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DOCURSOT RESUME

4 BD 163 497(,

,CS 204 569

AUTHOR Elia * Stephen O.TITLE American Newspaper Editorials or the Vietnam War: kn .

Experimental Appro'ach to Editorial ContentAnalysis. r

PUB DATE Aug 78NOTE , 14.; Piper presented at the Annual Meeting of the.

association for Education in Journal3sm,(61st,Seattle, Washiington, August 13-i6, 1478)

BOBS' 041' MY- $0.83, HC -$2.06 PlusAPoitage. A.1DESCEff10 Changing Attitudes: vontent knalysis

Journalism: *Newspapers;. Political Attitudes;.*PressOpinion; liar

IDENTIFIERS *Fatima War.1-

ABSTRACTThe editorials abbut fodr Vietnam -War news events.

.

that appeared in five newspa,pers were examined for content,, tonerpage placement, and length to discover what trends in editorialcoverage.occurred. The 131 editorials that were examined appeared inthe "New York Times(" the ',Lod Angeles Times,"'-the "Will Street':Journal," the "Chicago Tribune," and the."Washingftujost" within 21days of the f011owing news. events: the Tonkin Gulf the 1968Tet Offensive,' President Nixon's 1969 hVietnamization" announcement, 'and the fall of Saigon. Five major firndings resulted from,the.contentanalysis (1) The overall tone of the editorials was' antiwar. J2)During the ,periods studied, the "New ro'rk Times" was, consistentlyantiwar while the "Wall Stieet Journal" treiged from antiwar toproww and the other. three newspapers trended from prowir to antiwar.(3) .The newspapers were willing to take definite stands during the

. period-s under study. (4) -The' paper that most clearly appeared 4;)" hive

changed its editorial opinion was the "Los .Angeles Times. "' (5) he"New York Times" and the "Washington Post," both generally prolificin, their editorialb throUghout the periods-studied, inexplicably.presented fewer items on the Tet Offeniive than the other papers. Thestudy ale) established the usefulness of the basic "StatisticalPackage for the Social Sciences" (MS) in newspaper content '.analysis. (RL)

****************************,1****************************************** ReprodudtIons supplied by ERRS are' the best that can be made *

* from the original document`********************************v*******************,******************

S 'Ne

g.

U S Oa PAITMENT OF NE ALMEDUCATION aWaLPARaNATIONAL INSTITUTE Oi .

EDUCATION

TH45 DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRO.OUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED PeOmTHE PERSON OR oRGANgATIoNomoiNMONO liPOINTS OF view OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE-SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION O POLICY

AMERICAN NEWSPAPER EDITORIALS

ON THE VIETNAM WAR: AN

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH TO

EDITOilia CONTENT ANALYSIS

.BY

Stephen N. EliasGraduate Student

iL

California State'University, Northridge

I'10ERM*SION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED

Stephen N. Elias.

Theory and Met hodaogy

TO THE EDUCATIONAL. RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER tem) ANO .

g USERS Of THE ERIC SYSTEM '4

I

C .

Presented to the Theory and Methodology Division, Association for Educationin Journalism Annual Convpntion, geattle, Washington, August, 1978.

: 1

4iftr.'

\s:0The author wishes to acknowledge the guidance of Dr. Tom Reilly, Departmentof Journalism, California State University, Northridge, in the research andpreparation of this stpdy. .

N '-*.

2 ..6

.

1A

' .i :

'1

tk

Introduction

''Some of the correspondents who were there at the end wr

it, but I was not among theriv-The group to which I belonged-was so

traumatized that we have never written a line about Indochina since. 1

1975." Malcolm Browne; winner o

books about

rsodally

1,1

t Pulitzer Prize in 1964 for his coverage

of the Vietnam war for the Associated Press, wrote this harsh commentary. It.

is representative of the many mixed reactions to the performance of the American

''press during the Vietziam war. dust as harsh have been some of the charges

leveled against the American news media in connection with coverage of the war:2

While such charges may, in fact, be founded on emotional or political premises,

the journalistic profession should respond to them with t. sound appraisal of A

actions chiring the charged period of American military involvelent in Southeast.Asia. Such an appraisal--to successfully evaluate criticism directed against

. ,

' _the media--khould be based, on an objective methodology--one which cannot be con-

,strited as merely-a self-serving ,strategy of defensiveness.a 1.

- .

The present p udy was designed to test one such methodology. While

limited in scopd, it nevertheless points out a direction which others might

follow. The purposes of the study were (1) to seek trends in editorials of j,

!

i#lecfed Aieiidan newspapers regarding t

4 :144

bility of the basic Statistical Package. .

4type-of'researchl (3) to, design a model

.

that could be' accomplished by non-techni

.theless, aesited to use the computer as

,' I

methodology r

he Vietnam war; (2) to test the applica-.

for-the Social Sciences (SPSS) to this 1

for similr future studies using SPSS

cally oriented individuaii.who, never-9

an aid.

.

This study is,

a compUter-'aZaed analysis of the editorial content ofs

selectedselected American newspapers during the period of this country's most active

e e".

4

-2 -

,illI

4 .

vement in Vietnam, 1964te.' 1975. ,Using quantitative methods, it traces...,

4 "t . 4and examines editorial trends aq they developed from generally pro-war at the

.r.

time of the Vorth Vietnamese attack on.the,Idestrolor Maddox .in the. Tonkin.

Gulf (1964) to almost universally anti-war when Saigon.was'alandoned in 1975.

A

The editorials hive been analyzed to determine those words and themes which

went into the'4.assifyingi.of go item aa.pro or anti -war. In order to produce

a manageable set o'f data, it was decided to examine the editorials of five

. ,

major newspaperg'regardingfbileignbficant incideOs during the period under

. .

examination. . ..

- t *':, _

The New York Times, WailStreet Journal', Chicago Tribune, Washington

. I

..

Met,lind Los Angeles Times were:selected because of their wide geographic

colerage and their positions TO,er'llarying degrees cif the political spectium.t3,

4'1

.. -1.

.

.. ',--.4(: I'

s.. j *,

. The events examined-are the Tonki Gulfsinoident (Aug.:2,'1964), the .

-- . -..

._ -4.

1968 Tet offensive (Jan. 31; 1968),, president Nixon's 1969 HVietnanization".

announcement (May' 14, 1969) andthe,0

fall of Saigon (April 30; 1975).. These,

were chosen because cot:their-0v all importance to American involvement in the,.

Vietnamese.Pwar.4

In order to establish a workable' base of data from which,to analyze..

reactions of the newspapers to the incidents, thisCpdy has examined edit-or-sw

ial reaction for 21 days following each incident, While,thie time period was,

arbitrarily chosen in order to accO6edate time limi ions,resparchTdemon-'

strated that, except in4the case of the fall of Saigo , editorial oimment.

diminished, very significantly after three weeks had elapsed.

s :

In all, 131 editofials were examined'add interpreted. )1k total of 23:,. -.

variables. were used to evaluate each editorial included in the ptudy. "(see,

, .

APpendik.A) The first 10 variables concerned suchitems,as newtpaper name,, 111

.

- t

ittA

. r4 .. w.

date of editorial, size oeeditorial,.k

overall tone, lacement dn. the Op-Ed page,..,

, .

e' . :. , ,

'and number of pro-war, neutral', or Viti-war thenie contained in each editorial.. .

,

The use of themes to determine coverall tone wad considered necessary in order

to more objectively determine each editorial's content. A theme could consist

of a phrase, a sentence, or one or more paragraphs. The, most significant criter-lr-.

'ion iii the determination of the parameters of a themd was the ability to infei

a definitive tonal meaning friar it. This criterion was also used in evaluating

I

. «content.

h .411114The remaining 13 variables consisted of a 'group of words,' preselected

A

before analysis of .the editorial's content and tone. No attempt was made to

count the number of times that a selected word appeared in an editorial or to

quantify grammatical modifiers used with the word. O.R. Holsti, in Content Ana-

l ysis for the Social *Sciences and Humanities, states tbiat "to detemine+ that to

editorial used the term 'freedom' X number of times is a meaningless finding by

itself, as is any other unrelated fact about communication content." 5 He goes. .

on to state, however; that if one chooses certain words in advance--words thatl

contain fonee and meaning - -and then checks to iee4if they appear o not, infer-

ences may be dtawn. The selected words for this study are listed in Appendix A

and'were applied to the editorials in question in the manner suggested by:Helsti's

m odology. In choosing these words, it was anticipated that they would appear

. $ .

