationalcontext; communication iastitutional struc-ture; communication technology, resources,and services; and communications future. asstatement on the relevance of each of theseplanning aspects and a discussion of appro-priate sources of the required infornation areprovided. Al: ;o provided is introductor y ma-tHal on the general planning frame'Nork andthe social, economic, technological, and in-ternational coasieerations related to nationalcommunication planning. This 28-page auidefrom the East -West Center, 1Iniversity ofHawaii, is available from EDRS in micro-fiche for 97C or in paper copy for $3.90.

Laubacher, Marilyn R. Now to Pre-iare for a C'ompute'r Search of ER!C"..

Al V(..i-Technical Approach. Revised andUpdated. 1983. 56pp. (ED 237 1(X))

Designed for educators requesting infor-mation from ERIC and for the search inter-mediary who channels their requests to asearch service, this updated guide explai as itsnon-technical language the steps involved inpreparing a computer search for the ERICdatabase. Topics covered include chnice of adatabase and how to determine '.nether amanual or computer search is aapropriate;the definition of the topic to oe searched;ways in which E3.1:.' materials may ne search-ed, including author, tale, descriptorsand/or identifiers (subject index terms), andfree text; using he Thesaurus of ERIC De-scriptors; how descriptors and identifiers areassigned and the aspects of the documentsthat are indexed, such as population de-scribed, format and type of document (re-search report, position paper, teachingituide), and educational lever. Five ap-pendices include lists of the FRiC clearing-houses with contact information, databasesof interest to edu, atorsiublication types

rs0 r ovig

5

(Rehabilitation continued from page 1)of the Third World. The "last frontier" re-maining to be crossed in the next 20 years isthe dissemination of aporopriate knowledge,rehabilitation skill and exiverience to the ruraland less developed areas of the Third World.

Such dissemination as has already taken'lace has provoked sonic anguished reactionfrom rehabilitation professionals who seetheir trade secrets bele: hawked in the meiket elace...od who fear a dilution and over-simplification of their skills. For better orworse the cats are out of the bag, and the task

now is ea raise the level and quality of bothintanmation and ;kills. There is 'to possibilityof returning to the dark ages of "guildmysteries."

Typically, rehabilitation facilities in theThird World have started in big cities eitherwith expatriate staff or with nationals whohave trained in the West. Orientation has in-hails( been towards a high-tech. institutionalapproach, providing a high level of rehabili-tative service to a small numbe of clients atconsidarahl expense. The trent; is ?lox to tryto redirtribt. rehabilitanoi resources .nuehmore widely by toren.. a nationals in theirown country. by including rehabilitationskills in tra professional training of medical,paraneidical, and educational personnel, and

hivine knowledge ',rid skills directly to dis-a -led persons arid ?heir immediate relatives,

Available Reaourees

Among- the classic "How to do it"ma arals are Huckster's Po/roznyeiiroeGuide .for re:.eloping Countries and I..tch-.4er's How to R ,se a Blind CinliP, both writ-ten on the Uasi, of long experience in Africaand Asia. Less widely accessible to the anglo-phone world has been the valuable work ofthe Fr&es Jaecard' in Cameroon ia arra o-priately low-tech, low cost prosthetics andorthotics. rehabilitation experiencedeveloped by Mexican villagers in ProjectPROJI:40, in which the majority of rehabili-tation workers and technicians have them-selves been disabled, is potentially of verygreat importance. If crippled, uneducated,and apparently "useless" villagers ctn earnin the space of a few at anths entiega ta o-vide the rehabilitation service dee-a:Jed byDavid Werner', then a major smution hasbeen found ) the problem of personnel re-

.. There remains the problem of dis-i,thuiim,r the information and developing theappropriate attitudes and confidence.

In the field of mental retardation and de-s lopmental delay, 'several schemes have beendeveloped for use in the West and then edap-ted in less developed :nuntries. The PortageProject', a home -bast e habilitation system

developed for rural area of Wisconsin,USA, has been used in Sparish in mountainvillages of Peru and a number of otherplaces. Adapting the Portage Project for asein the West Indies, as much as possible of the

material was represented pictorially in orderto overcome the literacy barrier." TheHANDS approach to mental retardation inNepal also concentrated on mobilizing per-sons with little or ea education.'

The quantity and complexity of informa-'ion on child development and pro; =minenecessary to overcome it:inning difficultiesshould not be underestimeted. This mistaketeas made in one if the more widely dissem-inated manuals, still in experimeetal draft,Trate:ins; the Disabled in the CoTinideJ..`.Material from the Hester Adrian; Centre'sParent Involvement Poject,- which is heingfield tested in several Asia countries, andthe programs associated wite Chapel Hill's"Learning Assessment Pr ofile" (LAP)"ased for several ',:al's it, i ural towns ofEgypt, together 'pith Porta:. e Project materi-al, go a lung skly owards tilling the gap.

Severe hearing impairment, in)eteeh impedi-ments, cerebral palsy, end multiple Handi-caps are among the more difficult types ofdisability to approach for genera`, advicebroadly disseminated. The rehabilitation ofthe pre linguistically' deaf child should cointeener ay the age of 12 months, whereas inthe rural Third World this disability does notgenerally attract attention until much later.In the absence of hearing aid technology andservicing arrangements, n is an extremely dif-ficult task to teach the .eveiely cleat' child.Pamphlets produced by the All India Insti-tute of Speech and Hearing, together withtheir "hearing camps" in rural areas, areamong the few forays into this field in ruralAsia." The adaptation of normal home ac-tivities for stimulation of the cerebral palsiedchild, so that teathers can maximize the posi-tive stimulation of their child in everyday life,has been investigated and taught by SophieLevitt, the pediatric physiotherapist. Some ofthis experience has been incorporated intothe CHILD-to-Child pamphlets.'

