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AUTHOR Harrell, William A.TITLE Educational Reform in Brazil. The Law of 1961.INSTITUTION Office of Education (DHEW) , Washington, D.C.REPORT NO 0E-14135PUB DATE 68NOTE 58p.; Studies in Comparative Education Series.
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
EDRS Price MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29Administrative Organization, *Area Studies,*Comparative Education, *Decentralization,Developing Nations, Educational Administration,*Educational Change, *Educational Legislation,Educational Trends, Environmental Influences,General Education, Governing Boards, GovernmentRole, Higher Education, National Programs, NationalSurveys, Rural Urban Differences, Teachers*Brazil, Educational Systems
On December 21, 1961 the Brazilian Congress passedthe Law of Directives and Bases of National Education, implementingthe educational provisions of the Constitution of 1946. This Law of1961 was Brazil's first general education law and was widelypublicized as decentralizing the administration of and theresponsibility for Brazilian education, and providing for the neededdegree of flexibility for the varied regional conditions within thecountry. It is with such reforms and trends in Brazilian education,following implementation of the Law of 1961, that the present studyis principally concerned. Part I describes the background of thenational scene in which the Law of 1961 was to function. Part IIdiscusses the system of education as it existed in 1961. Part IIIpresents the provisions of the law, its implementation, beginning in1962, at all levels of Brazilian education; and the implications forfuture educational development in Brazil. (Author)
1
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION & WELFAREOFFICE,OF EOUCATION
THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO.DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN-IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU-CATION POSITION OR POLICY
0E-14135
Educational Reform in
BRAZILThe Law of 1961
William A. HarrellSpecialist in Comparative Education
for Western HemisphereInstitute of International Studies
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and WelfareWilbur J. Cohen, Secretary
Office of EducationHarold Howe II, Commissioner
FOREWORD
Brazil is a major country. Covering half of the SouthAmerican continent, it has a population of more than 85millionalmost 40 percent of the total population of LatinAmerica.
Unfortunately, little has appeared in English on thecountry's educational system, especially since 1961, whenBrazil's first general law on education was enacted. Theimplementation of the Law of 1961 has been very signifi-cant in major reforms affecting Brazilian education at alllevels.
The present study constitutes a substantial source of in-formation on the progress in Brazilian education under theLaw of 1961 to the end of 1966. It is one of the Office ofEducation's continuing series on education in other coun-tries, especially the developing ones.
t.J
iI
PREFACEEducational Reform in Brazil: The Law of 1961 is a study of legis-lation passed by the Brazilian Congress near the end of 1961 and theeffects of the law on Brazilian education. In no sense is it an attemptto discuss all educational changes that have taken place or to predictfuture ones. It describes those that occurred from 1961 to near theend of 1966, when the Brazilian Constitution of 1966 was adopted. Itsurveys trends and gives some details on the changes.
The study is based on several sources of information. First, theauthor has drawn considerably from personal experience in theBrazilian system of education from 1956 to the end of 1961. A fieldtrip which lie took in April and May of 1965 afforded him an oppor-tunity to observe at first hand some of the changes which had alreadyoccurred and to discuss with Brazilian educators their observations,opinions, and experiences. He has also drawn on printed informationwhich he collected both in the United States and in Brazil, includingdocuments, Government reports, newspaper articles and comments,and educational reviews.
Statistical data appearing in this report are intended only to indicatetrends and to furnish information which will contribute to the overallpicture of Brazilian education, Most of the percentage figures arebased on slide-rule calculations and hence do not necessarily add to100 percent.
Gratitude is expressed for the assistance given by the many Brazilianeducators and others who took their valuable time to confer with theauthor. This group includes teachers and school administrators fromboth public and private schools, and government officials from bothState and Federal agencies. Special thanks must be expressed to Pro-fessor Jose Comes dc Campos and Profcssora Maria de Lourdes Duarte(lotto. Ives who, while serving in responsible positions with the FederalCouncil of Education, gave the author valuable guidance.
CONTENTSPage Page
FOREWORD ii Guidelines of the Constitution of1946 27
PREFACE. iii Enactment of the Law 27
Provisions of the Law 28INTRODUCTION Elementary Education 31
Middle-Level Education 31
Part I. The Country's Background Higher Education 33
Chapter I. The Influence of Social, Chapter 5. Implementation of theEconomic, and Political Factorson Education 2
LawThe Federal Council of Education
35
35Geography and Climate 2 State Councils of Education 36Population Distribution 2 The Ministry of Education andThe Economy 5 Culture 36The Government 6 The National Plan for Education. 37Political Factors 6 Employer Support: EducationalSonic Effects of the Country's Back- Salary Law 38
ground on Education 7 Elementary Education 38
Middle-Level Education 39Part II. Brazilian Education: 1961 Higher Education 42
Chapter 2. The Education System 10 General Enrollment Trends 45
Levels and Functions 10
Elementary Education 11 CONCLUSION 48Middle-Level Education 13
Higher Education 18 BIBLIOGRAPHY 50
Chapter 3. General Characteristicsof Education: 1961 23 TEXT TABLES:
The Academic Approach 23 1. Population and national area ofRestriction of Opportunity 23 Brazil, by States and Territories,Teaching Staffs 24 and density of population in each,
Government Control and Centrali- by percent: 1950 3
zation 24 2. Rural-urban population in the
Private ParticipationUrban Predominance
25
25
States and Territories of Brazil,by percent: 1960
3. Population of Brazil: Percentage4
by age group and sex, 1960 5Part III. The 1961 Law of Directives and 4. Percent of total elementary school
Bases
Chapter 4. Enactment and Provi-enrollment, by States or Territo-ries, operating authority, and type
sions of the Law 27 of school: 1961 11
iv
5. Percent of elementary schoolteachers represented by womenand by normal school graduates(men and women), by States andTerritories: 1961
6. Percent of total elementary schoolearollnient, by grades and byStates or Territories: 1961
7. Number and percent of middle-level school enrollment, by pro-grams, cycles, and operating au-thorities: 1961 .. .
8. Percent of total middle-level enrollment, by year and type of pro-gram: 1950-61
9. Middle-level grades enrollmentand completion as a percent offirst-grade enrollment: 1958-61
10. Middle-level school enrollment inrelation to total population, byStates and Territories, and percentof national iniddle-level enroll-ment: 1961
11. N'unber and percent of totalhigher education enrollment, by
Page
12
1.1
15
17
17
Page
level and programs of study:1961 21
12. Total higher education enrollmentby states, and percent of enroll-ment in each: 1961 ..... .
13. Minimum higher education pro -grains prescribed by the FederalCouncil of Education, and yearsrequired for each: Brazil, 1963 43
14. Total elementary school enroll-ment, and percent of enrollmentby types of schools: 1956, 1961,1966 46
15. Total middle-level school enroll-ment and percent of enrollmentby types of schools: 1956, 1961,1966 46
16. Total higher education enroll-ments, by level and field of study:1966 47
17. Retention rates, per 100 students18 entering first grade of elementary-
level school, through middle-level:1942-55 47
v
IntroductionOn December 21, 1961, the Brazilian Congress
passed the Law of Directives and Bases of NationalEducation (Lci de Direti:es e Bases de EducavioNacional), implementing the educational provi-sions of the Constitution of 1946. This Law of 1961was Brazil's first general education law.
Separate legislation had earlier dealt with vari-ous problems and aspects of education, but noprevious Brazilian Constitution had provided forso broad a coverage of education as did that of1946. Since no existing legal instrument imple-mented the specific constitutional provisions, theBrazilian system of education continued to func-tion as it had done in the past, with concentratedcontrol and rigid curriculum, until the Law of1961 was passed.
The 1961 Law of Directives and Bases waswidely publicized as decentralizing the administra-tion of and the responsibility for Brazilian educa-tion, and providing for the needed degree of flex-ibility for the varied regional conditions within thecountry.
It is with such reforms and trends in Brazilianeducation, following implementation of the Lawof 1961, that the present study is principallyconcerned.
The Law of Directives and Bases did not estab-lish a new educational system. It modified thealready functioning educational systems of Brazil.The existing concepts of education were not nec-
essarily changed, and possibly are influencing andmolcl the implementation of the law more than
the law will change the concepts. The structuresof the systems are being modified, but the conceptsof how a system should function and what it shoulddo definitely affect how and what parts of thestructure will be effective. It is necessary to knowsomething of these changes in order to understand\vhat the law means in Brazil.
An easy approach to a study on the Law ofDirectives and Bases would be simply to state theprovisions of the law and conclude that all partsof the legislation are being and will be imple-mented equally. Such an approach would be highlyunrealistic. It is necessary to state the provisionsof the law, but it is even more necessary to provideinformation about how it is being implemented.Therefore chapter 6 deals not with what shouldhappen but what is happening in Brazilian educa-tion because of the law.
In summary, this is a three-part study:Part I describes the background of the national
scene in which the Law of 1961 was to function.Part II discusses the system of education as it
existed in 1961, before enactment of the new gen-eral law in that year.
Part III presents provisions of the law, itsimplementation, beginning in 1962, at all levels ofBrazilian education; and the implications for fu-ture educational development in Brazil.
PART IThe Country's Background
11111111111111111.
Chapter 1
The Influence of Social, Economic, and Political Factors
A study of education in Brazil must be predi-cated upon a knowledge of the physical, social, andeconomic conditions, which vitally influence theregional development of education, and the generalcharacteristics of the educational system as it wasat the (rid of 1961.
For example, the varied geographic and climaticfeatures of Brazil and their effects on culture andsociety were advanced by proponents of the Lawof 1961 as strong arguments for the decentraliza-tion of the school system and greater flexibility inschool programs and curriculums. Certainly.Brazil's swelling population, its shifting from ruralto urba... -.enters, the still sparsely populated in-terior of the country, and the relatively young agelevel of the population all present problems whichvary from region to region and affect even thelocation of schools. This pronounced regionalismwas eloquent support for those favoring decentrali-zation of the Brazilian system of education.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATEBrazil, the fifth largest nation in the world in
terms of territory, covers almost half of the SouthAmerican Continent and shares in the commonboundaries with all nations of that continent ex-cept Chile and Ecuador. Brazil is only slightlysmaller than the United States.
Brazil is a country of such varied regional as-pects that it is not possible to select any geographiccharacteristics as "typically Brazilian." Old erodedmountains extend along the southern Atlanticcoast, reaching inland for several hundred milesin some areas. Toward the north, these coastalmountains are not so pronounced, but are ruggedenough to make transportation and communica-tions difficult. In the extreme south there are roll.ing hills; and in the central :art of the nation,worn plateau.s. The Amazon rain forest covers agood part of the rest of Brazil.
River systems in the south meet the Parana.
riumoiNEM11111111110111111111111111
on EdlicationParaguay Nvi)ich flows into the River Plate.Part of the central region is chained by the SaoFrancisco river, which provic. es an inland avenueof transportation, but the Pau lo Afonso Falls makeimpossible any shipping conti ct with the AtlanticThe sections of the central r gion not drained bythe two river systems are part! of the Tocatins riversystem, and flow into the Atlaitic near the equator.The northern part of Brazi is drained by theAmazon and its tributaries.
The climate varies as cruel as the terrain. TheAmazon region, part of the 7 Dcantins system, andsonic coastal areas are covere I with tropical rainforests. The interior of the n wtheast part of thecountry is a drought region Arhich extends downinto Minas Gerais. Some of th.. mountainous areasof southern Brazil, although within the tropicalzone, have a moderate climate imilar to that of theextreme southern section. Dry and rainy seasonsvary in duration and the time of year whc-n theyoccur, from region to region.
The Nation is divided into ).2 States, 3 Terri-tories, and the Federal Distr ct. The State ofGuanabara, which was the Federal District untilL960, covers only 450 square :miles, and the Stateof Sergipe is about the size of Massachusetts. TheState of Amazonas is larger than Alaska, and threeStates arc larger than Texas. 'I he national terri-tory of Brazil, except for a few s nail islands, com-prises one land mass, 8,511,965 square kilometersin area. Table 1 shows distribwie n of the popula-tion and the national area by Sta e and Territory.
POPULATION DISTR IBUTIONThe 1960 census recorded th.
Brazil as almost 71 million in t itgional distribution at the time (tathat 92 percent of the populationthree of the five regions of Brazil. A.regions constitute approximatelythe national territory, large areas
2cj
population oft year. The re-)le 1) indicatedwas located in
Thile these three68 percent ofof the interior
I.---Population and national area of Brazil, by States and territories, and density of population, by percent: 1960
I* indicates Territory
State orterritory
Area insq. kin
Percent ofnationalarea
Popula-tion
Percent ofnational
population"
Density ofpopula-tion persq. km.' "
Total 8,5 1 1,965 100.00 70,967,185 100.0 8.33
NorthRondonia* 243,044 2.86 70,783 0.10 0.29Acre 152,589 1.79 160,208 0.23 1.05Amazonas 1,558,987 18.38 721,215 L02 0.46Roraima* 230,104 2.70 29,489 0.04 0.13Para 1,227,530 14.66 1,550,935 2.18 1.26Amapa* 139,068 1.65 68,889 0.10 0.50Nor:he, itMaranh5o 324,61a 3.86 2,492,139 3.51 7.68Piaui 250,934 2.95 1,263,368 1.78 5.03Ceara 118,016 1.74 3,337,856 4.70 22.55Rio Grande
do Norte 53,015 0.62 1,157,258 1.63 21.83Paraiba 56,372 0.66 2,018,023 2.84 35.80Pernambuco 98,281 1.16 4,136,900 5.83 42.09Alagoas 27,652 0.33 1,127,062 L80 45.97SoutheastSergipe :.1,94 0.26 760,273 L07 34.57Bahia 559,921 6.59 5,990,605 8.44 10.70Minas Gerais 583,248 6 11' 9,798,880 13.81 18.30Espirito Santo 39,368 0.46 1,188,665 1.80 30.19Serra dos Ai mores' 10,153 0.12 384,297 0.54 37.85Rio de il--.. :-o 4°.,; s4 0.50 3,402,728 4.80 80.76Guanabara 1,356 0.02 3,307,163 4.66 2,824.22SouthSao Pat, ;,) 247,898 2.91 12,974,699 18.28 52.34Parana 199,060 2.64 4,277,763 6.03 21.48Santa Catarina 95,483 L I 3 2,146,909 3.03 22.48Rio Grande do Sul 267,528 3.32 5,448,823 7.67 20.37Central-WestMato Grosso 1,213,549 14.47 910,262 1.28 0.74Goias 642,036 7.54 1,954,862 2.76 5.04Federal District 5,814 0.07 141,742 0.20 24.83
Regional Sumrr
North 3,551,322 42.17 2,601,519 3.67 0.74Northeast 985,912 1 L32 15,677,995 22.09 15.90East 1,257,989 14.80 24,832,611 34.99 9.73South 809,060 9.70 24,848,194 35.01 30.67Central West 1,861,399 22.04 3,006,866 4.24 1.61
1 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, A nudrio esunistico do Brasil 1963. p. 12.2 Ibid., pp. 28-29,3 Ibid., 1961. pp. 29-45.1 The Serra dos Aimores region was a disputed area claimed by the states of Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo. Educational statistics
were included by the two States.
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are sparsely settled. Two of the regions, the eastand the south, cover only 21,5 percent of thenation's territory but have 70 percent of its pop-ulation. The preliminary figure for 1960 (table 2)placed 45.3 percent of the population in urbanareas and 54.7 percent in rural areas. Only threeStates, Guanabara (then the Federal District), Riode Janeiro, and Sao Paulo, registered a largerurban than rural population. In 1950, only 36percent of the population was classified as rural.One writer states:
Quantitatively and qualitatively, Brazil's popula-tion is one of the most rural in the entire world. Infact, despite a recent heavy immigration of people tothe cities, the percentage of the nation's populationliving in communities that must be classed as strictlyrural is hardly to be equaled in any other large andpopulous country.'
It should be pointed out that the Brazilian cri-terion allows many localities to be classified as ur-ban in spite of their rural surroundings. In fact,the seats of any governmental units, from the dis-trict level and up, may be classed as urban andinclude very small villages, some with a popula-tion of fewer than 20. Under stricter criteria, Brazilwould show a much larger percentage of ruralpopulation.
In the late fifties and early sixties the highwaynetwork connected many areas of Brazil. It is nowpossible to travel on improved roads from PortoAlegre into northeastern Brazil, and to the northof Salvador on paved highways. Improved roadsand highways lead from Rio de Janeiro to Brasiliaand frosts Sao Paulo into the interior of the State.The Belem-Brasilia highway, although not passa-ble at times during the rainy season, is a link withthe north.
The Brazilian economy depends heavily ontrucks which reach the interior of the country onunimproved roads. Busses, which may be convertedtrucks on rougher roads, or modern vehicles onbetter highways, transport the Brazilian peoplefrosts one part of the country to another. However,much of the nation is still isolated from highways,and thus is unable to participate fully in the s.scialand economic life: Many of these localities are ac-cessible by air, and all major population centershave frequent airline schedules throughout Braziland to other countries. m the Amazon region, therivers provide ample landing space for amphibiousaircraft.
Urbanization was one of the most noti(eablccharacteristics of the population in the past 20years, as the rural population moved to the cities.
TABLE 2. Rural-urban population in the State., andterritories of Brazil, by percent: 1960
1* indicates Territory
State or territory Urban Rural
Brazil 45.33 54.67
Rondonia* 43.57 56.43Acre 21.22 78.78Amazonas 33.23 66.77Roraima* 13.12 56.88Para 40.66 59.34Amapa 51.37 48.63Maranhao 18.00 82.00Piaui 23.60 76.40Ceara 33.70 66.30Rio Grande do Norte 37.61 62.39Paraiba 35.09 64.91Pernambuco 44.88 55.12AlagOas 33.69 66.31Sergipe 38.92 61.08Bahia 34.78 65.22Minas Gerais 40.21 59.79Espirito Santo 31.94 68.06Rio de Janeiro 61.05 38.95Guanabara 97.47 2.53Silo Paulo 62.81 37.19Parana' 33.64 66.36Santa Catarina 32.39 67.61Rio Grande do Sul .. 44.89 55.11Mato Grosso 39.99 60.01
Goias 30.66 69.34Federal District 63.28 36.72
Bused on incomplete data.Source; Brazil, Ministerio de Educacrio c Cultura. Edircocno e
besenvalrintento EconOmico. 1962. p. 4 (Demographic section).
The figures below show the percentage increasein population of 10 selected Brazilian cities, 1940-60 and 1950-60.2
Percent increaseCity 1940-60 1950-60Belo Horizonte 227 96Silo Paulo 188 84Fortaleza 182 89Curitiba 155 99Porte Alegre 135 62Recife 128 52Salvador 125 57Belem 94 57Rio de Janeiro 73 27Niteroi 72 31
I T. Lynn Smith Brazil: People and Institutions. Baton Rouge; 2 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anudrio estatisticoouisiana University Press, 1963. P. 75. do Brasil, 1963. p. 29. Adapted.
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The results of the 1960 census showed that 52.8percent of the Brazilians were 19 years of age oryounger; 12.6 percent were 14 or younger; and26.7 were in the lower school ages of 5-14 " (table3). If all school-age children of 11 years or youngerhad been in school, Brazil would have had aboutone-fourth of its population in school. In 1960the elementary and middle-level enrollments in-cluded about 12 percent of the country's popula-tion.
TABLE 3.-Population of Brazil: Percentage by age groupand sex, 1960
Age Group Male Female Total
Percent Percent PercentTotal 49.93 50.07 100.00
0-4 8.14 7.82 15.965-9 7.35 7.13 14.4910-14 6.11 6.11 12.2215-19 4.91 5.27 10.1820-24 4.22 4.56 8.7825-29 3.59 3.82 7.4230-39 6.00 6.12 12.1340-49 4.25 4.14 8.4950-59 2.78 2.61 5.4060-69 1.60 1.51 3.1170 plus 0.83 0.93 1.76
Source: Giorgio Mortara. "A composicao por sexo c idade dapopulagao do Brasil, Segundo o censo de 1960." Revistn Brasileirnde Estatistica. Conselho Nacional de Estatistica. Ano XXVI, No.103/104, (julho/dezembro, 1965) pp. 85-92. p. 86.
The high percentage of children and youths inthe population has economic implications. Addingthe 4.8 percent of the people who were 60 or olderto the 14-year or younger group leaves a total of47.5 percent of the population which may be con-sidered at least limited in their economic activi-ties. The rest of the population (the 52.5 percentbetween the ages of 15 and 59) of necessity hadto support the older group, and a good percentageof the 15-59 age group were not economicallyproductive.