' .,, wth considerable frequency as they are words commoily used in connection with

I

a wartime set of circumstances.

After coding, the information was tabulated anecross-tabulated using

SPSS.%

This.was used since one of the objectives of the study was to determine.

the adaptability of this package to a newspaper editoriat content analysis. Sta-

tistical si$1.41cahbe was noted on very few of the cro s-tabulations but the

-Tlik

c;

r

111.

47

inforMation did indicate many Oscriptive

the subject oZ the following Analyses and

.,

"Findings

Table below indicates

incidents:6

'

variations: ,These, variations will bet'--.

discussions.N. . ,

I

how,the editorials were spread petween th6.

Table .14:

BieakdOwn of Editz$Newspaper and Incident,

. .44

f:4

.

Total- Tonkin 1968 Tet

%Culf OffeniiveNikon's Viet-namization

Fall-of"'Saigon

Chicago, Trib. 25 19.1% .6 24%.0% 5' '20.0% 3 12.0%' 11 '44.0%

Wall St. Jour. 17 13.0% '2 11.8% 1 5.9% 4 23.5% 10 58.8%

L.A. Times 17 13;0% 4 23:54' 4 23.5% '2 11.8% 7 41.2%

NA. Times. . 41 31.3% U. 26.8% -5 . 12.2% 12,, 24.3% 13: 3117%

Wash. Post. . .

31 '23.7% 11 .35,5% 2 6.5% 9'

-,-

9..-771

29.0%4

4/31 - -34 =17 30I

1

,it4

I

'I

es

1015% = 260% 13.9%-. 22.9%

56dt-cc: SPSS'fraguencies run on all editorials in the

.:Looking at,

...

ials dealt wi6,the three incidents other than the te6-offensive. Examination.

. ..,. ,

individual: newspapers' "scores,!' And the editorials themselves was,, _

$ ..

, .- $

.

:vecessary in order'to detereline,the reason for- an apparently lesser interest

le %

study.. ; .

:

the five newspapers as asgrodp, 4 (8 7..00: 6fthe editor-ea.41.

49

of ,the

.

in spelt an important happening. While not anticipated, t the commencemenfrok the

tudythe answer to this question represented its first major find ihs. The4.. . ,..4 st...

cause' of the skewed number offeditbrials.,which dealt)with the Tet offensive is'/

..,

.

'found by looking at the New Yorkprs add the Washington Post.7

V t ,$.

,

: ,

$ While these. two papers accounted for more than 55% .of the total cover-. .k ;-,, .,

,. .

.

age sampled (Table 1L:the combined total,of seven editorials dealing with Tet.e .

.

..., 1- ...

.

..

4

a

t I

-

, .

-a

'.

--s,. ,e.7., t _ .. ''''N . , .1. . P. =.1 ' ." 4

.. . 4. i::

LA \'. 5 1.?5.r ,04

4 . t 41471 I<xi

9 114' 544 ;04zte, _. . . : a s.'t .4.

" 441. t . : "

.?. tst

. 9 ..

,.. - "

. _

-t represented,leas-than 10% If their -coverage in the surveyi. TAIV,e- 2 shows that ...-Z.' fI

, , .

it IgaS,VnlY doneerding tite;:iret Offeiisitte thstf,th.e. Thies'.rirno tro-v" -tttesfs. .. 14-I 4. , . t24 . - '14 k .

t ...1$

1

I and ,the Post .non that were ' .;e0

, . t V," *:

F \ tO3 4

o A

. a

.e

-The dej.itk,

, ^ .

thatoif the Pati:'

that offettfm4.

.this 'incident waS,greater. than-

%

474 ii3bl bothIn maitOrial . / segued to Ekel

SA.P 4 1

14

Vs a: last .Communist.4Pusb.,,pribr to beginning. peace negptia 4 I4 .,.44,7

, tiOhs. pi an 4'n° to, e;44 ;the offensive as "furthe; -T.

. v t .. w, t ,,,.;. x.;. 4.. f, . . proof,..df, tho imstatxons of Ameicari.?o;tib. iii"s4."7 tft 1:furger stated that

e . . . . . 4,,kt ..,

1 I A,'. f . 9 , . . : .

e . . r ; l « ; ' t. '. k .4.'a %s'4 4.4. 1, i. ' ,

. .." . .1:r .., the, 'of reni 'e 'cOild not the worle.of ail enemy force whole, ncrale is- "sinking j+

. , .. ... . I 4i.. f

. .4 ':' : ' '',", '..% % 4.1,7,-:-

...;,-- .., . .., A : ,

.. *: fait.tt'phat .tife United,States could fil'a 1741y Jla,e said to be "winni,ngk" 'and-,.that sub

: b 6

'' Je.

9 .

ill

e '

9

4

stantiall3P"#ore troips. thai theAdminfstration (had) yet.ladmitted" would be, '' . , 4. fs,

a "clear-cut mili:tary victory. "44 4itorial onset was definitely.More hawXisht.than

4

:.reguired.th 1;rder'4

The Tost's" first ed

'the Tines'. !While warning th'9.

4

it talk of an invasion in?the- col t,ext of ktbOr Viet '.4 't

Going atOacks was dangerous, possibly sounding like .tra.prelude for propbsals --, .. -

7.'0.4 N, 1; 4 4'1

A 1'of retili.ation," the«Posi wept on to state thaemerican military ,officials had,,,,

.:i:

4 t. .

. ... 7,4. .....,,,,c

,,,

. . _.

best be thinkag of a' different emphalis in their actions than simply. "attrition .

. :1-4.. 4.'e. . .y a

enemy49 .1.: ',Tr.

of enemy forces in th& hinterlands,".possibly "a modilieq. more' seleatiVe search-, 4. 1-; .

. . v9

and-destroy policy" The paper cohludied that- te suggested alternatives had.-,

.

"been advanced publicly...by responsikle men" .but were unlikely to get a full*

. .

determined to find enemy failures irk' yhOrethe

...4 0% 4definition of its objectives, finds success.. . 9.

hearing while

enemy, by its

we "are

own known

The other editorial

was onFeb. 3, 1968. It Was

United St4es give

North while "the. enemy

,

run the. Post dnring:the selected test p4iiod

7. 4le

defi itely prorwar' in tone; suggesting, the

no oonsidefation to,a dessation of its bombing .at.tacfcs of the\is engaged'in

, 1

.

99

'a 'great outburst of attacks all °vet South9

- .

.,

441

: r

.

.42, ZitON . Y.% '

,1!

V's-6t

, 44% a ,

',;, , , . 4, ,

A a ,'4- .,

lk ,,- ,` t

... : --... .

. _ . ./, 1 - 4 0 fit. ciV a 74.

'.

A.*, .

,-:-.

,-

1

2,\,--.e.

Chicago n.11. e .

,.. ,,,,I. Strongil:SntiA

rr,

9,

-4Anti-awar./-

Neutral.. ..,;**

'Prb-war .

Stpn4ly-"r2

Wall'Strfet JoStrongly anti /

'T le 2yren of cherall Tone' .

wspaper by Incident

.

Total , Tonkin 1968 Tet Nixon's Viet- Fall- ofi

Gulf ffensive' namization

,i

--r------- taigon -,

. - * -

.

2)201

) 0)itt. 0)33%- a ,, 0)

$ 3) 0) 1) . 1) 1)

8 1 .: JD Q8)4

%1) 2)27%50: 80%

) 0)

3) 2)

2) 1) 67% 1)

7)42%

.1)181

0) 0) 33% 6)

6) . 1) 0) 3) . ' 2)

10 5' it-, .4 1

6) 2'6% 3)t . 00%

2)- .1)22%

0)

2) 1)0).1

1) 0)

:

4) 0)501

01 3)

2)15% 1)106%

id :0) 1)25%

0)30%

4 la 0 1 2

5) 41% 0% 0%01 0) 2) A 3)

50%2) 0) . 0) . 0)

5m12)

'

'

3)24%

0)01

:- 0)0%

0)0% 3) 57%

1) 0) '. 0) 0) 1)

6 0, 2. .1 3

4) 41%1)100% 2)50% 11 50% 0) 0%

3) 3) 0) 0) 0). .