"It seems that human society isseriously impaired and in needof rehabilitation... "More general approaches to the social bar-

riers which create handicaps out of disabili-ties, and the design deficiencies which turnimpairments into disabilities, have been slowto follow the "nuts and bolts" rehabilitationmanuals. Advice on integrated education ofthe blind or Africa and Asia has been pro-duced by the Commonwealth Society for TheBlind", and Nigeria as early as 1978 pro-duced Integrating Marginally HandicappedChildren into the Regular Classroom: ASourct'book for Teachers. The UN publishedin 1983 Designing with Care," a guide to theadaptation of the built environment for dk-abled persons, which specifically concen-trated on the needs of developing countriesboth at urban and rural levels, The Interna-tional League of Societies for Persons with

Mental Handicap issued in 1978 a guide tothe implementation of the rights of mentallyretarded persons, entitled Step by Step."

It is, however, beeornina apparent that de-sign problems. legal obstacles, and social bar-riers are merely the visible tenth of an icebergof negative attitudes, feelings, and stigmatiz-ing beliefs within the community at lergehUrless this sulornereed reservoir of ill will andiatov' faith is tackled, the guides and manualscvi I achieve relief merely on the surface, and

ii leave me person without rehabilitation.It seems that human society is seriously im-paired and in need of rehabilitation as muchas are disabled individuals.

Extremely little has been done or even at-tempted as yet in the Third Wink] towardslarge-scale intervention for positive attitu-dinal change. Practically no controlledstudies have been made of the socioeconom-ic, cultural, and religious roots of prejudiceagainst disabled persons, even in more de-veloped countries. Consequently the publicinformation effort during the 1YDP tendedto lack target and impact. Some of the west-ern advice manuals such as Training the Div-ulged in the Community even tend to rein-force the image of the disabled person as ahelpless object to be trained, rather than anagent in his or her own life.

Disabled persons themselves in rural areasof the Third World remain practically un-touched by the spread of information sketch-ed above. There is no reliable mechanism fordistribution of printed material into thehands of disabled persons and their families,the great majority of whom in any case do,not yet ,read. A similar problem has of coursefaced every effort of public health educationand primary health care. A number of meth-ods such as village theater, group discussions,role play, and puppet shows have been used.Many of these are described in HelpingHealth ll'orkers Learn. ''

Recourse had been had to broadcastingprograms c f advice and information. Radiois a potential channel for the dissemination ofrehabilitation information, though the task isdaunting, Rehabilitation skills tend to bemore complicated' than primary health care,and the results tsnd to he much slower thanin curative medVine. Is it possible, or pru-dent, to attempt to address at random theproblems of unknown thousands of familieswith blind, deaf, mentally retarded or phy-sically handicapped memb&s, none of whomwould in practice provide any feedback onsuccess, failure, cr disastrous effect of theadvice given? There is a picture even moredaunting to settle the question: the presentcondition of disabled persons in rural areas,many of whom live a pitiful and subhumanexistence for lack of practical informationwhich could change their lives.

The format chosen for the rehabilitationinformation broadcasts is a series of 12

(continued on page 7)

(continued from page 6)1111 Mlle dialogues bet k VCii doctor /t..otinsellorand disabled person /telative:loeal leader.Building on six years experience in the NorthWest Frontier Province of Pakistan, develop-ing both institutional and eommunitybasedrehabilitation facilities and counsellingfamilies with disabled members from all overthe Pros ith:c (population 18 million) an3fronz Afghan villages, the broadcasts aim toachieve a level appropriate io the constraintson resources in the village situation. while ap-pealing to the common sense and practicalwisdom of the audience.

Referencestl R t 19's, 1'4,11444m. ell% is 1 (,uric 1441

owl:rtes. (hut:hill 1 tslngstolle2) tallner. 19'9, II,. to Raise a Blind ('held.

4. hnsioiiti iillticlniths.sin (S.4beluttsen Sit asst. 124,1) 4)140 fiiabetin 4. west (restria111.

1) 1 fete, 3.)t,kard Air 1 laccard. 11 (loatherNetst, 2s.!10 lc I a., t tame

4) 1), AA ernet. I9s1. Project f'11()IP4f(), I he Hes-perian foundation. 1692. Palo Alto, (alriornia94102, L,SA

s) the Pottage Nretie.t, (.26 ti Slitet Slice!, Pottage.Vr.,onsin s1401.t.SA.

6) ( aribhan Ititituts: on 'rental Retardation and 1)t.St:torment:J., 1)1.ahlittte, 44( Old Hope Road.ivngstan 1,trthiN,1

NI)S. (I (I Ken I66S. Kallirnawfu,SI HIandr. Alcnk.11., Nekon, Ord edltion 19)1 1).

trurnine the 04%44140f n jrie Corlitt144144t kk.fi CIC'enca, Sv»11/1:11.ind

4) l'arer:i 1naletnent Prow, Hester Adnan Roeatilientre, I. '111,,er .1t,, at Alan, liesler MI3 9P1,41and

I()) Chapel H111 training Otnrca,h Proteo, I m.0111Centre, Alestitt Alill Road, ( hope) H111. Nor 0) aro

t'SNII) Al l India 10,altute: at and iicalIng. Nlanasa

ganitothr3. \1)..,I{; C.'0006,12) ( H11 I) to .1111d a Inantite at (. htid Health. 30

(Ioltard 'inert, I ondon A't( IN I ngland)1) C Sall.horN,, 194, (;pen 41)440h-on ltarulhr,e,J Pr,

ca. kers 4,1 11:c B141d, world C.Ir (ITIOnNcttit ICie 101 011 1111k1S4:, at (ISliCtial Hi); 1 I.N/, England.