THE ECONOMY
The period preceding 1962 was a time of sig-nificant industrial expansion in Brazil, with rapiddevelopment of some existing industries and the
3 Giorgio Mortara, "A composicao por sexo e idade da popu-lagao de Brasil, segundo o censo de 1960." Revista Rrasileira deEstatistica. Ano XXVI, No. 103/104 (julho /dezembro, 1965)p. 86.
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establishment of others. Steel production increased,as did chemical and pharmaceutical operations.A ship-building industry and the seventh largestautomotive industry in the world were established.The importation of many manufactured productsbecame unnecessary as Indzistria Brasileira beganto appear on more and more products. Most newindustry was located in the urban areas of thesouth or in cities along the coast.
The annual internal income in Brazil in 1960was not evenly distributed throughout the Nation.
lore than 78 percent of die national income wasconcentrated in the States from Minas Gerais to thesouth, and more than 50 percent in Rio de Janeiro,Guanabara and Sao Paulo. In contrast, the Statesof the northeast had less than 10 percent of thenational income. The p:.r capita income in Brazilin 1960 was Cr.$26,729, at that time the equiv-alence of about $150. Only four States, Guana-bara, Sao Paulo, Rio Grande do Sul, and Paranasurpassed the national average. These four Statesin 1960 had 61.7 percent of the national income,36.6 percent of the total population, and 8.8 per-cent of the land area.''
The minimum salary set by the Ministry of La-bor applied only to employees of industrial andcommercial firms and not to agricultural workers,who usually earned much less. According to onesource, the per capita income for all Brazil is notrepresentative of the true situation: Sao Paulo andthe surrounding area are socially and economicallytypical of the part that has a per capita incomeof $350 to $1,000 a year. The rest of Brazil, rep-sented by the States of the north, the northeast,and even the central regions, have some of thelowest per capita incomes in the world, comparableonly to the poorest regions of Asia and Africa,where the income per person does not surpass $120a year!'
Economically, however, Brazil remained an agri-cultural country and a sizable percentage of itsindustry was based on the processing of agricul-tural products. Coffee continued to account formore than half of the foreign exchange earned,and other agricultural products surpassed industrialexportation in value.
In a country where agriculture is the principaleconomic activity, land ownership is indicative ofthe distribution of resources. In 1960, for example,
Anudrio estatistico do Brasil -1936. p. 270.Siniacao social da America Latina. Rio de Janeiro: Centro
Latino Americano de Pesquisas cm Ciencias Sociais, 1965. pp.10-11.
more than '17 percent of agricultural lands werein holdings of 1,000 hectares or more, divided intoless than one percent of the total farming estab-lishments." Although the size of holdings variedccnsiderably from State to State, latifundia (withthe accompanying minifundia in the northeast)seemed to be the prevailing pattern of distributionof Brazilian land ownership. The 1960 distributionis shown in the following tabulation: "
Percent PercentSize of of Percentof total total of area
holdings farms farm under(by hectares) area cultivationLess than 10 44.7 2.23 13.3110-99 44.62 17.97 44.70100-999 9.41 32.51 30.501,000-9,999 0.73 27.42 9.9510,000 plus ... 0.005 19.87 1.54
THE GOVERNMENT
Under the Constitution of 1946, and the pre-sent Constitution of 1966, the United States ofBrazil constitutes a Federal Republic, the politicalpower originating with the people and exercisedin their name by their elected representatives. Theunion, as it is described in the Constitution, isdivided into 22 States, 3 Territories, and a FederalDistrict. All States and Territories, except for theFederal District and the State of Guanabara, aredivided into municipalities (municipios), whichare subdivided into administrative districts. Themunicipality is the smallest political unit, and in-cludes both urban and rural areas within its bound-aries. The administrative structure of a municipal-ity in Brazil resembles a county of the UnitedStates, without incorportated towns, or the com-bination city-county, as found in sonic States ofthe United States.
The Federal Government of Brazil is dividedinto the executive, legislative, and judicialbranches. The President, who is elected for a5-year term, heads the executive branch and isassisted by ministers who direct the various depart-ments which perform the executive functions ofgovernment. The bicameral legislative branch iscomposed of the Chamber of Deputies and theSenate. The judicial branch is made up of theSupreme Court, Federal courts of appeals, andmilitary, electoral, and labor tribunals of differentlevels.
a Anuario estaasaca do Brasil-1963. pp. 56-57.
Each State has a constitution which provides forexecutive, legislative, and judicial branches ofgovernment. The executive branch is headed by agovernor, who is elected for a 4- or 5-year term.
A municipality (municipio) is organized ac-cording to the laws of the State of which it is apart. An elected prefect (prefeito) is the 'admin-istrative head of the unit, and an election council(cdmara de vereadores) has legislative, and attimes, sonic administrative functions. The prefectis assisted by department heads who administer thevarious divisions of the municipal government.The franchise is open to all literate citizens whocan communicate in the national language andare 18 years of age. Persons who have permanentlyor temporarily lost their political rights and en-listed members of the armed forces do not vote.
POLITICAL FACTORS
Since the beginning of its political independencein 1822 Brazil has had to contend with the ques-tion of centralized versus decentralized govern-ment. The nation, which is composed of what hasbeen referred to as "islands of culture" scatteredalong the coast, has been subject to strong regionaltendencies which have obstructed the process ofnational unification. These tendencies remain, al-though they are diminishing as a result of the in-crease in facilities for communications and trans-portation. Regionalism has been partly responsiblefor the advocacy of decentralized government.
The Constitution of 1824 made provision for acentralized government, but this was modified tosonic extent by the Additional Act of 1834. Thetrend turned toward centralization in 1840, wheninterpretive legislation diminished the decentraliz-ing effects of the Additional Act. The Constitutionof 1891 was a decentralizing document, at somepoints exaggerating the autonomy of the States.
In 1930 the Vargas regime came to power,bringing definite centralizing measures. One of thefirst acts of the new government was to establisha Ministry of Education and Health, whose firstMinister, Francisco Campos, began to modify andcentralize the Brazilian educational system. From1930 to 1934 no Constitution was in effect, andGetulio Vargas was the dictator. The dictatorshipcontinued to sonic degree after the adoption of the1934 Constitution under which he was President.
In 1937 Vargas promulgated the new State(Estado Novo), which was totalitarian. Vargas
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was the dictator legally as well as in fact. Underhis regime the heads of the State governmentswere appointed by the national government, andmost governmental functions were directly or in-directly centralized. The bloodless coup of 1945removed Vargas from the dictatorship, and theConstitution of 1946 restored some power to theStates but retained considerable authority for thenational govern' ien t
Vargas was returned to the presidency in 1950by a free election as the legally elected chief execu-tive. His administration met with strong opposi-tion, and he was unable to solve problems withthe methods he had used as a dictator. He gov-erned according to the Constitution but, con-fronted with increasing opposition to himself andhis family, committed suicide in 1954. His deathdid not remove his influence from the politicalscene. Men who had served under Vargas con-tinued in power until janio Quadros becamePresident in 1961. He resigned after only eightmonths in office. The Vice President, JoaoGoulart, a former labor minister under Vargas,became President under a modified parliamentaryregime.
Theoretically, the Vargas position was socialistic,and supposedly Vargas and his followers were theprotectors of the working classes. They sponsoredlegislation which improved the status of labor andapparently worked for a socialistic regime.; how-ever, in practice, their behavior was closer to amuch more conservative position.
SOME EFFECTS OF THE COUNTRY'SBACKGROUND ON EDUCATION
Brazil is a large nation composed of many re-gions with significant differences and varied char-acteristics. The differences of terrain and climateaffect the adaptation of the people to their envi-ronment and influence spatial distribution of popu-lation. The national life depends on systems oftransportation and communication which are invarying stages of development. An educationalsystem which serves the needs of different re-gions must be able to adapt to the particular situ-ation, and solutions and methods which are ade-quate for one region may be unsuitable for thedemands of another. This argument was used bythe proponents of the Law of Directives andBases, pointing out that the law required a decen-tralization of education which would allow the
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necessary degree of flexibility for regional adap-tation.
The demographic factors are important whenconsidering education in Brazil. With the highrate of increase in population, greater demands areniade each year on the educational system so thatplans made for even projected situations are ofteninadequate long before their implementation canbecome a reality.
Most of Brazil's population is concentrated nearthe coast, leaving vast areas with such sparse popu-lation that it is impossible for even small, one-room schools to function. Even in the rural areas,near the coast, population density i:, usually notsufficient to support more than fmt.- or two-roomschools. Road systems are still not developedenough to permit daily transportation of studentsto school; and if they were adequate, economicfactors would prohibit the operation of schoolbusses. Substantial percentages of the total popu-lation in 1960 were located in these rural areas.
Another demographic factor of importance isthe age distribution of the population. With morethan half of the population age 19 or younger, andabout 35 percent in the elementary and middle-level school-age groups, the Nation would havehad to invest a large proportion of its materialresources and of its trained manpower in the schoolsystem, if all of these groups had been in school.Considering also the schools of higher educationand their enrollment with the lower-level groups,Brazil would have been confronted with educationas almost its primary activity.
The economic aspects of the young populationalso affected education. The percentage of indi-viduals who were in the economically active agegroups was so low that their productivity was ex-pended in merely supporting the nonproductiveage groups. While a large proportion of Brazil'spopulation was in need of the benefits of an edu-cational system, a proportionally smaller groupwas contributing to its support.
The overall economic situation in Brazil alsoaffected the school system. Low per capita in-conies restricted the amount of money raised bytaxes for schools. Economic instability and infla-tion made planning difficult and caused projectedresources to be insufficient. An added economicfactor was industrialization. There was an increasein the demand for skilled workers and for personswho had sufficient background to learn new proc-esses of production. The educational system was
not prepared for meeting these demands, and theconcepts of education held by the general popula-tion did not coincide with the necessities of anindustrialized society. Although Brazil remainedlargely an agricultural nation, the trend towardsindustrialization, especially in some regions ofsouthern Brazil, demonstrated deficiencies in theeducational system. As for the agricultural sec-tor, the largest part of the economy, the schoolshad included only a minute percentage of stu-
8
15
dents who were studying in this field on any level.The influence of government and politics on an
educational system in a society where the politicalinstitutions controlled almost all process of educa-tion, private or public, is obvious. In Brazil, be-fore 1962, trends in government and politics af-fected the operation of the educational system, andthe different political currents reacted to a gen-eral educational law, such as the 1961 Law ofDirectives and Bases.
Chapter 2
The Education System
Brazilian education at the end of 1961 was notthe product of one period of Brazilian history, butthe result of approaches, concepts, and structureswhich were developed in Brazil or adapted fromthe educational systems of other countries. Thesystem of education had experienced other reformsbefore the enactment of the 1961 Law of Direc-tives and Bases, but none as far-reaching, and eachhad contributed to the educational mosaic. Inaddition to the formal legislation which moldedthe structure and practices of the Brazilian sys-tem, the overall society influenced the educationalinstitution as a whole and affected the implemen-tation of legal provisions.
The Law of 1961 did not essentially change thegeneral structure of the Brazilian system of edu-cation, but did bring about significant modifica-tions within the existing levels. A review of thestructure in 1961 may be helpful in understandingthe law and the effects of its implementation,which began in 1962.
LEVELS AND FUNCTIONS
The three levels of Brazilian education in 1961were elementary (ensino primdrio), middle-level(ensino medio),' and higher (ensino superior).These levels, distinct and separate in administra-tion and organization, were isolated from eachother to such an extent that coordination waslimited, and each level seemed to function as anindependent unit.
Elementary education included preschool, as wellas the 3- to 5-year elementary program, the 4-yearsystem being prevalent. Pupils normally enteredschool at the age of 7. Elementary school pro-grams had some uniformity, but under the sepa-
The term "middle-level" is used throughout this study insteadof "secondary level" to avoid confusion with the general secondaryprogram, which in Brazilian education is called secondary (secun-ddrio)
10
17
rate administration of the States, varied in lengthof study required and in organization.
The middle level was generally divided into twocycles, the first of 4 years and the second of 3years. The majority of middle-level students wereenrolled in programs under the administration ofthe Ministry of Education and Culture, throughits various directorates, the general secondary(ensino secunddrio) program attracting the largernumber. Other types of programs were the com-mercial (ensino coniercial) ; normal school (ensinonormal) for the training of elementary schoolteachers; industrial (ensino industrial) ; and agri-cultural (ensino agricola).
Higher education was provided in faculties(faculdades), which might or might not be com-ponents of a university, and in institutes whichwere part of a university system or of a faculty.A majority of students at the higher education levelwere enrolled in independent faculties.
Other schools on the middle and higher levelswere organized for the training of officers for thethree branches of the armed forces, under the re-spective branches of the military servicearmy,navy, and air force. Such schools were also recog-nized by the Ministry of Education.
Schools for the education of clergy were spon-sored by various religious groups and usually fol-lowed the structure of general secondary and highereducation. On the middle level, some schools metthe Ministry of Education requirements for the gen-eral secondary program, and studies performed inthese schools were officially recognized; but theMinistry did not have any administrative relation-ship with the religious activities of these or anyother schools. For some purposes, such as admis-sion to a faculty of philosophy, education in aseminary on the higher level could receive officialconsideration. Generally speaking, however, theGovernment did not recognize or become involved
in the training of clergymen for any religiousgroup.
Apprenticeship training was directed and admin-istered in schools sponsored by special agencies ofthe Federal Government. The National Serviceof Industrial Apprenticeship, SENAI (ScrvicoNational de A prendizagem Industrial) , and theNational Service of Commercial Apprenticeship,SENAC (Servico Nacional de A prendizagemComercial) received funds equal to a certain per-centage of the payroll of all commercial andindustrial firms to support apprenticeship training.Not all the programs offered were related to moreformal education, but sonic of the schools sponsoredby the f agencies met the regulations of theMinistry of Education, and offered officially recog-nized middle-level commercial and industrial
programs. There were also sonw private schoolsfor teaching certain trades and skills, usually inshort-term courses.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The administrative responsibility for elementaryeducation in Brazil, prior to 1962, rested with theindividual States; the Federal Government pro-vided general guidelines and exercised jurisdictionover the federally owned schools and those locatedin the territories. Each State, through its ownlegislation, governed the organization and opera-tion of the elementary schools within its bound-aries. In varying degrees, partial responsibility wasdelegated to the municipal units of government.
The Stat :' Secretariat of Education of the vari-
TA Bt. 4.--Percent of total elementary school enrollment, by States or territories, operating authority, and type ofschool: 1961
1* indicates Territory]
State or territory
Operating authority Type of school
Federal State Municipal Private Urban Rural
Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent PercentBrazil 0.4 63.4 24.3 11.8 61.2 38.8
RondOnia* 80.8 19.2 65.0 35.0
Acre 71.4 13.6 15.0 63.5 36.5Amazonas 79.8 1.3 18.9 58.7 41.3
Roraima* 72.4 27.6 65.6 34.4
Para 2.3 68.0 17.9 11.8 48.9 51.1Amapa* 66.9 3.9 29.0 63.9 34.1
Maranhfio 26.6 54.6 18.4 46.9 53.1Piaui 0.1 51.2 33.4 15.0 52.0 48.0Ceara 32.2 52.1 15.7 49.5 50.5Rio Grande do Norte 51.4 25.4 22.7 50.5 49.5Paraiba 0.9 42.4 45.2 10.6 46.9 54.1
Pernambuco 0.8 36.3 43.4 18.3 60.8 39.2
Alagoas 30.8 49.9 19.2 59.0 41.0Sergipe 0.1 53.7 30.0 15.1 53.6 46.6
Bahia 52.3 38.0 9.5 63.0 37.0
Minas Gerais 0.2 71.5 23.7 4.6 61.2 38.8
Espirito Santo 85.4 11.8 2.9 40.5 59.5Rio de Janeiro 53.6 24.4 21.9 66.2 33.8
Guanabara 73.4 26.6 83.0 17.0
Sao Paulo 84.0 9.7 6.3 76.6 23.4Parana 71.3 20.9 7.8 53.0 47.0Santa Catarina 74.9 12.4 4.1 36.2 63.8Rio Grande do Sul 44.5 41.1 14.6 49.0 51.0
Mato Grosso 68.6 8.9 22.4 64.6 35.4
Goias 0.6 13.8 17.0 66.2 33.8Federal District I 100.0 35.5 64.5
Public school system did not function in the Federal District of Brasilia until after 1961.
Source: Adapted from Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Eslaiisiica. Anuario esiaiisiico do Brasil-I963. pp.
11
Otis States determined the official programs forboth private and public schools, and the certificaterequirements for elementary school teachers. Inmost States the majority of students were enrolledin State-operated schools, but in five States, alarger percentage attended municipal schools.Less than 1 percent of students on the elementarylevel were in federally operated schools, and lessthan 12 percent in private schools (table 4). Ele-mentary schools, principally the public schools,were subject to inspection by the State or otheragency responsible for their administration. Pri-vate elementary schools frequently functioned withalmost no attention from government authorities.
OrganizationThe standard elementary school provided 4 years
of instruction, with 5 years permitted in severalStates. Sonic of the 4-year schools, both publicand private, offered an unofficial fifth year, espe-cially to prepare students for the admission exami-nation required by the middle-level school. By nomeans, however, did all Brazilian elementaryschools offer either the standard 4 or 5 years ofinstruction. In rural areas, especially in one-teacher schools, students frequently had no morethan 2 years of instruction, although in someStates a 3-year official rural curriculum wasavailable.
Public elementary schools usually functioned asindependent units unless they served as labora-tory schools for teacher-training institutions. Itwas common for a private elementary school tobe an integral part of an institution which offeredmiddle-level programs.
Teachers and Teaching ConditionsA fully certified elementary school teacher, by
qualification, was assumed to be at least a gradu-ate of a normal school at the middle level. Onthis basis a properly certified elementary teacherwould have a minimum of 11 years of schooling,but by no means was this true for all teachers.Table 5 shows that in 1961 an overwhelming ma-jority of Brazilian elementary school teachers (94percent) were women and that in only six Stateswere more than 50 percent of the teachers gradu-ates of normal schools. For the Nation, the totalof all elementary teachers (men and women) soqualified was 56 percent. Other teachers mighthave been graduates of the first cycle of the nor-mal school or they might have received some type
12
of certification by taking an examination adminis-tered by State or municipal authorities. In schoolswhere teachers even with this qualification wereunavailable, the teacher might have been a vol-unteer who had not completed the elementaryschool.
As a general rule the urban schools were wellstaffed with graduates of normal schools, whereasthe rural schools had to accept whatever teacherswere available. Most States did not attempt tocontrol the qualifications of teachers in privateschools, sonic of which functioned under excellentconditions. Others, however, were located in theresidences of the teachers, some of whom werehousewives very likely willing to teach for a smallmonthly payment for each pupil.
TABLE 5.-Percent of elementary school teachers repre-sented by women and by normal school graduates (menand women), by States and territories: 1961
I* indicates TerritorY
State or territory Women
Graduates ofnormal schools
(men and women)
Percent PercentAverage 94.0 56.6
Rondonia* 85.0 21.9Acre 95.8 28.2Amazonas 87.6 33.7Roraima* 79.5 58.1
Para 96.6 20.5Amapa* 91.6 35.5Maranhao 94.1 25.5Piaui 91.6 34.0Ceara 97.4 27.1
Rio Grande do Norte 97.2 16.7
Paraiba 98.0 20.8Pernambuco 97.6 48.7Alagoas 95.9 40.5Segipe 98.0 25.5Bahia 95.8 60.3Minas Gerais 98.0 57.8Espirito Santo 97.7 62.2Rio de Janeiro 98.7 51.6
Guanabara 97.6 76.7
Sao Paulo 92.5 97.7
Parana 92.5 30.4
Santa Catarina 82.1 41.6Rio Grande do Sul 88.0 44.0Mato Grosso 82.2 20.4Goias 87.6 29.5
Federal District 97.5 90.5
Source: Adapted from Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica.Anuarto estatistico do Brasil-1963, p. 359.
School conditions varied as widely as teacherWell-otnani:,.ed, well-staffed, and
well-equipped schools were found in some urbanareas. The problem of overcrowding and thelack of facilities, in both public and private schools,was acute in the cities which had increased rapidlyin population. Some school buildings were usedfor three or four different sessions each day.Under such conditions, efficient instruction wasdifficult. Rural schools were known for generalinadequacy. In September 1961 the Prime Ministerof Brazil stated that one-third of the country's ele-mentary school students were in rural schoolswhich operated under such conditions that chil-dren could hardly become literate.2 In 1961,38.8 percent of the total elementary school popu-lation were enrolled in schools classified as rural(table 4).