-

15)63%

1`-,)27%

2)96% 9) 92% 3 62%11) 2) 21. 2) 5)

4110

f4i.1 3

4)12% 1' 4))

1) '2) 1$%1) 1

1840)

0%0) '8

t0) '

'

J,:::4 Anti-war";...NeuAral 1-, ,

. Pro-war .

Strongly pro

-.., ' .-

--&08 Angeles Times

Strongly anti ,..

.Ahti-war *

..,, .N4utral-..,..,.'

Rro-war. .

Strongly pro .

...4.....".

* New York Tunes.

, - Strongly antiAnti -war

NeutralPro-war a

Strongly pro

Washington PostStrongly anti,Anti-war : .

Neutral :

Pro-twar {

proStrongly p)4

1-Source': SPSS crosstabulation run. St ong significandi Was noted inChi-square calculations for thevanti war and neutral editorials.No meaning%1 significance was noted in Chi- quare'calculationsrelating.. newspaper and incident in an of other "tone" classi-

.

lichtiOne:

- ;a. /

*

8 .1(

. ,s. .,Is4 ';:"Z ^

. ..t

Vietnant.11104

The Times, even though printing fiwer than its generally high nun

.. Cber of items idemonstrated in this study, ran, additional. editorials, Feb. 2; 4,

'

- 7-

Im

8, and 11, 1968. All of these were anti -war; two strongly so..... While determin- ' e. .

. ..

so.. ..in qUantitatively. whidh of ther newspapers were-responsible fob the -decrease in ..

,,, . -

. .- 7.6.. .,5=, .

. editorial yo lume as . it 55.1ated to 'Pet, the data. c14.sclOS'ed no hard.evidence as toIs .

.. -,-,,, . ...4.

the reasons behind this decrease. It isbo'ssible, however, to infer that b6fhbafiT,- - : =.4 l 0ce ,

..J these highllScommitted newspapers felt that the Tet,incident hadcaused clearly. - ... .

- . ..,.defined political %lines to be draWn-7,linAc upon, which they had expressed heir o'

, . . . -...e.,k ..4 . ,2, !..t:' .editorial -'opinions which required rio-Tgrther clarification. .

. i .... 4. .

Thetsecqnd ma'or finding indicated by the data in%the_study was. that' --

. ..... .. ., .. .. . ,

the Chicago Tribune, theldos Angeles Ti and Washington Posetrended fromTimes''. . .1 '.

pro-war to anti-war during the .time frame covered' wile the. New York Titles.- ,40r ..-.1. ,. l

..... .. . i.

was rather Iconsis tently anti-war. The, Wall Stree Journal , on. the" dther .hand, 1"(--' c,...) , . ,t -,ran counter to the other papers, going front anti-war to pro:liar. Table 2 indi- : .-.,

, . . , ....

4

cates that of the fiveVapers, only the Journal ran 'mordclhan 50 %. of its edi-,:

storials with a pro-war-tone after the fall of Saigon'. The ftib'ilne, wfiidh.bad-

always run more than 50% of its editorial's-on'thejpro-war tide ofthe scoreboard, ,1.-.

ran clay three (27%) pro-war item*. The-Los 490.0 Times ran .pone for the....three-week period beginning April 30, 19.75. , .- .. ..- ' - f,- The third overall trend in the stuay is illustrated by Tab).e 3, which

, .a ", . , .

analyzed editorial. tone by incident. Tt' shows 71% of the editorialt to have..II...

..... been either above or below the "neutral line,(' iniaiceting that the newspapers

. , .. _ ,

: ,were willing -to take- a definite stand.. * 'SI . . 1 '. ' a .

, , ..

While eliciting the /lowest overall arr unt of 'comment, TO had.a 4light-. ,. . , k ' ,

ly greater polarizing effect. 'Fewer than 18% of ,t 6 items on this incident Were*

. *. ... .in the "neutral" column, closely followed, by Nixon's .Vietriamization with 20% clas-

.

0.$

"ro,44,

4

-r,

.

do.

-8-

sified as "neutral." The Tonkin Gulf incident,with over 38% of its editoria

'classified as "neutral," indicated the greatest amount of indecisiveness''.

-Table 3

Analysis of 01.4rell Tone by Incident' -

Total Tonkin 1968 TetGulf Offensive

Nixon's, Viet-7

namization

J

Strongly anti 31 23.7% 4 11.8% 13 17,,6% 9 -30.01Anti-war 't,..13 17.6% 4 11.8%' .3e 17.6% 7 23.3%Neutial '38 29.0% 13 38.2% IP 3 17.61 6 4 20.0%

Pro -war 27 (20.6%' 8 23.5% .6 3 .3% 6 20.0% .

Strongly, pro 12 9.2% 5 14.4% 2 11:8% 2 6.7%11.1.1,

.eirimb.

' 131. 34= S 17=_-

30

'sourCe: SPSS frequencies run on all editorials in the study.

`4,7e. or:

'

15

.

,30.0%9 18.0%'

16 32.0%7, 14.0%

. 3 6:0% .

50

ik

The fourth major finding,:wip tha the overall tone of editorials in the

study was anti-war, with 41.3% in this cla sification and only 29.8% graded-as

pro-war. .Whi/e there wap a definite upward trend in the Ater of anti-war

further anaiysjg of Tables 2 rand. 3 inAtates

-41h

and Indililaual newspaper. The Tet offensive1 ,

as in number of editOrials,.as pointpd out

editorials asitthe war progressed,.

signkfidant variancekby incident

skewed the trendg in tone as well'

above. While the overall trend line in pro-war editorials

to, 1975, Tet created a jog in 'the curve, with 57/-1% of `the

dent classified as pro-war.

welit !down: from 1964

th1144 inci-

4

The Chicago Tzlibune printed the.liargestoverall number of pro-war items,.

with 48%. classified in this category, followed aosely.by Vle wail Street

Journal and the Los Ange0s Times, each having 41% of their total editorials.

1 0I

1

4 -97 .

rated as "pro-war:" The Washington Post.and*New York Times .printed the lowest.

number of pro-war pieces,-with,26% and 12%; respectively "graded in-this category.111

The New YorkiTimes.was most strongly represented inithe "anti -war"

column with 63% of its editorials so classified, followea,by'the PostwitA142%

the Journal with 35%, the Los Angeles Times with 24% andaMe ribune with ht.w

At the time of the Tet offensive the Post, Tribune andLLos Angeles Times

caused askew in the upward trend of anti-war editorials between 1964 and 1975.

On Tet, the Post's editorials were. 100% pro-war, the Tribune's 80% pro-war,. .

and the iod Angeles Times' 50% pro-war. Neither the. New York Times nor the

Journal ran any prb -war items on Tet.

The fifth major finding was that the`paper which most clearly appeared

to.have 'changed its editorial opinion over th4 period of the study was the Los

Angeles Times. Ate Tines ran-100% in.theloronwax category on the Tonkin:oulf

1

incident, dropped to 50% zAr Tet and Vietnamiz4tion, and had none so-classified

at thetime of the tall of Saigon. Wh)en Saigo4 fell, the Times ran57%.of its

items in the anti -war,category,

At the other'en4.of the spectrum, the New, York Times showed the least

.

amount of change,' falling primarily in the'anti4Jar category throughout the

.4.

1964 -1975, period.

The Washington PoSe, with'the exception oethe skewing effect of the

fi

Tetffensive, steadily increased its anti-warposition. Just as steadily, it

decreased its pro-war items throughout the time period studied.

.while the.chicago Tribune's percentage of pro-war editorials decreased,:

steadily from ,1968 to 1975, the decline was not a significant one until the

,

of Saig9n.' unlike the -tither newspapers examined, at no time did the perceritavek

Hof anti-War editorials in the Tribune exceed those. classified as.pro-war-k

,

Even with'the fall'of Saigon and the American withdrawal from Vietnam, tile.,

.I

9%4

I

as ..0' .a

.

Tribune ran dnly one'.(90 editorial classified as anti -war. co Comprison; the,.

et . 1

Wall Street Joprnal, ranked lowest of the five papers, had three (30 %) of its

items classified as anti-war.. ,

.

