DOCUMENT RESUME. - files.eric.ed.gov · PDF filePrepared with the assistance of a panel.of experts, ... increasingly sophisticated mechanicAl/electrical equipment in ... Turner, Chairman

DOCUMENT RESUME.

ED 082 321 EAN-005 433'

'TITLE The.; Economy of Energy Conservation in EducationalFacilities. A Report. 4

INSTITUTION Educational Facilities Labs., Inc., New York, N.Y.PUB DATE 73

-85p.AVAILABLE FROM Educational Facilities Laboratories, 477 Madison

Avenue, New York, New 'York 10022 ($2.00)

NOTE .

EDRS PRICE,DESCRIPTORS.

MF-$0.65 HC-$.29Ait. ConditioningEquipment*Conservation (Concept);Custodian Training;; *Econon4cs; .4:EducationalFacilities; *Energy; Equipment Maintenance; Heating;Lighting Design; -*Operating Expenses; Planning.

- (Facilities); School Improvement; SchoolMaintenance

ABSTRACTPrepared with the assistance of a panel.of experts,

report sets forth available information for school architectsand administrators facing the energy crisis. The booklet tellsspecifically how economies can ge effected, in the operation andmaintenance of school buildings; in title iodernization of existingschools; and in the planning of futute facilities. Schooladministrators are, advised to (1) reliievi, operation and maintenance-personnel to Nbe sure-that they are qualified to cope with theincreasingly sophisticated mechanicAl/electrical equipment inschools; (2) identify sources of energy waste through ananalysis oenergy consuMption in existing schools; (3) include energyconservation as a major part of an architectural program \for batmodernization and ,new construction projeCtS; and (4) use lifecyc eoosting to replace initial cost as the sole basis for contract acv rdsfor energy-conSUming systems. Appendixes prOvide an explanation othe basic techniques or computing life-cycle (longterm) costs, nd asummary of the background to the energy crisis. (Anthor/MLF)

I

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

J. E. Jonsson, ChairmanHonorary Chairman of the Board, Texas Instruments, Inc.Alvin C. Eurich, Vice ChairmanPresident, Academy for Educational Development, inc.Clay P. Bedford, Director,. Kaiser IndustriesMorris Duane, Attorney, Duane, Morris and HeckscherHarold B. Gores, President, Educational Facilities LaboratoriesCecil H. Green, Member of theBoard, Texas Instruments, Inc.Philip M. Klutznick, Chairman of the Executive Committee,Urban Investment and/Development CompanyMartin Meyerson, President, University Of PennsylvaniaMilton C. Mumford, Director and Former Chairman of theBoard, Lever Brothers Company ,

Howard S:Turner, Chairman of the poard, Turner ConstructionCompanyBenjamin C. Willis, Educational Consultant

OFFICERS.

Harold B. Gores, PresidentAlan C. Green; Secretary and Treasurer

STAFF

John R. Boice, Project DirectorBen E. Graves, Project DirectorPeter Green, Edito.;Judith Handy, Research AssociateLarry Molloy, Project DirectorFrancesF. Rum, Librarian and ResearchLillian Sloves, Publications AssociateDanae Voltos, Information AssociateMiry C. Webb, Assistant Treasurer_Ruth Weinstock, Research Associate

Associate

Educational Facilities Laboratories, Inc., is a nonprofitcorporation established by The Ford Foundation to helpschools and colleges with their physical problems by theencouragement of research and experimentation and thedissemination of knowledge regarding educational facilities.

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Ns

THE ECONOIOF ENERGYCONSERVATIONIN EDUCATIONALFACILITIES

U 0EpARTME.1 T OF HEALTH.EDUCATION-8.WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION-THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUC.ED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINA TiNG IT POINTS OF VIEW'OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS COPY-RIGHTED MATERIAL HAS .BEEN GRANTED BY

TO ERI AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERAT114G.'UNDER AGREEMENTS' ITH THE NATIONALSTITUTE OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRO'.:DUCTION OUTSSE THE ERIC SYSTEM RE._..QUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHTOWNER,"

A repOrt from Educational Facilities LabOfatories

= f 2`.

PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE 3

RIGHT11 MATERIAL H, PEEN GR'

T n RIC AND ORGANIZA DONS OPERATINGUNDER AGREEMENTS WITI, THE NATIONAL IN.STITUTE OF EDUCATION. FURTHER REPRO.DUCTION OUTSIDE THE ERIC SYSTEM RE.QUIRES PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHTOWNER"

Library of Congtes* Catalog No. 73-83011First Printing, ,July 1973

1973 by Educational Facilities Laboratories, Inc.

Copies of this publication are available for $2.00 fromEFL, 977 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022.

CONTENTS

FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION

ENERGY CONSERVATION ,STRATEGIES FOR SCHOOLS, 91.ife-ycle costing the long range view ()I' building costs, 9Attack on three fronts, 11

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CHANGES 13!low to waste energy without really trying, 11'Ap ounce of prevent;on , .",18Dollars for dimes, 20The need for be tier personnel, 24

MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING SCHOOLS; 28Airconditinning economic =s, 28Improved thermal insulat ion,38Improved lighting design, 39Waste-heat recovery, 43

PLANNING NEW SCHOOLS,48Compact building shape,18

use occupancy, 50Total en( gy,51 '

Wall ,shaLling,F;').Automatic controls, 53improved mechanical design, 55rriproved electrical design,59

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS,62

APPENDIN :/Life-cycle f Longtt2rm) Costing of Buildings,6:3APPENDIX II/ Background to the Energy Crisis,72APPENDIX III/Selected BiL.:ography,80

FQIREWORD

You can't measure altruism but you can savor costsavingS on a balance sheet. And thatls what energy con-servatjoThisaltabout helping to stave off a fuel short-Sage for the whole notion and reducing the amount ofmeterM energy in your own linings.

I

,1EFIJh/IS entered

more-philosophical and financial ap-

proach with More trepidation than usual before corn-mitt* its views to print. We have attempted to explainthat the energy crisis is real, but itS impact on schoolsmay le reduced, Neerthcless, this advice will work wellin sortie circumstances, less..'well in others and perhapsnot at all for another set of conditions. Obviously, therearen't easy or general answers, but if people are to re-cei0 any help with this major problem it is necessaryto offer the best available information on hand.

To gather, distill-and-present the infoymation in TheEconomy of -Energy Conservation, EFL retained C. W.Griffin, a civil- engineer who wrote FL's Systems: An.App /each to School Construction. Griffin's conjunctionof writing and technical knowledge produced two booksfor the American Institute of Architects: DevelopmentBu.ilding: The Team Approach, and A Manual forBnilt-Up Roof Systems. An informal panerof special-ists advised EFL during the development of the researchfOr this boot: and reviewedthe final form of its contents.*e thank Fred Dubin- ,mechanical engineer; Bill Lam,plighting consultanl; Haihy Rodman, ariiitivet; Richard/

. /''S'tein, architect (and Ed Stephan, school administrator.I

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES LABORATORIES

INTRODUCTION

In the winter of, 1972-73, Denver's school adminis-trators had to temporarily put, hir,h schools on athree-day week because there waso'v enough natural

gas to heat the buildings. Citi6s throughout the UnitedStates took notice since this gas shortage was one moreaspect of an intebsitying energy crisis that will makeconservation an economic necessity in the years im-mediately ahead.

'Yet the idea of conservation collides head-on with Era-ditiohal American attitudes. For example, overheatingof buildings is historically one of.our,wasteful habits.On his first visit here, in 1842, Charles Dickens 'de-nounced "... the eternal. acourseci. suffocating, red-hotdemon of a stove . . ." Long habituated to apparentlylimitss sources of energy from the vest forests, f/mmmines, find from the subteri-anean oil wells-- we Amer- 4-4

icans have perennially rankiAl among the worlds big-gest energy users. Today. on a per capita basis,.each ofus consume nearly nine times as much energy as theaverage non-Anierican.

But suddenly, after, three centuries of plundering theresources of the continent, we confront an alartiging factlooming in the path of heedless "progress". The earth'sformerly "limitless" resources are becoming ever morepalpably finite (and, therefore, costly).

There is no painless solution on the technological hori-zoti: We simply must learn to conserve energy. .

. .

Associated with these grim facts is one significant andhappy discovery: we are'finally realizing that energyconservation usually saves money., Economy almost

17,

.

INTRODUCTION

necessarily results in the long run. and often in theshort run as well.

Thus, school hoards continuing energy-wasting prac-tices cab expect soaring operating costs. According to .

a panel-consulted by el-T.1,, we can expect a roughly three-. fold multiplication of energy costs.over the next decade.

Optimi:its hope that technology will solVe the energycrises by presenting us. with' new, Cheap, easily avail-able, and non-Panting sources- Of energy. And a num-ber of these are at various stages of Ti&D. (For a quickrundown on some things we may see in the, future, seeAppendix II.) But none of these not even the currentforms of nuclear generators will provide the ultimateanswer during this century. Today's colsumers mustsolve today's problems by using the familiar fossilfuels coal, oil, and natural gas.

The building industry has ?lagged in all conservationtechniques, including energy conservation. Part of thiscan be Harried on the industry; part on building owners'preoccupation'with capital cost as opposed,to operatingand ,maintenance (O&M) cost. School boards are oftenpresented with a great handicap by ill-informed .guard-ians of the public treasury who force them to minimize

, highly -visible capital, costs, while burdening the publicwith needlessly heavy O&M costs throUghout a school's40-year life.

.Yet, there is nothing fo prevent schol boards and ad-ministrators from trying to obtain the most for thepublic's money. As New Y6rk architect Richard G.

INTRODUCTION

Stein points out, "In any given ear, a mere reduc-tion-in the energy costs for existing buildings would acidup to a greater total i$aving than.a 50(' saving in newschool buildings."'''

A few energy-conserving techniques are appearing inthe traditionally wasteful building industry. ''Somearchitects are turning away from the glass walls thatconvert buildings into radiant ovens. Some meehaniCalengineers are focusing on efficiency and long-term econ-omy .as the ultimate criterion for airconditioning andheatiiig design. Some architects and lighting engineersare resisting the needless escalation of lighting' levels.

Architects and engineers generally ignore these- andmany other available techniques for minimizing energyconsumption because their'clicnts don't instruct themto conserve energy. It is,always easier to follow tradi-tion. But a few. pioneers arc beginning to sUggest'them,and a few farseeing clients are beginning to demandtheir investigation.

For example, in modernizing an existing building, a1/4.capital inves-nent in an improved combustion system

can often cut long-term O&M expense`by a disprofe-tionate amount. And within the O&M budget itself, aslight increase in maintenance expense often a.much larger reduction in operating cost.

*If 8% of all school buildings are "new" (i.e., built within the past year),a 50% energy saving would equal 4% cftotal school energy consumption,less than a 5% saving in the remaining 92% (+4.6%). .

INTRODIX7I 0 N

Mechanical engineer Fitcl S. Duhin, of New York City,/Advocates establishrnimt of 'a natir.nal goal of a .one-third reduction in U. S. buildings` energy consumption.Such a goal, says Dubin, can be achieved at a sacrificeof no essential services and few, if any, amenities. Mostenergy-conserving measures would yield long-termeconbmies,,according to Duhin.

"In new construction we should design for 40r,-; lessenergy consumption than in conventionally designedand opbrated buildings. About half of this reduction

.would not reduce capital costs, but reduce long-termowning costs; a minor proportion of this energy conser-vation design say 10',-; -- would raise even long-termcosts. In existing buildings, we should aim for 30'; lessenergy consumption," says Duhin. "About two-thirdsof tharealized savings would bring long -term economy."

As collective administrator of a $5-billioh annual con-structien- volume, the nation's school officials havethree basic reasons for stressing enc-gy conservation.First, of course, is the long-term economy in schoolplant operation: Like other energy consumers, ourschools are using increasing quantities of 'fuel energyfor airconditioning to make schools habitable for year-round use, for constantly rising lighting Itvels,. for theoperation of sophistiCated audio-visual teaching equip-ment, and for laboratory and Vocational training equip-ment in an increasingly techry)logically dominatedworld. With fuel-energy costs projected to rise dramat-ically during the next few 'years, reduced fuel consump-tion becomes an obvious economy target. .

INTRODUCTION

go'

Second, the schools, which introduced systems build-ing and other improvetnents in building technology,owe the public an even' greater pioneering effort in fuelconservation. By instructing their architects and engi-neers 'to stress this long neglected aspect of design,school administrators can help turn this nation's largestindustry onto a pathway more consistent with humanwelfare.

M a final justification for energy conservation, theschools can exemplify the conservationists' attitude.Today's students will need this attitude even morethan their parents.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STRATEGIESFOR SCHOOLS

k

T maximize

. .

6 the resulting cost savings, a stlibol 9

district Instituting an energy conservation pre, -gram must concern,ifSellwifh the prdblem's two

basic constituents: , "

The operation and maintenance of existing schools.'The'design of mod6rnized or newbuildings.