14) 1.'niten.1 Naiton., t)esevrlir..; tattle Cure.I 'NCSI)HA, I' () iiox SOO. 1400 Vienna. Atiqt,a.

s).11 SPAM, 1979. Step hr .Step, International I .Sgilcat So. ICtlCs tar Per.on% 4111) Handkap. I;km: I oreNtiete, 13 1050

16) R ti. t'dgcn,1)). 1970. tferdai Returdur;on in Sondt Si» re ties ,r), ward cr ('reels oral 1'cr7,11,

nn /41. (IMPeit'f1( e. if, HavAood led)Cultural at %lona! Retardation. Pro.

,cd1111.., 40, ttl Pcaboti%1M/i Conieren,..e, Meredish orilora114111, I' S.A . and 1.R and I M.Hanks. 19413, /he' steull 114.11-4414.41(44'd in 4 e/14110

Vai (1..1(14111.1/ S,,i4erre% 1 Sa...1a1 l+' t'. 51)) 4I") Si. Mkt, 19S1. 11(11011e, towards i'enoro, 4411,1)

1)4cd,d4tres 44,44714: I) t P.481,1 if /1 ..:j.1;,..144,14.,or i4,44trwilti.,,, pow 11 e char-R;(1, Mental Health Cen-

tre, Miss11.441 0.,-441.(1, l'cshay.41,Di) I) At ern:: and 11 110,Aet, 9S:. 114114147e Ilcalth

turn. the if,prrian oundatIon. P 0Bas 1692, Palo Alto, ( A 94102,

M. Mites is Administrator of the Mental IlevlthCentre Peshawar, Pakistan; Project Consultantfor the I-AMU/UNICEF ommunit Rehabilita-tion Development Project; and a member of thePublic Information Committee on the Interna-tional League of Societies for Persons with MeilialHandicap.

A future issue ol R will publish some ofthe actual radio .scripts broadcast to informthe rural community about various kinds oftreatment and rehabilitation.

Radio Coverage Statisticsby Wilma Lynn

1

Recently, the Clearinghouse conducted research foi All) on the number ofbroadcasting stations and receivers in less-developed countries around the

IF2.:.01] world. Ilse research surveyed 135 countries in Asia, Africa, and Furope aswell as Nor th and South America. W tnotozht sonic of the research findings

would be of interest to DCI? readers.

Less-Developed Countries

ot'

Radio iv# of

Radio# of'1 V

Region Pc )ulltion Stations Stations Receivers Receivers

Asia 2,026,313,000 1,164 50 119,014,000 40.858,857

Africa 483,360,(XX) 188 29,695,(XX.) 7,166,169

Oceania 5.157,(XX) 24 8 969,(X)() 208,700

N S 386, 5-23,(XX) 3.935 65 89.522,(XX) 36,415,5(X)Artlera.a

TOTAL 3,501 ,403,(XX) 5,574 311 21 ,200,((X) 84,649,226.... ... .... ....v

Population s'atistics were obtained from the I'S'orld facthook, 1983. published by theCentral intelligence Agency and are accurate to July 1983. Data on radio and television sta-tions was obtained from a variety of sources including the Worhi Li/et/wok, the War/dRadio and 14. Handbook and the Ji'orld Radio unit T. V. facts and figures, and cover theperiod between 1979 and 1981.

One glaring problem that became evident from our reseinch is the fact that reliablestatistics on the status of broadcast infrastructure in less-des eloped countries is sorely lack-ing,. loo often, in the ease of statistics on radio and television receivers, this informationcan only be obtained by checking government data on the number of licenses issued yearlyfor radio and television sets in a given country. In a number of countries, and particularlyin those where the broadcast system is government owned, no broadcast surveys have beenconducted. In countries where broadcast stations are privately owned and operated bycommercial institutions, lip -to -date audience surveys whih serve as commercial guides toaudience listening and viewing patterns are regularly commissioned, thus providing a reli,able guide to broadcast services and distribution. Howeer, the reality is that the ratio ofgovernment to privately Owned broaJeast stations in the less-developed countries is almost2 to 1.

Indeed, our experience points to a serious need for research on a .vorldwide basis thatwould provide accurate and reliable information on broadcast demographics as well aslistening and viewing patterns. In the face of the growing ins ok einem of the hioadeastmedia in Third World development programs, information on listening and viewing pat-terns would be particularly helpful to development professionals and program planners.

%lima I.rrri is an international conuriuniations consultant current!, based in 'v't ashington, I).t

Unesco Needs MaterialsThe worldwide search is still on for out

standing classroom matetuds lot teaehing nutrition in primary and secondary schools indeveloping countries.

Types of materials n..edec.i. curricula,lesson plans, student workbooks, classroomexercises, descriptions of learning activitiesand experiences with the CHILD-to-Childapproach, teacher- or student-made mate-rial; such as posters, flipeharts, stories,plays, flash cards, puppets, coloring books,recipes, nutrition readers, 'trid other creative

and innovative ideas and methods.Unesco plans to use the materials to pre-

pare two publications: an imet nationalcatalogue of nutr.tion classroom educationmaterials from countries around the world,and a Unesco .N'utrition Education Source-book for teachers of nutrition education inprimary and secondary schools in developingcountries.

Please send materials as soon as possible toDr. Susan Van der Vynekt. FducationiSTE,Unesco, 7 place de Font eno,, 757(X) Paris,France.

6

7

8

A Communicator's ChecklistDistance Education; Evaluating Ne$vApproaches in Education for Devel-oping Countries, by Emile NicAnany,Joao Bat ista Oliveira, Francois

Orivel, and John Stone. Evaluation incanon, (Oxford. England. Pergamon Press,1983, Vol. 6, No. 3.)