, . Interestingly, the Journal ran only neutraLor anti-war editorials prior

to 1969, 'Alen it began printing pro-war editorials in support of

/Ionization announcement. This tr*ci was io complete opiositiOn

ocher newspapers studied.

In 1969, e Journal was joined by the Los Angeles Times, Chicago Tribune'

le

OA :Washington Post in 'fling pro-war commentaries. By 1975 the situation. ,

Nixon's

to that of the

had changed'and only the Tribune and Journal leaned more toward the aks. than

4

the doves, with the Trib at least consistent with previous editorial policies.. ,

The'Journal was troubled by several aspects ofthe American withdrawal

.

from Vietnam. it blehed the Soviets for escalation of the war thioug h thpir

.

sending in of weapons, "in gross isolation of theiaris accords."11

'and asked

what hadlhappened to detente.

The Journal's greatest concern, reflected in two stron4ly pro-war edi-.

borials, seemed to be that Agerican withdrawal from Vietnam would lead. the

Communist powers to a belief in U.S: military weakness. The editors felt that

"freedom of the,seas, and more broadly freedom ofAmericans to travel and' trade

k j 2in the world, is one of the bedrocks of Amer ican foreign policy. ---,The Journal

. .

quoted, gs very encouragihg, Senator Walter Mondale's comment, that, "Itis.veky. . l

0.,4important not to signal the Russioins and others'Wat we're living up.'," and con- .

cluded that "...refusal to vote sufficient funds for weapons 'procurement/and. , .

.

,research and development, in the none of an eluqive'detente,(was) irresponsible

and dangerous."13

$

Table 4 emphasizes the newspapersi'gradual but continued trend from4

I

0 AC 1

generally pro-war to genlrally.arfi-war attitudes. D ihg the earlit ;OK\

covered by tat study the number and percentage of9 itorial of a pro war\/

nature which were placed in the lead position declined significantly: inti-\

, /i

/

\larly, the number of lead editorials classified as anti-war grew continuously v '

. \

t

over the periodoethe study. The same effect can'be noted, though moregFad-.

. c ,

'wally, ion the editorials placed in othai than the leid position._\

4.,

.\ .

\Table,4 indicates that the placement of the items 011 the editorial page

. \

t

followed a predictable pattern. L440Le itorisle.,and, with.the exception cf, . .

the Wall'Street Journal, editorials which were alloted.an entire coluako.00n-.

tained the strongest opinions. In no incident outer than the fall'of Saigon.

. .

did neutral editorials occupy more than i9% of the dead "' space on an editorial. .''page. 'Saigon's: large number of lead editorials is accounted for by the sect .

, .

' .' 1 .,;.., .4,

that.32% of die items On this incident were neutra0n.character.

0

/ 4, (

From the data in Tables '5 and 6 it can be conlluded that placement and

It content were more'significant indibators of the newipaperi' opinions than iize.

Analysis of the relationship between incident, general tone and editorial *size

'*.

aid not show Ariy meaningful trends, either of .a descriptive Or a statistical

pature. t'This study alfo analyzed specific wd'ids used in the editorials. The

..

.

. . ..

,.

individual words chosen for examination Csith the contaaagf,...t.his study are4,.x.0( ^ . r1

. V, indicated Wvarsiables 11 through 23 in App Aix A. Anal Qf the words has

..

. f .,

...,

I, . be4 limited to those word 'whichappeared mbst often or whose lact of appear-

ahce:was considered noteworthy.

The words mostAisOd in the editorialsIstudied *ere communist, peace,

JJ

"attack, aggression and ne4tiation. Wompunistm was a freely used word, appear-

ing in a total of 82 eclito ials (62.6%). While not appc;ring in every, editorial,. i

..

...

. . ..

.t

.-,1)

..I '

I

1

tthe word "communist" was used by every newsrepgr in the context of every incl.-

- .

,

dent. The word had been acceptedin cold wax terminology for many years/ and thus,

. .... .4'

while descriptive of toMething undesirable, was certainly not considered too.. ......e.- 4 . .

"hot' to use in the case, of en4undeciared.war. In 'very few of the cases was4

this word used to describe anything in a favorable 14ghi.

Theword "negotiation",wes used by all of the newspapers and like "com-.

../ 4

. ' ) t monist" was used in the%context. oCevOryi incident, -.It was used inp( total of4 .., ......'

.

r" 31 (3.7%) of the editoiials,e utnd not siorisinglY, t of the, tota 1. of 3 1 usages,

.--, . . , - .

'..---'.0.

15 4.48.40 were by the New York:Times..

-r

The word "peace"was Used with relative frequency, appearing'in. 44 (°33.6%) "., .

of the cases. 'Each newspaper'made lise.of the word mote than onceand.it was.

. used in connection with:every'incident. The New Yor)C-Times was the champion of.

"peace," using. the word 18 (40.8%) s the times that it appeared. The Chicago

Tilbuhe was a "slow second:* with only =10 (22.7%) editorial Appearances. .. . ;.; ....milft.1._

/

_/ .-

,As anticipated, the words "aggressiOn" and "attack" were both used ffe-.

.1.quentlyeand referred to theeosactiOns takpn by the enemy against bhis nation

,. #nd its allies. "Agres9ion" was used in 24 (183%) of the editorials, while.

. . .) (k "Attack" was used in-013.02.8%) of the items. Both wolas were used by all of .

o . ,

A.

.

the newspapers ih connection-with each of the incidents:'

The words 1east used in the editorials in this study were enemy, Ameri-_

Ican power, ", lose, victory, defeat and escalation.

% s"EneY" was used in only 26 (19J8%) of the cases. It is interesting to

\. a

.note that while most of the newspa erkonly used this word in the Context of

incidents beginn1z with the 1968 Tet offensive, the Los Angeles TiMes used it., .

' in connection with Topkin Gulf and once aglin in connection with Tat, though not

.

init ln any other editorial. 'The other newspapers, perhaps'not willing to

)-'4. 14)I

.1

... .

. .-, # -."

..

-13 -.- t

.

-

. .. .

1

admit at'this juneture that an enemy lxisted, 4../sed such phrases as "communists". 1 .

.

and "North Vietnamese" to describe the Maddox' attackers.

..

. .

The term ',Americall power" was used in.only 23 of the cases in the study--, .

'. . .

(17.6%). When used it generally represented '19th and early 20th centuryjipgoism., , . .

Evdiynewspabdr used the.term. more than once and it appeared within the context'A .

df etch og the incidents.. The New York Times waved the term "naval and air10--

supremacy of the United States,q,as having been fully demonstrated during.thd

Tonkin Gulf Incideni.14 The Tribune referred to "American military might".

.

-paving produced white flagIor the first. time in connection with the fall of-

. . .

k Saigon,15

but

c

assured its readers ,that this country had the "military strength"

,to support any decision it might make.16

'.

The ,W6rdH"ally" was used with about the same frequency as was' "enemy,". -/. .

with .exception that it was used by each of the newspapers in connection with

all of'the incidents. "Ally" was used in 27 (20i61) of the editorials, and

based, on its catholic usage, One might deduce that this country could not

°.have enemies in an undeclared war, it was permitted to have allies. The word

"ally" did nort noout to be as "loaded" a war term as originally expected since...

.

2several uses referre to the allies of Han 9k. .

--. ii - I

The prime definition of."win" is to "gaiwthe victorysi4 any contest;

,17 ..

.to triumph prevail, succeed.' For.some inexplicable reason, this word was

-4. ,

.0

. ^ used in only eight (6.1%) of the surveyed editorials. The Tribune Ised.i4 twice.

:-.: t . . ,. .a.....a,. .A ' 1

in connection with the Tonkin Gulf.incident, once related to Tet, and once after, .

. /e...1;the fall of Saigon. The 6' ? Str et Journal used "wid'only in one of its items

, . 1.

. 40

. relating to "Tonkin.' Th'e New York Ames referred to the word one time'in the

context of-Tet; the74aShington Post once each, in reference to Vietnamization.4 i / . .,

. v, ,-..--,

, and the fall of Saigon; the Los. nAngeles Times not at all, in 17 editorials,

...,

,-...., .