..The first logical step is a review of annual O&M pro-cedures, to identify . cost-saving opportunities. For a

`School districtwith qualified personnel, This task may. -he, accomplished. withouthe .hiring of outside consult-

_ .7,'.

consult-ants. But the majority, ' perhaps the vast majorityof school districts probably need to retain an architect-engineer or consulting engineer firm to perforin thisservice. For all projects designed by architect, - engineerfirms, school boards sh6Uld include energy conservationas a key point in the arthiteetural program, along withspatial requirents, educational-goals, and other coin -' '

mdn criteria. In \evaluating': architect,,gnd engineer;applicants for design projects, schOol. boards 'should.interrogate them abOut their intereg in .0-Aergy conser.:vation and investigate 'their competence in this area.

Life-cycle coifing: the long-range view of .

building costs

The key to realizing the cost savings of energy conserva-tion is an understanding of long-range (life-cycle) cost-ing. The current system of awarding contracts on thebasis of first' cost only is destined to become an ever

ENERGY CONSERVATION STRATEGIESFOR SCHOOL-

10 bigger folly as the energycrisis intensifies and fu 11 costsrise. In these clays of rapidly escalating building, osts(up 70"; ,nationally between 1966 and 1972), thepulse to cut. initial cost becomes almost reflexive. 'et-over a building's lifetime, ill-considered econn es inconstruction cost almost always drove expenSive in thelong run'. A school 3'4hould-be conceived not merely as aphysical structure, but as a "building-people" complexlasting 40 years. Viewed in this context, constructioncost, which usually dominates the economic picture,fades into the,background. Firs't cost constitutes rough-ly 8',-; of the total 40-year cost; O&M costs represent12'; ; and teaching-administrative costs represent: anoverwhelming 80"'; . Thus a 1.0(.; increase in capital costis only a 1"'; increase in total owning cdst. And irca.noften result in far greater reductions elsewhere in abuilding owner's budget in reduced O&M costs, oreven, in improved productivity. Sometinies, notably intradeoffs between added costs of efficient_therrnal in-:ulation vs. reduced heating and airconditioning capac-ity, an energy-conserving design can cut first cost aswell as O&M cost.

For example, in a bold break with conventional policy,the Fairfax County '(Va.), Board of Education rejectedthe low first-cost bid for a $1-million HVAC system forChantilly High School, awarding the contract for analternative HVAC system carrying a higher first costbut much lower life-cycle cost. Computed on a "pres-ent- worth" basis for an assumed 20-year useful life; thewinning HVAC System B would cut an estimated$282,000 from the cost of System A ($597,000if energy,

%.

ENERGY CONSERVATION STRATEGIESFOR' SCHOOLS

?

.costtare assumed to continue .rising at...:7; annually.). (See Appendix I on "Life- cycle' Costing" for a formaleconomic analysis displaying long-term owning costcalculations for the above pioject.)

Ip existing buildings, improved O&M programs cand.Nnatically reduce energy consumption and cut oper-ating costs. O&M economies sometimes depend,omsmallcapital expenditures for upgrading equipment im-proved furnace combustion efficiency, new aircondi-tioning filters; and the like. Of the two -components ofO&M cost, operating costs range between three and fourtimes as much as maintenance costs. A-ratio exceedingthis range i.e., one unduly high in operations costindicates trouble in the Oie.N4 program,' according toEdward Stephan, Fairfax 'County's assistant superin-tendent for. educational facilities planning and con-struction. A slight increase in maintenance costperhaps for more frequent equipMent inspectionsof ten' yields great reduction in operating cost.

Attack on three fronts-

An overall energy conservation campaign for schoolscan be logically divided-into three phases:

I. Operational improvement in existing schools, involv-ing no physical changes (i.e., no capital investment),or, at most, relatively slight expenditures for upgradingmechanical equipment or other subsystenIs.

2. Modernization of existing buildings, involving sub-

ENERGY CONSERVATION STRATEGIESFOR SCHOOLS

12 stantial capital investment for new equipment or archi-tectural features.

3. New construction.

,These three divisions appear in descending order of..applicability and in ascending order of cost, though notnecessarily, in- potential economy. Operational improve-ments are universallyapplicable to all 'school distriuts.-SignificAnt energy savings can be achieved through suchsimple operational procedures as turning out needlesslights and educating O&M personnel about prbper tech-niques in operating aireonditioning, systems: RenoVa-Eon entails capital investment. ranging from completemodernization (i.e., spaces redesigned with 'new 'Parti-tions, and mechanical and lighting subsystems) down

C-0,-small expenditures for new theiinal insulation. In"`, hese days of defeatedhond issues fpr new construction,

odernization has grown.. rapidly over the -past fewears-, account* for nearly half the $5 -billion total

,school construction market in 1970. But regardless ofhow much the American public resents paying fdi newschool construction, that will remai' ; ultimately, themost important method of upgradin our educationalfacilities.

OPERATING ANDMAINTENANCE CHANGES

lnergy waste springs ,from two bask sources 13lethargy and ignOranee. Much stems simply fromthe historic American proclivity for waste. In

our schools even more is attributable to the. inability,of O&M personnel to cope with ever more soPhisticated

.mechanical and electrical equipment.

Lethargy was the explanation of groSs energy waste-discovered in an illustr'ative case study. 71'he evidenceemerged as an accidental by-product of ah energy con-sumption study of the HVAC system in a Las Vegashigh school. From metered data on electric power con-sumption, the investigators discovered a fantasticamount of electric energy being used dui-ing the eveningcleanup period. Between 4 p.m. and midnight, when theschool's normal daily population of 1,100 shrank tothree custodians, the school consumed 20'7, of its totalenergy. Merely by switching off the lights and HVACin local areas as -they finished their work, the custodianscould have cut the school's workday electric powerconsumption by 15(,': to 213<, .

eiStein recounts a similar example. For Public School 55in Staten Island (New York City), Stein tried to ex-ploit the economy of natural tight. Each classroom hasthree rows of luminaires, all paralleling the peripheralwall, with the exterior lbw controlled by local switch-ing. For roughly three-quarters of the school's operat-ing hours, naturakdaylight suffices to illuminate the8- or 9-ft-wide exterior strip bounded by the wall.

However, on several visits, to Public School 55, Stein

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CHANGES

14 discovered that this easily achieved economy was neverrealized; the exterior row of lights apparently burnedalong with the two interior rows thrbughout the school'sworking day. Merely by flipping these classroomswitches at the proper time, the school's teachers couldhave cut daytime classroom lighting by and totaldaytime lighting cost by about' 8%.

Confronted with human failure, Stein is consideringfor future schopls photoelectric switches to turn offunneeded fixtures when natural light intensitytis'ade-quate. The added expense of automatic controlsshouldn't be necessary. But it may be the only-Practicalway to combat the wasteful'. habits programmed intothe American psyche.

How to waste energy without really trying

Faulty O&M prcieedures waste even greater quantitiesof energy than the lethargy displayed in the two pre-vious case studies", according to Stephan. His favorite'example concerns the widespread mishandling of theunit ventilator. What makeS this example so significantis the unit ventilator's tremendous popularity. Thoughits use in new schools is declining,' the unit ventilatorremains, by far, the most prevalent heating system inthe nation's existing classrooms.

T e44i,t ventilator mixes recirculated interior air witha_ ryiingvroportions of outside air, filters it, and forces

it acIlbg,4*r water or steam heated Coil and into the roomthrough a sill -level grille. Some unit ventilatorsare trueairconditioning units, with chilled water 'circulating


I

either through a dual-purpose, heating-and-cooling coil 15or through a- second larger coil, added for cooling alone.

To operate a unit ventilator efficiently and econom-ically, a custodian must understand the following con-trols and their functions:

1. Damper control (which sets the proportions of fresh"and recirculated air dt the most economical ratio).

le Low-limit -setting, (which prevents the temperatureof incoming air from dropping below' a minimum tem-perature usually 55F to 60F).3, Thermostatic control. valve,for heating coil.

4. Blower motor switch.

Faulty operation of a unit ventilator can double theenergy consumption of the same properly operated unit,according; to Stephan. This waste results from a tragi-comedy, in which the firSt mistake leads the benightedcustodian over deeper into a bog of compounded errors.Here's how the vicious spiral usually dOelops:

A teacher opens the drama by complaining about coldair coming from the unit ventilator grille. The cold aircomprises a mixture of fresh and recirculated air, intro-duced at a minimum temperature of 6OF or so, to re-'duce the rising temperature caused by the heavy heatand lighting load of a popuThted classroom. To reduceroom temperature from, say, 76.F, to the desired ther-mostatic setting of 72F, the unit ventilator blower sup-

\plies 60F air until the desired 4F temperature drop isachieved.

.


16 Not understanding this temperature-correcting process,the custodian checks the unit ventilator's "low-limit"temperature setting. "Alia!" he conc\udes, on seeing60F. "No wonder the air is cold." Hc\ "corrects" thesituation with the original sin of unit \ventilator mis-handling: he sets the low -limit up .froit 60F to 72F,the desired room temperature.

Act tI follows, inexorably. The unit ventilator beginsto pour 72F air into the classroom, in response to thethermostatically signaled message that the room isoverheated, and the blower persists until the teachercomplains of hot air and again summons the hapless.custodian. Noting the heating system's obviodsmalfimetioning (which he himself caused through tam-pering with the system's controls), the custodian con-cludes that the entire system is haywire, a problem he"solves" simply by switching off the blower.

Now with the unit ventilator/ no longer circulatingforced air and the outside air darOper closed: the heatingsystem works with less efficieney than a fireplace. Hotwater (or steam) flows continually through- the coils,but without the blower operating to circulate the air,'this energy is largely wasted. At this point the dramadegenerates into puie farce. The stuffy classroom over-heats, and the windows are thrown open; then it over-cools, and the thermostatic setting is advanced. Theonly winner in this game is the.fuel supplier.

The above scenario, staged in schools all over the U. S.,does not exhaust the ways of wasting energy in the oper-


ation and maintenance., of unit ventilators. Custodians 17'ignorant of the principle'of the seven-day time clock inthe boiler room may remoye the tabs ("dogs") thatchaAge the temperature'eontrol from 72F to 65F duringunoccupied periods. Again, the price'of ignorance is aninflated fuel bill. And maintenance lapses, notably infailing to clean or replace airconditioning filters, com-bine with operating errors to maximize energy. costs.

St.ephan's accounts of O&M waste in operating HVACsystems are corroborated by other. experts. Dubin citesan instance of waste in a stticly of two identical Connec-ticut schools with all-electric HVAC systems. One ofthese twin schools recorded nearly double the energyconsumption of the other.

The major cause of the energy waste in School A wasthe continuous inactivation of the outside damper con-trol. Tremendous volutnes of needless cold air had te heheated to interior temperatures. Dirty. fil-ters, a major Mini in the maintenance program, alsoobstructed the deliN?Nry of heated air at great waste

-of energy,

Among other possible contributors to School A's energywaste were:

O The useless, continuous lighting of a cafetoriurn andother usually unoccupied spaces.

Unnecessarily high thermostatic control settings forinterior comfort.

Partial blame for our schools'. energy waste rests with

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CHANGES/

18 the teachers. As we have seen, their sometimes insati-able demands or instant comfort can press anxiouscustodians into esperate, sometimes mischievous ef-forts to please.. eaChers must by educated alfout the"inevitability of a little temporary local discomfort, atleast for some individuals, with any HVAC system; nomatter how well designed, fabricated, installed, andoperated. No HVAC system, short of providing eachindividual with his own insulated, individually poweredand controlled thermaRcapsule, can satisfy everyoneall the tir ie.

"An ounce of prevention ..."

The guiding principle of -a .good maintenance programis scheduling. A s nteriAnce department should notoperate like a fire department, passively awaiting break-downs or malfunctions in mechanical, electrical, orplumbing subsystems. Labor productivity can be dou-bled by instituting a preventive maintenance program,with periodic inspection and scheduled parts replace-ment and repair. Reorganization of a desultory O&MprograM can sometimes cut its cost nearly in half.Judged by current indications, school administratorslag behind commercial and industrial building ownersin instituting efficient O&M programs.

Apart from regularly scheduled inspections, severalother strategies -cons Jtute good overall O&M policy.Most obvious is the scheduling of large electrical 'power-consuming operations at nighttime, off-peak hours.Candidates for this economizing practice include elec-


trically driven water pumps refilling water storage 19tanks, dehumidifiers for controlled humidity storage,arid refrigeration. plant compressors (provided doors tothe refrigerated chambers are kept closed ).

As a general policy change in current O&M practices,school administrators could institute conservation ori-ented programs .for.O&M personnel. They should de-mand improved O&M maintenance procedure manualsfrom the architect-engineer firms that design theirschools. Supplementing inspection :schedules, monitor-ing devices could be installed on energy-consuming de-vices to sound alarms or, if tolerable, to shut downequipment when its efficiency dropped below a pre-scribed level of perforthance.