MeAnany, Oliveira, Orivel, and Stone arean international group of educators andeconomists well qualified to examine the ex-perience with non-traditional approaches toeducation. Their monograph, Distance Edu-cation: Evaluating New Approaches in Edu-cation .for Develomng Countries, provides auseful survey of a dozen distance educationprograms, and a much broader discussion ofevaluation evidence. issues, and problems.

alcAnany et al. define distance educationas '`(1) a teaching and learning organization(2) in which students of a variety of ages andbackgrounds (3) study either in groups and./or individually at home with (4) centrally pro-duced self- instructional materials distributedthrough a variety of media (S) with regularconmiunication and feedback between Stu-dents and teachers." This looks like quite acomprehensive definition until one realizesthat it (apparently deliberately) excludes in-structional programs in school classrooms.The consequence of this is that the paperdoes not discuss several interesting and elldocumented projects that arse radio or IV torieliver instructional programs to schools.However, the tarnaining field is still quitewide.7. The paper is very long and very meaty andproviding a detailed critique here is clearlyimpossible. Rather, I will mention and brieflycomment on the authors' policy and planningconclusions. These fall into two categories:those referring to distance education itselfand those concerned with evaluation issues.

The authors conclude, on the basis of thecase studies they present and other literature,that the feasibility and usefulness of distanceeducation systems is no longer in doubt.There now exist many systems that providelearning and credentialing opportunities tostudents inadequately served by traditionalsystems. They review the distinction betweenfixed and variable costs and draw the usualconclusion that large audiences make for lowunit costs. However, they go on to point outthat even so, the fixed costs of technologiescan make a large difference in final costs.which usually makes radio the medium ofchoice.

The review of effectiveness and costs willbe familiar to those in the communication

field. The new, and thus more interestingraft of the analysis from my point of view, isthis examination of organization and man-agement issues. The authors not- that thccentral message from the studies reviewed isthe need for a better understanding of the re-lationship between the organiaational formatand structure and the nature of the tasks tobe performed by distance education projects.They note that organizational problems areparticularly acuie because of the many differ-ent professional specialties required to de-sign, produce, and distribute of fectiveinstructional software. While acknowledgingthat there is relatively little literature on theseaspects of distance education, the type;makes its own important contribution to ourunderstanding of them.

With regard to future evaluations in dis-tance education, the authors call for more as-sessments of cognitive Outcomes, includingcomparisons with traditional systems; use ofindicators beyond test scores, for example,dropout and failure rates, numbe:s of grad-uates and length of completion time; andstudies of the role of motivation, contextualfactors, and the influence of demographicfactors on success. i hey also suggest morestudies of costs and much more careful examination of issues of organization and IT anage-ment. These latter two categories of studiesare badly needed. I am somewhat less per-suaded about assessments that compare al-ternative approaches because 1 think it is amistake to think that distance education is incompetition with the formal system. Rather,I think distance education systems have clem-onstrated that they are most in demand whenthey provide an alternative route to goalsshared by many people, but which cannot bereached by substantia' numbers of themthrough traditional means, whether this bebecause of distance, expense, or constraintsof scheduling. Furthermore, the evidence isalready compelling that a good distance ed-ucation system can lead to the attainment oflearning goals. Thus, the need now is formuch more careful study of ways to improveeffectiveness and efficien ;v and, as theauthors point out, particularly of the organ-izational structures through which such ob-jectives can be attained.

Reviewed by Barbara Searle, an EducationalEvaluator in The Department of Education 21 theWorld Bank.

A vadahle from Pergatnon 1. td..Headingion Hill Hall, Oxford 0X3 OBW,U.K., for US S24.00.

1n1Orination lechnolog.v in the ThirdWorld: Can 1. T. 1 cud to Humane

!)eveloptlient? by WilliamJames S.ov er. (Boulder, Colorado,

Westvicw Press, 1984, 183 op.)

TVurination Technology (1.T.) in theThird i-S'orld presents a liberal perspective onthe process and effect of mass media. tele-communications, and computer technologyin UK's. The author explores in much detailthe efficacy of I.T. and communications asagents of economic, social, and political de-velopment in the Ihitd World. The logic,arguments, and interpretations are posed bythe author to reflect a composite view ofThird World people. In other words, theproblems, actual or perceived, of utilization,acceptance, and adoption of I.I. in 1..1)Cshave been compounded by influencing forcesfrom developed countries. Essentially, theauthor faults the use of 1.1 , because of itsdominance by those with ivanceel teehnolo-ea.'s, la turn, he views 1.1. as a viable optionfor Manane developmeni in 1.DCs. ineffect, is both good and bad, cause and ef-fect, problem and solution.

the author, somewhat apologetically, cau-tiously and continually qualities the potentialapplications of LT. in .Ihi:d World dev.7lop'ment. Ike states that: 1) access to tar. dot'snot automatically produce changeschangesate not always positive -certain types ofcommunication such as propaganda inhibitchanges; 2) Inas, media has srven viewed as afundamental causal elt.,nent of development,a concept rtaeeted by 11)('s; 3)good LOMMu-nications

different perspectives.It there is a weakness in the book, it is the

seetion on the technology and, in particular,the information on sateilitn communieations.The data and the references arc dated.

His final chapter which he titles "Conclu-sion, Requirements for Human Develop-ment," is much more than a concludingstatement. It is, first of all, a synopsis that refleets both insight and sensitivity for peopleand places affected by the condition of com-munications. It is also a challenge and a planof action for third World leadership. InSummary. the book is an excellent resourcefor those interested in learning about com-munication problems of Third World coun-tries.

Resiessed h. I Hui% Bransford, Vice Preident ofConferlech International, Inc. Dr. Bransford %pe-els:Wes in satellite. communications, particular!, inthe planning and use of teleconferencit44.

vutiable for S $15.00 iron; viewPress., 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, Col-orado NO. 01, ('S..

3General Introduction to the 1 edi-t:limes ol in Romano() and Documen-tation tS (irk, by Guinehat andMichel Menou (Paris, Et anee,

Unesco, 1983), 340 pp.