EnrollmentNot all children of school age enjoyed the bene-
fits of Brazilian elementary education. Accordingto Brazil's report to an educational conference inSantiago, Chile, in 1962, about 7.5 of 14 millionchildren between the ages of 7 and 14, were en-rolled in the elementary schools. Thus, only about50 percent of this age group had opportunity toobtain early general education. A child normallyentered school when 7 years old and completed thefourth year at the age of 12, although a largepercent of 13- and 14-year-olds remained in theelementary school. Some students from the age of11 and above enrolled in the middle-level school,but the addition of these students would only haveincreased the proportion of enrollment to approxi-mately 65 percent. It was clear that more thanone-third of Brazilian children between the agesof 7 and 14 were not enrolled in school.
The enrollment varied from State to State. InMaranhao, for example, 56 students per 1,000 ofthe general population were in elementary school;in Santa Catarina, 136 per 1,000, the nationalaverage being 94 students. Between 70 and 85percent of elementary school students in mostStates and territories, and 74 percent of those inthe Nation were concentrated in the first andsecond grades.
Table 6 shows the percentage of all elementaryschool pupils enrolled in each grade in 1961. Al-though these figures are not for successive years,
2 Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagagicos, Vol. XXXVI, No.84, p. 3.
1.3
)0
they do indicate that the fourth grade had a muchsmaller enrollment than the first grade, a propor-tion which was more or less constant in the yearsbefore 1961. Table 17 indicates that in all butfour States more than 80 percent of the childrenwho entered the first grade did not reach thefourth.
In Brazilian terminology, the "effective" matric-ulation figures, based on actual class attendanceand including only those students who were pres-ent for a certain percent of the school year, showedincreases in elementary enrollment fru..: 3,709,887in 1950 to 6,711,258 in 1961, and to 7,357,711 in1962, or increases respectively of 81 and 98 per-cent. The increase for the 10-year period, 1950-60, was 64 percent."
MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION
Middle-level education (ensino medio) includedall programs of study which required for admis-sion the successful completion of the elementarylevel or proof of equivalent academic attainment.The several types of programs each had distinctadministrative procedures and regulations:
General secondary (ensino secunddrio)Normal school (ensino normal)Commercial (ensino comercial)Agricultural (ensino agricola)Industrial (ensino industrial)Specialized military schools
AdministrationGovernment control was a strong characteristic
of middle-level education. The Federal Govern-ment, through the various directorates of the Min-istry of Education and Culture, determined thenorms for general secondary, industrial, and com-mercial programs and for agricultural educationthrough the Ministry of Agriculture. The threemilitary ministries maintained and administeredthe middle-level schools which prepared candidatesfor the higher-level military institutions. The or-ganic law for teacher education, as provided inFederal legislation, set the general pattern forState-controlled normal schools.
The State governments could administer normalschools within their own boundaries and maintainother middle-level schools which followed the Fed-
3 Based on: Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anucirioestatistico do Brasil-1963, p. 359; 1961. p. 361; 1964. p. 338, andBrazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Brasil em niuneros;1963, p. 128.
oral administrative norms. Municipal govern-ments also maintained the facilities for middle-level schools but had no acn'nistrative control overtheir procedures. Table 7 presents the division ofmiddle-level students among schools operated bythe three levels of government and by nongovern-mental organizations.
Program CyclesTile 7-year middle-level programs were divided
into two cycles: the first, including 4 years ofstudy, followed by the second cycle of 3 years.Shorter programs were offered in the field of in-
dustrial and agricultural education ai .(1, in someStates, the second cycle of the normal choo! couldbe extended to 4 years. Students conllpleting thefirst cycle of the general secondary school wereeligible for admission to the second cycle of other
1
types of programs.Individual schools frequently offerecil more than
one type of program. Although the I irst cycle ofthe general secondary program was prevalent inmost schools, otherF, especially connneircial schools,offered only the second cycle. Con[binations ofvarious types of programs of both crt:les were notunusual. Usually, agricultural and ilitclustrial pro-
TABLE 6.--Percent of total elementary school enrollment, by grades and by States or territories: 1961 1
1* indicates Territory'
Brazil*
NorthRondonia *'AcreAmazonas'Roraima*ParaAmapa*NortheastMaranhaoPiauiCearaRio Grande do NorteParaibaPernambuco 'AlagoasEastSergipeBahia'Minas Gerais'Espirito SantoRio de JaneiroGuanabaraSouthSao PauloParanaSanta CatarinaRio Grande do SulCentral westMato GrossoGoiasFederal District'
State or territory* First Second Third Foi\
52.3 21.7 15.5
Percent in grades-
60.6 17.2 11.061.0 17.1 12.770.0 13.0 8.458.3 19.1 12.865.0 17.6 11.368.0 14.3 11.5
63.9 19.4 10.369.7 16.8 8.573.8 13.6 7.764.7 18.6 10.769.6 15.8 9.663.0 16.3 10.570.6 14.3 9.5
75.2 13.2 7.160.2 17.9 11.553.0 22.3 15.955.7 21.1 14.256.4 19.5 15.539.9 24.4 20.6
36.1 28.4 20.653.9 21.8 15.551.4 23.1 16.246.4 21.5 18.5
63.9 17.9 10.961.2 19.3 12.447.4 20.8 15.8
I;
irth
;
19.9
7.2,9.05.09.65.916.0
;13.2
11.7
1.8
1i.6
1i.0
13.6
11.8
1
i1.4
1i.5
:11.5
,3.9
111.8
1-1-.9
1
111(7
4.8.114 .0
131
917
710
10. .k9
1 Does not include small percentages listed in the fifth year.Source: Adapted from 9razil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anudrio estatistico do Brasil-1963. p. 361.
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1522
grants
were
offered
i^ schools
specializing
in one
area
subject
matter.
Purpose
of Programs
The
stated
objectives
of the
middle-level
pro-
grams
varied
according
to the
types
offered:
Com
mercial,
agricultural,
and
industrial
schools
prepared
technicians
and
workers
for
their
respective
fields
Norm
al
schools
provided
education
for
teachers
at
the
lementary
level.
general
secondary
programs
continued
the
devel-
t,innent
of students
following
the
elementary
school
and
provided
foundation
for
higher
education.
They
therefore
had more
prestige
than
other
types
of
middle-level
programs.
Adm
ission
and
Transfer
Adm
ission
to the
first
cycle
of a middle-level
program
was
based
on an
examination,
presumably
to
enable
the
student
to
demonstrate
adequate
ele-
mentary
school
preparation.
Only
students
of 11
years
or
older
who
presented
the
required
docu-
ments
were
eligible
to
take
the
examination.
Stu-
dents
who
successfully
completed
the
first
cycle
or
the
general
secondary
first
cycle
were
admitted
to
the
second
cycle
of a program.
Other
students
were
required
to take an
adaptation
examination
for
admission
to
the
second
cycle.
A.daptation
examinations
were
also
required
for
a student
transferring
from one
program
to an-
other
before
completing
his program
within
a
cycle.
Subject
matter
of the
examination
was
determined
according
to the program
to which
th;,
student
was
transferring.
Students
were
allowed
to
transfer
front
one
official
school
to
another,
without
examination,
provided
they
fol-
lowed
their
same
program.
Schools
were
allowed
to establish
some
additional
criteria
for
admission
and
transfer.
Until
1953,
students
who
had
completed
pro -
grants
other
than
the giteral
secondary
were
per-
mitted
to
seek
admission
only
to programs
in
schools
of higher
education
which
were
related
to
their
mitkile-level
studies.
After
that
year
all
middle-level
school
graduates
could
seek
admission
to any
school
of higher
education
through
adap-
tation
examinations.
Curriculum
s
The
curriculum
of middle-level
education
varied
according
to the
individual
programs
of study,
but
some
general
characteristics
prevailed.
In official middle-level schools throughout Brazilthe exact plan of study was determined by theMinistry of Education and Culture. Some flexi-bility was permitted in programs of normal schools,but their general plan was the same. Critics de-scribed this situation as being rigid and inflexible,prohibiting experimentation. Proponents de-scribed it as being uniform and preventing con-fusion and disorder.
Another characteristic was the encyclope'licscope of curriculums. The commercial, indus-trial, and agricultural programs did require fewersubjects than the general secondary studies, butthe curriculums would still be described as ency-clopedic. Most educators were critical of thenumber of subjects required, but had no choiceother than to accept the federally prescribedcu rriculum.
A degree of specialization was possible withinthe various types of instruction:
The second cycle of the general secondary pro-gram was divided into the classical and scientificcurriculums, the scientific attracting the overwhelm-ing majority of students.
The bookkeepers' diploma (contador) from thecommercial program qualified the student as a book-keeper; certificates following completion of the agri-cultural vnd industrial programs qualified the holderas technician in his area of specialization.
The normal school diploma conferred the title ofprofessor and served as a teacher's certificate for theelementary school.
Experimental ClassesIn 1958 the Directorate of General Secondary
Education authorized experimentatio.. ;n middle-level schools offering instruction under its jurisdic-tion. Under plans approved by the Directorate,schools were able to vary curriculums, teachingmethods, and materials, and the program organiza-tion of either or both of the cycles of the generalsecondary program. By 1961, 45 schools had en-rolled more than 4,000 students in the experi-mental classes.' The period from 1958 to 1961was not sufficient time for proper evaluation of theresults of the innovations made, but the activitiesundertaken created a generally favorable reaction.This was one step, although a small one, in thedirection of more autonomy for the middle-levelschool.
4 Nadia Cunha and Jayme Abreu. "Classes secundarias cx-perimentais-balanco de uma experiencia." Rev Brasileira deEstudos Pedagdgicos, XL (julho-setcmbro, 1963), p. 105.
16
Teacher PreparationA teacher-pupil ratio for Brazilian middle-level
schools would be meaningless, because of the num-ber of teachers who give only part tune to theirprofession or teach the same subject in different<.chools. Such a ratio, calculated on the numberof pupils and the number of teachers, would doubt-less indicate that there were few students in eachclassroom, whereas the contrary was usually true.Supposedly, the number of students in each classwas limited to 50, a number frequently reachedand sometimes exceeded.
The faculty of philosophy was the acceptedmedium of teacher education for general second-ary and normal schools, and for teachers of aca-demic subjects in other middle-level programs. Itwas not possible for the schools to demand thistype of preparation because of the shortage ofteachers at the middle level. Teacher-candidatesfor the normal schools also attended the institutesof education (for further specialization) connectedwith the normal schools. All middle-level teachersfor programs under the Ministry of Educationwere required to register with the Ministry. Theregistry of a licenciado diploma from a universityfaculty of philosophy qualified the holder to teachthe subject related to his specialization.
For teacher-candidates who were not graduatesof a faculty of philosophy there were other meansfor qualifying as middle-level teachers. The Min-istry of Education sponsored short summer courses,in which the candidate studied the subject hewished to teach, as well as education methods.Examinations included a demonstration of class-room teaching by the candidate, and successfulcompletion of the short course qualified him toteach the one subject studied.
Because of the shortage of graduates from uni-versity faculties of philosophy, the short coursemethod of teacher-preparation for the middle-levelwas widespread, but was beginning to be limitedto candidates who intended to teach in schoolslocated in cities where there was no university fac-ulty of philosophy.
Private SchoolsOne prominent characteristic of middle-level
education in Brazil in 1961 was the number ofprivate institutions, whose programs were identicalto those offered by public schools of the same type.The diplomas and certificates issued by the privateschools had equal validity with those from public
institutions. Transfers from public to nonpublicschools, and vice versa, were on the same basisas transfers between schools of the same type.
Private participation included both profit andnonprofit institutions. In the nonprofit group werethe schools related to religious groups and thosemaintained by foundations. The schools affiliatedor owned by religious groups, Roman Catholic,Protestant, and others, varied considerably in thedegree to which they emphasized their religiousorientation, some requiring extensive participationin sectarian activities, and others adopting a moreinformal approach.
The profit-motivated schools were owned by in-dividuals, groups, or corporations, which func-tioned with varying degrees of efficiency. Someof the better administered schools owned theirfacilities, and regularly sought to improve them.
Others had highly inadequate facilities in rentedquarters. Sonic schools were well-directed enter-prises which rendered real service to a nation hav-ing a marked shortage of middle-level schools.However, others were termed "education counters"(bakaes de ensino), collecting fees and giving thestudent a minimum of instruction.
EnrollmentThe number and percentage of students enrolled
in 1961 in the first and second cycles of the variousmiddle-level programs are shown in table 7. Onlythe normal schools had a larger proportion of stu-dents in the second cycle than in the first. Almosttwo-thirds of all middle-level students were en-rolled in the first cycle of the general secondaryprogram, and almost three-fourths of the totalschool population at this level were in the general
TABLE 8.-Percent of total middle-level enrollment, by year and type of prr .;ram: 1950-61
Percent enrollment in middle -level programs- General
Year Total Agricultural Commc rcill Industrial Normal secondary
1950 100 0.82 14.1 3.5 6.1 75.01951 100 0.68 14.1 3.2 6.5 75.41952 100 0.62 14.0 2.9 6.9 75.51953 100 0.68 14.0 2.7 7A 75.41954 100 0.68 14.2 2.6 7.4 74.01955 100 0.60 14.5 2.5 7.4 74.71956 100 0.46 15.0 2.2 7.5 74.71957 100 0.46 15.3 2.2 8.1 73.91958 100 0.52 15.6 2.1 7.8 73.51959 100 0.51 15.9 2.0 7.6 73.81960 100 0.57 15.8 2.2 7.6 73.81961 100 0.50 16.0 2 -3 7.6 73.6
Source: Adapted from: Brazil, Ministerio de Educacao c Cultura, Sinopse estatisticado ensino media-1961. passim.
Brazil, Consclho Nacional de Estatistica, Anudrio estaastico do Brasil-1964. p. 341.Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Brasil ern neinteros (1963) pp. 129-132.
TABLE 9.--Middle-level grades enrollment and completion as a percent of first-grade enrollment: 1958-61
Year Percent enrolled in grade-
Percentcompleted
middlelevel
2 3 5 6 7
1958 100.0 74.9 53.8 41.1 28.6 25.3 19.6 17.21959 100.0 75.4 54.3 39.8 35.9 24.8 22.8 17.51960 100.0 74.3 54.8 40.5 35.8 25.1 19.2 17.01961 100.0 76.0 55.6 41.5 37.1 25.1 19.3 16.4
Source: Adapted from Brazil, Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura, Sinopse estatistica de ensino medio-1958, passim. Ibid., 1959, 1960,1961.
gS4
secondary schools. Table 8 shows the percentageof students in the various programs from 1950through 1961. Consistently, the normal school andgeneral secondary programs, both academicallyoriented, have accounted for between 81 and 82percent of middle-level enrollment, thus reflectingthe Brazilian preference for this type of learning.During these 12 years the programs of the normalschools have grown at a higher rate than those inother middle-level schools, apparently at the ex-pense of the general secondary schools.
Table 9 shows, as a percentage of first-gradeenrollment, the number of students in each of themiddle-level grades and the number of studentswho completed the middle level in the years1958-61. Consistently, in these years, the numberof students successfully completing the programwas less than 20 percent of those who enteredgrade 1. These data do not indicate a true drop-out rate, but it is clear that a large percentage ofthe students who enter the middle level do notsuccessfully complete their studies.
Rural-Urban DistributionMiddle-level schools were located principally in
urban areas in 1961. According to preliminaryfigures of the 1960 census, 45.3 percent of theBrazilian population was in areas classified asurban by statistical standards. Approximately 80percent of middle-level students were enrolled inschools located in urban centers of 10,000 popula-tion or more, whose total population constitutedonly 30 percent of the Nation's. In the northernareas 93 percent of middle-level students were incenters representing only 27 percent of the areapopulation. In the southern region more than66 percent of students were located in urban cen-ters which had little over 33 percent of the areapopulation.' It is clear that middle-level educa-tion was concentrated in the cities, and that itsaccessibility by the rural population was quitelimited.
Table 10 indicates that more than 77 percent ofthe middle-level students in 1961 were enrolled inschools located in the States of Minas Gerais,Espirito Santo, and those to the south of thesetwo States. This area contained about 60 percentof the total population. In only four States, Riode Janeiro, Guanabara, Sao Paulo, and Rio
Based on: Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, AntuirioeslalisliCo do Brasil-1963 pp. 30-31 Brazil, Ministerio de Edu-cacao e Cultura, Ensino media por municipias--1961 passim.
18
25
Grande do Sul, did the proportion of the coun-try's middle-level students surpass the percentageof total national population located in each ofthese States.
TABLE 10.- Middle - level school enrollment in relation tototal population, by States and territories, and percentof national middle-level enrollment: 1961
1* indicates Territory]
Number ofstudents per1,000 of total
populationin state or
State or territory* territory
Percent ofnational
middle-levelenrollment
Brazil (total) 18.4 100.0
North 12.3 2.45RonclOnia* 11.1 0.06Acre 7.1 0.08Amazonas 12.1 0.67Roroaima* 9.8 0.01Para 12.8 1.53Amapa* 14.9 0.07
Northeast 10.3 12.38Maranhilo 4.9 0.93Piaui 9.4 0.85Ceara 11.0 2.82Rio Grande do Niirte 10.8 0.96Paraiba 8.0 1.23Pernambuco 14.3 4.85Alag6as 9.8 0.97
East 19.2 36.5Sergipe 12.1 0.7Bahia 9.6 4.57Minas Gerais 16.9 12.6Espirito Santo 18.7 1.7Rio de Janeiro 22.0 5.75Guanabara 43.7 11.06
South 24.1 45.9Sao Paulo 29.0 28.8Parana 16.7 5.49Santa Catarina 13.9 2.21Rio Grande do Sul 22.2 9.33
Central West 13.1 2.72Mato Grosso 14.2 0.99Goias 11.5 1.72Other programs 28.1 0.31
Source: Adapted from Brazil. Conselho Nacional de Estatistica,Anudrio estatistico do Brasil-1963. p. 28.; Brazil, Ministerio daEducagao a Cultura, Sinopse estasistica do casino media-1961.p.
HIGHER EDUCATION
The university is a relatively new institution inBrazil. Establishment of a university, proposed as
early as the 18th century, was supported by theindependence movement in Minas Gerais in thelatter part of that century. The subject arose forconsideration during the imperial period of Brazil-ian history, but not until the third decade of thepresent century was the organization of a univer-sity in Brazil implemented.
There were schools of higher education, how-ever, before the University of Brazil, the first uni-versity, took form in Rio de Janeiro in the 1920's.After the Portuguese royal family arrived in Brazilin 1808, fleeing front the Napoleonic invasion ofPortugal, Dom Joao VI, as regent, ordered theestablishment of schools in Brazil which were tobe the forerunners of the present military, engi-neering, and medical institutions in the country.These early schools were intended to meet specificneeds for the training of individuals for profes-sions, and each was independent and unrelated toany other in its administrative structure. Subse-quently, the schools of higher education followedthe same pattern, functioning as independententities.
Brazil's first university was officially establishedby combining the existing schools of medicine, law,and engineering as a loosely organized institution.In the following decades other universities wereformed, in almost all cases by placing existing in-dependent schools under one administrative struc-ture. However, each school tended to continue tofunction as a separate entity.
Higher education in Brazil continued to bearthis imprint of its origin and method of develop-ment. The early independent schools were established for the education of individuals to practicecertain professions. These professional objectivesstill characterize Brazalian university schools, mostof which functioned independently befog.' becom-ing component parts of universities.
Thus, the basic unit of the Brazilian system ofhigher education in 1961 was the university school,usually designated as a faculty (faculdade). Theinstitute (instituto) was part of the name of someuniversity schools, but usually designated an insti-tution of research or instruction working under afaculty, or a teaching unit having a specialfunction.
The types of faculties varied according to theirfield of specialization and were still geared to prep-aration for a profession. All universities were re-quired to have a faculty of philosophy, and twoof the following three; school of law, school of en-
19
2 B.
gincering, and school of medicine. The faculty ofphilosophy was organized for teacher preparationbut offered some programs similar to liberal artsstudies.
Programs of a faculty were prescribed by theMinistry of Education, and all students in higherinstitutions followed the same courses of study.
Administration and FinancingFederal, State, and Private.Brazilian schools
of higher education were controlled by the FederalGovernment. The Ministry of Education at d Cul-ture, acting through the Directorate of HigherEducation, was responsible for the administrationof all higher schools, except those previously de-scribedmilitary schools, those teaching agricul-tural subjects under the Ministry of Agriculture,and schools for the training of the clergy.
In consultation with the National Council ofEducation, the Ministry of Education decided onthe approval and operation of higher educationinstitutions within its limits of authority, deter-mined curriculums, examination dates, length ofthe school year, and many other points, which leftlittle autonomy to the individual institution. TheMinistry's control was rigid, and its authority, ex-tensive. Through inspectors in each recognizedschool, the Ministry's decisions were enforced, andoperation of the school was reported through des-ignated channels.