For some types of sophisticated equipment, notably air-conditioning, the service contract with a manufacturermay offer advantages over maintenance by the school'sown personnel. In recognition of the often neglectedO&M cost component in owning costs, California'sSchool Construction Systems Development (SCSD)program administrators included the. offer of a Main-tenance contract as a mandatory part of the contract.The maintenance service contract may become popularas mechanical-electrical subsystems become even morecomplicated.

One of the important maintenance jobs is to recheck thecalibration of controls, a task for which schools' O&Mpersonnel are seldom qualified. A good control systemstechnician will often discover energy wasting equip-ment malfunctions in the normal course of his work.


20 A good O&M prOgram obviously leaves no weak linksin the chain. Some of the most obvious energy wastersare sometimes overlooked. To Minimize air infiltration,which silently increases energy consumption every sec-,ond of the operating year, inspect and recaulk doors andwindows on a regular schedule. Poorly maintained min-

imum Settings and poor calibration of damperS canadmit ,even greater quantities of outside, air. Regularinspection can prevent energy waste from poor thermalinsulation on steam or hot water lines in airconditionedspaces and on chilled water pipes or cold air ducts. Keepeonddnsers for aireonditioning, refrigeration, and drink-ing water fountains free of paper and other foreign ma-terial that might interfere with air flow or otherwiseimpede heat transfer. Keep heat transfer coils free ofdust, wInch, can reduce efficiency by 25','; or more: Alsocheck for and radiators, and defectiverefrigerator and freezer &or gaskets.

Lighting efficiency Can be enhanced simply by more'frequent light- bulWreplacement. Current maintenancepolicy often prescribes initial over-illumination, to al-low for one or more bulb failures before the next generalbulb replacement: More frequently scheduled cleaningof lamps, fixtures, reflectors, and shades will also in-crease lighting efficiency.

Dollars for dimes

Some O&M savings require small capital investmentsthat. are quickly recouped, thus justifying themselvesas long-term (often even as short-term) economies

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CHANGES '

under sfhe life-cycle costing concept. Improved furnacecombijstion is an ohyroUs target for big, long-term re-turns from small investments. (Inefficiently operatedheating plants in commercial. apartment. and institu-tional buildings pump some 600,000 tons of soot intothe..U. S. atmosphere every year, wasting millions ofdollars' worth -of Inei in addition to fouling the environ-ment. )'-As an example of readily attainable savings, a::;6,000 investment in improved combustion for a 50-unit apartment in Yonkers, N. Y. cut annual fuel costsby one-third..4 will pay for itself in five years.

-.._

Inefficient combustion increases fuel bills in two ways.Extra fuel to produce the required heat adds 5'; to 15';to the fuel bill. Compounding this primary waste is thebuildup'of soot (unburned carbon particles that ideallyare exhausted as carbon dioxide gas) on heat transfersurfaces. (The unwanted thermal-insulating effect of a.1/2-inch-thick layer of soot can add 8"; to a furnace'sfuel consumption.)

Caused bdsically by improper atomization of fuel oil .

before it is burned, inefficient combitstion resulting insoot exhaust can be controlled by the following steps:* Maintain fuel; air ratio specified by burner manu-facturer.® Check burndr, alignment and condition,." Maintain recommend-ed, luel oil temperature-'atburner tip (so that fuel enters burner at proper viscosityto insure complete combustion).

Airconditioning equipment, a major source of energy

0 0

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE CHANGES'r

consumption, offers 'correspondingly large opportuni-ties for O&M economy. The best time to service aircon-ditioning equipment is spring. Among the-key mainte-nance jobs are:o Checking and repairing cooling towers.* Replenishing refrigerant.e Checking fans, pumps, compressors, and other rotat-ing equipment for poor seals, belt slippage, and otherdefects.

Calibrating controls.* Changing filters.

According to architect P. Richard Rittelmann, main-tenance personnel often reduce fan speeds after thebuilding is occupied (apparently in response to objec-tions about noise or drafts). The resulting reduced airflow over the coils may cause their frosting, with drasticreductions in HVAC system performance. Rittelmannadvises every school district to check all rotating ma-chinery annually for proper rpm.

The experience Of a large New England industrial plantillustrates the evolution of a good airconditioning filterreplacement program. Filters perform a vital function,trapping dust particles that would impair duct effi-ciency and reduce interior air quality. Inefficient filters

-also squander fan power, which consumes a surprisinglyhigh fraction (25'; to 3(),:; ) of an airconditioning sys-tem's total energy consumption, Before the institutionof a preventive maintenance program, the...filters wereinspected on a rule-of-thumb schedule. In the :secondstage, the inspection schedulr'was corrected to incor-

-


porate the lessons learned in the first stage. A big. 2:3

third-stage refinement resulted from the second-stagediscovery that atmospheric dirt and general filter in-efficiency were correlated with a considerable drop inpressure across the filter. Ultimately, a bi= weekly schecl -.ule cut filter inspection to a minor fraction of theformerly required time. Moreover: by substituting arapid instrument check for the workmen's judgement,the new program vastly improved the maintenancecrews efficiency. Similar improvement in cleaningand overhauling air-handling units, compressors. powercircuit. breakers, transformers, and other equipment 7-enabled this plant to nearly double its maintenanceefficiency.

According to figures cited by Lennox Industries' TedGilles, the expenditure of S1 for airconditioning equip-ment maintenance can yield nearly $6 savings hi oper-ating cost. Dirty. filters waste energy by impedingidelivery of warm or cool air to airconditioned spaces,lengthening the operation of heating-co4ng equip-ment. In' conjunction with dirty dirty burnerscan drOp burner efficiency by about. 2W; . Maladlustedfresh-air dampers, which admit excess outside air, laza_s_ti:energy on both heating and cooling cycles. An annualmaintenance expenditure of $15 per ton of refrigerationcapacity can cut a net $7.0 per ton from operatincosts,says Gilles.

An effort to systematize the identification of energy-wasting sources has been launched in the Memphis cityschools. Felix E: Oswalt, assistant :superintendent of


21 the department of plant management, has proposed aComputer Profile of School Facilities Energy Consump-tion. Planned for introduction in the 1973-74 schoolyear, this program classifies buildings by coded desig-nations. Input includes such items as height, floor planconfiguration, percentage of glass coverage in walls,HVAC system, and School program. Output, in suchterms as total energy cost per square foot of buildingor per pupil, allows comparisons among different.schools of the same type (to identify, for example, poorO&M practices or malfunctioning equipment) or amongschools of different types (to evaluate the efficiency ofdifferent'inechaniCal systems).

The need for better personnel

As the preceding section indicates, the most immedi-ately pressing task in a schoui district's energy conser-vation program is to assure high qualifications in itsO&M personnel. Since World War II, the mechanical-electrical shardvf the school construction budget hasmore than dotbled from roughly 20% to 45(,'; intoday's schools. Meanwhile, the personnel policies -forupgrading our schools' O&M forces have lagged far be-hind. The -importance of an efficient O&M program isfurther underscored by its long-term cost a.biggercost than the initial cost of new construction.

"Our post-World-War-II schools need more than thetraditional custodial staff," says Stephan. "They,needskilled personnel, trained to (9perare and0 maintainequipment that is largely unique to schools. Too often


school boards appoint. loyal, but semi-skilled or,,evenunskilled, employees to oversee these oper ions."

25

As part of this personnel upgrading program, schooldistricts must recognize the intrinsic difference between -

maintenance and operation, according to Stephan. Tokeep the modern school's increasingly sophisticated'mechanical and electrical equipment in good workingorder, maintenance personnel require considerably.,higher skills than operating personnel.

Some school systems have alyeady.recognized this needfor improved technical qualifications for O&M person-nel. School district superintendents in New York Statemust /acquire three graduate-level course credits inplanning and administering school plants. This prinei-,ple should be extended to O&M personnel, according toEFL'si president, Harold B. Gores.

`q-ilightened qualifications, achieved through nightcourses in a community college or fnanufacturer-spon-Bored courses in boiler,`HVAC, and lighting equipmentmaintenance, could professionalize a school's custodialstaff, enhancing its self est.m as well as its competence.Piromotions would depend on credits for these courses.

chool administrators would recognize the O&M per-Sonnels' new status by setting aside special places for:equipment manuals and the like. Higher salaries must,of course, accompany higher status and competence.But they would constitute a cheap price, returned manytimes over, for the vastly greater O&M economiesachieved through upgraded personnel policy."

"OPERATING AND MAINTENANCEHANGES

126 Stephan believes that O&M salar,{, increases must be

pretty steep to attract the required caliber of personnel.I?

"For the average school district, salary increases of 50';or so are in order. These increases should reward thehigher qualifications required throughout the entireO&M hierarchy."

Top O&M management requires first attention. For the... average school district with eight to 10 schools and

some. $25-million worth of school plant, the dirikttor of_operation and maintenance (ranked as deputy, a soci-t,ate, or assistant superintendent) should have a egreein engineering with a minor in management. His salaryand qualifications should approximate those of privateplant maintenance engineers bearing comparable, re-sponsibility. Public and private employers compete forthe same supply of personnel talent. Ill-conceived ef-forts to economize on this salary will almost certainlycost the school district many times the' savings". A schooldistrict paying an unqualified O&M director $12,000a year will save $10,000 or so on his salary and losemany times that amount in unnecessary energy expen-ditures.

In the typical small school district,. the O&M directorrequires two middle managewnt assistants: a super-'visor of maintenance and a supervisor of operations. Asindicated earlier, the maintenance supervisor requiresthe higher qualifications. He should be an engineeringgraduate, with experience and...working knowledge ofbuilding trades, electrical power, and even electronicsfor fire-alarms, communications systems, etc. The oper-ations supervisor should have strong vocational training:.


Formal education and experience is 'less important forthe "line" jobs in the O&M department, but upgradedsalaries and better motivation are needed. In-servicetraining, featuring one- or two-week courses at manu-facturers' service and technical schools can keep thesesupervisors abreast of the latest technology.

For the custodians working under the building super-visor, salary increases lifting them above the normal.(poverty-line) $4,000-$5,000 range would help to raisemorale. Successful energy conservation requires goddmorale throughout the entire O&M personnel hierarchy,from top to bottom.

97

MODERNIZATION OFEXISTING SCHOOLS

28 hough the same basic .energy-conserving tech-niques apply to modernization and new con-struction, there are obvious differences in the

approaches to each. Many techniques that are econom-ically feasible for new construction for example, wallshading with verticalscreening would he prohibitivelyexpensive for buildings not designed for them. For mod-ernization work, an architect is more or less limited toreplacing clear, heat-admitting glass with tinted, heat-absorbing glass, adding such glass as an additional ex-terior layer, installing Venetian blinds between panesor shading devices outside the windows. Modernizationgenerally pas high first-cost components at a competi-ive compared with the same items in

eluded in new construction.

An-obvious -reason- for -this-tilted competitive balanceis the added cost of demolition and repair of existingbuildings often associated with the addition of newHVAC, plumbing,- and even electrical systems. Stillanother factor weighs against the installation in exist-ing buildings of sophisticated new equipment thatmight be easily justified for a new building. For exam-ple, a structure whose remaining useful life is 10 yearsor less, the annual cost of installing a durable, sophisti-cated central HVAC system would be intolerably high.But the annual cost fcr the same HVAC system in anew building with projected useful life of 40 yearswould be eminently reasonable,

Airconditioning economies

Simply eliminating airconditioning may appear to be

MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING SCHOOLS

a viable method of reducing a school's- energy consump:.-tion, but this report .does -not consider it.as a generallyuseful technique. In northern climates, architects mayoccasionally exploit natural 'ventilating patterns andwall shading to produce a tolerable thermal environ-::meat without artificial cooling. But usually aircon-.ditioning appers to be a necessity in the schools of thefuture for several reasons:

O The trend toward increasing summer use, whichmakes airconditioning mandatory almost everywhere inthe U.S. This is an inherently effiCient practice withcapital cost economies that almost inevitably outweighthe costs of airconditioning.

® Available evidence suggests that airconditioning en-hances teachers' and students' performance.

O Elimination of airconditioning and the consequentneed for natural ventilation often forces the design intouneconoical building shapes.

fn both modernization and new construction, theHVAC system offers a tremendous potential for re-duced energy consumption. Energy consumed to main-tain comfort within the nation's buildings constitutes__about 20(,; of total national energy consumption.

__Energy consr,ned by most HVAC systems could be cutby 30%, according to experts at a National Bureau ofStanclards/Geheral Services Administration meeting inMay,'1972. The mechanical engineer's choice of HVACsystem depends-on a host of local factors building

29


30 shape, availability and cost of fuel, competence of main-tenance crew, etc. Yet there are some general principlesthat can serve as guidelines in the quest for energy con-servation economy.