This book tills art important gap in thefields of librarianship and documentation. Inone single volume the principles and practicesof chese grossing fields are explained in de-tail. For the people pursuing information ca-reers, especially in developing countries, thisbook can serve as an inipOliain manual andtextbook. In the far ev ord, the authors statetheir hope that the text "will sueeecei tostrengthening the mot is at ion and improvingthe skill of those beginning or pursuing a eareel ire a tibta;x or information unit withoutthe necessary basic training."

The entire field of information science isdependent on the organization of efficientlibrary and doeument anon systems. This re-quites welltrained personnel who under,stand how their assigned tasks contribute tothe syst n, and who understand enoughabout ..ue principles of the system to see howtheir specific tasks might he more efficientlyaccomplished. The absence or shortage oftrained staff is especially acute in developingcountries, leading to serious inadequaciesand an inability to build national informationand communication systems.

This manual does not teach he required to perform a specific task. It does,however, explain these tasks and sets them inthe proper context. This manual will notreplace the need for basic training, but it willserve as a short-term remedy when training isnot available and will ,also help prepare fu-ture students. This handbook is organized asa tool for self-training; that is, descriptions

the various operations and concepts aregiven in modular form so that the studentneed only consult the portion directly relatedto the task at hand. But, because of itscomprehensiveness, this manual should nothe overlooked as an important resource forschools teaching library and informationscienceAmong the specific tasks discussedin this hook are selection and acquisition,document storage, bibliographic description,contents description, classification, indexing,abstracting, information retrieval, and infor-mation services. Also discussed ate basic bih-liographies and reference works, languageauthorities, facilities and equipment, andmethods for the evaluation of informationstorage and retrieval systems. The authorshave also included chapters on internationalinformation programs, standardization, edu-cation and training, research methods, andother policy issues.

The authors have stated their intent to con-centrate on "contributing to the preparationof personnel working in computerized infor-mation systems." Although they have triedto cover some manual techniques as well, theemphasis on automated processes is readilyapparent. However, practitioners who relyon manual systems, tot whatever reasons,can still benefit from the book. fhe prin-ciples of library procedures, which apply re-gardless of the processes used, are theprimary sullied of this hook.

It is important for such a book to be com-prehensive, and it is important for correctprocedures to be taught. However, the realityof most situations will force informationstaff tn bend or break established proceduresin order to best serve the user. The provedores described in this book represent the bestof "good library practice," and conform tothe principles established by library and in-formation science educators. Most readerswill discover, however, that the principlescannot always be reduced to practice, arid theneeds; of their particular clientele and theavailability of key resources will serve moreto deterMine 11.e procedures followed thanwill the principles outlined by hooks and edu-cators. At the same time, however, it is innportant that those pursuing careers in libraryand information science know and Lindenstand the principles. Only in this war canthey determine which they can ignore, andwhat consequences to expect if they choosenot to follow standard practices. (iuinehaiand Menou present the information in thismanual as if all readers will he able to achievethe high goals established. This in no waydiminishes the book's usefulness, but readersshould be aware that good library and infor,mation services can he offered even it' onlyminimal resources are available.

By using the modular-chapter approach,the authors hope that each chapter can be up-dated separately. Appendices written accord-ing to local specifications and conditions can

also be added to each chapter. 1 o he trulyuse; ul, the manual will have to be translatedinto as many languages as possible. E itmever,if the, English translation of the originalFt each is any indication of the quality of1.lnesco translations, tf en independent,highly qualified translators must he sought.It is unfortunate that Unesco chose not tosupport a protect of this magnitude with aqualified Engiish-speaking editor . TheEnglish text suffers front misused terms, un-necessarily complicated sentence StrIkilireS,and a general feeling of heaviness. For theless skilled reader of English, these problemspresent a serious barrier to the thoroughcomprehension of the principles and' prac-tices the authors are working to explain. Itwould be hoped that future translation ef-forts of this very important and Mildy textwarrant more attention on the part ofU ne sea .

This book is recommended for purchase byall libraries and documentation centers as atraining and reference tool. library and in-formation science departments should alsoconsider its purchase for use as a textbookand as a guide for the preparation of courses.Finally., all potential students of library andinformation sciences should read this hook asit serves to introduce attractive career pros-pects.

gesiessed its Wends I). White, Information tier.-ices Manager of the Hoard 041 Science und Tech -nolugs for international Deselopment, NationalAcsidem, of Scit'lltCl.

A vat?ohle from I 'rurtil), ( *uvonter Service,1'.O. it 1222, ,1 I ItOr, lichtyan 4X 1(j6,I'S,-1; or iron; !neseo, 7 place oe757(X) /'arts I runic (Prie ..nuvullable ofpress Hine, I

Pr)). tu7n.! Health for Ail, edited byDavid Morley, %IA , Jan Rohde,M.D. and (ilen Williams (Oxford,1..ngland, ( Word University' Press,

1983) 331pp.I hrce knowledgable and dedicated pro-

moters of the' concept of o, imary health carehave ioined in editing a compendium or casestudies trom 21 scattered eonoibutois dlus-Iran Mg programs in countries as wieldy di-sc:rm.' as Cuba, ladonesia. China, Nigeria,Bangladesh, and (.1uaternala.

flospinil care systems, once considered thepanacea for all heath problems, envied byI bird World eountt , and thought of as tile

oni, means for delivery of snelass medicalcare, are no longer Judged capable of pro-viding the kind of care M. ,st people need, Pri-mary Health Care (PI (C), with its emphasisupon prevention rather :bah cure, stressittgcommunity participation and expanded useof the lower-level health worker as opposedto an over-dependence on medical personnel,received further impetus in 1978 with the now

(continued on page It))8

10(Checklist ionlinued ft om page 9)

famous Alma Ata Delat at "Health forall by the Year 2000'' became the goal of the134 countries and voluntary agencies en-dorsing the concept of PHC, defined as "es-sentially health care made universally accessibit: to individuals and families in the com-Inanity by means at.eeptable to them throughtheir participation and at a cost that thecommunity and country can afford,"