Public university-level schools, or faculties, weregoverned by councils, composed of catedniticos"of the schools. Directors of the faculty councilswere appointed by the President of the Republic,in the case of federally controlled schools, or bythe State governors, for State schools, from nom-inees submitted by the respective councils.
The same procedure of nomination for univer-sity rectors was followed by university councils,which were composed of representatives of thefaculty council. The rector was the executive headof a university, and its official representative forlegal and ceremonial purposes.
The administrative structure of private univer-sities varied according to the institution, but allwere under Roman Catholic auspices and weregoverned according to Canon Law, with one ex-ception. The Presbyterian-related Mackenzie Uni-
" There is no exact English translation of the word catedrdtica,nor is there an equivalent position in the U.S. educationa! sys-tems. For these reasons the Portuguese word is used throughoutthis study. A fuller explanation of the catedratico is presentedlater in this chapter (see p. 20).
versity was regulated by a board of trustees. How-ever, some private faculties outside a universityorganization were controlled not by religiousgroups, but by professors in the school or by ad-ministrative bodies similar to boards of trustees.
Fina;ices.Brazilian higher education absorbed30 percent of government funds allocated for theNation's education in 1959, including 51 percentof Federal funds, 13.7 percent of State, and 0.9percent of municipal funds. Federal schools ofhigher education, which enrolled 39.4 percent ofthe students in 1961, received almost all their fundsfrom the Federal agencies, and State and privateschools also received Federal grants for currentexpenses and construction purposes.' Thus, theFederal financial participation in the fi,2Id of highereducation accounted for a significant percentage ofthe total costs. Private schools enrolled 42.9 per-cent of the higher students, and also received someGovernment funds, but charged tuition to meetbudgetary demands. Public institutions charged notuition. Few schools had any resources which wouldeven resemble the endowment funds of a collegeor university in the United States.
The Teaching SystemNo formal provisions existed for the preparation
of teachers for the Brazilian higher level of educa-tion. They were chosen from graduates of a uni-versity school who had specialized in the fieldof the faculty where they sought to teach. Throughself-study and experience, the teacher achievedmastery of his subject.
The highest level of university teaching was thatof the catedrdtico, who may be considered as afull professor in charge of a discipline and a keyfigure in the organization of a faculty.
The catedrdtico was selected through difficultcompetitive examinations, which involved the eval-uation of his education, qualifications and experi-ence, the defense of a thesis, oral and written ex-aminations in the subject matter of his field, anda demonstration of teaching ability in a classroomsituation. Each faculty of a university conductedthe examination as vacancies occurred, andawarded the position of catedrdtico to the candi-date who achieved first place in the competition.
After his installation, the catedrdtico, whether inpublic or private schools, enjoyed life tenure, andhis rights in this sense were protected by provisions
7 Brazil, Ministerio da Educag50 e Cultura, Educacao e de-
of the Constitution of 19-16.' The catedrdtico ap-pointed other teachers in his subject field andcontrolled its teaching. Theoretically, he was tohave freedom for research and study; however, attimes the catedrritico held several chairs, souse indifferent cities, vhich consumed a good portion ofhis time. Often, because of his inadequate salarythe catedrdtico, like most other university teach-ers, undertook other professional activities in hisfield.
The catedratico was one point of controversyduring the struggle which preceded the passing ofthe 1961 Law of Directives and Bases. The posi-tion was defended by most university professorsand administrators, who looked upon it as thefoundation of academic freedom and intellectualdevelopment. Sonic liberal groups attacked thetime-honored status of the catedrdtico as archaicand, as an obstacle to the reorganization of theuniversity and to efficient instruction. There was nodoubt that the system had its advantages, disad-pantages, and abuses. The individuals who held theposition of catedrdtico were not eager to surrendertheir privileges, which would be lost if the univer-sity were reorganized. Typically, the opponents tothe catedrdtico described the position as a type ofeducational latifundia.
Another objection to the system revolved aroundthe duplication of subjects within the same uni-versity. Each faculty included a catedrdtico forevery subject of its curriculum, which might beduplicated in another faculty. For example, thesame introductory chemistry subject matter wouldbe offered in a faculty of medicine, dentistry,pharmacy, philosophy, and engineering, each fac-ulty having a catedrdtico and his assistant to teachthe subject. In most such cases, it would have beenpossible to economize on manpower, since the totalnumber of students could have been efficientlyhandled by a staff much smaller than that requiredfor the five faculties. Naturally, each catedrdtico,having worked hard to achieve his position, wouldnot readily abandon his chair in a reorganization.Therefore, the catedrdticos were accused of beingvested interests, opposing more efficient reorganiza-tion of the university.
The Faculty of PhilosophyIn the Brazilian system of higher education, the
faculty of philosophy, in the broad scope of its
8 Some middle-level schools had catedrdticos, but only in publicsenvolvimento economic° 1962. p. 41. institutions were they guaranteed tenure by the Constitution.
20
curriculum, was the school which most resembledthe liberal arts college in the United States. Begin-ning in the early thirties, this faculty steadily in-creased in popularity, and in 1961 enrolled 22.6percent of the total higher education students, onlyslightly less than the percentage for the facultyof law (table 11) . In 1961, there were 77 facul-ties of philosophy in Brazil.
A major objective of the faculty of philosophywas to train teachers for middle-level schools, pro-viding 3 years of basic study in the major subjectmatter, leading to the degree of bacharel. An addi-tional year of specialization in education, knownas the diddtica, led to the licenciado, and the rightto teach in a middle-level school, but this fourthyear was not considered as postgraduate. In somefaculties of philosophy, the student received thebacharel or the licenciado at the end of the 4-yearprogram, depending upon the type of course whichhe followed.
TABLE 1 1.Number and percent of total higher educa-tion enrollment, by level and programs of study: 1961
Programs of studyTotal higher
cducationenrollment
Percent oftotal enrollment
Undergraduate 98,892 97.5Postgraduate 2,689 2.5
Total 101,581 100.0
UndergraduateLaw 23,519 23.8Philosophy, sciences
and letters 22,330 22.6Engineering 11,423 11.6
Medicine 10,365 10.5
Economic sciences (andrelated programs) 8,998 9.1
Dentistry 5,572 5.6
Arts 3,353 3.4Pharmacy 2,427 2.4Agriculture 2,165 2.2Architecture 1,646 1.7
Sanitary services 1,608 1.6
Social work 1,578 1.6
Public and privateadministration 1,073 1.1
Veterinary medicine 833 0.8Other programs 2,002 2.0
Source: Adapted from Brazil, Ministerio de Educag5o e Cultura.Sinopse estatistica do ensino superior-1961. pp. 5-13.
Study Programs and DiplomasBrazilian higher education in 1961 comprised
21
2
the undergraduate (graduaccio) and the postgrad-uate (figs-graduacao) levels, both largely profes-sional, which prepared the student for his chosenprofession. The undergraduate programs, in 23general classifications, provided for more than 60areas of study. For postgraduate studies there were13 general classifications and 25 areas.
Upon completion of his undergraduate programof 3 to 6 years, the student received a diplomaconferring a title or a degree. The title was usuallythat of the student's profession, such as (medico)physician, (engenheiro) engineer, or the degree,the bacharel or licenciado.
Regardless of the degree or title obtained, a uni-versity graduate in Brazil was commonly called( doctor), doctor. If he taught at any level, the title"professor" was gratuitously conferred upon him bythe public. The doctor's degree, doctorado, wasawarded after the student had completed his un-dergraduate work, practiced his profession, andreturned to his faculty to present and defend athesis, and complete certain examinations in hismajor subject area. In some faculties the doc-torado vas awarded to individuals who had beenapproved in the competitive examination for thechair of catedrdtico,
Graduate studies in Brazilian universities werenot the same as the corresponding level of work inuniversities in the United States. The Braziliandoctorate involved almost no directed study, andmost of the graduate programs were referred to ascourses of specialization (especia/izaciio) or devel-opment (aperkiciomento), and, like the under-graduate programs, were largely directed towardprofessional training.
Admission and EnrollmentsStudents seeking admission to a school of higher
education were required to present a certificate ofcompletion of middle-level study. Before 1953 onlythe general secondary certificate was accepted foradmission to all higher schools, but in that year,a government decree permitted graduates of othermiddle-level schools to take the adaptation exam-ination for admission to a faculty whose specialtywas not related to their middle-level preparation.
The entrance examinations, both oral and writ-ten, were given by the school of higher education,with the Federal inspector assigned to the schoolsharing a supervisory function. The examinationswere usually highly competitive, since more stu-dents were seeking admission than there were
places available. Examinations were based on sub-ject matter considered as necessary for higherstudies, and usually required additional prepara-tion for university entrance, frequently throughunofficial and unregulated "cram" courses. Somestudents attempted the examinations several timesbefore gaining admission to faculties where com-petition was high, and others were never successful.
Transfer from one higher school to another waslegally possible, provided the receiving facultywould accept the student. Transfer of a studentfrom one type of faculty to another was not per-mitted. Students from foreign schools \Ver2 subjectto adaptation examinations before admission toBrazilian schools of higher education.
In 1961, there were 216 independent schoolsand 29 universities in Brazil, having 235 faculties.Of the total enrollment of 101,581 students in allhigher schools, 98,892 were undergraduates (table11). Almost 75 percent of the 2,689 postgraduatestudents were in faculties functioning as part of theuniversities.
By classification of authority, students in highereducation were distributed as follows:
AuthorityFederalStateMunicipalPrivate
Percent ofNumber enrollment39,944 39.416,037 15.72,040 1.9
43,560 42.9
Almost half of the undergraduates in 1961 andapproximately the same proportion of postgraduatestudents were in faculties of philosophy and law.Of the remaining students, 31.2 percent of under-graduates and 20.3 percent of postgraduates wereenrolled in engineering, medicine, and economicscience faculties. The three traditional universi-ty schools, medicine, engineering and law, still en-rolled 45.9 percent of all undergraduates, and 30.5percent of the postgraduate students.° As for theregional distribution of enrollments in higher edu-cation schools (table 12), more than 80 percentwere in institutions located in the southern partof Brazil, from Minas Gerais and Espirito Santoto the south."
Except for a few agricultural schools, almost all
° Brazil, Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura. Sinopse estailsiic°do ensino superior-1961. passim.
to Ibid.
22
Brazilian institutions of higher education were lo-cated in urban centers. About 54 percent of the stu-dents at that level Were enrolled in the 14 univer-sities located in the seven cities having a populationof more than 500,000)1 If the enrollment of inde-pendent faculties in these cities is included, theseven urban centers accounted for 60 percent ormore of the Nation's higher education enrollmentin 1961.'2 Two of the cities, Rio de Janeiro andSao Paulo, had almost 32 percent of the studentsenrolled in university-related faculties.
Of all university students in 1961, 70.6 percentwere men. Women tended to be in the majority inthe faculties of philosophy, except for mathematicsand natural sciences. Engineering, agriculture, andeconomic sciences had more than 90 percent menstudents; women students, on the other hand, con-stituted from 10 to 25 percent of the enrollment infaculties of law, medicine, and dentistry, and morethan a third in schools of pharmacy. More than43 percent of the postgraduate students werewomen.'"
Enrollment in all higher education courses in-creased by 88 percent, from 49,700 to 93,200 inthe 1950-60 decade. The enrollment per thousandof the general population was 0.95 in 1950 and1.31 in 1960.1' By the beginning cf the 1961 schoolyear, total enrollment had reached 101,581. Therate of increase in Brazil's higher education en-rollment was significantly higher than the growthof the general population. The percent increaseover 1950 in major fields of study (each of whichin 1960 included at least 5 percent of the totalhigher education enrollment) was as follows:'"'
Percent increaseFields of Study from 1950 to 1960
All cou:ses 88.0Law 104.0Philosophy, sciences, and letters 219.0Engineering 52.0Medicine 16.0Economic sciences and
related programs 170.0Dentistry 70.0
it Ibid., p. 30-31.13 Ibid., passim.'3 Ibid.
Educacao e desenvolvimento economic°. p. 44.Anuario esunistico do Brasil-1963: and Sinopse esialisaco do
Encino superior-1961. p. 13.
Chapter 3
General Characteristics of Education: 1961
THE ACADEMIC APPROACH
A prominent characteristic of Brazilian educa-tion in the period discussed was its academic ap-proach, frequently described as /ivresco, meaning"bookish," because of the emphasis placed on mem-orizing and recitation of facts. Curriculums wereencyclopedic, including as many as 11 subjects insome programs at the middle level. Education ingeneral placed considerable value on the develop-ment of verbal talents, a feature which one authorconsidered to be a national characteristic:
This is one aspect which is profoundly expressiveof the verbalistic configuration of Brazilian culture,in which the word loses its instrumental characteras a conveyor of ideas and has value because of itsesthetic beauty, its rhythm, and its ornamentalstructure.'
The academic approach to education may alsobe attributed to other causes. This type of educa-tion, for one thing, led to positions in Brazilian so-ciety which commanded the highest prestige. Evenin 1961 the educational system of Brazil still re-tained sonic features which existed only for anelite upper class, and advancement in the academicfield was one means of upward vertical socialmobility.
The traditional schools of higher education inBrazil were law, medicine, and engineering, withmilitary schools also training individuals for leader-ship roles. Higher education programs were basedon completion of the general secondary course,academic in nature, and supposedly providing thegeneral education necessary for specialization.
Furthermore, the strict academic type of educa-tion was the least expensive to organize and main-tain, requiring a minimum of laboratories andequipment necessary for programs of vocationaleducation or those concentrating on the natural
Jayme Abreu, "Ensino medio brasileiro; tendencias de suaexpansao." Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagogicos. Vol.XXXIX. No. 89, (janeiro- marco, 1963). p. 32. (translated)
23
sciences. More teachers have been avaliable for theacademic method of instruction, and until recentdecades, were ascribed greater prestige in generalsociety.
In short, academic education in the pre-1961period was what Brazilians thought educationshould be, and it produced the results which thegeneral public expected. While there was consider-able discussion, before implementation of the 1961law, about the necessity for other approaches toeducation, the elementary level remained definitelyacademic. The general secondary school enrolledtile majority of the middle-level students. Theteachers' normal programs and the commercial pro-grams, both influenced by the academic approach,accounted for almost all the other middle-level stu-dents. On the higher level, faculties of law andphilosophy, alone enrolled almost half of the Bra-zilian university-level students.
RESTRICTION OF OPPORTUNITY
The student who passed through the Braziliansystem of education was subject to a process ofselection at every stage. By no means was admissionto the middle-level or to higher education assuredby the successful completion of the preceding stageof study. As in other parts of the world, end-of-year examinations were of great importance in de-termining who would be admitted to the next levelof study. Each level, however, required admissionexaminations necessitating preparation not pro-vided in the student's previous prescribed program.Such preparation was usually offered in a summercourse or a, fifth year of elementary school for stu-dents entering the middle level, and in a period ofseveral months to several years of study for candi-dates seeking admission to schools of higher edu-cation.
This does not mean that no attempt was madeat each level of education to provide the prepara-
3 0-
lion necessary for the student's admission to thenext higher level. On the contrary, the generalunderstanding was that the principal purpose ofthe elementary school was to prepare the studentsfor the middle-level, which in turn should pointtoward university entrance. The levels of Brazilianeducation, however, functioned with little coordi-nation, and with notable isolation from each other.In general, the student was aware of this selectiveprocess, and especially when seeking admission toschools of higher education was conscious of thecompetition for the limited number of places avail-able.
There were other factors, extraneous to the edu-cational system, in the selective process. One wasthe economic situation of his family Nv111C11 deter-mined whether a student would have to leaveschool and help support the family or himself.Some students were able to work full time andstudy at night, but such endeavor required strongmotivation and persistence. In any case the eco-nomic situation of the family had to allow thestudent more than the bare necessities of life,especially at the middle level of schooling, whereusually tuition and school supplies were not free.
Another selective factor was the value system ofthe student and his family. A family which didnot place education high on its value scale wasnot likely to expend much effort to educate itschildren, and an individual who did not see valuein education was unlikely to overcome obstacles.
In a nation where all children did not havean opportunity for even the beginning of a fornialeducation, the selective factors, both internal andexternal to the educational system, reduced the de-gree of participation of those children who didenter school.
In 1961, more than 82 percent of the schoolpopulation at all levels was concentrated in theelementary schools; the middle level enrolled only16.2 percent, and schools of higher educa'.ion,about 1.2 percent.' Of the total school enrollmentin that year more than 60 percent at all levelswas in the first 2 years of the elementary school,and in some States, more than 80 percent.3
The selective process within the Brazilian edu-cational system and in society generally resultedin the loss of trained manpower for the Nation,and in the restriction of individual development
Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica, Anudrio estatisticodo Brasil-1961. pp. 368 -380.
Ibid., n. 361.
of the students who did not remain in school. Indescribing a system as being selective, some educa-tors may intend to demonstrate that it maintainshigh standards; however, the selective aspect maywell result in reduced output rather than insuperior quality.
TEACHING STAFFS
The different levels of education presented dif-ferent problems affecting teachers. In only sixStates were a majority of elementary-level teachersgraduates of the middle-level normal schools.The majority of teachers in most of the Stateslacked even this standard of instruction. On themiddle level, besides lacking the necessary prep-aration, teachers frequently held other jobs ortaught in several schools, which thus divided theirinterest. Teacher preparation for the higher levelwas unstructured, although the methods for choos-ing professors who would occupy an academicchair in a faculty were well defined. Most universi-ty-level teachers had completed the regular courseof instruction in an institution of higher educationand achieved further preparation through self-study and experience. Part-time teaching was alsoa problem at the level of higher education.
GOVERNMENT CONTROL ANDCENTRALIZATION
The educational system of Brazil was tied direct-ly to the Government which, through its variousagencies, controlled the norms, goals, and direc-tions of the schools to a greater or lesser degree,and regulated their operation. Following guidelinesof the Federal Government, elementary educationwas largely under the administration of the States,as were the middle-level normal schools for teachertraining. All other middle-level schools and insti-tutions of higher education were responsible to anagency of the Federal Government as determinedby the type of instruction offered.
One of the results of Government control wasthe development of an official concept of educa-tion. To be recognized by the general public, edu-cation had to be obtained in schools which wereofficially recognized and inspected by the Govern-ment agency responsible for the particular type ofinstruction. This concept of "official education"was supported by the requirement that certain Gov-ernment jobs be filled by persons who held diplo-
24
31
alas from "official schools." The diplomas fromsuch schools, to all intents and purposes, servedas the license to practice given professions. Diplo-mas from unofficial schools were worthless for thispurpose unless the applicant for a license passedrigid revalidation examination. This concept ofofficial education in some respects could be com-pared to the concept of accreditation in the UnitedStates.
Another result of Government control was thecentralization of education. When Federal agenciescontrolled the level or type of education, the cen-tralization of basic education policy was on a na-tionwide basis, although the agencies may havehad regional offices. The schools under jurisdic-tion of the States were no less centralized, thedifference being that the local school authoritieslooked to the State capital instead of the Federalcapital for direction.
Accompanying Government control and centrali-zation was the high degree of uniformity andstandardization in schools. Regardless of regionallocation, rural or urban setting, schools in all partsof the Nation under Federal control had identicalschool years and curriculums. Schools under Stateadministration followed minute regulations of theSecretariat of Education of their States.
PRIVATE PARTICIPATION
Government control extended to all privatelyoperated schools as well as institutions owned andoperated by public agencies. Thus, the concept of
official education applied to private schools aswell as public schools and allowed the privateschools to function under Government control onequal footing with the public schools.
The activity of the private sector in Brazilianeducation was notable in 1961. Almost halfof the higher education students, around 65 per-cent of the middle-level students, and about 12percent of the elementary school students wereenrolled in private schools. Sonic private schoolsreceived part of their support from Governmentalagencies, and most charged tuition. Profit-moti-vated schools were common on the elementaryand middle levels, but rare on the higher level.Without the contribution of the private schools,educational opportunities would have been evenmore restricted.
URBAN PREDOMINANCE
Brazilian education was largely an urban move-ment. Educational opportunities were definitelylimited fel the rural population. Although a ma-jority of the population was located in areas classi-fied as rural, more than half the elementary schoolstudents were enrolled in schools classified as urban.Qualitatively, the rural schools were considerablyinferior to the urban schools. In most of the states,more than 70 percent of middle-level students wereenrolled in schools located in municipalities havingurban centers of more than 10,000. Except for afew schools of agriculture, higher education wasconfined to the urban centers.