The first such principle concerns the performance cri-teria demanded of an airconditioriing system. From thestandpoint of precise, reliable performance in cuntrol-ling the thermal environment, the "single duct, all aircooling and reheat" system offers the best combinationof temperature and humidity control. But for energyconservation, this reheat airconditioning system isprobably the work choice. It first cools all incoming airto. the towest temperature required in any interiorspace. Then it compounds the energy -Waste of this ex-cessiveeooling by reheating large amounts of air circu-lated in spaces with a lower cooling demand, or even aheating demand. The additional heat generated by thisexcessive cooling is usually wasted.

Far more efficient than the single-duct, reheat systemis the "variable volume" system. As the name implies,va.riable volume airconditioning matches the coolingload with a variable volume of air cooled to requiredtemperature. There is a slight sacrifice in environmentalquality, especially in summer humidity control (whichcan be achieved quite precisely With the reheat system).But this sacrifice seems tolerable in view of the greatand growing economies promised by the variable vol.ume System, The greatest obstacle to this system's useis the outdated ventilation requirements in many build-ing codes.


Both the foregOing airconditioning systems are variants 31of central airconditioning. Within the past 10 years,however, packaged. multizone airconditioiiing systemshave begun competing with central systeMs. This newtrend originated with California's SCSD prouarn. initi-ated in the early 1080s. The new Packaged unit-s areespecially well adapted to modular systems building:

Packaged HVAC systems differ from central systemsin the location of the basic equipment (furnace, refrig-eration units, and circulating fans or pairiPs). Instead-of centralizing this equipment, the packaged HVACsystem spreads it around tip building in compact("package") units. The packages contlin a furnace,refrigeration compressor, condenser, and fan coil unit.designed to aircondition ( i.e., heat, cool,.)-mmidify. or ,

dehumidify) a specified zone as large as four standard -classrooms. Whereas central systems may exceed 26,000 .

tons of refrigeration capacity, packaged units seldomexceed 50 tons,

Renovation work further complicates the already corn-plea tradeoffs between central and packaged HVACsystems. A project handled by School Renovation Sys-tems (SRS); of San Francisco, illustrates several ofthese complicating factors. For Paul Revere elementaryschool annex,-a two-story, concrete-framed, brick-facedbuilding, two gas-fueled, central HVAC systems (onefor each of two 15,000-sq-ft floors) proved Most ,eco-nomical. What favored central HVAC at Faul Revere.was the extensive reconstruction. Partitions and sus-pended plaster ceilings were demolished; a toy bull-dozer cleared each floor. With the build:-1g cut back


32 almost to its bare structure, the labor costs for cuttingexpensive openings for ductwork were minimized, thusremoving a factor that often- favors packaged HVACunits for modernization.

SRS sets some crude criteria for the choice of a HVACsystem in a modernization project. For one-story build-ings, packaged-units on the -rooftop are the most eco-nomical because the duct runs are minimized. Ducts canmerely run down through the roof into the ceiling space,serving. modular areas of 4,000 sq ft or so. When thebuilding is two or three stories high, there is a contestbetween central and packaged, units, For buildings four

Hstories and higher, central HVAC units are favored,because the longer vertical dUct runs reduce, or nullify,the advantage. of packaged HVAC units.

More general criteria concerning the relative advan-tages of central vs. patkaged, multizone airconditiOningsystems apply both to modernization and new construc-tion. Packaged, rooftop units often permit la-ge savings'in. fan power needed to move conditioned air to:distantspaces. Thus they are best suited to low, sprawlingbuildings. Central air-conditioning sYstems are most ef-ficient in compact, multistory buildings where fan pow-er requirements to circulate the treated air are rela-tively low. Moreover, the higher the heating and coolingloads (in Etu/hrisq ft), the more efficient the centralplant. Electrical distribution also favors central sys-tems; it is easier and more economical to bring electricpower to a central point than to many packaged units.Gas pipes fotheating pose an even greater problem forpackaged HVAC.sytems.

4


According to Dubin, a central HVAC plant is normally10'; to 15:: more efficient. than packaged HVAC units,for two reasons. First, its equipment is more efficient.Second, it has an intrinsically more efficient condensingapparatus. In every refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant(the basic cooling agent) must he condensed from gas-eous to state after it cools the water or air that isused as the :(,(31ing medium. In central HVAC units, thecondenser uses water to condense the refrigerant. Butfor the rooftop packaged units, the necessarily lightcondenser normally uses air, a much less efficient cool-ing medium than water for rejecting the heat of con-densation. An air-cooled condenser uses considerablymore energy than a central 'system's water-cooledcondenser. Thus the normally air-cooled packagedHVAC unit starts out with ,a basic energy-consuminghandicap in its cApetition with a central HVACsystem.

There are several other.advantages possessed by cen-tral HVAC:

It can burn cheaper fuel.It can be designed for lower total capacity than pack-

aged or ,window units and usually for greater overalloperating,efficiency.s It,is more adaptable to automatic, computer controland maintenance economies.

\As a general conclusion, a central HVAC system, skill-fully designed \jo exploit all potential opportunities,'seems most likely..to conserve energy, and probably alsoto minimize long-term owning costs. Yet each projectmust be rigorously analyzed for its own unique combi-

\


`11 nation 'of factors. Among the variables that can affectthe choice between central and packaged, units areload factor (airconditioning energy used total capac-ity) and diversity factor (maximum overall demand.:sum of individual peak loads).

Energy sources natural gas, electricity, oil consti-tute another major factor. And today, with energyprices changing and some sources. (notably. naturalgas) in short supply, the designer of an economicalH VAC system must be something of a soothSayer.

Even `Yhen the system choice-has been made, importantdecisions remain. Sizing of central units for long-termeconomy requires judicious weighing of assets and lia-bilities. Increasing the size of a central chiller unit re-duces' its capital cost; on a per-top capacity basis, a5,000-ton unit costs only half as much Per ton to installas a 250-ton unit.

The mechanical engineer must carefully study the loadfactor in choosing units because a. large unit operatingat partial capacity loses efficiency. Energy consumption

for central airconditioning systems is reduced by speci-fying at least two refrigeration machines, each completewith its own cooling tower, pumps and other auxiliaryequipment. When cooling loads drop to 5(Y-' or less, itis more efficient to operate only one machine.

The same principle holds for boilers. Significant fuelsavings are attainable through usc__A,` smaller unitscoupled together for independent firing to operate atpeak capacity and efficiency as demand increases.


&Cause of the inefficiency of operating central HVACequipment at very low capacities and on an intermittentbasis, space with irregular occupancy hours might bemore efficiently cooled with WindoW or packaged air-conditioners equipped with thermostatic controls. How-ever, the efficiency of different manufacturers windowand package airconditinning units varies widely andsome require twice as moth energy per ton of refriger-ation Shan others. Assuming efficient equipment withthermostatic controls, there is less probability of energywaste through excessheating or cooling than with cen-tral airconditioning.

When central aircoridtioning is the choice, air distri-buktion should he at low or moderate pressure, n6t, high-velocity, high pressure. Pans and pumps use abotit 40';of the energy consumed by an airconclitioning system:High velocity, high Treessure air distribution raises ductfriction losses and raises energy consumption needed torun the requirea Inrger fan motors. The smaller ductsallowed by high-velocity distribution may slightly re-duce construction costs, because of a thinner floor-ceil-ing sandwich in multistory buildings. But, normally,_th;s Might saving is soon dissipated by higher energyconsumption.

Sinct, heavy airconditioning loads are the chief sourceof electric power interruptions research is under Wayon "coolins storage" jtechniques, which would flattenthe jagged peaks of th-n_enefgy demand curve and re-duce the hazards of blackouts or brownouts when de-mand exceeds capacity: In addition, the altered power/demand profile would also conserve energy; electrically


36 driven airconditioners would operate on 60r; less power.Steady Power.demand representing the same total ener-gy consumption as a jagged power demand curve withprominent peaks and valleys representS' greater power-generating efficiency. Lower peak hour demand enablesthe utility company to operate its best-equipment mostof the time, without the necessity of using old, ineffi-cient turbogenerators.

"Cooling storage" airconditioning depends on a basi-cally simple scientific principle thermal energy stor-age (TES). When the.airconditioning unit is operating,refrigerant at 40F or so flows front.. the evaporatorthrough a thin, lightweight panel of ribbed aluminumand plastic containing salt - hydrate crystals that freezesolid at 55F. Offpeak nighttime operation of the aircon-ditioning system builds up "ice" in the TES panel..-Atmaximum cooling load, the melting crystals replace theevaporator as the cooling source, relieving the energyload on the compressor. By.:evening, when the "ice" hasmelted, the compressor starts up again, renewing theairconditioning cycle. TES changes the airconditioningsystem from an energy-peaking drain -on the electricutility into a powe9tabilizer. It adds further economiesby reducing the required refrigeration capacity byabout 40%.

The energy-storing principle is already in practical use.An electrically energized heat storage system, serving250,-000 sq ft of office space, Cuts operating costs for theNew Hampshire Insurance Company headquarters inManchester, N. H. Operating between the hours of8 p.m. and 7 a. m., this heat-storing system cuts working

MODERNIZATION OF EXISTINd SCHOOLS

day power consumption to 213(' of total consumption. 37

The heat storage syste.in features three 16,000-gallontanks with electric resistance heating elements, eachrated at 735 kw. Tank water, heated to 280F, merelyscores -heat; it does not circulate. Two heat exchangersper tank supply water for space heating and domestichot water.

Electric heating, however, gt tierally works against ener-gy conservation. So long as oil, coal and natural gas con-stitute the prime fuel sources for electric power genera-tion, electric heating will remain an, inherently wastefuluse of energy. What makes this practice inefficient isthe two basic energy conversions from heat to elec-tricity and then back to.hcat with transmission lossessandwiched in between. The 32'; thermal efficiency ofthis_ process can he doubled when the fuel is burned atthe for dir rict conversion to heat.

The _Ti.owing popularity of electric heat, especially insingle-family horries, stems from lower first cost (which,makes it popular (with speculatiVe builders), 'and thesubsidized rates through which many public utilitieshave encouraged a rapid growth in.this wasteful prac7.tice. In view of the enc;gy crisis, it seems doubtful thatthese energy-wasting puilicieS can be allowed to con-tinue. Already, utilities in sunie cities (notably NewYork) have superseded saki§ campaigns for electricheat by "save -a- watt" campaigns.

Electric heat can., however, he efficierit as a Supplemen,tary heat source for example, in the periphery of abuilding with highly variable heat gains or losSes

± r'MODERNIZATION OVE*ISTING SCHOOLS

.a

38 through the walls. Electric heat is inherently inefficientonly when it is used as the primary heat energy source.(The efectrically driven heat pump is not, strictly de-fined, a forrmof electric heat.)g

Like TES, .solar radiation may eventually become anonpolluting, energy--conserving power source sometimein the foreseeable future. Even V-iow, the solar radiationimpinging on a school building's roof could supply sev-eral times the total winter heating loads. Solar energymight: be,particularly advantageous when used in con-

Ainction V,Tith a heat pump.

Improved thermal insulation

Another largely ignored technique for reducing energyconsumption is the use of better'thermal insulating ma-terials. BUt in conjunction with wall shading, it consti-tutes the most important determinant of heating andcooling loads. In fact, as a means of. reducing long-rangeowning' costs, thermal insulation is probably the mosteconomical, investment that can be trade in.a building.The additional cost of improved insulation can usuallybe recouped viithin two fo five years, after which itbecomes a perennial economy:

Closely related to thermal insulating quality is thii heat-retaining capacity of building materials. Over the pastseveral decades, the substitution of light wall and roof ,

construction has. greatly reduced the heat capacity of ;-building materials. Traditional. heavy stone, masonry,and concrete construction retards heat gains and lOssds;


thus flattening a building's energy demand curve for :19

heating and cooling. Mainly because it roduces peakdemand, a flattened -energy demand curve p:.omotesenergy conservation in three way:.

It reduces capital. cost for heating and cooling equip-ment, which can be designed for lqwer capacity.

It_ assures more efficient energy use, because equip-: ment is most-efficient when-operated close to capacity.

It relieves peak demand on electrical power utilities,which can meet peak demand only at the price of re-

: duced. efficiency,

Improved lighting design

At no real sacrifice in quality, energy consumption forlighting could he reduced by at least 25(' in new build-ings and by 15'; in existing buildings, according to apanel of experts assembled by the National Bureau ofStandards and the General Services Administration.Lighting is an extremely important factor in overallenergy consumption. As indicated earlier in this 'report,excess ..lighting wastes energy in two ways: in directconsumption of electric powei ;to produce the lightitself) and then in additional .energy required to dis-sipate the quantities of waste heat generated by thzlights. Even with modern fluorescent lamps, nearly 80(:-;of consumed lighting energy ends ,u.p. as waste heat.Moreover, requctions in lighting levels produce amazingenergy savings. Dropping an illumination level from 150to 50 ft-candles reduces energy consumption by 901;;,.,


40 There are two obvious methods for reducing the electri-cal energy consumed in lighting. Local switching, en-

. tabling occupants to turn off part of a mom's lightsis. available at a negligible :increase in wiring costs.Anotli6r obvious method is to design lighting for spe-cific local tasks instead of uniform general levels. Ac-cording to Stein, designing individual study carrels forlocal illumination of .70 ft-candles ( the recommendedIES standard for general classioom lighting) would cutlighting power requirements by 80(' .