India, ('hinu, COQ

Effective and affordable health technolo-gies for dealing with the major health prob-lems of the third World are already at hand.Their implementation is the difficulty, andthe obstacle!, are of a political and organiza-tional nature. Political commitment andcommunity participation in the organiaatioaof PHC are the two theories interwovenamong the chapters of Practicing Health ji.;rA 11. The NIA discusses such programs as thebarefoot doctor, of China (now being up-.graded and perhaps phased out), the volun-tary. agency work in Indonesia which evolvedinto permanent government nrc.)grams (the"Ant and the Elephant" as author MaryJohnston of the Christian Medical Commis-sion whimsically christens the tale), and In-dia's early attempts at health worker train-ing, reinforced in 1946 by he admirablereport of th Ilhore Committee proposing anational health program. Commitment, witha capital C, appears as the common themeamong all the "success stories," and success-ful in many cases when operating with alower level of finariLia. commitment thanother similar but less sanguine programs.

Cuba, despite an over-dependence on pro-fessionals and surprisingly rigid medicalhierarchy (a hie f machismo. not withstand-ing all the :0111111011 man rhetoric?) hasbrought about remarkable achievements inits health care system since 1959. The vitalstatistics raflect the far-reaching socio-political changes that have taken place; in-fant and maternal mortality comparable tothose of the industrialized countries: life ex-pectancy at 72 years he highest in theregion; the dubious distinction of listingheart disease, stroke, and cancer as the mostcommon causes of death.

With the Arusha )eclarat ion (1975),another socialist government made its eom-nutmeat to providing adequate health carefor all its citizens, Yet, at the present time,the total development Policies of the tapaa-Man government and their specific Strategiesfor eliminating poverty, ignorance, anddisease fukv,e not been brought into line. Thecure for the few, and a bias towards the ur-ban makes the health ideal still far fromrealization.

In the state of Kerala, there is an emphasis,far beyond that found in the rest of India, onequitable socio-economic and political devel-opment. Income and nutritional status in this

small state at the south-western tip of the In-dian peninsula are among the toscst in theworld, vet they have reduced fertility andmortality far below those of their more'wealthy and supposedly sophisticated neigh-bors.

The People's Democratic Republic ofYenten, with a strong commitment to equali-ty and broadly based people's part:kat/anon,in 1973 nationalized the health sector, pro-Inbiting private medical practice in order tomobilize all the country's scarce health re-sources. Coming onto the health develop-ment scene a bit later than most aDCs, theywere fortunate in lessons learned from theirpredecessors and serendipitious also in thefact that they h.. already been promotinginitiatives in the fields of environmental hy-giene, rural development, and water supply,all health contributory though not perhapsso labelled or recognized, Dernoeratic Yemenis one of the few countries which rttay actual-ly see "Health for All" (or at least the access-ibility to) by the Year 2000. This sante kind ofinteraction bet ween health planner s, politicaldecision-makers, and community organiza-tions which was present in Yemen also actedto produce innovative national plans in In-donesia and Ghana.

if political commitment and people's par-ticipation are two absolutes for the pursuit ofsuccessful programs, mediciJ effectivenessand social impact are the final criteria forjudgina, these programs' successes.

Judging Effectivenem

Medical effectiveness is judged by thequantitative indtchnots of morbidity andmortality, Witt ItiOnal status and lite expec-tancy. A strong plea is made by the author stot "a set of quantifiable indicators of com-munity health status, nationally accepted andpromoted, and adaptable for use in the semi-literate community." Social impact is evenmore difficult to quantify, Perhaps it canbest be summed up as . the community'sincreased level of awareness of health prob-lems and capacity to organize itself to solv ethese problems." (Muller, Participation inPrimary Health ('are ProgramsAmerica, Medillon, Nimeo, 1980,)

Just how many of the 134 countries whohave opted for "Health for Al}" will actuallyachieve it by the year 200() is problematical.increased awareness and the capacity to or-ganize to solve the most pressing of thesehealth problems may he the level at whichmost countries will find themselves. Theseeds of change will have been sown, how-ever, and more particulars can follow,

Available fur US 58.95 tenni (41iird Unh,er-siry Press, 16(X) Milli) Drive, lair Lawn, NewJersey 07410, USA.

Reviewed by Sally Coghlan. Director of informa-tion for the Technologies for Primary Health ('are('RITECH) Project.

New,Book from UnescoAlthough the bok's focus is ed-

1,ucation, the appeal of tinesco'sdelightful photographic essay

,Never Too I aft' Zr' Learn is)miser ail. Subjects range from very young tovery old learners around the world, reactingwith joy, wonder, and occasional puzzlementto the world of books and formal teaching.the book is reminiscent of the New YorkMtisetitTl'of Modern Art's timeless The Lamativ oa Man, in that the photographs, and theaccompanying quotations used as captions,are chosen with an unerring instinct for theoneness of us all, in Reis' case in the pursuitof knowledge. the quotes and text are inFrench, English, and Spanish; the 80 pagesof black and white photographs are fs titUnesco's own Photographic Service, Domi-nique Roger who conceived the publication,and Monika Jost who did the layout, areboth artists of high caliber who deserve highpraise for this elegant publication.

Available in the U.S. for US 526.2.5 fromUNIPLIS, P.O. Box 1222, Ann 'Arbor, Mich-igan 481(Ko front L'neseo, ' place de Vona.-noy, 757(X) Paris, France; or front Unescobookseller s vsorldstide. a

New ClearinghouseOur recent Reader Survey resulted in a

substantial number of responses indicatingan interest in init'sOCOMIptliet applications fordevelsipliwm. As our readers know, have

had several articles on microcomputer appli-cations over the past two years, and will. ofcourse, L'Oiltilltle to .over the subject.