-14-.

over the entire.period.

hi,

"Winning" was obviously not a popular word with editorial writers, but

the word "losing" was even less so. At no 'time during the study didikany of the

0

editorials'contain the word "losing." 'The possibility exists that the editprs,

. \

were too literal and failed to use the word becau its first definition is "to

bring to destruction; to ruin,"--it is not until the sixth usage that "to fail to

gain or..win" is used. It can be supposed that the possibility of this country'sA .

\ "losin g" an undeclared war was pot:to be considered while the factathat it

fered &defeat, a word that was used, was acceptable to thnewspapers -or

_Alp:avoidable.

N .-

'Victory" was 'a more acceptable word, appearing 14.i 27 (20.6%) of thei . f

editor4}.s. Every paper used the.word atleast Ortt and it appeared in the ton-.

.. .

text of,every incident. The word "viotory" was used ia,editorials of every tone. t

...from Wongly anti-war to'strongly pro-war and, was modifiedby such words as

. ,

Communist,*cold war, great and American. It was not as strong a word'as anti-4.

cipated.,

;used". -"--., Whill/the word ",defeat".was used, it was not,used with significant fre-- . ,

..

. .

quency, appearing in only 12 (9.2%) of the-editorials. The word As used byl

ITte,,Chicago Tribune-Lin connection with Tet, Vietnamization and the fall of Sai- gr.

. ,.

gont1Dy e Journal only concerning Vietnamization. and by the New York Times

W

in five f its items at the time of the fall of Saigon. Th Los Angeles Times

and th Washington Post failed to pse "dglaat" at all. The ward "defeat" was

used over :almost the entire tonal spectrum, from strongly anti-war to pro-iiar.

"Escalation" was another infrequently used word, appeasing in only

seven (5.3%) of the editorials. It was,used by the papers as might have

been expected in, the framework of thisstudy. when seeking to brand the Com-

1

fp

(..

.1154'

,

. . ,

munists as agressors, tp be, repelled and defeated, the Tribune quite appropri-

ately referredNc

to their escalation of the war. The New York Times, on the other

hand, was equally correct infusing this "charged" word as part of its anti-war'

warnings when it spoke of "the constant risk of further costly and dan

escalation."18

Summary_ and Conclusions

!- -The okerall tine of the editorials was anti -war..

- The Chicago Tribune, the LoilAngiles Times and Washington

Post trended from pro-war to anti -war during,the time .

frame covered. -.The New York Times Was consistently anti-.

k.

C"..! war. The Wall St.praet Jo urnal trended from anti -war,to

- -The newspapers Were willing to take definite stands.during

the'pmribd under study..

. - The paper which most clearly appeared to have changed 'its. A

ditorial opinion wash the Los Angeles Times.

- The New York Times and the Washington Post, both gener-

ally prolific in their editorials throughout the period

of the study, inexplicably presented fewer items on the

Tet offensive than the other papers..

A

This study has.examined in $ome detail the editorial coverage of five.

newspaper s as it concerned four 44ely'separated incidents during U.S involve-

p the Vietnam war. While clearly demonstrating the editorial trends of

ous_pewspapers nd the individual aspects (placement, size, tone) which-79r

se,trends, he study, by necessity lacked Sufficient data to.

these conclusively,. Father investigation must be made with 1ata concerning

c'.1,7

Cr,

*

V

A

additional incidents occurring at dates in between those examined in this study..

With this study serving as a model, further research, with a lengthened time

. *period following each incident during which editorials could be gathered and .

° analyzed, shoUld prOveveanihgfgl..

J One more point established.by"the study was the practical application

t

of the SPSS package, which is the easiest for a non -technicai-riliiiCherto use,

to this specific rproblem of "newspaper content analysis. The 'computer can be an

iid

remely useful tool to the social scientist as long as-the machine does not.

. ..

.1ivert attention from the study of people to the study,of number. Many new

hypotheses can-be created and old ones corroboratedpr.contradictedwith the, '4

only limitations being coding techniques and the degree of.inventiveness pos-

sessed by the Nesearchir. P.

*4.

18

40/

,

$

ti

4

VTable 4

Pla6ment.of Editorial, by Tone

Tonkin Gulf 1968 Tet Nixon's Fall ofOffensive W.etnamization Saigon

0Gt

.4 -I-I. 0 0 4.) .

I trk >, 1.), 4 ,.. .i.I >1 . >1 $4to %4 14 ol . ' 15 e-1. $4 P.1 40 k -.4 ..-t os .-I 1).

3 Ki 41) 0. 10 Id CT X 15 M CO 01 X , Z 401 4.4. C 1 )4 Z 1 c C 1 )4 : X. ..I .4.4 1 0 ..I 4-1 I 0%,4 .4. .1. 1

.1-$ P 0 14 .0 = 0 4.4 4.II)

Q, -. Zm a mw .r.J.

A' I!.0 z s, D ),- . I)/

$ SO 4 a tn En. 4i/4z 0.

4 40 40 .40 411, dP OP 40 O P dP 4P 40 40 40 0 * de 0 . i c*,ir I* 4Ch 01 M* 0 0 0 0 01 CO 1"-- -I VD 01 .-1 1-.. In .01

Lod Editokal -I ri .4 . N N ., 44 N -1 tzt r4. . r. 01 N -1 , .-1 C1 Csi N

Chicago. Tribune 2 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0, .0 0 0 0 1. 3 2 1

Will Street Journal 0 ..1. "0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 '2 0 '1. 0 2 1 0.

:.os Angeles Times 0 .0 0' 1 3 0 0 1 2 0 0 0' 0 0 0 3 0 .1 0 0New York Times.. 0 .2 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 '7 2..0 0.-. 0,,,, 2 4 2 2,,, 0

Washington Post 1 :0 1 2 1 0 0 0 2 0. ..0 ',52 2 0 1 '., 5 2 1 0, 0

't /.

0 0 0 P 0 dP dP de 0 0 0 dP 0 0 0 dP 0 , 0 dPCO CO N 1-- 0 I' V' CO CO I* 1"- 1"- U1 01' 0) In tel .40 41

Other Placement .% o -I 0-4 .I N 01 IN. e4 .'d'..-4 '-4 N N .-4

Chicago Tribune 0 0 0: 1 0 0 0 .0 2 .1,1 1 0 1 1 . 0 p I 0

gf Wall Street Jour9a1 _100000 '0 0'00 '00000 2.001 2:.- 1,0s .Angeles Timee% 0 0 0 0 O. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0..1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0

Heys York Times 1 -, 1. 0 4 -6 0 l' 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 1 1 .1 p 0

Washington Post 0 1 4 1 0 0 0 O. O. 0 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

"Source:' SPSS-brosstabulation pug-olasi.ng the entire dumber of editorial cases studipd.No meaningful-significance was noted in Chi-square calculatkons. This table incladee-.only 129,of the cases. Two of the editorials'were alloted the entire editorial page.

-''Both of these'were run in the Wall Street Journal. The first, ,n Tonkin Gulf, wasneutral, and the second, on the Fall of Saigon, was pro -war.

.4

in

A

A

4' :%4% e%

Table 5- .

1.

'Relationship 'Between Incident and Editorial,

Side, by Newspaper

Wait Street Journal,';J2.5 to 9.0 inches' -

9.3 to 12.;.9 inches t

13.0 to 3,3:5 A.-hches: 4.-;°°'

Los Angeles-7*es.'2.5 to 9e00.1qche

9.3,ipD418 inchel13.0 t01.5.t.liches

Ifew Yo0t,Timei

2.5%t,o, 9,0 4nches

. 9.1:to 12:8 inches.13.0 to :33.5 inched

Washington' Post2.S-to 9.0 inches ,

,k 9.3 to 12.8 inches13.0 to 3?.5 inches

.

N.

..', .

Tonkin. 1968-Tet Nixon's Viet-Gulf Offe__-_ nsilia namizitiosL:-

. . . ,- .

Chicago Tribune ref. ..

2-5 to 9.0 inches . . -2, 1 3

A b

l ' 2 -.

. 1

1390 to 33.5 inche'd 5

. ,

,,,,. ., . -41061"

i

. i. ,

,Ct': -: 0 0.

0 ' 0 ,

2: A

P4' t0

4.

6 1

5 3

0 . 1

1 re

2 0 #0 1

1'

0

Fall ofSaigon

t

1

2 .