1.

Lighting consultant William M. C. Lani, of Cambridge,Mass., cites several other techniques for restricting highillumination levels to specific local spots where they areneeded. In drafting rooms, table-anchored, swivel-armedfluorescent lamps provide flexibility. They also providebetter individual glare and shadow controi than generalhigh-level ceiling lighting. Incandescent lamps still havetheir local lighting uses. Movable track fixtures permitthe movement of luminaires to different locations wherethey are needed.

The Illuminating Engineering Research :Institute(IERI)Jeco,m'mends the use of photoelectric switchingto combine natural and artificial lighting to bestadvantage,

"High-low" ballasts offer still another means of effect-ing relatively large economies at extremely slight ad-ditional capital investment, according to Lam. For

( about 10% additional first cost for lighting fixtures,high-low ballasts (individually switched at each fix-

5.


tore) allow a building owner or the Occupants to select 41the lighting level in each part of each room wheneverthe furniture or use is rearranged. The savings are par-..,ticularly great in modular buildings where flexibilityis achieved through a uniform layout of lighting fix-tures. If only the fixtures located over desks were oper-ated at "high" and all others at "low", the averagelighting load in a typical building, may be reduced by50(,; , with additional savings in extended lamp life.There would also be a more comfortable and attractive,environment.

If high-low ballasts were required on all governmentfinanced projects, the ballasts would become competi-tively priced and the '-additional first cost would beoffsetliyoperating savings in weeks instead of months.

Many-experts are questioning lighting criteria. Thebasic standard for school lighting is reading hard pencilon cheap, gray foolscap. Why, asks Stein, choose suchan arbitrarily difficult task? Why can't the student usea softer. more legible pencil, or even better paper? Visualperception is extremely sensitive to the quality of read-ing material. With everything else const\a'raz, 8-pointBodoni type can be read with the same ease -61-2-ift-candles as No. 2 pencil writing at 63 ft-candles.

It is, of course, convenient to have uniform generallighting levels throughout an entire academic space.But in view of the economic and social costs of suchtremendous energy waste we may have to compromise.

- MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING SCHOOLS

42 The New York Chapter of the AmeriCan Institute ofArchitects agrees with 'other experts that a 25(,:;. re-duction in electrical lighting energy consumption isin order.

Several new technological improvements are availableto Alt the energy consumed -by lights. Cooling fluores-cent fixtures via the air-or:Water-cooling heat. recoverytechniques discussed Inter in this report appreciablyraises their efficiency; an ordinary 40 -watt .fluorescentlamp operating in 77F air produces 14(,;; more light thanthe same lamp operating in 100F.

Operating fluorescent lamps at higher frequencies thanthe standard alternating current 60 cycles per secondalso raises lighting efficiency. At relatiVely high lightinglevels, raising the frequency to 3;000 cycles per secondcan cut operating costs by 15%. Despite its higher initialcost, high frequency lighting nonetheless merits investi-gation by the school designer.

Use of large (=lass areas to cut the need for artificiallight poses a perennially debated problem. Does thesaving in 1. energy justify the added cost forheating- and cooling accompanying the larger heatlosses and gains through the glass? Mechanical .engi-neers tend to favor the use of opaque well insulatedwalls with minimum glass area. Architects and lightingconsultants sometimes tend 'to favor the potential light-energy savings attainable through well ,,designed andshaded glass. (Among their liabilities, large glass areasincrease maintenance costs for replacement of brokenglass, for washing, and for blinds and other natural light

MODERNIZATION-OF EXISTING SCHOOLS

controls.) Each case requires individual study by the 43architect and his consultants.

Waste-heat recovery

Perhaps the most productiveunergy conservation tech-nique is the, recovery of waste' heat, which is usuallyjected to the atmosphere. but could be. used elsewherein a building. Among the most productive waste-heatreclamation techniques are the following:

Recovery of lighting heat loads.Eihanst heat recovery.Total energy plants. (See next chapter.)Heat pumps.

---Schoolrooms produce an unusually high heat. gain, often,

cooling evcTCVfien outdoor temperatures fallbelow 20F. This is because of their dense occupancy.roughly three times that of a typical offiee4ight trof-fers can heat. the ceiling plenum to temperatures ex-ceeding 120F, and the consequent heat gain ranges be-tween -_':0(;; and 80(,; -Of the heat gain from human oc-cupants. During cold winter weather, removal and re-covery of this light-generated heat saves energy in twoways: by reducing classroom cooling and heating loads;and by reducing total energy consumption by transfer-

'ring the excess heat to other areas that need it..

Removal of this light-generated heat can be accom-plished by two techniques: piping cooling water throughjackets in the lighting troffer.s, or exhausting room airthrough aircooled fxtures into the ceiling plenum.


44 Of the two techniqueS-, water cooling is inherently themore effik,fit. Connected to an evaporative cooler, thewater-cooled lighting fixture reduces the required ca-pacity of the airconditioning system's refrigerationequipment 'as well as- fan horsepower and duct size".Aircooled fixtures do not reduce required cooling capac-ity, because they are part of the airconditioning system,not, like the water-jacketed fixtures, incorporated intoa more efficient, independent system of their own:

Potential economies, through light-generated heat re-covery are indicated by a San Diego office buildingequipped with combined water- cooled lighting and air-conditioning troffers. In return for $20,000 additionalcost for the special light fixtures and $50,000 for im-proved thermal insulation (in this case, double-glazing),the owner saved $100,000 in reduced airconditioningand air-handling equipment. And in addition to thisnet $30,000 capital saving, he will perennially benefitfrom lower operating costS: Heat exchangers designedto recover normally wasted exhaust heat cPn reducewinter heating energy consumption by 30%-35% andsummer airconditioning energy consumption by 15`,;

These exhaust heat exchangers come in four basickinds: rotary wheel exchangers; water-cooled, coil(ruri around) exchangers; heat pipe banks; and air-to-air exchangers. Each kind can provide all the fresh airintake preheat needed either in winter or summer.

The rotary wheel exchanger has several advantages.Strategically located to intercept adjacent airstreamsand packed with heat-absorbing material (for example,'


aluminum or stainless steel shavings), a rotary wheel 45heat exchanger car.: directly transfer heat from the ex-haust to the supply airstream. It can, moreover, recover.both sensible an latent heat ( i.e., the heat containedin the phase change of atmospheric water vapor). Acoil exchanger can recover o j ply sensible heat. Thus itis less efficient in effectin summer cooling savings. Asa major drawback, the rotary wheel exchanger requiresthe same location for supply and exhaust ducts.

For smaller or existing-installations, the coil exchangeroffers the advantage of heat transfer between supplyand exhaust ducts in widely separated locations.-Finnedcoils are installed in both ducts, and'the heat-conveyingwater is simply pumped from the exhaust to the supplyduct.

Heat pipe banks and air-to-air heat exchangers aremore exotic techniques that merit investigation bymechanical engineers.

The heat pump offers still another method of recyclingwaste heat. Like the refrigeration unit in a conventional

eairconditioning system, th0 at pump comprises threebasic components: compreckor (the system's primemover); an evaporator (the 'cooling component); anda condenser (the heat-rejecting component). The heatpump differs from normal airconditioning in its reversi-bility, which allows it to recover the normally wasted

,

heat rejected by the condenser and use this reclaimedenergy for winter heating.


16 The. heat pump's reversible cycle depends on an intri-cate, four-way valve that can reverse the basic coolingcycle. In this,.reversed cycle, the outdoor condenser(heater) .beeornes an evaporator (cooler), and viceversa, the indbor evaporator becomes a condenser heat-ing the interior. During the heating cycle, reveniedfrigerant flow extracts heat from the outdoor air andyields it indoors at the condenser.

If, for sonic reason, the decision has been made to heatand cool electrically, the heat pump is the most efficientmethod. Because it draws a large part-of its energy fromoutside air, well water if avai able, or condensed waterIIin a closed loop system, a l eat pump can be 2.5 to 6times more efficient than other electrical heating meth-ods. Electrical resistance heat is inherently far lessefficient than the heat pump because the generation,trapsmission and distribution of electrical power losesabout 60,,-; of the potential energy of the fossil fuelsthat produced the power. The heat pump is especiallyefficient for southern climates when outdoor air is used,but if well water or condensed water is used, heat pumpscan sometimes compete with more conventional heat-ing and cooling techniques in northern climates.

A case in point is a Kimberly, Wis., high school, wheremechanical engineer Walter R. Ratai combined a heatpump with an ingenious light-generated heat recoverysystem to reduce animal heating and cooling costs be-low the estimated fuel cost for heating with a conven-tional unit ventilator system. Moreover, the designreduced capital costs by an estimated $150,000. Addi-


tion of cooling boosted total construction cost by 478180,000. But the compact ',design made possible bycooling cut $330,000 trom general construction, electri-\cal, and plumbing costs.

Because of the heat recovery system, the Kimberlyschool requires,im additional heat\ when the outside

. temperature is above 23F. (At this equilibrium temper-ature, excess heat drawn from interior areasis circulatedin the cf filer peripheral areas.) When femperaturesdrop below 23F, the heat pump extracts supplementaryheat from 54F water in a 650-ft:deep well. Removal ofclassroom' air through the lighting fixtures reduc:al re-quired cooling capacity by 10c; and fan power by 25i .

By removing 70(;; of total light-generated heat from the-- classrooms, the engineer enhanced the efficiency of the

heat pump and the lamps, which (as noted previously)operate mo-zz: efficiently at cooler temperatures.

PLANNING NEW SCHOOLS

48 w tarting out with a new building obviously offersthe_greatest opportunity for energy conservation.With the clearly stated goals of energy conserva-

tion and life-cycl . costing in the architectural program,a school building s energy consumption can be reducedby up to 50(,'. compared with a conventionally &Signedbuilding. In addition to the Weliniques discussed pre-viously, new construction offers several means of energyconservation that are generally impracticable (or lesspracticable) for existing_buildings. Among these are:o Compact building shape.

o Multi-use occupancy.

O Total energy.

*Wall shading.O Autorbatic controls.

o Improved mechanical design.

Improved electrical design.

Compact building shape

Building shape plays a basic role in the energy requiredto heat and cool a building. Since heat gains and lossesare transmitted through walls and roofs, the designershould attempt to minimize these surface areas. As anindication of the heat loads imposed during hot weath-er, the temperature of a grey slag roof can reach 175F.

,Sprawling, single-story schools maximize roof areas.

Energy conservation thus reinforces rising land costs tofavor more efficient, compact building shapes. The trend


toward year-round sessions with its consequent need for 49airconditioning further enhances the advantages of thecompact, multistory building shape. A mere indicationof practicable surface area reductions a three-story,double-loaded classroom corridor wing requires 35c;less building-surface area than a single-story building ofequal volume. A compact design also reduces plumbingand electrical costs, through shortened runs- for pipeand conduit.

Other siting factors may sometimes outweigh compactbuilding shape as an energy-conserving measure, ac-cording to Stein. Skillful exploitation of prevailingwinds. topography, and trees, a sheltered solar expo-sure, or other natural features may enable an architectto design less compact shapes--that may ultimatelyprove more efficient than simple minimiption of thebuilding's area/volume ratio.. Relying on natural yenti-lation for hot weather cooling may require toleration ofoccasional discomfort on calm days. Nonetheless, imag-inative exploitation of natural features is a largelyignored ancillary method. to be used in conjunctionwith building shape as a major energyconservingtechnique.

Building orientation affects airconditioning energy re-quirements. A rectangular building with a-2.5 length/width ratio absorbs,considerably less solar heat if itslong axis is aligned in an east-west instead of a north-south direction. (The sun bakes east and west wallslonger and more ferociously than even a south wall,'which can be more readily shaded and which interceptssolar rays at less direct angles.)

PLANNING NEW SCHOOLS.

50 Multi-use occupancy

Closely related to building shape as a factor in energyconservation is the multi-use building, a design tech-nique of increasing relevance, especially for the central-.city school. Skyrocketing land costs, coupled with shortsupply, inspired design of the earliest multiuse school-office and school-apartment structures built during stile,mid-1960s. Energy conservation acids another advan-tage to multi-use buildings, especially for school-apart-ment buildings. Incorporating a school and residentialapartments in a single structure affords an excellent op-portunity to reduce,, the overall surface area 'volumeratio below that of two separate structures. And withtheir staggered peaks in airconditioning demand, theschool and apartment have complementary onergy de-mands. The flattened demand curve permits lower totalplant capacity and the greater operating efficiency ofrunning equipment closer to capacity.