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Chapter 4
Enactment and Provisions of the Law
GUIDELINES OF THECONSTITUTION OF 1946
Article 168 of the Brazilian Constitution of
1946 set forth certain guidelines as a basis forfuture legislation on education. These constitu-tional guidelines were, in effect, the principleswhich would become requirements of the antici-pated legislation:
Free, compulsory public elementary education,with instruction in the Portuguese language
Access to other levels of education without chargeto those unable to pay the necessary fees
Fre.e elementary education pr.wided by industrial,commercial, and agricultural enterprises, employingmore than 100 persons, for children of their em-ployes, and free apprentice tro. !ling for minor em-ployes
Optional religious instruction as a part of regularstudy programs
Teacher tenure (ratedrhtico) rights and competi-tive examinations for pcziti6..3 i.. ,public secondaryand public o.. free higher education institutions.
Lifetime tenure is not sustained by the 1966
Constitution; how,wer, professors who alreadyheld the right when the new charter was decreedwere not affected.
ENACTMENT OF THE LAW OF 1961
In October 1948 the Brazilian Congress re-ceived the first bill on implementation of the 1946constitutional guidelines on education, under thesponsorship of the then Minister of Education andHealtt , Clemente Mariani. This bill, entitled "TheLaw of Directives and Bases of National Educa-tion" (Lei de Diretizes e Bases de Educacao Na-cional) remained under the consideration of theCommission on Laws of the Chamber of Deputiesfor some years, arising from time to time for atten-tion in the press, but failing to come up for debatein Ole Congress.
Not until 1959 was a substitute measure pre-sented for the 1948 bill. The proposal, which in
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chided a freer role for the private school in Brazil-ian education and Government aid, immediatelybecame a point of controversy, and thus focusedgreater attention of Congress on the still pendinghill. Supporters of public schools, expressing vary-ing degrees of opinion, felt their position threat-ened.
Proponents of public schools defended theirstand as that of a democratic society, on theground that only an educational system which waspub!:cly owned, supported, and directed could betruly democratic. Then theme was "public moneyfor public schools." Arguments ranged frontmere advocacy of the primacy of the public schoolto proposals whit h would prohibit any private par-ticipation in the educational processes of the nation.Public school supporters generally included individ-uals and groups of more liberal political inclina-tions who accepted greater State participation inother activities.
Advocates of private schools claimed to be com-batting "statism" and defending the freedom toeducate theft children as they thought best. Theseproponents were generally more conservative, andincluded religious groups which operated privateschools. Points of view ranged from the argumentthat private education should be partly financedby the Government to the position that all educa-tion should he private and that the State (orStates) should grant funds for the operation ofschools without participating in their supervision.
In general, the. objectives of the two opposinggroups represented simply the question of central-ized versus decentralized control of Brazilian educa-tion. This has been an unsettled issue in Brazilianeducation since the time of the country's inde-pendence. The Constitution of 1824, which pro-vided for a centralized form of Government, in-cluded the provision for free elementary schools.The central Government was not implementingthis requirement, however, when the Additional
Act of 183 gave administrative authority for ele-mentary and middle-level schools to the assembliesof the provinces (now States), which decentralizededucation on these two levels.
This situation continued through the imperialperiod of Brazilian history and was further con-firmed in 1891 by the first republican Constitution,which was definitely decentralizing in its approach,but made no reference to education directly. Theinterpretation was that the central governmentcould administer schools at the higher and middlelevels, and the State Governments at all levels:thus a dual system of administration was created.
Up to 1930 the Federal Government was notactive in the field of elementary education butto some extent centralized its control of middle-level education by making the ColZgio Dom PedroII in Rio de Janeiro into a model middle-levelschool for the country and using its curriculumas a standard. In 1930 the Vargas regitn6 beganto centralize the administration of education in thenewly created Ministry of Education, but still dele-gated to the States some authority over the ele-mentary schools. By 1946, its control of educationwas highly centralized, but the Cot stitution of 1946provided for decentralized administration, an ap-proach which is expressed in the 1961 Law ofDirectives and Bases.
The opponents of decentralized control fearedthat it would allow local politicians to gain con-trol over the public schools and weaken any controlover the private schools. In the elimination ofcentralization and uniformity, the threat of abusedfreedom was clear to those who advocated that allschools follow the same organization and studyplans.
The supporters of decentralization cited thevastness of the Brazilian territory, and the diver-sity of social and economic conditions as evidencefor the necessity of ending centralized control ofeducation and terminating the uniform programsof study and school organization. State and localcontrol and flexibility in tue educational processeswere seen as necessities.
Both groups made vigorous effort to arouse pub-lic opinion in support of their position. Wide dis-cussion in newspapers during the period further..,:stified to the importance of the proposed legisla-tion. Clearly, the final solution was to be a com-promise on the question of school control.
After further debate, consideration and revi.ion,the Law of Directives and Bases of National Edu-
cation was passed by the Brazilian Congress onDecember 20, 1961, and sent to the executivebranch, which vetoed 26 points of the provisions.Some of the vetoes were sustained and others wereoverriden in the Congress.
PROVISIONS OF THE LAW
Goals for EducationThe law begins with a general definition of the
goals of education, and reaffirms:The cc ms statement that education should
be inspired by the principles of freedom and humansolidarity
The right of all citizens to an education, in thehome and in the school
The obligation of the Government to assume thisright through provision for public schools and thenecessary resources for the family for education ofthe children
Freedom of communicating knowledge and beliefsopportunities of both public and legally authorized
private schools for representation on the councils ofeducation.
Role of the Federal GovernmentThe law provides for the formation of two types
of educational systems, 'Federal and State, stress-ing that the States and the Federal District shallorganize their systems of education and observethe constitutional guidelines and the provision ofthe law. The educational systems are to considerthe flexibility of curricPlunts and the different typesand levels of education.
The Federal Government has responsibility forpublic education in the territories.
Theoretically, the role of the Federal Govern-ment is to supplement and support the State systemsand to supplement education in the entire nation.within the strict limits of local existing deficiencies,rather than to control and direct Under thelaw, the Federal system has the responsibility for:
Education in the territories according to the localneeds.
Jurisdiction over all federally owned, nonmilitaryschools of higher education, private schools, bothelemelitary and middle-level, in the territories, andthose owned by the Federal Government in any partof tile nation (except military schools). Privatemiddle-level schools which were in operation in 1961have the option of choosing between the jurisdictionof a State or the Federal system of education, thisright of decision to be in effect for 5 years from thepassage of the law.
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The Ministry of Education and Culture con-tinues as
the administrative agency for Federal action ineducation, carrying out through its various direc-torates the activities assigned by the law, and exe-cuting decisions of the Federal Council of Educationas stipulated by the law;
The Federal Council of Educationis composed of 24 members appointed by the
President of the Republic for a 6-year term, andselected on the basis of their recognized knowledgeor experience in educational matters, considering thevarious levels of education, and the diverse regionsof the nation; the 6-year terms are to be adjustedat the time of organization of the council so thatone-third of the members will retire every 2 years;two-thirds of the council remains and serves as abalance in the change of membership;
is divided into chambers to deal separately withquestions concerning elementary, middle-level, andhigher education; plenary sessions will deal withquestions of a -,eneral nature; membership t thecouncil has pr...-ity over all other public officeswhich the member may hold;
has genera: power to investigate, through specialcommissions, any educational institution to determineits compliance with the law; to adopt or proposechanges and measures for the expansion and im-provement of education and consider extension ofsocial assistance; render opinions on questions ofeducational nature submitted by the President ofthe Republic or by the Minister of Education;
proposes measures for the organization and func-tioning of a federal system of education; indicatesthe required subjects of the middle and higher-levelprograms, and sets qualifications for elementaryschool teachers in the Federal system; has advisorycapacity on the incorporation of schools into theFederal system after the financial condition of theinstitutions has been verified;
makes decisions on the functions of independentfaculties, both Federal and private, after they havebeen in operation for 2 years; authorizes establish-ment of a university and its functioning by approvingitc charter: and determines minimum curriculumrequirements of institutions of higher learning whosediplomas confer the right to practice a liberal pro-fession or to hold certain public offices; but thesedecisions are made by the States in the case of Stateuniversities which have been in operation for 5 yearsor longer;
receives and considers reports from all university-level schools and :nay suspend the autonomy of auniversity;
makes plans for the use of Federal resources whichare appropriated for the different levels of education,the national fund for elementary education, thenational fund for middle-level education, and thenational fund for higher education; determines theoverall amount from Federal funds to be used forscholarships at the various educational levels in the
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States, the Federal District, and the territories;maintains relations with the State councils; and
promotes and circulates studies on the State systems.
The actions of the council in reference to highereducation, the question of incorporation of schoolsinto the Federal system, the establishment of quali-fications for teachers within the Federal system,the authority to determine minimum curriculumand required subjects, and the organization of thecouncil's rules of order, are all subject to the ap-proval of the Minister of Education.
State Participation
The Law of Directives and Bases authorizesState legislation which will determine the admin-istration and structure of the State s!,.sictits of edu-cation in accordance with Federal requirements.The systems of education of the States and of theFederal District are to include 2.il non-federal ele-mentary schools, State and municipal publicmiddle-level schools: private schools in existencebefore 1961 which chose to become part of theState system of education; and all State-ownedschools of higher education in States where univer-sitives have been in operation for more than 5years.
The State systems of education are specificallyempowered to place limits on the employment ofelementary school teachers who are graduates onlyof the first cycle of the normal school; and to setthe qualifications for all elementary school teacherswithin the system, making no distinction betweenthe graduates of public and private normal schoolswithin the State systems. It is the duty of theStates to decide on questions of adaptation arisingfrom the transfer of students from one middle-level school to another. States which have main-tained a university in operation for more than 5years may decide on the recognition of State-oper-ated schools of higher education in the States. Thisresponsibility is exercised by the State council ofeducation according to its authority.
A State council of education in each State is tobe structured according to State laws and com-posed of individuals of known standing in the fieldof education, including representatives of the vari-ous levels of instruction, private and public, aswell as teachers and administrators. state legisla-tion is to define the powers of the council, observ-ing the requirements of the Law of Directives andBases which specifically assign certain duties to
this body. The State council, as regulated by Statelaws, is to
organize qualifying examinations for elementaryschool teachers who an not graduates of normalschools
support local authorities in the enforcement of theprovision for firms employing more than 100 persc..sto provide elementary education for the children oftheir r rAinnel
set standards for the recognition and functioningof elementary and middle-level schools under itsjurisdiction, and advise the Ministry of the recog-nition of middle-level schools, and for the organiza-tion of experimental courses on both levels
complete the number of optional subjects for t'curriculum of middle-level schools within the Statesystem, permitting each institution to choose itselectives; technical courses not otherwise regulatedby law arc subject to authority of the State gov-ernment
authorize and inspect the schools of higher edu-cation which are owned by the State, but arc notcomponents of a university, and act in cases ofappeal coming from these schools
decide questions involving the transfer of studentsfrom one State institution to another
approve modifications in the constitutions andbylaws of schools under its jurisdiction
approve the transfer of an institution of highereducation from one sponsoring body to another if theinstitution has received State funds
provide special support to private and publicactivities in the field of education of exceptionalpersons.
The State councils of education are to plan forthe use of funds referred to in Article 169 of theI3razilian Constitution, requiring that 10 percent ofFederal tax receipts and 20 percent of State, Fed-eral District, and municipal tax revenues be usedfor education. Such funds ar, intended to provideaccess to education for the largest Lumber of per-sons possible, preferably in public schools. TheState councils are to organize the mechanismthrough which both Federal and State funds areto be used for scholarships, allowing aid to ele-mentary level students to study in private schoolsonly when there are no vacancies in the publicschools. The State councils are required to studythe costs of education within States and to publishstatistics, with the objective of improving the edu-cational processes.
Private SchoolsLegally authorized private schools are assured
participation in the Brazilian educational system bythe Law of Directives and Bases.
I The 1966 Constitution does not include this provision.
Private elementary schools are under the systemhaving jurisdiction over their locality. Private mid-dl..-level schools in existence in 1961 had until De-cember 1966 to choose between the Federal orState system. Private schools of higher educationare under the jurisdiction of the Federal authorities.No distinction is permitted concerning the validityof the studies in officially recognized public schoolsand in private schools. Diplomas and certificatesfrom both are judged to be of equal value and aresubject to the same regulations and registry.
Private schools may receive subsidies and grantsfor designated purposes from Government sources.However, they are required to grant tuition ordiscounts up to the value of the funds received.Private schools may also accept students holdingGovernment scholarships, and may receive Govern-ment loans. ?rivate institutions of higher educationwhich receive public funds may not be transferredto other ownership without approval of the compe-tent authority.
Educational FoundationsAs a means of maintaining educational institu-
tions on all levels, both private and public, the1961 legislation recommends the establishment ofnonprofit foundations and associations. Schoolssponsored by such organizations may receive finan-cial support from the Government and are allowedto charge tuition on the middle and higher level.If tuition is charged, the fees are subject toGovernment approval. If the foundations whichhave received Government funds cease to exist, allbuildings, equipment, and other resources becomeGovernment property. This system is especiallyrecommended for schools of higher education. Itshould be noted that this is not a required structureof ownership, and that the Law of Directives antiBases orders that a special law regulate suchfoundations. Employes of a foundation are subjectto the normal labor legislation, as are the otherprivate schools.
Financing EducationThe 1961 Law increases the percentage of Fed-
eral tax revenues to be used for education to 12percent, from the minimum of 10 percent, asstipulated in the Constitution of 1946. The re-quirement that 20 percent of State and municipaltax revenues be used for educational purposes con-tinues, and the States and municipalities are pro-hibited from requesting Federal aid for education
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when they have not fulfilled this constitutionalrequirement.
Ninety percent of the Federal funds for educa-tion are to be divided equally into three funds forthe three levels of education. According to theplans of the Federal Council of Education andthe State Councils of Education, the objectivesare to provide better schooling for greater numbersof students, to improve the quality of teaching, tcdevelop technical scientific education, and to pro-mote the sciences, letters, and arts. More specifical-ly, the funds are used for maintenance and ex-pansion of scholarship benefits, teacher develop-ment, and administration. but not for auxiliarysocial and cultural assistance.
Part of the Federal funds is designated forscholarships and 15-year low interest loans tostudents of recognized ability and need for studyin officially recognized institutions. The overallamount of Federal funds for scholarships is de-termined by the Federal Council of Education: th:State councils of education determine the alloca-tion per student and the requirements for theawarding of the scholarships.
Federal funds are to be distributed to privateand public educational institutions in the formsof subsidies, technical assistance, grants, and loansfor the purchase, construction, and repair of build-ing and equipment. To receive this aid, the schoolmust be officially recognized as morally and techni-cally responsible. .have an acceptable accountingsystem, and offer proof that the repayment of loanswill not prejudice the effective operation of theschool.
The law reiterates the constitutional require-ment that commercial, agricultural, and industrialenterprises employing more than 100 persons pro-vide elementary education for the children of theiremployees as a method of financing education. Anadditional recommendation is that rural propertyowners cooperate with public authorities to provideelementary education for the children whose par-ents reside on their land.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
The Law of 1961 provides only general guide-lines for elementary education. This level includespre-primary schooling which is limited to children7 years of age or wider and is provided in nurseryschools or kindergartens. Companies which em-ploy mothers of children of this age are urged to
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provide facilities for the children in cooperationwith public authorities.
The stated purpose of elementary education isto develop the reasoning powers of the child andto foster self-expression and integration into hisenvironment. Instruction in the national languageof Brazil is required from the age of 7. Elementaryschools are to provide at least 4 years of instruc-tion, with 2 additional years in schools where ap-plied arts arc taught. To facilitate enrollment andattendance, the law provides for annual registra-tion of school-age children, each municipality di-recting its census of children who have reached theage of 7. Parents who do not enroll their childrenin school or do not provide adequate instructionin the home cannot be employed by the Govern-ment or autonomous Government agencies. unlessthey present proof of sufficient justification, as
stated in the law.
MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION
Administration and StructureThe 1961 Law provides basic guidelines for
middle-level education, but leaves supervision ofschools to the competent authorities of the systemunder which they operate, Federal or State. Allmiddle-level schools are to organize charters andregulations to govern their internal operation, sub-ject to approval by the council having jurisdiction.
Directors of middle-level schools are requiredto he qualified educators, and teachers must meetthe qualifications necessary for registration with theMinistry of Education and Culture. Teachers forpublic schools are to he chosen through competi-tive examinations.
Under the 1961 Law, middle-level education isdivided into the broad categories of general sec-ondary, normal. and technical, the last in-cluding agricultural, industrial, and commercialstudy programs. Each category is divided into twocycles: the first, ginasial, and the second, colegial.The general pattern is 4 years for the first cycleand 3 for the second, but there are possible varia-tions in the normal school program, where eachcycle may be longer. Industrial programs may pro-vide a year of academic study between the twocycles.
AdmissionThe middle-level school is open to students who
reach the age of 11 before or during the school
year, and requires an entrance examination asproof of the student's adequate elementary preps=ration. Students who have completed the sixthyear of elementary school may take an examina-tion in the subjects offered in the first year ofthe first cycle of the middle-level program and,if successful, may enter the second year of thatcycle. Admission to the second level requires com-pletion of the first cycle. Through adaptation ex-aminations the student may transfer from onemiddle-level program to another, from one schoolto another, from one system to another, and fromforeign to Brazilian schools. These examinationsare administered under the system of educationhaving jurisdiction over the school the studentdesires to enter.
Curriculums
The law permits some variation in the curricu-lum of middle-level schools. The minimum require-ments call for 180 days of classes, of 24 hours aweek.
The 1961 Law stipulates that the Federal Coun-cil of Education shall select five required subjectsfor each middle-level program and state the num-ber required years of study for each. The Statecouncils, or the Federal Council of Education forthe Federal system, select two other required sub-jects. designate the length of study for each, andpermit the school to choose one or two electives tocomplete the curriculum. The first 2 years of allfirst-cycle programs include the same required sub-jects. Provisions are made for duly authorized ex-i; ;mental programs on the middle level.
Students who are 16 years or older may takeexaminations covering the first cycle of studieswithout attending class, and if successful, may re-ceive the certification of conclusion of the program.Students in the second cycle, 19 years of age orolder, may follow the same procedure. The exami-nations must be taken over a period of not lessthan 2 nor more than 3 years.
Each school is free to organize its own gradingsystem within certain limits and to issue certifi-cates of promotion and completion of courses.Grades are based on the work of the school yearand on general activities, the teacher having theliberty of formulating questions of the examina-tion. To be eligible to take the final examination,the student must have attended at least 75 percentof the classes during the school year. Students in
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public schools who fail one grade n tore than oncemay not matriculate in the school .
General Secondary ProgramAs outlined in the general provisions for middle-
level education, the general secondary program isdivided into two cycles, the first (ginasial) having4 years, and the second (colegial) 3 years. In theorganization of its curriculum, the individual schoolmay choose the elective courses to be offered inboth cycles, including one vocational subject. Amaximum of nine different subjects may be offeredin the first cycle with no more than seven in anyone year. The first 2 years of the second cycleoffer eight subjects, besides practical work; andthe third year, which may have not fewer thanfour, nor more than six subjects, is organizedto prepare the student for university-level courses.
Technical ProgramsMiddle-level technical education specifically
covers three types of study: agricultural, com-mercial, and industrial. The usual middle-level,two-cycle program is followed, but industrial schoolsmay include apprentice and crafts training, whichmay also be offered in separate schools, independ-ent of the middle-level programs. The industrialand commercial apprenticeship programs require 3years, and when he has finished, the student maymatriculate in a technical gincisio in the secondyear. Industrial and commercial establishments arcto provide apprentice training for their minor em-ployees, according to regulations of the differentsystems of education.
Special curriculum requirements for the techni-cal programs include four general secondary sub-jects in the last 2 years of the first cycle, besidesthe regular technical subjects, and five generalsecondary subjects offered in the second cycle.However, a school may offer a year of pre-techni-cal studies between the two cycles, covering thefive general secondary subjects, which leaves theentire second cycle for technical subjects. Diplomasgranted by technical schools must be registeredwith the Ministry of Education and Culture tohave national validity.
Normal SchoolsThe object of the normal school at the middle-
level is to prepare teachers and other staff membersfor the elementary schools. The first cycle of atleast 4 years leads to the diploma of regente, and
the second cycle of at least 3 years, to the diplomaof professor, xvhich qualifies the holder as an ele-mentary teacher. No distinction may be made be-tween the graduates of private or public schools.Institutes of education may be connected with thenormal schools, offering training in administration,guidance and professional education subjects forgraduates of the second cycle or the normal school'sprogram. For the training of teachers for the nor-mal school, programs in education similar to thoseof the faculties of philosophy may be offered. Ruralnormal schools arc to train teachers for ruralschools.