7

V

2

-5

0

7

60

a a 2 2

l 0 4 7

2 ,2 3, , 0

24C 1.

Source: SPSS crosstabulation run. Some significance was noted in Chisquare calcylations for the large editorials, relating newspaper andincidoAnt (13.0 to.33.5 inchesr. No meaningful significance was noted

' in Chi-square calculations in either of the other two size iclassifica-tions.

20

s

1

$' ,

/.

6

).

.-Table 6 ' .!

_ .

Relationship Setwee4 lincide4 and Editorial'Skze, by'Newspapar, by. Tona.

-2.5'to 3. 1-Inches ..,

Chicago TribuneStrpngly Anti f4nti-war ..

Neutral ,

Pro -war

Strongly Pro

ffig11-Street journal

Strongly Anti

Anti-warNeutralPro-war .

Strong* Pro

,.s.,.

Los Angeles TimesStrongly AntiAnti-warNeutralPro --war `..

Strongly Zro

New York TimesStrongly AktiAnti -war*

Neutral,

Pro-warStrongly Pro

. .

Washingtori Post

Strongly Anti .

Anti-warNeutralPro-war

Strongly Pro','

Tonkin-Gulf

. . . 4

,1966 114:'.0fTensive

, ''

Nixon's Viet-.namitation

Kai!. of

Saigon

1.

.

0

0

0

1

.1)

0,,

0

0

0

.0,

.

.

0

0

0

0

0

0

- 1

3

1

1

'1

1

4

2

0

;:,

0 ,

00 .

.2

0

i `0

0

'0

0

-1 0

al

111114t00

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0,00

.

.000

.0

3.

0

00

0

0

0-

0

0

))

0

0

4

1

0

1

0

0

0

2

0

0

'.

,,,,

.

'..

.

qt

r

0

".0

1

00

00

1

,0

10

0

1

3

'2

1.

0

2

0

00

0

':»

A

,

Source: SrSS cross tabulation run. No meaningful signifiCance was'noted in Chi-square calculations.

-

q

a

0-.4.

.

*41.

*'i ' gable 6 (Coned.)

.

,

Relatlohshisp Between Incident and Editori11 131c.'"..*kke ` e

Size, 'by N6wspaper, by Tone A. $'. 2

e . 9.3 to 12.8 Inches, 4..

. i 1 0

At.

--) .

. 'Tonkin 1968 Tet Nixon's thetL Fall of,

. . s. Gulf Offensive namization Saigon. ) ,

.

V

OtioagO TribuneStrongly Anti 0

Anti-war 0

Noutrai 0

, Pro-war -0

Strongly Pro,

0

..Wall Street JoUrn

Strongly Anti. d 1

. Anti-wr 0 0

'Neutral 0 4 0Prowar 0 . 0

Pro 0 4 0

0 0

0

0 00

1.

LoslAngeles TimesStiOngly AntiAnti-warNeutral'

Pro-warStrongly Pro

New York TimesStrongly Anti

_ Anti-warNeutralPro-warStrongly Pro

Washington PostStrongly AntiAnti-warNeutral

Pro-warStrongly Pro

4

co

0' 0'0 0 of'.0 0 1

. 0 00 0,

0

1

0

Sourci: SPSS cross tabulation run.Noted in Chi-square calculations.

22

I

o0

6

0

0

0'

V4-

2 4

1 1

O 'i .0

O 0

0 . 0

0

0o ,0

0

N

00

10

;t.';IP

f.

. ,

2,

2.

0,

04.

4

1 2

1 1 ..,g"

1 01 0

t.

No meaningful'significanc Was

A

$

9

e

. ...MY 0 V 0

.:r"..4....t ...j

,..:.-\ Table 6 (Cont'd.)

$keationship Between Ingident and Editofial

Size; by Newspaper, by Tone' %

13.0 to 33.5 Inches 4,-. . c .

., .'

4

Ch ago Tribune

ilzongly Antiti -war

Neutral %

Piro -war

Strongly Pro 4

Tonkin

Gulf

-.. ..

1968 Teb_OffendiVe

_.

Nixon's:Viet-namizatio.:

20

1

2

0

O.

1 4

0

0

'1

,...'

:.

. *0.

.

..

.r. 0.

'''', .. 0 .:..,:. ,0!..

- : .0,

:. ,. 0

..:

.,...

Wa41 Street JournalStrongly Anti 0

Anti-war 1

Neutral . 1

Pro-war 0

Strongly Pro 0 I

Los Angeles X'imes ..

Strongly Anti 0'

Anti-war 0 .0

NeutralIIPP4

Pro-war .

0

1

Strongly Pro 3

%NOW York Times,Strongly AralAnti-war 0

Neutral 0

Pro-war 0

Strongly Pro - 0

. ,.

Washington PostStrongly AntiAr)ti -war

. NeutralPro war :

.Strongly Pro

'00-

1

01

0

0 .1,

0

0

0

00

1

1

0

r4

111

01'120

0

01

0.

0

N'

0

2 x.

21

.0

o

.41 00' 0O 0

"cr O .0

0

0

0" 0

02

1

'00

0- .0

0o

Source: SPSS crosstabvlation run. No meaningful significance WaSpoted'in Chi-square/Calculations.

r-

.0

fr

'FOOTNOTES..

1. "Spectrum. A Reporter Looks Back: The CIA and the Fall of Saigon,"Washington Journalism Review, January /February, 1978, pp. 18,19.

2 Peter,BraestrUp, Big Story, How theReported and Interpreted the Ccisis

siii tom- -(1.977)-f-Tom-Wicker01-

American Press and 'Television.of Tet 1998 in Vietnam andress',"-419-78)-r---

3. "The Teri Best Wmerican Dailies," Time, January 21, 1974, pp. 58-61.Several things were used by. Time's "editoks in selecting the "tenbest," including efforts to cover national and international newsin addition to a paper's own community; entertainment value accom-panying information"; willingness to.risk money and manpower on exten-ded investigations; and the offering of a wide range of divergentopinion in "Op -Ed" pages and dissenting columns. The selection wasmade on the basis of editorial excellence, and not commercial success,although all of the papers chosen were economically sound.

4. These events are discussed at length in .A.Poole, The United Statesand Indochina, From PLR to Nixon, (1973),' B.B: Pall, Last Reflectionson a War, (19e7), B.B.Pall, Viet-Nam Witness 1953-k (1966) andT.' Hoopes, The Iimitt of Intervention, (1969).

5. '0.R. Holsti, Content Analysis for the So4alSciences and Humanities,'(1969), p. 28.

6. The statistics have been slightly skewed by the facethat nine (6.9%)of the editorials concerning the fall of Saigon also included commenton the capture of the American freighter Mayaguez. The Mayaguez inci-dent occurred in April, 1975. Some ot,the nine editorials were heavily -

concerned wits the Mayaguez incident but'all of them were connected insome way to the American withdrawal from Vietnam. Editorials which con-

'cerned themse1vis only with-the Mayaguez were omitted from the study.

A

7.. "Bloody Path to Peace?," New York Times, 1 February ,1968, P. 36.

18. Ibid.

9. "Rationilizing the Vietnam Rampage," Washington Post,,l FebrVary 1968,p. 120.

e

10. "Terms for a Bombing Halt," Waihington Post; 3 February 1968, p. Al2.

111. "Whatever Happened .to Detentp?,"-Wall Street Journal, 30 April 1975, p. 20.

12. "Retrg the Mayaguez," Wall Street Journal, 14 May' 1975, p.14.. ,

Italian-Wine.

13: "Rehifiking the litary Budget," Wall Street Journal, 13 May 1975, p. 14.

41

40

O

4

14." "Intelligence on Vietnam,'"Mew York Times, 24 August.144, p.

15.. "The Message from 'Koh Tang," Chicago Tribune, 16 May.' 1975, sec..4

.

16. "Defining our"Committments," Chicago Tribune, 18 May 1975, Sec.

-17. Webster's 611egiate Dictionary, Aifth Sdition,-(1B46).

p. 2.

2, p. 4.

18. "Bloody Path to Peace," New-York Times, 1 Febrtary 1968, p. 36.. . 6

. , .