Multi-use projects offer an opportunity for schools toexploit the potential economy of total energy (discussed'below). What cig,needed for total-energy economy iscomplementary uses of energy. A project under studyby the Fairfax County (Va.) School District would

° consolidate the energy plants for an elementary schooland a shopping center. According to Ed Stephan, thetotal energy plant serving the school-shopping centercomplex would have two turbines, designed to operateon either keroser;e or diesel fuel (which could be alteredas supplies and prices vary to favor one fuel Or the other).


Total energy

Total energy, the on-site generation of electric poweralong with other building energy needs, ig basically aheat recovery method that can cut: operation costs inspecial circumstances. Schools Of iwidely-varying sizefrom 330 to 2,300 students and widely separated geo-graphical locatiOns have been equipped with totalenergy plants.

The heart of a total energy plant is a gas or oil-fueledengine or a gas-fueled turbine that drives the electricalgenerator. Waste heat from the power generator is re-covered for heating or cooling. Under the most favorablecircumstances (which seldom occur), this waste heatmore than. doubles the thermal efficiency of the. totalenergy plant from about -30% to 70(;;-. (Gas-fueledturbines offer even greater efficiency as well as greaterpollution abatement than gas or 'oil:fueled engines:)

Operating economy in a. total energy plant depends onthe use of surplus generating heat as the energy sourcefor an absorption refrigeration machine. An absorptionchiller replaces the conventional compressor-evaporatorrefrigerating cycle with an absorptive-evaporator cycle.In the absorber chamber, a salt (lithium bromide) solu-tion accelerates the evaporation of water from the ev.ap-oratoor chamber to which it is connected. (The salt Solu-tion has a lower vapor pressure than the pure...water.)Waste steam from the poWer- generator keeps the proc-ess going, by boiling away excess liquid in the abSorptionchamber, thus maintaining correct salt concentration.

51


52 Absorption chillers use more of the fossil fuels thanelectrically-driven refrigeration units of similar capaC-ity, but their operating costs may he lower dependingupon the relative fuel and electrical costs. When pow-ered by the waste-heat from total energy eleCtric gener-ators, they offer even greater operating savings. Andtheir maintenance costs are similarly low.

Though not a genbrally economical solution to a singleschool building's energy problem, the total energy plantMerits consideration as part of multibuilding complexeSor multi-use projects.

To exploit the pOtential economies of total energy, aproject must salasfy three basic criteria:

O I. must have high,..fairly constant energy demand'during most of the clay, over most of the year, both forelectric and waste-heat power. (This criterion elimi-nates total energy for schools on a nine-month schedule. )

It must have heating or cooling demands that areboth simultaneous and roughly prOportional to lightingand other electric power demands.

a Gas (or oil) fuel rates must he competitive with pre-vailing electric rates.

Wall shading

Here is another basic, yet often neglected, techniquefor reducing a building's energy consumption. NewYork City architect Manfred H. Riedel says wall shad-,


ing has become almost a lost art among modern archi-tects; they simply use power instead of ingenuity toprovide interior comfort. Each wall of a building mayrequire a different treatment, depeno;ng on its expo-sure. To capitalize on glare-free natural lighting, thebest exposure for a wall with large glass area is north(like artists' studios). It also reduces summer aircon-ditioning loads. Planting frees along a west will pro-vides shade in summer, when the trees are in, leaf, andadmits sun in winter when solar heat gain may help.Canopies, projecting mullions, louvers, and solar glassscreens can drastically reduce solar heat gain.

There are several techniques for reducing solar heatgains, and even losses, through glass. Shaded glass ad-mits only one-quarter of the radiant heat admittedunshaded glass exposed to sunlight. Double-glazi(two layers of glass with an insulating air space be-tween) prevents winter heat loss as well as summer heatgain. Double-glazed, shaded, heat-absorbing glass re-

-cluces heat gain by about 85%. Reflective glass cutsheat in by one-third or so.

Th rinciple of reflective heat rejection is exploited inth sign of a 20-story building for Loop College indowntown Chicago. Designed for' minimal glass areaby the Office of Mies Van der Rohe, the opaque wallsof this building will be painted a heat-reflective metal-lic silver.

Automatic controls

Airconditioning is the major building subsystem suit-


-1 able for automation. It can he monitored by a centralcontrol console where an operator can start and stopequipment; read and automatically record temperature,humidity and flow conditions; reset the air and watertemperatures; and receive and acknowledge alarms.The system can be 'computerized to obtain greaterenergy conservation, thereby lowering the operatingcosts, and it can assist the preventive maintenanceprogram.

One simple means of conserving airconclitionng energyis an "economy cycle" that shuts down the refrigerationmachines and takes in outside cooling air when temper-atures drop to 55F. The economy cycle depends onautomatic dampers on the supply fan opening to theoutside. The cool outside air mixes with return air inneeded proportions to achieve the desired temperature.In the most sophisticated control systems, empiricaldata on solar heat absorbed hourly by sun-baked wallsis fed into the computer for correlation with the vol-ume of chilled water reqUired to T. ;.oduce comfortabletemperatures. The computer can be programmed forthe following tasks:

More economical operation of pumps, fans, compres.sors, and related subsystem equipment.

Immediate detection of overheating, overcooling, orother subsystem failures.

Surveillance and control ofi faulty equipment.Closer detection and consequently quicker correction

of deviations from desired comfort levels of temperatureand humidity.


Automatic control deVices can produce significant 55energy savings in other building subsystems notablyelevators, which can be shut down and restarted bytime clock devices.

Central control systems can often be amortized in lessthan five years, through big savings not only in fueland labor costs, but in lengthened equipment life.

Improved mechanical design

Many mechanical engineers have remained as uncon-cerned as building owners about energy waste. First-cost economy in mechanical design has long been thegeneral rule. Few manufacturers could even supplydata on the operating characteristics of their equipmentat partial loading, information essential for long-termoperating economy. Mechanical engineers have tendedto overdesign HVAC equipment for two reasons: to.satisfy peak lOads, and to hedge against substandardconstruction such as pour door fittings and loose win-dow seals. This wasteful practice assures unnecessarilyhigh energy consumption at normal heating and cool-ing loads.

Several changes in traditional design practices canachieVe much greater operating economy:

Use of energy flow analysis, not peak demand, as thebasic design philosophy.

Design for adaptability, not flexibility, as the basiccriterion.

Design for lower thermal environment standards.

PLANNING NEW SCHOOLS'

56 Energy flow analysis is a tool already used by leadingdesign firms to replace the crude conventional practiceof simply designing' the HVAC system for peak heatingand cooling loa4s. Under this philosophy, the mechan-ical engineer is a member of ache preliininary designteam; he points out the impact-of architectural designon the building's total energy requirements for light-ing, electrical equipment, heating, ventilating and air-conditioning, etc. Instead of merely specifying_equip-rnent to meet the architect's design, the mechanicalengineer offers alternative scherries that will minimizeenergy consumption:

Computer-calculatedare

for comparing alterna-tive energy sy.stems are in use by the larger mechanicalengineering firms. One such program is ACCESS,"Alternative Choice Comparisons for Energy SystemSelection." Sponsored by the Edison Electric Institute,this program enables the engineer to compute estimatedlife-cycle costs fqr eil the building's energy-consumingsystems. It weighs such factors as demand as well asconsurniAion.

The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, andAirconditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has been con-\ducting sur 'eys of energy consul; ,ption in an -instru-mented builds g. ASHRAE's analysis of building heatgains and losses, in addition to such basic factors as thebuilding materials' thermal-insulating qualities, ac-counts for such often ignored factors as shading, orien-tation and heat-gain lag due to the building materials'heat capacity. According to Royal S. Buchanan,


ASHRAE technical director, use of these sophisticated 57energy-requirements calculations should result in sub-stantiafly lower operating costs.

Another set of computer programs, developed by .-the'Gas Industries Research Section. expands the scope ofthe ACCESS and ASHRAE programs. Called Ecube,this energy analysis grew out of a program designed fordetailed feasibility stuJies of total energy.

The Ecubc program answers such questions-as the fol-lowing: How trinCh refrigeration-supplied cooling ener-

---Tgy van be saved by using an economizing outside aircycle? How does energy consumption vary with dif-ferent thermal - insulating; values for the building skin?flow much additional energy is required for variouslevels of humidification? What is the thermal efficiencyof different systems? How much of the recoverablewaste heat can be used? What size units are best? Andthe crucial iluestion which system .minimizes the

._long -term owning cost: (high Edit cost. lowoperating cost); System B (low first cost, high oper7ating cost); or System C (moderate first cost, moderateoperating cost)?

Design for adaptability instead of fle.tibility is a philos-ophy advocated by Dubin. Designing spaces for theMaximum airconditioning,and lighting loads can wastegreat quantities of energy. Designing them for the capa-.bility of. modification to these maximum, loads is farmore economical.

Standards of thermal comfort may have to yield a little


58 under the impact of the energy crisis. Significant quayi-tities of energy could he saved merely by lowering inter-ior winter temperatures and raising summer tempera.-tures from the 75IF mid-point of the 72F to 77F rangedefined as "thermal comfort conditions" by ASHRAE.Raising the summer temperature from 75F to 78F couldcut energy consumption for the airconditioning byabout 1O in the average airconditioned budding. Sim-ilar savings could be realized by:lowering interior wintertemperatures. Cold-blooded occupants could readilyadapt simply by wearing heavier clothing.

aT

According to Dubin, many other buildirigs (includingschools) ,could be designed for atmospheric conditionsthat are exceeded only 5r."; of the time instead of the2.5% criterion in current use. This relaxed design wouldallow spaces to become warmer or cooler only about 50hours a year more" than current standards allow. Inview of the added efficiency which :would he achievedthrough regular operation of the HVAC system closerto capacity, the slightly reduced standard of comfortseems a bargain.

Ventilating standards set in the days before moderntechnology cause needless problems. Most. codes requireexcessive quantities of outdoor ventilating air. Butflooding buildings With huge quantities of outdoor airraises capital and-opeating costs for additional heat-ing and cooling capacity, and for energy to temper out-door air and fanpower to move it..Today, where freshair is required to dihite stale, odorous indoor air, char-coal-activated filters, or even ultra-violet lamps canoften produce better results at big savings.

PLANNING NEW SCHOOLS -

Heat captured from heat-producing equipment and 59exhausted directly to the outdoors offers another meansfor conserving energy. Tr, a research project for theVeterans Administration, mechanical engineers Dubin-Mindell-Bloome Associates reduced the airconditioningload by more than 25(,' through direct exhaust ofkitchen and laundry air. Significant, if lesS spectacularsavings could be effected in schools by similarly design-ing exhaust systems for,direct rejection, instead ofthrowing, this addition IfFload onto the building'sFIVAC s:rstern.

Improved eleR designApart from li :g, electrical design offers relativelyslight opportunities for energy conservation. With itsconstantly increasing use of electricity for radio, TV,slide and movie projectors,- teaching machines, signaland PA systems the school should, nonetheless, ex-ploit all energy-economizing opportunities: Basically,these opportunities involve more efficient distributionand power-demand limiting devices.

Because of higher line losses at lower voltages, use ofhigher voltage transmission reduces a school's electricbill. As part of its energy -conservatidn program, theGeneralServices Administration now purchases electri-cal power at 13,b00 volts and distributes the service atthis relatively high voltage to local substation trans-formers located throughout a building. These trans-formers reduce the voltage to 277/480 volts for fluores-cent lighting, heavy equipment, power and distribution.


Sit

60 A second set of transformers steps the voltage from 480to 120/208 volts, for receptacles and miscellaneousequipment typewriters, adding machines, cleaningequipment, etc.

For large buildings, electric utilities add a "demand"surcharge to their basic rates, for installing and main-tainingtaining service facilities larger than require( (:..i...,"\rnalservice. To eliminate demand surcharges, a Permissive.Load Control (PLC) can reduce electric bills by up tc,20%, merely by disconnecting loads that are -not im-mediately vital to a building's operation. When vitalservice (non- deferrable) load reaches a predeterminedpower level, PLC temporarily disconnects deferrable,loads. Essential services include lights, 'general heatingand cooling, elevators, and cooking rangeS7Deferrableservices include domestic hot water heating, corridorand stairwell heating an&cooling, swimming pool heat-ing, and snow-melting heaters, which are disconnectedin reverse order.

Inefficient use of electrical power, for 1,-vhich mostutilities raise rates, is another candidate for correctionwith widespread design possibilities. Induction motorsthat dri%e fans, compressors, blowers, pumps. and thelike, sometimes exhibit a low "power factor ". (Someelectrical devices, such as lights, are free of this particu-lar power drain.) Many utilities penalize customerswhose electrical equipment operates .fit an ,averagepower factor below a specified percentage, (typically85%) ,,and this practice is expected to grow.