HIGHER EDUCATION
StructureAccording to the Law of Directives and Bases,
Brazilian higher education is provided in univer-sities, faculties, and institutes of research and spe-cialized training. The universities are composedof faculties and institutes, and the faculties maybe independent or a part of a university. Institutesmay be attached to either universities or tofaculties.
Usually a university is to be composed of five ormore faculties, but the Federal Council of Educa-tion may waive the requirement for rural and otherspecial purpose schools. A former requirement thateach university have a faculty of philosophy wasnot stipulated by the Law of 1961. Provisions aremade for the teaching of the third year of themiddle-level second cycle within the university.Also, middle-level technical programs may be of-fered when the university is able to provide therequired teaching and technical facilities.
AdministrationUnder the law, public universities and independ-
ent faculties constitute self-governing entities, orfoundations, whereas private institutions may besponsored by a foundation or a private association.These sponsors are not to directly administerthe university or faculty, but are to organize orapprove its constitution and bylaws subject to ap-proval by the Federal Council of Education. Thesponsoring bodies are also empowered to decideon questions which arise but which are not coveredby the constitution and bylaws of the schoolconcerned.
The law grants autonomy of instruction, allow-ing the school to create, organize, and determine
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additions to the basic curriculum, and to fix opera-tional procedures for its programs. The autonomymay be suspended for unspecified periods if theinstitution does not follow the provisions of thelaw and of its own constitution and bylaws. Thecouncil of education, Federal or State, havingjurisdiction over the school, acts as a universitycouncil for independent public faculties; for non-public faculties, the sponsoring organization per-forms this function.
The law also requires that the student bodyhave representation on university, faculty, and de-partmental councils; however, the question of theextent of this representation is not determined bylegislation, but by the constitution of the individualschool.
The chief executive of a university is the rector( rector) and of a faculty, the director (direitor).In Federal universities the rector is to be selectedfrom a list of three professors, nominated by theunivc.-rsity council, and presented to the Presidentof the Republic for approval. In State schoolsthe nominees arc presented to the Governorof the State. In private universities and facul-ties, the rector may be selected by the competentauthority from a list of three candidates; or, hiselection may be subject to the approval of thatauthority, depending upon the school's constitu-tion. Directors of Federal institutions of highereducation are selected from a list of three cate-drdlicos, nominated by the teaching staff of theschool.
Levels of ProgramsThe law provides for programs in institutions of
higher education at ( I ) the undergraduate level(graduaceio), open to students who have com-pleted their middle-level studies and have satisfiedother university entrance requirements; (2) thepostgraduate level (pos-graduado), open to stu-dents who have received their undergraduate diplo-mas; (3) the advanced training level, programs ofspecialization (especializaccio) which are permittedwith varying requirements and organization, ac-cording to the regulations of the institution.
The organization of curriculum is the responsi-bility of the institution itself; however, the FederalCouncil of Education determines the minimumnumber of subjects and the duration of the pro-grams.
The individual school may structure programs,select additional subjects, and establish its instruc-
tional program without limitations other than thosestated in the Law of Directives and Bases and inthe constitution and bylaws of the school. The or-ganization of subject matter for each class is theresponsibility of the teachers, subject to the ap-proval of faculty members or other designatedauthority. Students are permitted to take subjectsin faculties outside their own, and their equiva-lence is decided by the university council. Classesrequire 180 days for each school year, not includingthe time necessary for examinations.
Both students and teachers are required to at-tend classes. Students who do not attend theminimum percentage of classes as stipulated in theschool's regulation are denied admission to tfinal examination. The institution or any interestedparty may petition the suspension of a teacher whois absent without just cause from 25 percent of hisclasses, or fails to present 75 percent of the subjectmatter of the course outline. A recurrence of theinfraction constitutes legal abandonment by theteacher of the post, one of the causes for dismissalunder labor legislation.
Students in a public institution who twice failthe same year of a program are no longer eligiblefor registration in that school.
Diplomas granted by officially recognized schools,both private and public, have equal validitythroughout the Nation; however, for legal pur-poses diplomas must be registered with the Minis-try of Education and Culture. For registering di-plomas which qualify the recipient for practicinga liberal profession, or for public employment, theMinistry may also require examinations and proofof practical experience.
FinancingSchools of higher education are allowed some
degree of independence in handling their financesaccording to their own regulations, but within thebounds of State and Federal laws. The schools arefree to organize their budgets; to accept subsidies,donations, and legacies; and to present their ac-counts for auditing by the responsible group oragency. Subsidies and grants from the Federal au-thorities are given as a lump stun to the universityand designated for specific amounts in the univer-sity budget. Students who are unable to pay fortheir education may study free of charge in publicschools as provided in the Federal Constitution.
The Faculty of PhilosophyThe faculty of philosophy is the only school of
higher education mentioned specifically in the Lawof 1961. It is designated as the school for the edu-cation of middle-level school teachers. The facultyis also the model for the institutes of educationconnected with normal schools, which train ele-mentary school administrators and counselors. Eachfaculty of philosophy is to have a special programof instruction for middle -level counseling, admis-siOn to which requires the completion of the fullcourse in philosophy, education, psychology, socialscience, or physical education. Federal school in-spectors may also have orientation sessions in thefaculty if they have had the 3 years' experiencerequired for other candidates. No faculty of philos-ophy, science, and letters may function without atleast four programs leading to the bacharel diplo-ma, one of which must be the science and lettersprogram.
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Chapter 5
Implementation of the Law of 1961
This chapter discusses the existing, and in somecases the proposed, changes and innovations at alllevels of public and private education, designedto implement the requirements of the Law of 1961.
THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OFEDUCATION
Within a few weeks after the passing of the1961 Law, the President of Brazil, on February 5,1962, issued a decree for the establishment of theFederal Council of Education, according to pro-visions of the law. Its members were appointed,and a week later the group met to effect its formalorganization and to initiate its work. Pending theformulation of permanent bylaws, the council pre-sented to the Minister of Education a temporaryset of rules which were approved on February 21,1962.
The permanent bylaws, approved by the Minis-ter on October 7, 1963, provide for a council of24 members, organized in a chamber for highereducation, and in a chamber for elementary andmiddle-level education. A permanent commissionon legislation and standards is composed of sevenmembers, five of whom are from the chamber forhigher education, and two from the other cham-ber. The tl,o chambers and the permanent com-mission hae full-time secretaries. Special com-missions may he organized as necessary. Membersof either chamber may attend the sessions of theother and take part in the proceedings withoutthe right to vote.
A president and vice president of the councilare elected for 2-year terms. The president is re-sponsible for th.: overall functioning of the council,assisted by h s staff and by the General Secretariat,which is responsible for the overall administration.A general secretary, whose qualifications mustmatch those of the members of the council, is
nominated by the president of the council and the
Minister of Education, and is appointedPresident of the Republic.
The council meets monthly in regular plenarysessions and may be convened more often forspecial sessions. The various chambers and commis-sions function between the regular sessions. Theduties of the Council are those outlined by theLaw of Directives and Bases (see p. 33).
The attitude of the Federal Council of Educa-tion toward the law has been most important. Themembers have demonstrafrd the intention to imple-ment the law by placing its provisions into opera-tion soon as possible. The council has acceptedthe decentralizing features of the law, and soughtto shift the responsibility for education from theFederal to the State level. The principles of flexi-bility and variation within the limits of the laware expressed in many of the opinions and decisionsrendered by the group. The council has not im-peded the implementation of the law, but to thecontrary, has been a willing instrument for itsexecution.
Whereas the Minister of Education is a politicalrgure who may not serve for a long period, thecouncil continues its functions from one Federaladministration to another. It is therefore possiblefor the council to organize the resources of theNation for education on broaded-based and far-reaching plans. Professor Celse Kelly, at one timegeneral secretary of the council and later ap-pointed as a member of the group, described theFederal Council of Education as
. a small senate for educational matters withoutthe disturbance of political origins and withoutpartisan struggle, dedicated to high and profitablediscussion which may be expected of "persons no-table knowledge and experience in education." Sur-rounded by guarantees of stability, the supreme organof education has before it a most important respon-sibility, to be fulfilled with recognized autonomy asif there were a fourth power, ;ill educational power.'
by the
Brazil, Ministerio de Educagao a Cultura, Documenta: 20,(novembro, 1963) p. 5. (Translated)
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STATE COUNCILS OF EDUCATION
The 1961 Law does not define in detail the relationship between the Federal Council of Educa-tion and the State councils of education. It speci-fies that the Federal Council is to maintain contactand exchange information with the State councils,but requires no definite method. In no sense is itinferred that the State organizations are inferiorto the Federal, since each has the authority toact within its province on questions of educationas delegated by the law.
Plans for the application of Federal funds aregenerally considered by both councils with impli-cations of cooperation in regard to the principle ofdecentralization, the overall planning function, andthe realization of education in a national scope.Since 1963 the Federal Council has organized andpromoted annual meetings, at which the represen-tatives of the State councils have discussed commonproblems and exchanged information on importantaspects of education.
The State councils were not constituted asquickly as the Federal Council, but by the end of1962, 11 States had passed legislation creatingthe councils, or, as in the case of Rio Grande doSul, had adapted a previously functioning councilto the requirements of the 1961 Law. Fy the endof 1963, almost all the States had ap )roved thenecessary legislation which provided foe the coun-cils, and by the end of 1964, the coun,:ils existedin all States.
The organizational structure of the State coun-cils varies considerably; some having as few as 6members and others as many as 27. The councilsare not uniform from State to State in methodof operation, but are organized with chambers foreach level of education, according to the Law of1961.
The duties of the councils are defined by theState legislation authorizing their creation. Theseduties vary in their nature and in some Statesare redefined by a separate law which establishesthe State education system. Eventually, all Statesare expected to have such laws.
One influence on both the functioning and theduties of the councils is their relationship to theState secretariats of education, which formerly hadconsiderable responsibility for education in theirrespective States. In some States, the State secre-tary for education may be designated by law asthe president of the State council for education,
36
4J
and in others lie is a member of the group. Coun-cils may also include certain functionaries of theState secretariat as cx officio members.
Often there seems to be little direct connectionbetween the council and the State secretariat. Onone hand, the State secretary of education and hisentire secretariat may feel that they are subordi-nate to the council: as tl)e other extreme, the secre-tariat, through its staff members on the council,may strongly influence or dominate it.
Considerable variation has existed in the re-action of the State councils of education to theimplementation of the Law of 1961. With fewguidelines furnished by the legislation, some coun-cils have resorted co concepts which they knewand understood and have demonstrated some ten-dencies toward centralization of the State educa-tion system around the State council of education.In effect, some members of the councils havethought that the State agencies should be smaller-scale models of the formerly highly centralizedFederal Ministry of Education and Culture. Usual-ly, the president of the State council of educationis a key figure, and his initiative, or lack of it,is an important factor. Generally speaking, theState councils have sought to implement the laand in most cases are readily accepting the accom-panying responsibility.
THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATIONAND CULTURE
The Law of Directives and Bases designates theMinistry of Education and Culture as the agencyresponsible for exercising the Federal function ineducation (except in militi ry schools) . The gen-eral duties of the Ministry require that it enforcethe Federal educaticr al laws and the decisions ofthe Federal Council o Education. More specifical-ly, the Ministry continues to act as a registry forall middle-level school teachers, and for middle-level technical diplomas, in order that they mayhave validity throughout the Nation. To providelegal status and to permit the holder to practicea liberal profession or to hold public office, di-plomas from schools of higher education are alsoregistered with the Ministry.
Some decisions of the Federal Council of Educa-tion are subject to approval by the Minister ofEducation, who usually gives his consent to thecouncil's actions. There are allegations, however,that some actions of the council are not properly
implemented by the various agencies of the Min-istry. Such a situation might easily exist, consider-ing that the Ministry's directorates were organizedfor and accustomed to administering a highly cen-tralized system on the middle and higher levels.Some functionaries understood this type of ad-ministration, and were accustomed to thinking insuch a context, and to assuming that all finaldecisions were a matter for the Ministry.
While the Law of Directives and Bases assignedduties to the Ministry of Education and Culture,it made !Jo pro ,,,ins fir the reorganization ofthe Ministry itself. 'fl ,s, the situation which ac-tually existed, after enactment of the law, was thatof the Federal Council of Education attemptingto decentralize the educational system, with theMinistry acting as its executive body but stillstructured for a centralized system. However, in1965, legislation was under consideration to effectan administrative reorganization of the Ministryalong the lines of the 1961 Law.
In some regional offices of the Ministry of Edu-cation, varying interpretations of the 1961 Lawmay still exist. For example, in 1965 regional in-spectors in one locality circulated memoranda tothe effect that all general secondary schools werestill the responsibility of the Ministry; in other lo-calities they advised that inspectors had no respon-sibility for any secondary school, except those pri-vate schools which, according to provision of thelaw, elected to continue under administration ofthe Ministry. On the other hand, within theMinistry's offices in Rio de Janeiro and Brasilia,there are functionaries who thoroughly understandthe implication of the Law of Directives andBases, and have been diligent in executing the de-cisions of the Federal Council of Education whichare within their responsibility.
THE NATIONAL PLAN FOREDUCATION
Shortly after its organization, the Federal Coun-cil of Education began to formulate the NationalPlan for Education (Plano Nacional de Educacao)and delivered tile completed proposals for approvalby the Minister of Education in 1962. The planwas based on the requirements of Article 92 ofthe Law of Directives and Bases, which stipulatedthe amounts of Federal tax revenues and of Stateand municipal income to be used for the develop-ment of education. This provision of the 1961 Law
37
4 I
in turn derived from a constitutional requirement,and designated the Federal Council of Educationas the agency responsible for developing a planfor the use of such funds.
The 1961 Law stated that 90 percent of theFederal funds for education were to be dividedinto three equal parts to finance the three levelsof the school system. Thus, 30 percent was desig-nated for the national fund for elementary-leveleducation; 30 percent for the national fund formiddle-level education; and 30 percent for thenational fund for higher education.
Although the different levels received equalamounts, they served different percentages of thepopulation. In 1961, there was an enrollment ofmore than 6,600,000 students in the elementaryschools; more than 1,300,000 in the middle-level,and almost 102,000 in schools of higher educa-tion. Elementary education in 1961 received mostof its support from State and municipal govern-ment units, and a majority of middle-level stu-dents were enrolled in private schools which re-ceived little, if any, Government support. Thus, theprivate sector provided funds for education notconsidered in the National Plan.
It should be pointed out that this national planfor education is a method for disbursing fundswhich in part are administered by the Stateagencies of education. The overall objective is toincrease the degree of public participation in theeducational systems as well as to improve the effi-ciency of instruction. The more specific applicationof funds is for school-building construction, in-crease of teachers' salaries, improvement of teacherpreparation, funds for the education of exceptionalchildren, support of literacy programs, and the de-velopment of programs of instruction in general.
The plan itself determined the method of cal-culation for the division of funds among the vari-ous States, territories, and the Federal District, aswell as the different purposes for which the fundswere to be used.
1965 Revisions: Goals for 1976In March 1965, the Federal Council of Educa-
tion approved a revised plan, based upon the fol-lowing justifications for the change: The Educa-tional Salary Law (see p. 38) had been passed;the first 3 years of experience with the plan dem-onstrated the necessity for revision; due to budget-ary factors, the plan had been placed only inpartial operation. There were also provisions for a
yearly review of the plan, with necessary revisionsto be made by the council. The 1965 revision of theplan maintained the same goals, but changed themethod of calculating the share of funds whicheach State would receive, and also the purposesfor which the funds would be used.
The following goals were set in the 1965 revisionof the plan to be achieved by 1970:2
1. 100 percent of the school pop...ation from theages of 7 to 11 to be enrolled in the first 4 years ofschool, and 70 percent of those i 2 to 1.1 in the fifthand sixth years.
2. 30 percent of the 11 to 14 age group to heenrolled in the first 2 years of the first cycle of themiddle-level courses, and 50 percent of the 15-18 inthe last 2 years of the same nycle. Also, 30 percent ofthe 15 to 18 age group was to be enrolled in thesecond cycle of the secondary level.
3. The expansion of the matriculation in schoolsof higher education to include at least half of themiddle-level graduate.
4. By 1970, all elementary-level teachers were tohave some formal teaching education, 20 percenthaving the regents course, 60 percent the full normalcourse, and 20 percent some post-secondary training.
5. At least the last 2 years of the elementarycourses (the fifth and sixth years) should have a fullday of school activities and include industrial artsin their programs administered in adequate shops.
6. The middle-level schools should offer a full6-hour school day (including practical education)with directed study periods.
7. At least 30 percent of the teachers in schoolsof higher education should give full time to theirteaching duties.
The financial aid provided under the nationalplan may help in the solution of the pressingproblems in the Brazilian elementary school. Theshortage of trained teachers could be reduced byincreasing salaries, thereby attracting normal schoolgraduates who otherwise would not enter theteaching profession. The lack of financial supporthas been one of the reasons for the deficit in schoolfacilities and for the poor quality of the class-rooms and equipment. Additional facilities andteachers would contribute to the reduction of thenumber of children who have no opportunity toattend school, and to the achievement of the goalof the national plan to place all the 7-14 agepopulation in school by 1970. To some extentthe dropout rate could be reduced by increasedinvestment of human and material resources ineducation. However, the achievement of the stated
2 Brazil, Ministerio de '2dueac5o e Cultura, Plano nacional deeducacao, 1962. Revisab de 1965.
goals will be greatly handicapped by the rapidrate of population increase.
EMPLOYER SUPPORT:EDUCATIONAT. SALARY LAW
In Octiber 1964, the Leticational Salary Lawwas passed, which increased financial support forelementary education. Time law stated that all firmswhose employes benefit from social security mustcontribute a certain percentage of the legal mini-mum salary per employee for tin purposes of edu-cation. Exempted from the law arc those firmswhich provide elementary schooling for childrenof their employes as specified in the law, educa-tional institutions, and nonprofit organizations.Funds are to be collected by the social securityinstitutes, 50 percent of which is designated for theStates for elementary education, to be adminis-tered by the State councils of cducation. The other50 percent of the funds becomes part of thenational fund for elementary education.
The Educational Salary Law in effect is a mech-anism for !meting the constitutional requirementthat firms employing more than 100 persons pro-vide elementary education for the children of theiremployes. This law also distributes part of theload for the financing of elementary PrillCation tosmaller firms and to larger firms whose employesmay have few children.
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION
Elementary education was the least affected ofall levels by the Law of Directives and Bases. Thecontrol of elementary education remains with theState governments, with only general guidelinesset by the Law of Directives and Basc. Consider-able variation continues in the elementary schoolsystem from one State to another.
The normal length of the elementary programis a minimum of 4 years as required by the law,but 5 and 6 years are permitted. Although allStates are striving to raise their schools to the 4-year goal, rural schools do not necessarily offer thefull elementary program. Some States are con-tinuing their 4-year program as it was before 1961,and others retain the 5-year period. There hasbeen some experimentation with the sixth yearof the elementary school, as permitted by the law,allowing the student to enter the second year ofthe middle level after passing an admission exami-
38
4 5
nation. In Pernambuco, the rtsult, xere not encouraging, possibly because of ay e...;,erimental pro-gram of automatic promotion ;n some of theschools of that State.
The intent of the Law of Directives and Baseswas not simply to allow a year of middle-levelstudy to be completed in the elementary school.Rather, the intent, in ',Art, was to permit the ex-tension of the elementary program, to a 6-yearterminal course. The last 2 years stress practicalsubjects, providing a broader foundation for thestudent who would not continue to the middlelevel.
The requirement of the 1961 Law for an annualcensus of elementary students was initiated nation-ally in No, :tuber 1964. This census sought to veri-fy the number of children 5-14 years of age, andthe number enrolled in school. Since the usual agefor completion of elementary school would be only11-12 years, and a large percentage of this groupdoes not enter middle-level school, it is not sur-prising that the 1964 school census revealed thata large percentage of the uppe.: age group, 5-11years, were not in school. The census indicatethat in some cases, such as the State of Guanabara.and the Federal District, opportunity for elemen-tary s.7hooling was available for all school-age chil-dren, in either private of public schools, while inother States, large numbers of children are de-prived of this opportunity because of lack of facili-ties. In some regions where sufficient facilities exist,efforts are being made to enforce the provision ofthe law that all elementary school -age children beenrolled and attend classes.