.1.

t

rC)

1

1

,

25

t

. rj

cr

4

6 k

AppendlyA

Code Book andVariables List.'

Variable- . Coder7777

,1 ' Case nuMbet three digits

2

'1 .or

3

4

10

.8

or

Nftwsleager-4 twto

bi Chicago Tribune'02.Wall Street Jobrnal:403 _Lop Angelds Times

04s New York Times so"05 WashingtOn Post

Date of editorial - six digits - shouldhave yeat,plated first. i.e. 690201.(February 2, 1969)

.

Indident - two digits.

di _Tonkin if Incident02 1968 Tet'Offensive03 Nixon's Viatnamization Proposal.04 pall of Saigon

Number of ,column inches in Bach editorial -

three digits - to be expressed 'in inchesand tenths of inches. Eight and one-half inches s4ould be coded as 085; ten-and one-half inches coded as 105.

\Overall tone of editorial -:two digits.

.

0T 'Strongly anti -war ...02 Anti-war

. .0 Neutral04 Pro-owar

05 Strongly pro-war.

Placement. of editorial on'Op -Ed. page -

1: two digits.

4i.

01' Entite editorial'columA02 Lead editorial03 Other placement in editorial

column

e'NuMber of pro -uer themes or phrases

.one digit.

Numbelf of neutral theMes or phrases

digit.

26<401

I

L

O

Variable

40.

11_,I qa

"

12

I 13

14

15

L16

17

18

19

20

21.

22

23. ,

41

1

Code3

'Numherof pro-war themes or phrasesone digit.

Pre-Selected word list - one digit.1 Word used in editorial-.0 Word not used, in editorial

.

Enemy.

Communist.

;

''American power (includes such other words ,

. .or phrases, as: U. air power, U.A. navaland air supremacy, American military,mxght, and world's greatest powerL

Peace orpeaciful.

"'..*Ally, allies, allied, alliance.

Winning or won.

Losing,.

Victotto.r victors.-

Defeat or defeatism.

Escalation.

Negotiate or negotiation.

.01

Aggression, aggressor, or aggrgaximegess.

4

Attack.

II

,

t

4

4

Fall, Bernard B.' r- & Comp

Fall,/ Bernard

1

BIBLIOGRAPHY

.404141

st Reflection8'on a War. Garden city, N.Y.: Doubleday -

Inc., 1967.

Viet-Nam Witness 2953-66. New York: Frederick A. Praeger,

Holiii4ble R. Content,Analysislor the Sootal".Satencee and Humanities._Reading, MaS#.: Addison-Weslen PUbliihag-IRla,Peny, 1969;

1/Hoq1460, Townsend. The Limits of Intervention. New York: David McKay &:le .

jr \ -Company, Inc., 1964."-/s. :

Peter A. The United Srptes andWochina, From PDR to Nixon.'Hinsdale, Theliryden'Press, 1973.1

. 2"TheTen Best American Daiiies," Time,' January 21, 1974; pp. 58-61.

ck . i -i Iker,Howard P., "An Hxstorical Note on the Use of Word-Frequency Contxgui-:

t ;ties in Content Analysis," Computers and the Humanities, Volume 8,

% 4.193-98. Pergamon Press, 1974..

7' itlald.L., °Sortie Decision ioirits in the Content Analysis Research

'PrOcess," Studies in Journalism and Communications, study NumberSix, June, 1967. School of Journalism, The University of NorthCarolina at Chapel 'Hill.

Unphy, plextelloStone, Philip J., and Smith, Marshill'S., " e Generalf Inqulrer: Further Developments in a, Computer'Systemkfor ContentAnalysis of Verbal Data in the Social Sciences," BehavioralScience, Volume 10, Number 4, October, 1965.

. 1

Carlson, Arthur R-.,"COncept Frequency in Political Tekt: An Application ofa Total Indexing:Method of Automated Conant Analysis," Behavio-ral Scienge, voltime 12,Nuhber 1, January, 4967. .

1

11.-

"Sober Response," Washington Post, 4 August 1964, p. Al2..

.. -"Stern Crisis, ;' WashingtonPost, 6 August 1964, p. A20.

z

,

.. . .1

"Democraby's Response...," Wadhington Post, 7 August..1964, p. A18.. .

1 .... 1

1

"...Communism's Choice," Washington Post, 7 August'191¢, p. A18.

"Guns, of Augukp," Washington Posp,.9 Augugst 1964, p. 86. .,

_ 1r1 +

. "Viet-Nam Sequel, 1 khehingtOn Post, 12 August 1964, p.i A20.l -. . 4 ,4' 4.

6 . .4.M.E.ft%

"Viet -loam and the U.N.," Washingipn Post; 4 AulAst 1964, p. E6.

"Nuclear Armsf" Washington!

,Post, 18 August 1964, . Al2.

t t.'4.F .e.f.t", . '

Ai

41

.

` 28-1

1

I.0''e

,1

"South-Viet-Nam, Washington rost, 19' August 1964, p. A20.

"Twists in 'Laos," Washingtoh Pose, 19 August 1964, p. A20.

"Pointing With pride," Washing ton Post, 23 Auguit 1964, p. E6.

Zptioghlizing the 20tftam iampage," Washington Post, 1 February 1968, A20..

"Terms fora Bombing Halt," Washington Post, 3 Fe*ruary 1968, P:Pilar

Ni$1404, "The President and the War," Washington Post, 16 flay 1969, p. A24.

"Mr. Nixon's Interim Draft Reforms,* Washington Post, 1'7 May 1969,'p. A18.

"Amick Is a Malay Word," Washington Post, 21 May 1969, p. A24.

"...And Bangkok," Washington Post, 22 Mayes 1969,p. A24.

"Hanoi and the American Prisoners," Washington Post, 23 May 1969, p. A26.

"A Coalition in'Saigdn," Washington Post, -27 May 1969, p. A22.s

"Memorial Day, 1969," Washington Post,41UMay 1969, p. A30.

"Disciplin ing Dissent," Washington Rost, 31 May 1969, p. A14.

"The President's Commencement Address," Washington. Post, 5 June 1969, p. A18(

"Deliverance," Waslangar! Post, 30 April 1975, p. A18.

. ,"The Newest Americans,"cans," yoshineton Post, 2 May 1975, p. A22.

"Dear...president Thieu," Waihington:Post, 4 May 1975, p. C6. -

"Cambodian Transformation," WashingtonPost, 11 May 1975, p. C6.

"Caring for netnamese Refugees," Washington Post, 13 May 1975, p. A18.

. b.

Political Cartoon, Washington Poi* 13 May 1975, p. A18.

"The Mayaguez Affair," Washington Post, 14 May 1975, p. A18.

"The' Retrieval 9f the Mayaguez," Washington Post; 16 May 1975, p. A26.

"The Lot* of Realitysin Laos," Washington Post, 18 May 1975,

"Sonia More Managed pews," Chicago Tribune, 5 August 1964, Sec. 1., p. 8.

"Mr. Stevenson Speaks for'Americi;" Chicago Tribune, 6 August 1964, Sec, 1, p. 10.

"Summer Friends and Sunshine Mini,' Chicago Tribune', 7 August 1964,'Sec. 1,

p. 14e'

"KhrusChev Misses the Bus," Chicago Tribune, 8 August 1964, Sec. 1, p. 12.

29 4

el

. .

"Age of Nondeclared Wars," Chicago Tribune, 9 August 1964, Sec..1, p. 24.

"Speaking of Guilt by Association-," Chicago Tribune, August 1964, Sec. 1,

"Time for Decision in Viet Nam," Chicago Tribune, 1 February 1968, Sec. 1, p. 22.

"The Protesters Are Silent," Chicago Tribune, 8 February 1968, Sec. 1, p. 20.

",Necessary Force to Get it Over With," Chicago Tribune, 14 February 1968, Sec.1, p. 22.

"What Can We Expect Font Thant," ChicaioTribune,,16 February 1968, Sec., 1,

'feints in Viet-Nam," Chicago Tribune, 19 February 1968, Sec. 13 p. 20.

.

"The Hope of Peace," Chicago Tribune, 16 May 1969; Sec. 1, p. 16.

"The Second Guesser," Chicago Tribune, 28 May 1969, Sec. 1, p. 14.-

"Mr. Nixon Rules Out An Unarmed America," Chicago Tribune, 5 June 1969, Sec.-040

1, 11. 24.