Capacitors installed on these underused Bower lines 64

raise power factors and reduce power losses, by correct-ing voltage/current imbalances. In some instances,savh. averted power factor charges can pay off thecapital investment for capacitors within two years.

New construction thus affords the designer an entirespectrum of energy-conserving techniques embracingthose specifically discussed in this section plus othertechniques discussed under "Operations and Main-tenance Changes" and "Modernization of ExistingSchools."

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

62 egardless how it is expressed in a local com-munity, the energy crisis is no future threat; itis a current reality that will certainly intensify.

Thisintensifyingcrisis will he marked, at worst, by fuelshortages and power brownouts and blackouts; at best,by rising energy costs. School administrators should.lose no time instituting energy conservation programsincorporating the following steps:1. Review O&M personnel for their qualifications tocope with the increasingly sophisticated mechanical. -electrical equipment going into schools.

2. Analyze energy 'consumption in existing schools, toidentify sources of energy waste:

3. Include energy conservation as a major part of anarchitectural. program for modernization or new con-struction projects.4. Use life-cycle costing (or some variant that weighsO&M costs) to replace initial cost as the sole basis forcontract awards for mechanical and -Other energy-consuming subsystems.

to

APPENDIX 1/ LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS -

For a, building where the owner pays O&M costs as well 63as -capital costs, there are three basic techniques forcomputing life-cycle (longterm) costs:1. Benefit/cost analysis.2. Time-to-recoup capital investment.3. Direct comparison of life-cycle costing for alternativesystems of building or subsygtem(s) useful life.

Benefit/cost analysis formalizes the decision confront-ing an owner who must decide whether a capital im-provement is economically justified. In more sophisti-cated applications, a benefit/cost ,analysis can alsoprovide a rational basis for chaasing among alterna-tives, after the go-ahead decision- has been made.

Virtually. every decision that one makes entails, at leastsubconsciously, some form of benefit /cost analysis. Weare caricantly balancing costs. in time, money, or ef-fort against benefits in saved time, or simply insatisfaction. All costs and benefits must.be reduced toa monetary value and the ratio computed. If benefitsexceed costs, i.e., the benefit/cost ratio exceeds 1, thenthe project is economically justified.

The second method, time-?o-recoup capital investment,merely calculates the time required to recoup the origi-nal capital investment through annual O&M savings,which are used to pay the annual; debt service requiredto amortize a loan for the capital investment. If thistime is less than the estimated useful life of the addedbuilding component, then obviously the investment iseconomically justified.

a"

APPENDIX I/LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS

64 For life-cycle cost comparison, in its simplest method,one can simply reduce all costs to a total annual costfor the useful life of compared alternatives. Total an-nual cost (owning cost) comprises two basic categories:I Amortization (principal and interest.) of capital costaJot, normally financed by bond issue.2. Estimated annual O&M expenses.

In the simplest case of comparing alternative systems.with equal useful lives, the lowest total annual costamong Systems A, B, and C is easily identified. Butwhen the systems havedifferent useful lives, the prob-lem becomes more complicated. All costs- must be re-duced to the same useful life, and amortization costreduced to a uniform annual level. Suppose;-'4oi. ex-ample, that a central HVAC system with 20-year usefullife is compared with a packaged HVAC 'system with10-year useful life. If the packaged HVAC systun re-quires anticipated cost replacement of 70e; of its origi-nally installed "quipment, after 10 years, the annualcost of a capital recovery fund necessary to finance thatcost over 'a 20-year eful life must be added to the basicamortization cost to equate comparative costs.

The most common error in life-cycle costing involvesattempts to compare initial cash investment with annu-ally paid charges. One cannot, for example, claim thata $100,000 cash investment is paid off in 10 years if itcuts O&M costs by $10,000 a. year. At 6'."; interest, ittakes more than 15 years to recoup that initial invest-ment.- Interest charges always apply, for the simple

'reason that borrowed money always carries a charge for4.

APPENDIX ULIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS

its use, and unused, or saved money always carries the 65potential of earning interest.

In keeping with this principle, convert future savingsto a "present-worth" .basis. The "present-worth" con-'cept reduces 'future savings to a common basis withcurrent. savings. This conversion is necessary becausea dollar saved today is worth considerably more thana dollar saved- some years' from now. (At W; nterest,a dollar saved today is worth twice as much as a dollarsaved 12 years from now.) The present-worth formulatakes account of these ititure interest losses.

As a further means of insuring jail., consistent cost com-parisons, reduce comparative costs for alternative sys-tems to an annual basis. Even though a school districtMay treat operating and capital costs differently, such

\distinction must be ignored in analyzing what theschool should do fol longterm economy_ If, after a costcomparison has been made, the capital cost of thechosen system exceeds the bond limit, the school boalclmay be forced to reject the most economical alternative.But this is' a legal; not an economic, constraint andshould be clearly resognized as such.

Comparison of HVAC systems for Chantilly HighSchool

A. Benefit/cost analysis

Total first cost System A $1,123,100Total first cost System B $1,238,190System B exceeds System A by $ 115,090

66

APPENDIX Ii LIFE -CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS

.Annual O&M Cost System A System BMaintenance & repair $ 24,000 $18,420Energy (electric) $ 94,660 $67,000Total O&M $118,660 885.420

System A exceeds System B by $ 33,240

Assume a 20-year useful life for each system and a 5interest rate.

Debt service constant table

Interest rate, r4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 10.0

5 0.2246 0.2310 0.2374 0.24389 0.25046 0.2638010, 0.1233 0.1295 0.1359 0.14238 0.14903 0.1627515 0.0899 0.0963 0.1030 0.10979 0.11683 0.13147

'8 20 0.0736 0.0802 0.0872 0.09439 0.10185 0.11746;;F:- 25 0:0640 0.0709 0i0782 0.08581 0.09368 0.11(117

30 0.0578 0.0651. .0726 0.08059 0.08883 0.1060840 0.0505 0.0583 0.0665 0,07501 0.08386 0.10226

Table footnoted = Debt service constant, a factor that multiplied bythe total loan amount, or total principal, yields the an-nual service payment.

r(i r)"(1 + r)"-1

in which r = interest raten = number of years to- relay loan

APPENDIX I/LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF By= INGS

Compute the debt service. constant, d, for 5":';; interest 67from the formula or interpolate between values or 5'.;and 6% in the table; d

Amortization cost, D, for additional capital investmentD = .0837 -x $115,090

= $9,620

Annual O&M saving $33,240Benefit/cost ratioD $ 9,6.20

3.4 (a tremendous advantage for System B)

B, Time-to recoup investment

To find how long it would take to recoup the additional$115,090 capital cost investment required for SystemB, assume that the entire $33,240 O&M saving is ap-plied to paying off a loan for $115,090 for n years at51/,',:;; interest.

n

[S/ rClog S/rC-/Ilog (I-1-r)

In which C = additional capital cost ($115,090)S r-r-, annual C&M saving ($33,240)r = .055 (interest rate)n number of years to pay Off capital debt

with an annual debt service,paymentequal to S, which in this exampleis $33,240

APPENDIX I LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING .OF BUILDINGS

6S 33,240 .055 x 115.090(33,240 .055 x 115,090 1)

log (1 I .055)

log5.954.25

log 1.055

.0917

.0233

n ---- 4 ye-ars

log 1.235log 1.055

For a simple graphical solution to such problems, lisethe chart on:page 69. Simply, compute t he ratio, C S.and find its intersection with the curve for the correctinterest rate. The graph will present soltitions of.more-

,than-sufficient accuracy for most practical problems.

'Warning: In computing C (additional capital cost),you must include all costs associated with the improve-,ment, not merely the contract-. cost for the componentitself. These additional costs include archittictural-engi-fleeting fees, additional financing or legal fees, and so on.

C. Total longterm saving

HVAC System AAnnuaI.O&M cost 5118,660

'HVAC System BAnnual O&M cost $85,420Additional amortization $ 9,620Total $96,040

Ratio

APPENDIX I:LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS

Time to Recoup Capital investmentGraphical Solution

n Years- to recoup capital investment

69

r.- 5%1

r- 6%

r

r

APPENDIX I/LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS

70 Diffcrence,'"S., = $118,660 -- $95,040

S $23,620

SPresent Wordi I-I- r)n 11,

(1,055)' °_11(_ 23620r (1 -I- r). [055(1.055)2'1f

Present worth of 20-year difference = S 9.3,620x 11.95$282,000

D. Cost- saving with rising fuel rates

Assume that energy costs rise at an annual rate of .71:%(geometric progression). 'What would he the total 20-year saving?

Annual energy cost: System A $94,660

System-13 $67,000

If the energy cost rises g',; der year, the following for-mula holds:

a(an-1)Present worth of total energy cost

In which F = Original (year 0.). annualfuel costg annual rate of fuel increase (starting

with first year's cost= F (1-1- g)

n = number of yearsr =. interest rate

1-1- g

1-I-r

APPENDIX I'LIFE-CYCLE (LONGTERM)COSTING OF BUILDINGS .

System A

Energy cost = $94;660 x 23.29 ------ $2,205,000

Maintenance = $24,000 x 11.95 = $ 287,000

First cost = $1,123,000

Total "present worth" $3,615,000

System B

Energy cost =- $67,000 x 23.29 = $1,560,000

-Maintenance = $18,420 x 11.95 = $ 220,000First cost = $1;238,000

Total "present worth" $3,018,000

"Present worth" of 20-year cost saving forSystern\B = $597,000.

.

71

APPENDIX II/BACKGROUND TO THEENERGY CRISIS

72 The rising U. S. energy consumption trend displays twoalarming characteristics: ..,

Total consumption is currently doubling every 15 ..

years (see chart).lectrical energy consumption (roughly one-quarter

cf the total ) is doubling every 10 years.,ly

According to a Federal Power Commission projection,this 7',.. annual rise in electrical energy demand will con-tinue over next few decades, with 1980 demanddouble that of 1970, 1990's nearly doubled again. Black-outs, brownouts, and other power interruptions arealready signaling. trouble.

In addition, the projection of steeply rising energy costsover the next decade highlights the desperate need forenergy conservation starting now. These rising costsare assured by our dwindling supplies of readily recov-erable fossil fuels, which will remain our chief energysources far into the foreseeal:Je future.

A federal interagency staff has propOsed a national goalof 15fic reduction in U. S. energy consumption by 1980(see chart). The proposed program would comprise thefollowing energy-conserving 3-3'.!astires:

Use of improved thermal insulation in buildings.Adoption of more efficient airconditioning systems.Changes in transportation modes (from highway to

rail, freight shipinent, from automobile to mass transitcommuting, from air to grOund).

Shift to more'efficient industrial processes.

O

0

5

3

Projected-U.S. Energy Gap

P

imported ,,./Oil and

Gas /..." --- "-"""4'7-----"

--- i.e.; ....... ............7-Hydro and Geothermal--

..----..-- ,

.

, --... Atomic..:----.-------..., .............---.....

Assumed Future Needs.../

The Energy Gap

Coal and1 . Synthetic Fuels

l' l hl i;llllilji 1! 4;11.17'1111iiiii1 illhLIIlliabiDomestic Oil and Gas

.

1970 1980 1990 2000

Taken from The Energy Crisis by Law.tence Rocks ar:d Richard P. Runyon.i. 1972 by Lawrence Rocks and Richard P. Runyon. Used by permission ofCrown Publishers inc.

Total Annual U.S. rnergy Consumption (in Btu x 1015)Source: The Potential 'or Energy Conservation, Interagency Staff Study,Executive Office of the President, Office at Emergency Preparedness, 1972,U.S. Government Printiog Office, Washington. D.C.

73

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

APPENDIX II/BLICKGROUND TO THEENERGY CRISIS

74 half year after the publication of this report, therewas still no indication that the government would prom-ulgate these goals.

Technological outlook for the futureIn the early days of nuclear power development, opti-mists dreamed of electrii; power so cheap and plentifulthat it would not pay to install switches to turn lightsoff. These dreams have long since faded, as a host ofpractical difficulties have impeded the development offission reactors. Nuclear power today accounts for lessthan 2% of our electric energy (less than 1/2% of ourtotal energy output). Fossil fuels oil, natural gas andcoal currently account for more than 96% of our totalenergy output, and they will supply at least three-quarters of our total energy for the next 30 years.

During the past two decades;-most R&D work on alter-nate energy supplies has focused on nuclear power. Butseveral alternative energy sources notably gasifica-tion of coal and geothermal steam promised earlierpractical results than new nuclear energy, techniques_Though restricted geographically to the -western partof the U.'S., geothermal steam (evaporated and heatedby hot rocks under the earth's crust) could satisfy 5%of the total current U. S. electrical energy demand for50 years. Binit the federal R&D funds for geothermalstep7. 'a,tared a trivial $700,000 for fiscal 1972. Internal

I.Revenue Se rulings discourage, pro for thislow-polluting energy source.