MIDDLE-LEVEL EDUCATION
Decentralization of controls over middle-leveleducation began with the Federal Council of Edu-cation, won after its organization, inasmuch assome State councils of education were slow in be-coming acti .ted. The Federal Council's imple-mentation of the law's requirement on State con-trols in effect has pressured the State agenciesto accept control of the State school FederalCouncil of Education decisions, which were ap-proved on April 14, 1962, stated that the councildid not have the legal authority to grant _cogni-tion to newly established private :riddle -levelschools." These decisions ,:,erefore placed such
Brazil, Minister° da Educa,a, c Cultura. Documenta, 1 2 3(marco, abril, c main, 1962) pp. 208-209.
39
46
schools under jurisdiction of the State even beforemost of the State councils of education were inexistence.
Another immediate concern was the status of thestate-owned, and the private middle-level schoolswhich chose to operate under State control, in theStates which had not yet completed organizationof thcir educational system. In some States, wherethe educational system had not been recognized bythe F:!deral Council, the regional office (inspectoriosecczonal) of the Ministry of Education and Cul-tm, were advised school directors that the schoolsare still under federal jurisdiction, although Statesecretariats assumed supervision of the sci:ools, andthe Federal Council did ne.t take steps to preventsuch action.
Factually, the middle-lex 21 schools are under thejurisdiction c!' the system of ,which they are a part;State-owneei schools are components of the Statesystems; Federally owned schools and all institu-tions in Federal territory are included in the Fed-eral system.
Most private schools in existence before 1962are remaining under supervision of the Federalagencies. Several factors influence this decision,one of the stronger no doubt being that the schoolsare accustomed to the jurisdiction of the Ministryof Education. Another is that many school direc-tors feel that at the State level, political factorswould be of greater significance for the privateschools. Also some school directors are of theopinion that supervision from a Federal agencycarrie:, more prestige than from a State agency.
Whether schools operate under the Federal orthe State system, their charter and bylaws, bothsubject to the approval of the responsible council,govern many aspects of school life. In these docu-ments are laid down the duties of the administra-tive officers and teachers, rules of discipline forstudents, regulations for grading aid for examina-tions, the curriculums to be foliowed, and the solu-tions to many questions formerly controlled by theMinistry of Education. In all cases, the approvedcharters and bylaws must conform to the Law ofDirectives and Bases.
Under he decentralized systems, the middle-level school directors have much more r_:sponsi-bility than formerly. Decentralizati; n was in-tended not only to pass jurisdiction to a Statelevel, but also to g: e school directors more con-trol. At fir t, the directors, unaccustomed to suchauthority, se -need to be hesitant and not to under-
stand the significance of their new authority, As
thile passed and the freedom of the new situationbecame more apparent, their response was almostunanimously favorable. A few dyectors, however,would prefer to return to the previous situation,where they had to make few decisions and theirresponsibility was limited.
Inspection of middle-level schools continues on alimited basis, The Ministry of Education hassigned agreements with many schools to discon-tinue inspection, the movement having begun inthe late fifties. The director's responsibilities nowinclude many formerly held by the inspector.
State agencies are developing a system of schoolinspection. Some educators hope that the schoolinspector will emerge from the transitional periodwith more duties of guidance. In any event, theprocess of decentralization decrenses greatly the
duties of the inspector, since the individual schoolhas greater autonomy in its operations.
Middle-level education follows the structureprescribed by the Law of Directives and Bases, asstated in chapter 5. The designation of the cyclesof all courses is uniform, the first cycle known asthe ginasial and the second as the colegial. Theuse of these terms is significant, since they appliedbefore 1961 only to the general secondary pro-gram, which was university-preparatory in its ob-jective, and was considered to be the most prestig-ious. Graduates of all iniddle-level programs arenow eligible to seek admission to all institutions ofhigher education. The middle-level programs alsoenjoy some of the prestige formerly held by thegeneral secondary schools. This prestige is of im-portance in the Brazilian concept of what educa-tion should be.
Admission Requirements
Article 36 of the Law of Directives and Basesstates that for admission to the middle-level schoolthe candidate must be at least 11 years of ageduring the year, and pass an entrance examina-tion which demonstrates his satisfactory comple-tion of elementary education.
The Fec'oal Council of Education has ..tde
two decisions which interpret the legal 1,quire-inent for entrance to middle-level schools. InMarch 1962, the Council ruled that a student whohad passed the admission examination for any firstcycle of the middle-level program was eligible foranother program on the same level, depending
40
upon the regulation of the institution to which hesought Another decision in April 1963made possible a modification of admission proce-dures. In effect, the decision states that the ad-mission examination need not be required if theschool has other evidence that the candidate hassatisfactory elementary education. 'Finis the
I ial school, by its own bylaws, may determine itscei,eria for accepting students for the middle-levelcourses.
Ill many private schools at middle level, andin a few public schools having ample facilities forall applicants, students are admitted without exam-ination. Some private institutions which includeelementary-level courses do not require examina-tion of their own students for middle-level pro-grams, if they have successfully completed the ele-mentary courses, but make this requirement of allmiler applicants.
Some middle-level schools accept a certificate ofcompletion of elementary work from any school assufficient evidence of qualifications. Where thecandidates outnumber the capacity of the publicschool, the admission examination is used as ameans of screening students for acceptance, in
addition to the certificate of completion.
In the States where a sixth year has been addedto some elementary programs, admission to the
second year of the first cycle of middle-levelschools has required e%amination. In sonic cases,where students in private schools do not pass themiddle-level entrance examinations, they are en-rolled in the sixth year of elementary school, andthen may enter the second year directly. A re-ported abuse of this provision has occurred in
schools, where students are placed in sixth-year elementary programs instead of the first yearof the middle level, because the schools can obtainelementary-level teachers at a lower salary scale.
Teacher Certification
As specified by the Law of 1961, the Ministryof Education continues to be the certificationagency for middle-level teachers. The Ministryalso provides a short-term summer course for(c-Lchers who do not hold a licenciatura from afaculty of philosophy, indicating the continuingshortage of fully qualified teachers. Part -tire;teaching is still a problem at the iniddlr.-level.
4 Ibid. p. 87.
CurriculumThe Law of 1961 was passed less than 3 months
before the usual Nlarh first opening date forBrazilian middle-level schools. Immediately schooldirectors and teachers expressed considerabl doubtthat the prescribed curriculum changes would heimplemented for school year 1962. On February16 the Federal Council of Education made it clearthat the new law superseded all previous educa-tional legislation.' No State councils of educa-tion were organized according to the requirementsof the Law. Any direction w:ts therefore to conicfrom the Federal Council of Education.
The council then immediately began to considerthe middle-level curriculum, as directed by thelaw." The curriculum a.; developed includes fiverequired, four complemewary, and several optionalsubjects. The curriculum was to apply also toState schools until the State councils were able toprovide the supplenientary subjects for theirsystems.
The required subjects for the general secondaryprogram and years of study for each were
Subject YearsPortuguese language 7
History 6
Geography 5
Mathematics 6
Science* 6
* (2 years introductory, 4 years of physical andbiological science)
Complementary subjects were presented in thecurriculum 2., pairs, with four hypotheses fromwhich the individual school might choose:
First cycle
1. Drawing and Brazilian social and politicalorganization
2. Drawing and a modern foreign language3. A classical language and a modern foreign
language4. Two modern foreign languages
Second cycle
1. Mathematics and sciences2. Drawing and a modern foreign language3. Classical language and a modern foreign language
The optional subjects provided were:
First cycleModern foreign
languages
Ibid., p. 21." Ibid., passim.
Second cycleModern foreign languagesGreek
MusicIndustrial artsCommercial
techniquesAgricultural
techniques
Minerology and geologySocial studiesPsychology, logic, litera-
ture, introduction to thearts, law; introductionto: economics, account-ing, library science, babycare, health, anddietics
The council omniittee suggested that subjectsrequired in one type of curriculum could be usedas electives in another. There were also require-ments that practical education be given with thesubjects listed."
The difference between subjects (disciplinas)and practical education (practica ducativas) wasdefined by the Federal Council of Education inJuly 1962. According to the opinions given, regu-lar subjects are those directed at the progressiveand systematic increase of the knowledge of thestudent.' Practical education contributes to thephysical, civic, moral, or religious development ofthe student, the objective being more the matura-tion of personality than the assimilation of knowl-edge. The saute opinion stated that except for thebroad requirement for such education in Article38 of the Law of 1961, and the requirement thatall students have physical education until theyreach the age of 18, the question of practical edu-cation rests entirely with the individual school.
Commercial Technical Schools "
In the first 2 years of the first cycle (ginizsiocomercial) of the commercial course, the requiredsubjects are the same as in all middle-level courses,previously described. The commercial schooloffers one elective subject. Physical education isrequired up to the age of 18 years. Practicalcourses may include civic education, art education,home economics, feminine arts, and industrial arts.The third- and fourth-year programs includePortuguese language, mathematics, commercialand office practice. Science may be offered ineither or both of the years, and the elective sub-ject and practical education in the first and sec-ond years.
The second cycle (colggio comercial) includes3 years of the Portuguese language, 2 years ofmathematics, and I or 2 years of physical and
7 Ibid., p. 15-18."Brazil, Ministerio da Educagdo e Dactimenta 7.
(setembro, 1962). p. 42-43.Brazil, Ministerio de Educacrio e Cultura. Documenta 6,
agosto, 1962. p. 44-46.
biological sciences. The school may choose one ofa list of 10 elective subjects. Technical subjectsfor the second cycle depend upon the student'sspecialty, chosen from accounting, administration,secretarial work, statistics, commerce, and adver-tising. Two different plans for the second cyclecurriculum are provided, according to the varyingregional requirements. Night programs in thecommercial school require a minimum of 160 daysa year of classes.
State System CurriculumsAs the State councils of education were acti-
vated, the curriculums for the schools operatingunder their jurisdiction were prepared and dis-tributed. The concept of decentralization andflexibility was reflected at the national level, butthe State curriculums, because of the require-ments of the Law, were structured somewhat likethose issued by the Federal Council. The pastrigicUty of curriculums, as approved by the Min-istry of Education, caused sonic educators to looknaturally to the competent Federal agency formodels. In some States the curriculums of theState schools in the capital tended to influence theother public schools in the State, and even toserve as models for private schools operating underState supervision. Possibly this is a reflection ofthe still existing concept of centralization and tothe unwillingness of some directors to experimentwith new programs.
Another tendency is the organization of onefirst-cycle program (with electives and options)for all types of middle-level courses of study. TheLaw requires that all first-cycle courses have thesame required subjects for the first 2 years; therequired subjects for the last 2 years are dete -
mined by the Federal Council. In some cases theStates have expanded this moderate degree ofuniformity, and now have essentially the samecurriculums for all first-cycle 1- iddle-level schoolswithin the State system.
Following the sample of the Federal system cur-riculums, the State councils have provided second-cycle general secondary curriculum for schoolswhich wish to offer different types of programs.The first 2 years emphasize Certain fields of inter-est according to the provisions of the Law of Direc-t: yes and Bases, and the third year is even morespecialized, giving the student some opportunity forintensive preparation for the university admissionexamination.
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4 r.)
HIGHER EDUCATION
The Law of Directives and Bases stipulates thatinstitutions of higher education should adapt theirconstitution P.ncl bylaws to the requirements of thelaw within 180 clays, a function to be performedby the university councils, or the boards of trusteesfor sonic private schools. In each case there werenecessarily committee reports and discussions byresponsible groups. Only with some haste couldthe required alterations be effected within thegiven time limit of the law. While the 180-clayperiod was not strictly observed, the FederaCouncil of Education was soon receiving revisedversions of the basic documents of universities andindependent faculties. In most cases, the councilsuggested alterations and returned the documentsto the schools for further revision. Also, the coun-cil began consideration for the authorization ofnew faculties, :.1nd other pro sions concerning uni-versity schools.
Considerable autonomy is allowed universities,with few limitations, but the provisions of theLaw of Directives and Bases must be observed.The universities' constitutions and bylaws must beapproved by the Federal Council. The minimumcurriculum required must be offered. Universitieswhich receive government funds must E.:count fortheir use. The list of candidates for rectors anddirectors of government-operated universities mustbe presented to the proper authority for selection.The names of the successful candidates in cafe-drcitico examinations in public institutions are alsosubmitted for appointments. Otherwise, schoolsof higher education now function with consider-able autonomy.
The Federal Council has defined universityautonomy as an attribute of the university as awhole, not of the various faculties that composeit, and has presented the opinion that the uiiver-sity should be a "community" in the use of itsrights.'"
The implementation of university autonomy hasbeen broad. The Federal Council has refused toact on or offer opinions on questions which itconsidered to be the responsibility of the institu-tion. Sonic administrative and teaching staffs alsohave acted with independence on the organizationof programs and the acceptance of new ap-proaches in studies and instruction.
10 Brazil, Ministerio de Educacao e Cultura, Documenta-10.(dezembro, 1962), p. 115.
TABLE 12.-Total higher education enrollment by States,and percent of enrollment in each: 1961
StatesTotal
enrollmentPercent ofenrollment
Total 101,581 100.0
Amazonas 308 0.3Para 1,221 1.2
Maranhao 668 0.6Piaui 324 0.3Ceara 2,447 2.4Rio Grande do Norte 578 0.5Paribi.: 1,178 1.1
Pernambuco 5,971 5.8AlagOas 1,008 0.9Sergipe 355 0.3Bahia 4,094 S.9
Minas Gerais 9,993 9.8Espirito Santo 1,064 0.9Rio de Janeiro 4,399 4.3Guai abara 18,271 17.9Sao Paulo 28,880 28.4Parana 7,164 7.0Santa Catarina 779 0.7Rio Grande do Sul 11,341 11.1
Mato Grosso 184 0.1
Goias 1,414 1.3
Source: Adapted from: Brazil, MiniLterio de Educagao e
Cullum. Stnopse estutistico do ensino superior-1961. p. 27.
Curricul urnsThe Law of Directives and Bases placed respon-
sibility on the Federal Council of Education fororganizing minimum curriculums for higher edu-cation programs which grant diplomas or degreesqualifying the holder to practice a profession.The sequence of subjects, their content, and or-ganization are determined by the staff of the indi-vidual school, and the school may choose addi-tional subjects for its curriculum.
In February 1962 the Minister of Education ap-proved a decision of the Federal Council that insti-tutions of higher education for the 1962 schoolyear should continue the same curriculums of1961." The council began to issue new minimumcurriculum requirements for university-level:curses by September 1962, and announced thatthe new programs would enter into effect for the1963 school year (table 13). In case of anydilemma arising in the period of transition, theMinistry of Education would issue instructions forsolving the problem. In any case, all first-yearstudents were to begin their studies under the new
it Documenta 1-2-3. p. 14.
43
jr1,(." I
curriculum. Schools of higher education were en-couraged to take advantage of their autonomy andto design programs which Would consider the needsof the region where they were located.".
TABLE 13.-Minimum higher education Programs pre-scribed by the Federal Council f Education, and yearsrequired for each: Brazil, 1963
YearsPiJgrams required
Accounting, actuarial, and economic sciences 4
(Economiitas, atudrios, e contadores)Agriculture 4
(Agronomia)Architecture and city planning 5
(Arquitetura e urbanismo)Biological sciences 1 4
(Ciencias biologicas)Chemistry or industrial chemistry 4(Quimico ou quimico industrial)Chemistry 2 4(Quimico)Dentistry 4
(Odontologia)Drafting= 4
(Desenho)Education 1 4
(Pedagogia)Engineering-Civil, mechanical, electrical,
metalurgical, mining, naval, and chemical 5
(Engenharia-civil, mecanica, Electrioa, metala-gica, de minas, naval, e quimica)
Forestry engineering 4
(Engenharia florestal)Geography 4
(Geografia)Geology 4
(Geologia)Guidance and counseling 1
(Orientacao educativa)History 4
(Historia)Journalism 3
(Jornalism)Law 1 5
(Direito)Letters 4
(Letras)Library science 3
(Biblioteconomia)Mathematics 2 4
(Matemdtica)Medicine 6
(Medicina)Music 3-6
(Masica)
is Documenta 10. p. 13 -16.See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 13.--(Continued)
ProgramsYears
required
Natural history' 4(Ilistoria natural)Nursing ( general program)(Entermagem geral)
Obstetrical nursing General program plus I year(Enfe)magenz obsttliricalPublic health nursing 2 years of general program
plus I year of specialization(linfermagem de satide
Nutritionist ' 3
(Nutritionista)Occupational physical therapy 3
(FisioteraPista occupational)Pharmacy(Farmdcia)
Bioelnunical pharmacist(Farmaceutico bioquimico)Pharmacist (general) 3
(Farniaceutico)Philosophy 4
(Filosfia)Physical education and sports technician(Educacdo fisica e tecnica desportiva)Physics' 4(Fisica)Psychologist 5
(Psicologo)Psychology ' 4(Psicologia)Social sciences 4(Ciencias socials)Social work(Servico social)Veterinary medicine 4(Medicina veterindria)
The organization of the curriculum specifies the possibility ofawarding the bacharelado degree.
2 The organization of the curriculum specifies the possibility ofawarding the 1:,,:ntiate (licenciatura). For the purposes of earningthe licentiate, the teacher's certificate for the secondary levelschools, subjects in education may be added to other programs,although the title is not mentioned in the minimum curriculum.
a This is considered to be a postgraduate program and thereforerequires for admission the completion of a related higher educationcourse of study; however, students who hold the licentiate are notrequired to repeat subjects which they have previously studied.
A year of internship may be added to the program.The 1962 decision by the Federal Council of Educati." stipu-
lated a 3-year curriculum, but this was changed t,. 4 years in 1964.
In reference to the supplementary subjects, thecouncil stated plainly that it did not regulate suchselections n )r did tly; Law approach this point.The school was to have full autonomy in reorgani-zation of its curriculum." Neither did the coun-cil req,..,nt that any reorganized curriculum forhigher education be presented for approval. Thus,
la Ibid. p. 10.
44
a program may be presented in different profes-sional schools, and a combination of programs mayexist according to the regulations of the individualinstitution. The minimum curriculums presentedby the council dearly indicate that the professionalorienta*.ion of Brazilian higher education willcon tin ue.
The different study programs vary considerablyin the number of subjects offered, and in theirduration, from 3 years for library science, physicaleducation, journalism and other subjects, to 6years for medicine and some music programs.Most engineering programs require 5 years andsome combinations of specialties, 6 years. Someprograms are divided into basic and professionalcycles. Minimum curriculums for postgraduateand specialization studies are not regulated by theFederal Council of Education.
Usually at the end of his program of 7tudy, thestudent receives a professional title which Nvhenproperly registered confers the right to practice aprofession. The faculties of law offer the degree ofbacharel and the faculties of philosophy and lettersoffer a licenciado as well. The two degrees are thesame level, the difference being that the holder of thelic.nciado has studied the subject necessary for regis-tration as a middle-level school teacher." The re-quirements for the r'octorado vary from one univer-sity to another, but the basic requisite is still time
preparation and defense of a thesis, based on inde-pendent study without resident reylirements.Postgraduate work in Brazilian universities is stilllimited, because of the predominant professionalnature of higher education in the country, and itis traditionally different from graduate programs inthe United States. However, there is increasinginfluence of U.S. higher education on Brazilianpostgraduate studies.
Decisions of the Federal Council in 1962 and1963 define the length of programs of higher edu-cation in terms of years. In 1965 this conceptwas modified by a decree of the Ministry of Edu-cation supporting the council's decision which de-fined the duration of a program in terms of classhours, with a medium, maximum and minimumnumber permitted each year. The total classhours required for a designeer? program of studyvaries from 1,215 for guidance and counseling to5,400 hours for medicine. The medical programallowed as few as 540 class hours per year and a
n of 1,080, thus permitting a program, in
Documenta 10, p. 95.
terms of years, to be as short as 5 or as long as10 years. By following the medium number ofclass hours per year, all programs would have thesame duration in years as determined by the 1962and 190 ,-lecisions of the council. It is believedthat most schools will adopt the medium numberand that the duration of programs in terms ofyears will remain stable.'''
The life-time caledryitico in Brazilian institu-tions is the keystone of the teaching profession onthe higher level. In most of the faculties and uni-versities, and in all schools under the Federal sys-tem, this status is a prerequisite for election asdirector of a school or as the rector of a univer-sity. Witl almost autonomous powers, which areusually jeaously guarded, the catedratico is in aposition to block almost any change which he maysee as a threat :o his prerogatives. Whether a valueor not, tt e catediyitico remains an important factorin Brazil an higher education.