4

"Dateline Hanoi," Chicago Tribune, 30 April 1975, Sec. 3, p. 2.

"Saigon's Surrender," Chicago, Tribune, 1 May 1975, Sec. 2, P. 2.

- "America's First Defeat," Chicago Tribune, May 193, Sec. 2, p. 2.

. "The Refugees," Chicago Tribune, 3 May 1975,Sec. 1, p. 12.

p

" Thailand Hedges its Bets," Chicago Tribune, 7 May 1975, Sec. 2, p. 2.

"The Murder of Phnom Penh,".Chicago Tribune, id May 1975, Sec. 1, p. 82*--)

Fourteen Years,in Laos,." Chicago Tribune, 1:3 icy 1975, Sec. 2

...And in Cuba," Chicago Tribune, 13 May 1975 sec. 2, p. 2..

Right on, Leonid," Chicago Tribune, 13 May 1975, Sec. 2, p. 2

"The Mesdage from Koh Tan1,1 Chicago, Tribune, 16 May

, p.

19715, Sec. 2, p: 2.n 4

"Help for RefugeesChicago Tribune, 17 My 1975, S

"Defining Our Commitments," Chicago Tribune, 18 May

1,, p. 10,.

1975, Sec. 2, p. 4.

"Attack on the U.S.S. MaddOx," Los AngeZes Times, 4 August 1964, Part II, p. 2.

"U.S. Answer to Aggression," Los Angeles Times, 6 August 1964, Part II, p. 4.

"Use --Non- Use - -of l'orr 0 Angeles Times, 9 August 1964, Sec. G, p. 6.

!Sea Beast vs. Land Beast," Loa Angeles Times, 17 August 1964, Part IIltp.4.

30

r

"Politic- Warfare in Vietnam," Los Angeles Times, 1 February 1968, PartII, p. 4.

"Times Editorial View ,of the-Week," Los Angeles Times, 4 February 1968,Section G, p. 6.

"Saigon's Political neptitude," Los Angeles Times, 13 February 1968, PartII, p. 4.

, /

"Times Editorial V ws-of the Week," Los, Angeles Times, 18 February 1968,Section G, O. 6.

07,

"The President's Peace Program," Los Angeles Times, 16 May 1969, Part II,p. 8.

4Nort4 Vietnam's U.S. Captives," Los'Angeles Times, 26 May 1969, Part IT,p. 8.

410

"Now, Peace," Loa Angeles Times, 39 April 1975., Part II, p. 4. '4

_ "But.Which Way for America?," Los Angeles Times, 30 April 1975, Part II,p. 4.

"The Newest Americans," Los Angeles Times, 1 May 1975, Part II, p. 4.-

"A New U.S. Policy," Los Angeles Ttmes, 4, May Part VIII, 13.=.2.

"An AmericanStatement," Los Angeles_Times, 8May 19754 Part II, p. 6.

"A Look at the President;" Los Angeles Times, 11 May X75, Part VI, p. 2.

"Thi''Z' List Gets Longer,",Los AnNles Times, 21 May.1975, Part II, p. 6.

"The President's'Decision," M211 Street Journal, 6 August 1964, p. 10,

"Victory*Without War?," Nall Street journal, 12 August 1964, p.,ltir.

" Vietrtam: The American Dilemma," Wall Street Journal, 6 February.p68', p. 18.

o

"Bridging the Chasm," Wall Street Journal, 16 May 190, p. 18.

"Defense on the

"Foreign Policy;

-

Defensive," Wall Street Journal, 23 May 1969,' p. 18.

The'Incomplete Critic's," Wall Street Journal, 26 May 1969, p. 18.SIM

"The ponorad Dead," Wall Street Journal, 29. May 1969, p. 18.

"Whatever Happened to Detente?," Wall Street Journal, 3r3Pril 20.

"The VletnamesefRefugees,", Wall Street Journal,, 1 May 1975, p. 16.

"Death of th41T,7 Pall Street Journal, 6 May 1975, p. 26.

As

"A Meanness of Spirit," Malt Street Journal, 8,May 1975, p. 12:

31,

4

"Senator Scott"p Atavism," Wall Street Journal, 8,:May 1975,, p. 12.

"Rethinkilethd Military Budget," Wall Street Journal, 13 May 1975, p. 22.

"Retiieving theMayaguez,". Wall'Street4ournal, 14,May 1975, p. 14.

"Cruelty and Cambodia," WaleStreet.journal, .15 May 1975, p.'14.. 0

'"Gettingup to Speed," Wall Street Journal, 16 May 1975c p, 10.

"Post-Vietnam Diplomacy," Wall Street Journal, 21 May:1975, p. 20.

"Warning to Hanoi," New York Times, 4 August 1964, p. 28

"The President Acts," Nett/ York Times, 5 Aimust 1964, p.'32.

"Wider War," New York Times, 6 August 1564, p.'28.

"Mgow's teaction,"New York Times,I6 August 1964:p., 28.

"Shortages.in Deferise," New York Times, 7 Augul,t 1964, p. 28.

'Congress and Vietnam," New York Timei, 8 August 1964, Ir. 18.

s.'..

)

"Vietnam and the U;N.," Nework Times, 9 August 1964, Sec. 4, p. 8.

"Hanoi'gnubs the U.N.," New York Times, 10 Atigust1964,

"The Perils of August," New York Times, 16 August 1964, Sec. 4, p4 8., 4

';Vietnamese Shuffle,," Nett York Tirm:k*17 August 1964, p. 24.

"Intelligen-ce on VietnAm," New York Times, 24 August 1964, p. 26.

"Bloody Path to Peace," New York Tildes, 1 February 1968, p. 36.

"Morm'Thana Diversion," New York Times, 2 February 1968, p. 34..4

"The-Question in Vietnam," New Yorklimes, 4 February 1968, See. 4, p. 12.

"After the let Offensive," New York Times, 8 February 1968, p. 42.

"Vietnam Peace ylks," New York Times, 11. Fabrupy 1968, Sec. 4, p. 12., .4 r,,.

.: ."Mr. Nixon's Vietnam Program," New York Times, 15 May 1969, R. 46.. . ..

"Initiatives for Peace," New York Times, 17 ray 1969, p, 32.e.

"Open Door.on Vietnam...," Nh.York Times, 18 May 1969, Sec. 0, p. 16,

"...Closed Door on Defnse Cuts,"144, York Times, 18 May'1969, Sec. 4, p. 16.

"Talking With President Thieu,",New York Times, 21 May 1969, p. 46.

t.

32

"Actiori'at Apbia," New York Times, 22 May 1469, p.

"Vietnam: The Critical Issue," New York Times, 25 May 1969, Sec. 4, p. 16.

"'Maximum Military.Pressure"," New,,,York Times, 28 May 1969, p. 46,

"Inhuman Stpnce on Prisoners," New York Times, 29 May 1969, p. 46.

"These Honored Dead," New York Times, 30 May 1969, p. 261.

"Thieu's Pressure Play," New York Times, 31 May 1969, .p.i22.

"Mr. Nixon Confuses the Issue," New York Times, 5 June 1969, p. 46.

"The Americans Depart," New York Times, 30 April 1975, p. 40.0

"'Liberation'," New

"America's OpportUniey..." New ork Times, 2 May 1975, p. 34.

"...and mespoildibility," New York Timesi. 2 May 1975, p. 34.

IcTimes, 1 May 1975, p. 40.

"Toward a NeW Life," New York Times, 3 May 1975, p: 30,

"After Vietnam," figi., York Times, 4 May 1975, Sec. 4, p. 14.

-"tie Have No Choice'," New York. Times, 5 May 19/5, p. 30.

"!Denying our hericages;" New York Times, 7 May 1975, p. 42.

"A-Time for Amnesty," New York Times, 8 May 1975, p. 38.

"Leftovers of War," 1001 York Times, 8 May 1975( P. 38,

"Defense Defended," New York Times, 9, May 1975: p. 34.

"America'''s Best Self," New york,Times, 12 May 1975, P. 26.

"Mystery. at Sea," New York Times, 13 May 19751, p. 34.-

"Making Contact," New York Times, 17 May 1975, p. 26,. ;

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