A resource that we would like to bring toyour attention is a new AID-funded Clear-inghouse on the mum/gement applications ofmicrocomputers for development. Its pur-pose is to disseminate int ormation to peoplein developing countries. especially peopleworking in small businesses and develop-ment-related institutions in the public sector-- about applications, software and hard-ware, training, and infrastructure. For thispurpose the new clearinghouse has alreadybegun publication of AfC News/ Wr. In ad-dition, the Microcomputer Clearinghousehopes to be able to develop a network ofmicro users who cart provide technical as-sistance as requested. To have an effectivenetwork, there must he active participation,sharing of experiences and information onthe part of persons of like interests. Thisnewest sister clearinghouse hopes you will dojust that! Write to them at:

Microcomputer Clearinghouse319 Cameron StreetAlexandria, VA 22314 USA

17.1

(1'eIecontmuricition, ¼00 d f rotu ate 2)t iou and uiat tonal and utile; uul tonal tradeand c innict cC I he i cut I'. relcasc.d oi ittl I ( fl (.1) stud v on Tclec mm urn at ionsdud I )c nient Iii.hliii1tt s the t act t hat"ins Cs IIICI1I S i IC! L011illi Icatious entailscr' ignd icaut ecortoiui ic and soLia herie fitsand cont r hute to dent I liable ncreaesni ro nat tonal product I hCse mcrcases

arc great est in the count i tes and regions,ss it h the br. 'st ncmws.

ud c.tt on of h c ss arcncss and conecu ii of decision inakcu s carding the inipotauice of tee-ornn1 ri.at ions was the t_ ;ut ed

Nat ions Gcner a! AsscinhI declarat ion of theve'.r I 9S3 as World Corn ni un k-at ions\'ear. I he oh1eet is es of World (tOni-ctIon \ear arc. first. to toid the oppor-tunitv for all coitnir ic' to undertake an in-depth tes less and a aIs.is of their piieies oncomm tin kat ions des cbopinent , and secondto facilitate the aLeciet ated descloprnent ofcomm un k-at tort in t'rast r uct tires As the \VCYSccreiari;n in the International 'Ielccornmu-n ieat ion n ion has stated, '1 /u'.se hj.si oh-jetiflt's jre /u17 in ii,u' wit/i lift' t'urt'eni ('On-'ern.s of all senior t() corn nuent rfiieiaI, irre

.s/)t'Cti it' of i/u' dt''rte of (lt'l't'h)pfl?t'fll (1 their('O,n,?ILIPII('(lliO,J,S infa,s(ruc'lure's. In i/OW oft/it' t't t't-t,'rt) iii Inforlwu't' of u'Ieeonvnuii('tiiU)n'., 01 i/it' carit')' O the .s rStt'fl.s in-i't)Iig!(J, tirul (if i/it' si't' of i/it' t.'l i'stint'nt Fe-qUirt'(/, ii easi 1r iuule,siwul (lit' ... FlOOdfor tu (-hnc'e'rh'(J ('/fori)tt'/i hi all those 'u/h'dupon 1r ltit' tiu cuil deiions lilt/i rt'Car(I 1(1infrasi, 0th/re' / r (on/nun/c 'atu i,i.s i/rat 1'. ei/(l(lOr in i/it' Sot'Ul/. t'(flP?( 'nu, tiFul cultiirti/tit'i''hi1,,it',ii tif FitllioFl.5,

The (' r-irnurtjtinns Imhti!aneeTIe et iou liar .ir e cing lordiniued

as pat t ot Vor Id ('ounm arileat ions \ear inA ft tea rias e been designed to complement theactisitics undertaken iindeu the LN I tans-port and ('omunin cat ions Ik'cade i A frtca,I Y7S 1 97, ss hi'b ssas de'lau ed iii recugnut iOn

iii gencv itt des clopi rig ransportar ionaitd conurnunn,'dt Rm tnt rdst r tiLt nrc in Aft lea,Statistics r es cal the ses ciii of the coitun itt itcation problem, no; only itt Attica, but inother des ulopi rug r egiorus as well In .1 anuar v1977 t here ss crc 1)4 telephones pc-u 1(X) popu-lar ion in At rica, 4.5 per I CX) in South Amenca, arid S.2 per 1(X) ru Asia. This stands iiishar p con r rasi o t lie 70,7 t elephortes per 1(X)

onulat ion it Nor Ut Anuer ia,I putndi tic, on hat picture, in I 977 ics ci.

cu itt r as it ss hole had an as ci age ofI , 1 t clephorues per 1(X) popu at on, is hueUt's eloped count rues luaU an as erage of 13 pet1(X). In 1982, thu cc-fourths of' tiuc- ) tuutilioti

telephones in the siw Id siere tfl only eightcount ries, arid three- tour th of the 56(1 nrillion telcs isbn sCis isere itt only nine court-tries. itt or her words, des eloping con iii r ieshas e 70 per cent of the world's populat tori, 20percent of the siorld's gross national prod-

'1 recent I J't ,1 anczlrsis revealed

f/Eat 90 percent of telephoneservice in developing countrJes

is used by subs,'riter-s in indus-

tr,',.- business, (ransj)OrtatiOFI,

and go;'ernnnent.

net, and 7 per ccitt of I he iso; id's telephonesand tcics'rsions -

Not only do des eloping countries havetcser tekphontcs, t tics also hasc a strong inn-balance tnt sets ice that f'as Ots uir hn Os sirrural areas A reevnt siirsc' of 7 Africancountries revealed that 53 percent of alltelephones' in those count ntis ssc're in t hecapital cit yt his despite the fact that os er SC)per cent of the population t vpicailv resides inrural aicas

This urban-rural communications unbid-ance has tar-reaching effects, riot the least ofwhich is the negative effect out ntatiofla co-hesion that results from what is in effect adual urhzri-rural economy A recent II Uanalv',is of' tekeommunications res eIed that90 percent of telephone service in des elopingcountries is used by subscriheTs in industry,business, hannn'g, traru portationi, and goscrunient - I.acking telephone service. ruralarc-as increasingly also lack access to theseimportant service sectors Until policy iiiuk-ers learn to r iii egrat cleeornm unicat ionsurn tithe national pIannin process, the inuhalance and its negam I vi' impact oir national developruucnt and national cohesion are Ii kely toprevail.