Student Representation
In adapting their constitutions and bylaws ac-cording to the Law of 1961, schools of higher edu-cation were required to include provisions forstudent representation on university, faculty, anddepartmental councils, but there was no stipula-tion as to the number of students participating.The Federal Council of Education ruled that nolegal demand existed for student representation inexecutive committees (conselho tecnico adminis-trativo) which perform important and extens;vefunctions in many schools. Opinions as to theresult of student representation have been bothnegative and positive. Some professors doubt thatthe students understand enough about the admin-istration of a university to make any notable contribution, but they find value in the fact thatthere is now an official connection between studentgroups and the university administration. Some
have feared that the students would be a disrupt-ing influence, considering the traditional separationbetween student and teacher. In some schools,student representation was interrupted for a whileoffer April 1, 1964, upon termination of theGoui-art regime, but with the later reorganizationof student groups their representatives have re-turned to the school councils.
10 Revista lirasileira de Es ludas Pedagogicos. Vol. XLIII,(abril-junho, 1965) No. 98, pp. 245-257.
Student Organization
In September 1964 a bill was introduced in theBrazilian Congress, designed to regulate studentorganizations. Student groups had been closely al-lied with the Gou lart regime, and were generallyconsidered to be instruments of leftist forces. AfterApril 1964 the Government dissolved most of thestudent organizations, and prohibited almost alltypes of student activities. The 1964 legislationrecognized certain student groups and defined thelimits of their °pet ation. Other student organiza-tions were not to receive government support, orto be recognized as the representatives of the Sul-de..t class. The official groups are organized on the
()nal, State, university, and faculty level, anddm competent organs for electing student rep-
resentatives to the various school councils. All stu-dents are required to vote in student elections, andthere are provisions to eliminate the "profes-sional" 1" student from holding office in studentorganizations. Only full-time students who are notrepeating the year may be elected for 1-y:nr termsin student offices, re-election to the same office be-ing prohibited. Article 1 of the 1964 legislationstates the purposes for student organizations, anddoes not include political activity, which is defi-nitely ruled out in another article. Also, any move-ment to instigate absence from classes is prohibited,a measure designed to eliminate student strikes.
Student reaction to the restrictive legislation hasnot been favorable. Elections have been held withblank votes being cast in protest of the legisli,tion.Strikes, though brief, have orcurred, suppc sedlyprovoked by administrative measures, but politicalissues have been injected into the movements. Gen-erally speaking, the students do not have the in-fluence which they formerly held, ar,d in 1965,
were in the process of attempting to discover towhat extent enforcement of the law would modifytheir basic groups.
GENERAL ENROLLMENT TRENDS
Although it is too early to attribute certaintrends in Brazilian education to the operation ofthe Law of Directives and Bases, it should be notedthat during the years following the initial imple-mentation of the Law there have been indication,of growth in enrollments. In order to place these
In "Professional" refers to individuals whose primary purpose inschools is political agitation, and enroll only to be legally classifiedas a student.
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developments in perspective, it is necessary to makea comparison of enrollment data for the 5 years(1946-61) preceding the approval of the law andthe data for tl,o. 5 years after the Law became ef-fective ( 1961-66 ) .
The 10-year span was a period of rapid popula-tion growth with Brazil's population increase ratebeing one of t, highest in the world and the high-est of any the larger nations. The estimatedpor-ilation of the country in 1956 was a little above60 millions; '' for 1961, above 71 millions; andfor 1966, almost 84 millions," or an increase of18 percent for each of the 5-year periods.
For all levels of education, the percentage ofenrollment increase was above the population in-crease of the country. In the 5 years after the lawbecame effective, elementary school enrollmentsincreased by 37 percent, whereas the previous 5years' increase was 32 percent 1" (table 14). The
percentage of students in private schools decreased,as did the percentage in rural schools. There wasa slight increase in the percentage of the total en-rollment in state controlled schools. The 1961 Lawaffected the elementary level less than it changedthe other levels, the responsibility for the elemen-tary schools remaining with the State and munici-el governments, as before 1961.
The overall enrollnint increase for t!ie middlelevel, 1961 to 1966, was 84 percent as comparedwith 51 percent for the 1956-1961 period (table15). The percentage of students enrolled in stateoperated schools also increased significantly. Thedistribution of the students by programs variedlittle, with more than 80 percent of the studentscontinuing to be enrolled in the general secondaryand the normal school programs.
The middle level wq- s greatly affected by theLaw of Directives and Bases. Responsibility for ad-
TABLE 14.-Total elementary school enrollment, and percent of ,--rollment, by types of schools: 1956, 1961, 1966
Year
Public Private Rural Urban
Enrollment Total State
Percent of enrollment
1956 5,886,554' 87.7 56.5 12.3 40.8 59.21961 7,798,732 2 88.8 64.3 11.2 39.6 60.41966 10,695,391 ' 89.4 65.5 10.6 37.8 62.2
Source: I Anudrio esuaistico do Brasil-1958. p. 258. (General2/b/d.-1963. p. 359. (General Matriculation).3 Ibid.-1967. p. 552. (Initial Matriculation).
ministration was shifted to a large degree to theStates, and the flexible provisions of the law facil-itated the establishment of many more schools.Considering the enrollment increase in State-op-erated schools, it is clear that the State Govern-ment's acceptance of the additional responsibilityhas been more than perfunctory.
Higher education enrollments increased at amuch higher rate from the 5-year period, 1961-1966, than in the preceding 5 years, the percent ofincrease rising from 34 to 79. The total enrollmentfigures covering the period of 10 years were: 2"1956, 75,424; 1961, 101,581; 1966, 182,065.
17 Brazil, Conselho Nacional de Estatistica. Amalfi° esiatisilco deBrasil-19.56. p. 25.
18 Ibid., 1961. p. 37.1° The real Increase may have been larger, but does not appear
so due to a change in statistical procedures.Anudrioestadstica do Brasil-1956. p. 360; Sin rue estaifstica
do ensino Superior-1961. p. 13; and Anudrio estadstica doBrasil-1967. pp. 693, 698.
46
matriculation).
TABLE 15.-Total middle-level school enrollment andpercent of enrollment, by types of schools: 1956, 1961,1966
Percent of enrollment
Public Private
Year Enrollment Total State
1956 824,107 30.7 24.1 69.31961 1,308,044 34.5 29.3 65.51956 2,483,212 50.7 48.6 49.3
Source:1.8inopse estatistica do ensino rnedio-1936. pp. 19, 24, 31,
34, 39.2/bid., 1961. p. 7.1 Anudrio estallsaco do Brasil-1967. p. 615.
Higher institutions have operated with consider-ably more cieedoin under the 1961 Law, and itsmore liberal procedures for the establishment ofnew schools has resulted in an increased number
of institutions. While distribution of enrollments byprograms changed little from 1961 to 1966, therewere notable increases in the percen+age of totalenrollments in the schools of engineering and theschools of economic sciences, with a slight decreasein the proportion enrolled in law schools (tables11 and 16).
As yet there are few indications that the Law ofDirectives and Bases has signficantly affected theelementary school retention rates (table 17) . Ac-cording to the enrollment data for 1964, 1965, and1966, about half of the students are in the firstgrade. Even in the State capitals, about 35 percentof the students are first graders." The overall re-tention rates for the elementary level continue tobe affected by the rural schools, which frequentlyoffer only 1 or 2 years of schooling and are di-rected by teachers who have little preparation.According to the 1964 school census, 31 percent ofall elementary school teachers in Brazil have onlyan elementary school education or less.22 The Law.of Directives and Bases gives very little attentionto the rural schools.
The retention rates for the middle level haveincreased since 1961, and if the trend continues itcould soon reach significant proportions.
Anuarlo estatistico do Brasil-1967. p. 556.2' Brazil, MinistErio de Educacao e Cultura. 11 Conferencia
Nallonal de Educacao. Vol. I. p. 141.
Tnaus 16,-- Total higher education anrollment, by leveland field of study: 1966
LevelTota.
enrollmentPercentof total
UndergraduatePostgraduate
Fotal
180,1091,790
181,899
99.10.9
100.0
Undergraduate Programs Undergraduate Percent ofPhilosophy, science and enrollment undergraduates
letters 44,802 24.7Law 36,363 20.0Engineering 26,603 14.6Administration and
economic sciences 24,027 !3.2Medicine 17,152 9.4Dentistry 6,794 3.6Agriculture 4,852 2.6Social work 3,121 1.7Architecture and urban
design 2,774 1.5Pharmacy 2,619 1.4Veterinary medicine 1,991 1.1
Fine arts 1,866 1.0Journalism 1,361 0.7Nursing 1,266 0.7Physical education .... 1,140Library science 978 0.5Other 2,445 1.3
Total 180,109 100.0
Source: Adapted from Anudrio Estatistico do Brasil -1967. pp.693 and 698.
TABLE 17.-Retention rates, per 100 students entering first grade of elementary-level school,through middle-level: 1942-55
Years in school Elementary level in grade- Middle level in grade-
Ginasial cycle Colegial cycle
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3
1942-52 100 40.5 27.4 15.5 7.1 5.3 4.4 3.4 3.4 2.7 1.91943-53 100 41.6 28.3 15.8 7.9 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.8 2.9 2.21944-54 100 41.8 29.1 17.0 7.8 5.8 4.9 4.0 3.9 3.2 2.21945-55 100 41.2 29.2 16.9 7.6 6.0 5.0 4,1 4.1 3.1 2,31946-56 100 41.2 28.7 17.0 8.0 6.2 5.1 4.2 4.2 3.2 2.31947-57 100 41.6 28.5 17.1 8.1 6.3 5.3 4.3 4.2 3.2 2.71948-58 100 39.0 27.2 16.0 7.7 6.2 5.1 4.2 4.1 3.0 2.61949-59 100 39.7 27.5 16.1 8.4 6.2 5.3 4.3 4.2 3.1 2.61950-60 100 38.5 26.6 16.0 8.6 6.9 5.5 4.4 4.3 3.1 2.71951-61 10.0 38.4 26.8 17.0 8.6 7.1 5.6 4.5 4.5 3.2 2.71952-62 100 38.5 27.6 17.2 9.2 7.3 5.9 4.7 4.6 3.5 3.01953-63 100 40.0 28.8 18.0 9.2 7.9 6.2 5.0 5.0 3.7 3.31954-64 100 39.4 28.2 18.1 10.0 8.0 6.4 5.3 5.1 4.0 3.51955-65 100 39.8 28.8 18.7 10.0 8.1 6.6 5.4 5.4 4.3 3.9
Source: Brasil, Ministerio de Educagao e Cultura, Sinopse Estatistica de lEnsino Medio-1965. No page namber.
47
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CONCLUSION
The Law of Directives and Bases of NationalEducation, approved by the Brazilian (Jongress inDecember 1961, was the result of more that 15
years of thought and effort to implement the edu-cational provisions of the Constitution of 1946. Thefinal legislation resulted from many compromises,and, although recognized as imperfect by mostBrazilian educators, it was the law which it waspossible to pass at the time. Go,.erninent authori-ties began immediately to implement and apply itsprovision:, to the educational scene. Complete im-plementation was impossible; however, the processwas initiated and is continuing, and will continuefor sonic years. The real achievements of the lawcan be known only after it has been in effect forat least 10 years, or as some Brazilian educatorsbelieve, perhaps 20 years. This one point shouldbe clearly understoodthat the process of imple-menting the Law was initiated soon after finalapproval of the legislation and is continuing.
The decentralization of the Brazilian educa-tional system, one of the primary objectives of thelaw, is already becoming a reality. The FederalCouncil of Education began functioning in 1962,and has been an active agent n transferring theresponsibility for education to other sources, asprovided by the law. In part, the administrativeresponsibility for middle-level education now restswith the States and the individual schools, as per-mitted by the law. On the level of higher educa-tion, the constitutions and bylaws of the universi-ties and faculties are amended to allow the degreeof autonomy as stipulated by the law.
The governmental administrative responsibilityfor institutions of higher education is retained atthe Federal level, but the supervision is definitelylimited, so that the decentralization is front theMinistry of Education to the individual faculty oruniversity. In only two States, Guanabara and SaoPaulo, has some of the governmental responsibilityfor higher education been transferred to the Stateagencies.
Another primary objective of the Law of Direc-tives and Bases was to afford some degree of flexi-bility in the Brazilian educational system as awhole. The legislation provides for variations inprograms at the elementary level, and severalStates have initiated new programs accordingly.The overall structure of middle-level education re-mains more or less uniform throughout the Nation,
but a definite, though limited, amount of flexibilityof curricuill111 is provided.
As for subject content, teachers now have theresponsibility for its organization and presentationin the classroom. Higher education is subject totwo principal governmental controls under thelaw: One, requiring that the constitution and by-laws of nniversities and of independent facultiesbe approved by the responsible council of educa-tion ; and the other, requiring that the minimumcurriculum, as stipulated by the Federal Council ofEducation, be offered for programs whose diplomasmay be used for professional licensing.
With such autonomy granted by the Law ofDirectives and Bases, uniformity of organizationand of programs of study is no longer a charac-teristic of Brazilian schools of higher education,but the basic unit is still the "faculty." The mini-mum curriculums presented by the Federal Councilof Education are introductory or general for pro-grams of study leading to the practice of a pro-fession, and are not designed to be offered by anyparticular faculty of a university. Thus, a varietyof studies of widely different nature could in theorybe offered under a single institutional program.
Probably the more significant innovation in thisdirection, and implemented in a few instances, isa new aproach in the offering of introductory sub-jects common to several faculties. Universities ex-perimenting with such programs utilize a 2-yeargeneral course id institutes or schools of generalstudies for the teaching of subjects which are re-quired of first- or second-year students, regardlessof the profession which they intend to follow. Thisplan eliminates duplication of teaching functionsnecessary when each university faculty, each withseparate staff and equipment, offers the same intro-ductory subjects generally required. The new prac-tice results in economy of laboratories, classrooms,and teaching staffs. After these first 2 years ingeneral studies, the student would, of course, con-tinue his preparation in the particular universityschool offering his specialization.
Such innovations are possible under the Law ofDirectives and Bases, but a strong obstacle to theflexibility permitted still remains. Administratorsin sonic institutions are open-minded in their c.e-sire to initiate experiments, but find that the tra-ditions of Brazilian universities and the nature ofthe university school may prevent their doing so.
The effort to inject some flexibility in the rela-tionship between programs of study at the several
levels was not strong, or highly successful. Articu-lation between the elementary and the middlelevel, for example, is now more flexible through aliberal interpretation for admission examinations ofthe middle-level schools, rather than by the appar-ent coordination of the 6-year elementary school.The provision for eligibility of grad ites of allmiddle-level schools for the university admissionexamination has greatly facilitated the student'spreparation for higher institutions. Within the vari-ous middle-level programs the individual schoolmay now be more flexible in its conditions for re-ceiving students transferring from other scnoolsand other types of programs.
With the break from the formerly highly cen-tralized responsibility for a large part of the Bra-zilian educational system, and in the uniformity ofcurriculum and program organization, Bra., ilianeducators are already experiencing some problems.C ir is the difficulty of transferring students froma School whose curriculum differs from that of theschool they desire to enter. Adaptation examina-tions are a mechanism to enable such transfers, butsome educators foresee a day when students willhave a choice of a variety of subjects within theprogram. This solution would facilitate the transi-tion, but would increase the cost of education.
Another problem encountered by some educa-tors is the setting of standards for the various levelsof education. With decentralized authority, it is
possible, on the secondary level, for one State tohave more or fewer requirements than a neighbor-ing State, as long as the State council of educa-tion demands meet the minimum set by the Fed-eral Council of Education.
A related problem foreseen by educators is thatof maintaining the standards set by the responsiblecouncil. Certain schools may meet only minimumstandards, whereas others seek to provide muchbroader education than that prescribed by the re-sponsible council. The truth is that even under thevery rigid centralized system of the past, whenthere was supposedly close inspection, some schoolsconformed to the minute regulations only in themost formal sense.
As the Law of Directives and Bases now stands,the Federal Government still retains some responsi-bility for the setting of standards but shares itsauthority with the State agencies. However, withgreater freedom and responsibility given to theclassroom teacher, the implementation of stand-ards rests with the school directors and the pro-
fessors, and the real responsibility for the qualityof education, in the school and the classroom.
The implementation of the law with respect tothe financing of education is expressed in the na-tional plan of education, formulated in 1962 andrevised in 1965. This plan was not entirely success-ful in its first years of operation, but does attemptto place Federal funds at the disposition of schoolson all levels. The Educational Salary Law, passedin 1964, is an alternate mechanism for implement-ing the requirement that commercial and industrialfirms of a certain size privide elementary-level edu-cation for the children of their employees.
Some negative factors have influenced the im-plementation of the Law of Directives and Bases.From an administrative point of view, the Minis-try of Education and Culture was organized in con-formity with a cen ralized system of middle-leveland higher education, and for more than 30 yearsfunctioned within that context. The law did notcall for reorganization of the Ministry, so its struc-ture was not geared for the administration of a de-centralized education system. On the State level,there are varying patterns of the State councils ofeducation, some of which integrate the councilwithin the existing State secretariat of education.This and other factors have led some States to at-tempt to centralize middle-level education on aState-centered base, which to sonic extent substi-tutes for the Federal ministry.
An important limitation on decentralization andfull implementation and flexibility of the law isthe approach to which Brazilian educators wereaccustomed. From the 1930's to 1961, problemswere solved according to the decisions of the Min-istry of Education, and it was unnecessary forteachers and administrators to make many deci-sions now required of them. The educational sys-tem was understood as being rigid and controlledby the Federal agency, and regardless of voicedcomplaints, this way the system of educationaladministration which was accepted and used. Es-pecially on the middle level, the changes providedby the Law of 1961 came as somewhat of a shockto many teachers, who for the first time had toorganize their own plans for the presentation ofsubjf.ct matter in the classroom, and to the admin-istrator, who before never had to organize a cur-riculum. The tendency has been to continue asbefore, and tradition will continue until new ap-proaches and new thinking make possible fullerimplementation of the law.
49
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The law cloys not deal directly with the problemof rural education. Rural normal schools are per-mitted, and rural universities are exempt from cer-tain requirements, but no other provisions exist forrural education. Since the majority of the laborforce is engaged in agricultural pursuits, Brazilianeducators arc justified in their criticism of the lawfor not confronting the problems of education inthe rural areas, and this fact challenges the claimthat education is the right of all.
The Law of Directi,..es and Bases has notchanged and could not change the Brazilian con-cept of what education should be. It is a legaldocument dealing primarily with the structure andadministration of education, and not with valueconcepts of the society. The important point is thatwith decentralization and provisions for flexibility,there are provisions which can allow Brazilian edu-cators to adjust the educational system to thechanging necessities of the society. With changingconcepts of what education should be and how itshould serve the Nation, the formal educationalstructure can be modified. No doubt the possibilityof development is now greater without the formerrestricting centralization whicd allowed for littleor no flexibility.
BIBLIOGRAPHYLei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educacclo. Lei No. 4,024 de
Dezembro de 1961. The text of the law has beenpublished in many periodicals, one of which is RevistaBrasileiro de Estudos Pedagogicos, Vol. XXXIX Abril-junho, 1963), No. 90. p. 91.
Publications of the Ministdrio de Educacclo c Cu ltura andits related agencies II
Conferencia Nacional dc Educaciio, 1966.Documenta. The organ of the Consent° Federal de
Educacdo.Educaciio e desenvolvimento econOmico. 1962. The
Brazilian report to the Santiago Conference on thesubject.
Ensino medio por municipios. 1961.Plano nacional de educaciio. 1962.Plano nacional de educaciio. Revisao de 1965.Revista Brasileira de Estudos PedagOgicos. Published
quarterly.Sinopse estatistica de ensino midi°. Published yearly.Sinopse estatistica de ensino superior. Published yearly.Sinopse reiro.spectiva do ensino no Brasil. 1870-1956.
Publications of the Consent° Nacional de Estatistica
Anudrio estatistico do Brasil. Published yearly.Brasil ern ntimeros. 1963.
Books
Amaral Fontura, Diretrizcs e bases da educacclo na-cional. Rio de Janeiro: Grafica Editfira Ltda., 1965.2d ed.
Nunes, Maria Thetis, Ensino secunddrio e sociedadebrasileira. Rio de Janeiro: Institute Superior deEstudos Brasileiros, 1962.
Situaclio social da Antirica Latina. Rio de Janeiro:Centro Latino American° d^ Pesquisas em CienciasSociais, 1965.
Smith, T. Lynn, Brazil: People and Institutions. BatonRouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963. 3ded.
Werebe, Maria Jose Garcia Grandezas e misirias doensino brasileiro. Sao Paulo: Difusao Europeia doLivro, 1963.
Superintendent of Documents Catalog No. FS 5.214:14135
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1968
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C., 20402 - Price 55 cents
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1968 0-312-90.!
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