\In contrast with geothermal steam, which promises


early delivery of usable energy, nuclear power genera- 75tion has been tortuously slow in proving its practica-bility and safety. Conventional fission reactors (i.e.,reactors whose heat derives from the splitting of ura-nium atoms) pose a host of problems: disposal of radio-active wastes; low level, radioactive leakage; the cata-strophic (if unlikely) hazard of runaway melting of thenuclear core; thermal pollution of cooling streams; andthe limited supply of U-235. (U-235 remains the energysource for current reactors because of the even greaterdifficulties with "breeder" reactors.)

The fusion reactor is a potential energy source thatcould satisfy the world's energy needs for millions ofyears, while minimizing the hazards posed by fissionreactor3. It is fueled with deuterium (heavy hydrogen)atoms, which are in plentiful supply in the oceans.Fusion Of deuterium atoms into helium atoms releasestremendous quantities of 'heat energy, as a source ofsteam for driving the -eerie turbogenerators used in aconventions fossil-fuel plant.

But the practical obstacles are monumental. For twodecades, nuclear fusion research has focused on theproblem of magoetically confining the core "plasma"(ionized gases) at virtually interstellar temperatures,ranging up to 100 million F. The ultra-hot plasma can-not he allowed to touch the combustion chamber wallswhich would cool the gaseous ions below the torridtemperatures required to sustain the fusion reaction.Because of tliis 'formidable technological problem, thefusion reactor appears commercially impractical at

APPENDIX II1BzCKGROUND TO THEENERGY CRISIS

76 least until the year 2000, despite some encoural;ing re-cent experimental progress in confining the liyd6genplasma at 25 million F.

For varying reasons, other non-nuclear solutions appearfairly remote.

The fuel cell,- used in the Apollo spacecraft exceeds theefficiency ol conventional thermal power plants by 50c; .

But for an economically competitive terrestial applica-tion, it requires large scale gasification of coal for fuj,and this process appears to he some yeays away.

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) generates electricitydirectly from hot ionized gust's- flowing at supersonicspeeds between the poles oi a magnet at fuel cell ther-mal efficiency. But MHD has lacked the research efforrequired for its practical achievement.

Solar radiation may eventually becOme a nonpolluting,energy-conserving power sPnrce. As explained in lt-letext, the solar radiation impinging on a schoolhouseroof could supply several times the winter heatingneeds. Energy cost rises within the next few yearcould cover the cost of capturing, storing and conveyingthis energy to the building interior.

Tidal energy, though proven technologically, is not yetproven economically. It is, moreover, limited to a fewsuitable sites and is therefore insignificant on a nationalscale. Conventional hydroelectric power offers a simi-larly small opportunity for economical expansion ofwaterp.vcr. The best darn sites have already been ex-

APPENDIX II BACKGROUND TO THEENERGY CRISIS

ploited-Thus, despite projected increases in the use of 77nuclear energy and the possibilities inherent in non-nuclear energy sources, we must. look for continued de-pendence on fossil fuels, at least in the immediatefuture.

.Cultural obstacles to resolving theenergy..crisisForrAidable as they are, the technological obstaclespose fewer difficulties than the. cultural obstacles tosolving the energy crisis. Despite the flood of publicityon the energy crisis, much of the energy industry con-tinues marching toward the brink while a few i:olatedvoices call for etreat.

For example, high lighting levels squander energy intwo ways: they consume great quantities of energy toproduce the light itself, and light-generated vaste heatincreases cooling and ventilating- loads on the I1VACsystem. Yet in a recent magazine article, the Elect rifi--cation Council (an organization representing electricalindustry contractors, manufacturers, and utilities) citedreason for increasing lighting levels to six or seventimes the minimum levels recommended by the Illumi-natingEngincers Society. Never once did this articlemention the drawbacks of such profligate energy use.High lighting levels were recommended for locker roomsbecause they "promote cleanliness and order."

Some building codes .promote energy waste. Wall glassis a notorious means of increasing heat gains and losses,thereby maximizing heating and airconditioning loads.

hnilding codes require minimum window

APPENDI( II/BACKGROUND TO THEENERGY CRISIS

78 areas of 25(', of the floor area for any academic room inthe semol.

Energy waste in the form of gross overheating remainsas much an American characteristic today as it wasduring Dickens' first visit Jherc. Urban apartments areoften overheated to an extent requiring open windows

cool rooms to comfortable temperatures even in thecoldest 'weather. Stiehl overheating is not :unknown inAmerican schools. _

The socially shortsighted and costly policy of,rating---first coot above longterm overall owning cost' is anotherdeeply ingrained habit. Window airconditioners graph-ically display penny-wise, dollar-foolish consumer be-havior. According to an Electric Energy Associationsurvey, one nationally marketed window unit comes ina 230 -volt model\that doubles the energy consurr ptionof a slightly more expensive 115-volt model of idcritic,a1Ploling capacity. At New York City electrical rates, theroughly $30 (10%) saving in the 230-volt unit's firstcost is consumed in orie year's additional operating cost.Vet most airconditioring manufacturers prodUce sim-ilar energy-wasting models designed to satisfy short-sighted consumers' obsession :h first-cost economy.

Our energy-wasting habits are institutionalized in pub-lic finpcing policy. Municipalities are encouraged tominimize initial cost regardless of longterm cost, by theprevailing policy of limiting capital expenditures withbonding aebt ceilings. NO such limitation is placed onoperating costs, *ich are paid directly by annual tax

O


revenue. The same _philosophy of limiting school bond '79issues, while allowing operating budgets free rein, en-courages wasteful longterm school design.

American energy-wasting habits are, however, finallycoming under effective challenge. As a.portent, the Fed-eral Housing Administration's (FHA) thermal-insulat-ing requirements will reduce energy consumption forthe average FHA-financed house by about one-third,at great longterm savings to owners. California will re-quire higher thermal insulation for new residential con-struction, starting in 1974. Public service commissions-out of self-interest if not social improvementare be-coming increasingly aware of the need for energy con-servation. And, it seems that conservation efforts maynot remain voluntary. The New York State PublicService Commission is currently investigating limitinguse of a power for electric heating or aircon-ditioning to buildings that meet prescribed thermal-insulating standards.

Such legal goads will not be necessary for prucIntbuilding owners. They will act voluntarily to conserveenergy because the virtual certainty of continued ener-gy cost escalation makes energy conservation an eco-nomic necessity. Buildirfg owners who persist in wastingenergy will almost certainly pay a high price for theirintransigence.

APPENDIX M; SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

501. e- me2, report of a conference held by the NationalBureau of Standal' Is General Services AdministrationRoundtable on Energy Conservation in Public Build-ings, July, 1972, Public Buildings Service (GeneralServices Administration, Washington, D.C. 20405),

2. "Spotlight on the Energy Crisis: How Architects CanHelp," Richard G. Stein, AI A Journal, June, 1972.(American Institute of Architects, 1785 MassachusetkAve., N. W., Washington, D.C. 20036).

3. "If You Want to Save'Energy," Fred S. Dubin, AIAJournal, December, 1972, (American Instittite of Ar-chitects, 1785 Massachusetts Ave., N. W., Washington,D. C. 20036),

4.7 Ways tL Reduce Fuel Consumption in HouseholdWating... through Energy Conservation, National Bu-rbau of Standards (U. S. Department of Commerce,Washington, D. C. 20234).

5. 11 Ways to Reduce Energy Consumption and IncreaseComfort in Household Cooling, National Bureau ofStandards (U.S. Department of Commerce, Washing-ton, D. C. 2'9.34 ).

.6,,Procedure for Determining Heating and Cooling Leadsr my, ma ori7pd Enery Calcula ,,.;, Algorithms for

APPENDIX HI. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

7. Proposed Procedures for Simulating the Performance 81

*of Components and iSystems fa- T.1:nergy CalculatiOns.Second ed., 1971. Ed. W.F. Stoecker: American Societyof Heating, Refrigerating and Airconditioning Engi-neers', Inc. (345 East 47th St., New York, N. Y. 10017.84.00 non-members).

8. Alternate Choice Comparisons for Energy System Se-lection (ACCESS) (Edison Electric Instilute, 90 ParkAve., New York, N.Y. 10016).

9. Ecube Program Series, Control Data Cybernet Cen-ters. (Contact.: James Ousley, Ecube .rational market-ing manager, Orhaha, Nebraska. Availabie.to architectsand engineers.)

10. "A Consultant Lool:.-; at Heat Recovery Systems,"Joe B. Olivieri, Air Conditioning, Heating Ref rigera-tionNews (Business News Publishing Company, 700 E.Maple, P.O. Box 6000, Birmingham, Michigan 48012).

11, "When Computers Assume Building Operations," JohnL. KmetLo, AIA -Journal, December, 1972, (AmericanInstituie of Architects, 1785 Massachusetts MT., NAV.,Washington, D. C. 20036).

12. Design Conc( pts for Optithum Energy I's( ( HVACSystems, Electric Energy Association, 90 Park Avenue,New York, N. Y. 10016.

REPORTSThe following publications are available from I:PL.477 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10022.

Career Education Facilities A programming guide for sharedfacilities that make one set of spaces or equipment serve severalpurposes. (1973) $2.00

Design.for ETVPlanning for Schools with Television A reporton facilities present and future, needed to accommodateinstructional television and other new educational programs.(1960, revised 1968) $2.00

The Early Learning Center A Stamford. Conn., school built witha modular construction system provides an ideal environmentfor early childhood education. (1970) $0.50

Educational Change and Architectu!si Consequences A report Onschool design that reviews the wide choice of options availableto those concerned with planning new facilities or updatingold ones. (1968) $2.00

Environmental Education/Facility Resources Illustrates whereand how students iearn about the environment of communitiesand regions using existing and designed facilities. (1972) $2.00

Found Spaces and Equipment for Children's Centers III ust lionsof premises and low-budgetmaterials ingeniously converted forearly education facilities. Booklet lists general code reqUire-ments and informati'in sources. (1972).$2.00

The Greening of the High School Reports on a conference on howto make secondary school healthy. Includes the life-styles ofadolescents and ways to accommodate them, open curriculumsand alternative education programs. (1973) $2.00

Guide to Alternatives for Financing School Buildings Chart andhook explore conventional and unconventional routes forfinancing school construction. Includes case histories.(1971) $2.00

High School: The Process and the Place A -how to feel about it-well as a '"how to do it" hook about planning, design.

environmental management, and the behavioral and socialinfluences of school space. (1972) $3.00

The Impact of Technology on the Library Building A positionpaper reporting an EPI, conference on this subject. (1967) $0.50

Joint Occupancy How schools can save money by sharing sitesor buildings with housing or commerce. (1970) $1.00

Patterns for Designing Children's Centers A hook for peopleplairfning to operate children's center~. It summarizes andillustrates all the design issues involved in a project,(1971) $2.00

-Physical Recreation Facilities Illustrated survey of places

Places and Things for Experimental Schools Reviews:everytechnique known to EFL for improving the quality of schoolbuildings and equipment: Found space, furniture, communityuse, reach out schools, etc. Lists hundreds of sources.(1972) $2.00

Place's for Environmental Education Identifies types of facilitiesneeded to improve environmental education. (1971) Singlecopies free, multiple copies $0.25

The School Library: Facilities for Independent Study in theSecondary School A report on facilities for independent study,with standards for the size of collections, seating capacity, andthe nature of materials to be incorporated. (1963) $1.25

Schools for Early Childhood Ten examples of new and remodeledfacilities for earl; childhood education. (1970) $2.00

Schools: Mcire Space/Less Money Surveys the alternatives forproviding school spaces in the most economical manner.Includes extending school year, converting Spaces, sharingfacilities, open campus, etc. (1971) $2.00

Student Housing A guide to economical ways to provide betterhousing for students. Illustrates techniques for improvementthrough administrative changes, remodeling old dorrnS, newmanagement methods, co-ops and government financing,(1972) $2.00

Systems: An Approach'to School Construction Documents theindustrialized techniques and materials of systems constructic7.Systems are essentially an erector set:from Which a school maybe built to suit the demands of any community. Includes casehistories. (1971) $2.00

FILMSThe following films are available for rental at $7.50, or forpurchase at $125.00 from New York UniversitY Film Library,26 Washington I3Iace, New York, N. Y. 10003. Telephone(212) 589-2250.

New Lease on Learning A 22- minute,-16mm color film about theconversion of "found space- into a !earning environment fdryoung children: The space, formerly a synagogue, is now theBrooklyn Block School, one of New York City's few publicschools for children aged S 5.

Room to Learn A 22-minute, 16mm color film about The EarlyLearning Center in Stamford, Connecticut, an open-plan earlychildhood school with facilities and program reflecting some ofthe better thinking in this field.

NEWSLETTERSBSIC/EFL-Newsletter A periodical recording developments inthe systems approach to building ethicational facilities. Free

Planning for Higher Education A periodical produced jointlywith thr. Society for'College ant? University Planning. Free