A corn par i sun of air u ual t ek'phoruc capacit- growth 181e5 is also rcs'eaitrlg: NorthAmerie has art annual growt Ii rate of 46pen emit, 1-urope 8 pet cc-nt, I at in Anuei lea II)percent, ad i\t lea bet ssevn 62 and 8,7 percent - In order to achieve the goal of one tele-phone per hundred people iii sub-SaharanA ft ca, ss lucre the uec-d for telecorriuutu;ueio ton des clipnu ent is most pressuug, an anU nit1 gross h rate on the order of 14 percent isrc'qci red in top untarely, bes els of nn lest rncntin t elecorrrm un teat tons in developi rug countilL'5 have historically hec loss, averaging 0,3pc-i cent oft he gross dottiest ic prod liii h ichis less than halt of the aver age anti ual per cciitage of ins est fluent in des eloped cOtitlt ties,

Generally speaking des'elopurig con nt riesa corn mon set of pro blerins r egarditig

t elecounimuriicat ions: a huge gap bet siecrisuppl arid denuand, a strong Uts r ihut ott rnbalance as or ing a r ban user rut al at cits, pilOtquaIn of sc-rs ice, a long slatting time for tessservice, arid pck in at tie demands tiluit c'ceedncr ss urk capacity -

Righting the 1mbaInce

Still, developing count tic's are st r;vitig bar Uto make inroads into iesols i rig their nationalt cit-corn in un it ton problems. I he goals forhe UN, Transport aral Counnnunicai otis

Decade for Africa include not only an aver-

4I

age perlc'tuttion of one telephone per 1(X)population, hut other goals that address thearfl iii of reeds uru developing a SO untd corn-

mun'catioru irttsructure These include stir-seviug training needs and establishing basictraining requirements tot telec trnrilurlieat iOnper sonruel. sur seying and eaivating enstingtruant agemern policies and managerncm cours -c's, sist__blishing a planniing of fiec nit everyPIT and dcscioping a fundarnetital telecom-ruuunicat ion development plan, establishing arutaintenlance and o torts uni nri everycounti y, providing I I radio coverage aridrum easing the number of' radios from 7 to 20

N' I CX) population, arid becoming scf-rcliantin maim tact unrig certain it erris of comntu-riucations equipment Perhaps the ri'uost am-hit ions goal is to provide a public call officefor for every 10,0(X) rural people, so that anindividual has-acecss to a telephone withintue kilomeltrs of his home, Another am-himious goal is to complete the I'ANAFTI'Lnetwork. which is to link all 49 membercountries of the Organization of AfricanUnity.

Miis.ith'e Eliot-f eeded

'Ihe effort to nneet these goals and those of'other regions o the world requires a ni:assivemubili,.ation of resources, both human andfinancial. Wt,nie the deseboping countries't elecornm unk-at toit growth rat "s are relative-!v high, increasing them to meet unmet tic-mmmd entails considerable difficulties inmobilizing the necessary institutional and in-nanucial resources. A rev ie of published datashows that, exsludin', city networks, it is dif-tic-ult to nuarritaimu growth rates in excess of 20to 25 per cent per vt-ar. A quest run that meritse\plorai mon is whet her, given adeq uate levels01 firmiucitug, the ads ariced tçchnobogies willmake it possihlc to maintain higher networkgrowth rates liv requiring lower Irs els of skill

t local iciels arid by facn1h.Umig the processcit net scor k management -

'The projected c\peiuditure for teleconiumu-nicai uris worldss ide in the I 9SOs is sortie $640bill on, of' is hich some SC) perec'ttt will be forpublic telephone equipment, -accon ding i o ari-cent Arthur I) little st tidy. lit I atmA titer ca alonc- attn ual t elceoni fir un teat non cx-peurdit nrc's arc expected to Ieitp ft out $2.52billion in 1980 t $4.9 billion itt 1991) Ivenrthat eel of' i ricreased in vest in cr11 is nIl only init ease the number of' telebhonues in sets ice in,I at in America Vt urn 20 nit iliirn to 43 in tijion

r f i'otuu sI l'ter 1(X) popUlar ton to 10 per 1(X)Lbs cut t tie siiable auuout'n s being spent by

elcconunn ii rulcat ion admit in si rat ions for mod-c-rut equipment , the intl ning of personnel toensure the proper operation and rnainter,ance

f' that equiprnetu I is ext r errely I rnuport ant -While unosm developuig count ties new havenat moiial t railuirig centers that can fulfill atleast some of' t he riec'd for basic and riuc'diurni-level raimrinug, there is sigriif'icnit unmet need

(ccntinucd on page 13, col, 1)

U

12rr'"

The A.T. Microfiche Reference Library:Information When You Need Itby Ken Darrow and Michael Sa.4.-erlian

Despite the wealth of technicalreference materials now avail-able on proven village technologics, the vast majority of welt:n-

eat questions that arise in the fielti never getanswered. Local organizations usually do nothave appropriate technical references onhand, and those materials that are availableare rarely indexed or organized in a way thatmakes it easy for project staff to loe:ate need-ed documentation.

Piecemeal acquisition of reference materi-als, as the need arises, has generally been theonly solution open to uch groups. However,the obstacles to such an approach are formid-able. tocating publications can be difficultand time consuming, the cost per item is gen-erally quite high (a particular problem whenordering materials of unknown quality andapplicability), and the typical wait of two toeighwonths for delivery of materials meansthat most cases, by the time they arrivethiproject has either lost momentum or pro-/eded witho