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KarenA.Keely NEHSeminaronPhilosophersofEducation,July2017
DorothyCanfieldFisher,ProgressiveEducationReform,andUnderstoodBetsy
Asachild,Ilovednovelsofschoolsdonewellandschoolsdonebadly.The
progressiveschoolinLouisaMayAlcott’sLittleMen,thecruelheadmistressintheupscale
boardingschoolinFrancesHodgsonBurnett’sALittlePrincess,thehypocrisyoftheschool
supervisorinCharlotteBronte’sJaneEyre,allmademecry,althoughfordifferentreasons.
ButmyfavoritewasDorothyCanfieldFisher’sUnderstoodBetsy,inwhichanervous,pale,
alwaysfrightenedchildmovesfromthecitytosmall-townVermontand,overthecourseof
ayear,becomesstrong,confident,empathetic,andself-reliant.MaybebecauseIwasa
rathernervouschildmyself,onewhoconsistentlydidverypoorlyinschool,IlovedBetsy’s
newschool,whichgavehermasteryovercoursematerial,friendsandcommunity,and
plentyoftimeoutsideofschooltolearnhowtomakebutterandreadaloudandplaywith
farmanimals.Betsywasbecomingfullyherselfatnineyearsold,whileIwasquaking
wheneverthephonerang,worriedthatitwasmyteachercallinghometotalkaboutmy
failures.(AndIwasrightaboutthateveryfewweeks.)
Asanadult,interestedinprogressivereformsandnowaneducatormyself,Ihad
heardthatUnderstoodBetsywasFisher’sdidacticpresentationofMontessoripedagogies,
inthesamewaythatLouisaMayAlcottshowcasedthepedagogicalideasofherfather,
BronsonAlcott,inLittleMen.Interested,Ireadthenovelagain(thankstoafriendwhohad
heardmetalkaboutthebookandwhoboughtmeacopywhentheUniversityPressofNew
England’sre-releaseditin1999)…andIdidn’treallyseetheMontessoriconnection,tobe
honest.ButIwasdelightedtobereunitedwiththenovel,whichI’venowrereadatleast
Keely,p.2
everyotheryearinthepast18years,alwayscryinginthesamespots.(ObviouslyI’ma
weepysortofreader.)
HavingnowreadsomeofMariaMontessori,JohnDewey,andothereducational
reformersthissummer,Iseewhattheproblemis:Scholarshavetakentwofacts–that
FisherwroteacoupleofbooksaboutMontessorischoolingandthatthereisanunusual
schoolinUnderstoodBetsy–andhavesloppilyputthosefactstogethertodecidethatthe
novelmustobviouslybeafictionalpresentationofMontessorimethodology.Andsince,
afterall,it’sjustachildren’snovel,theyhaven’tworriedmuchaboutwhetherthis
pigeonholingisparticularlyaccurate.Turnsout,it’snot.
AsI’llargueinthisessay,FisherwasindeedanadmirerofMontessorieducation,
evencallingit“anewreligionwhichwearecalledupontohelpbringintotheworld,”1but
shefeltfreetoreviseandexpandonitandtojoinittogetherwithothereducational
theoriesthatshealsofoundcompelling.(Similarthingshavehappenedtomanyreligions.)
Aswithmanywomanwriters,Fisherhasbeenneglectedbycritics,whotendtodiminish
herworkbydismissingitasmiddle-brow,didactic,and–horrorofhorrors!–popular.In
thisessay,Ifocusononenovelandonewindowonthatnovel–UnderstoodBetsythrough
thelensofprogressiveeducationreform–butFisherisowedadebtofattentionfromthe
wideraudienceofreaders,reformers,andwriters.2
1Fisher,MontessoriforParentsviii.2Interestingly,Fisherisinthenewsagainthissummer,althoughnotinthewaysheorIwouldlike.TheVermontBoardofLibrariesisdebatingwhethertodrophernamefromtheDorothyCanfieldFisherChildren’sBookAward,establishedin1957andawardedannuallytoanewlypublishedbookbyavoteofVermontschoolchildren.Fisherhasbeenaccusedofconnectiontotheeugenicsmovementinthestate,whichresultedinthevoluntarysterilizationofatleast250“feeble-minded”citizensofthestatebetween1933and1960.Fisher,whowasquiteaVermontbooster,wasinvolvedintheVermontCommissiononCountryLife(VCCL),especiallytheCommitteeonTraditionandIdeals,whichemphasized
Keely,p.3
DorothyCanfieldFisherwasaninterestedobserverofandthenparticipantin
educationfromyouthduetoherfather,JamesHulmeCanfield.3Hewasaprofessorof
politicaleconomyandsociologyattheUniversityofKansaswhenshewasborn;hethen
becamechancellorattheUniversityofNebraska(whereateenagedDorothybecame
friendswithWillaCather,whowasastudentthere),followedbybecomingpresidentofthe
OhioStateUniversity,whereDorothygraduatedin1999;finally,takingabreakfrom
administration,hebecamealibrarianatColumbiaUniversity.Shethusgrewupinan
academichousehold,onethatincludedsummersatherfather’srelatives’houseinVermont
andongoingconversationsaboutquestionsofeducation.ShewrotetoMiddleburyCollege
presidentPaulD.Moodyin1923,forexample,weighingininfavorofco-educationand
tourismandsecond-home-ownershipinVermont.AnothersubcommitteeoftheVCCL,however,waschargedwithensuringthatVermont“stock”wasnotbeingdegraded.FisherjoinedtheVCCLexecutivecommitteein1932,ayearafterthestatelegislatureapprovedthesterilizationlaw.Therehasbeenheateddebatethisspringandsummeroverwhetherthereisa“smokinggun”connectingFishertoexpliciteugenicsideals.TheLibraryBoardwassupposedtoannounceitsrecommendationtoStateLibraryScottMurphyonJuly11butthendelayedthatannouncementuntilOctober10.(Madigan,“QuestionsRaised”;Walsh,“VermontConsiders”;Madigan,“BoardofLibrariesdelays”;Walsh,“LibraryBoardDelays.”)
IfIwerejoininginthediscussion(andImayindeedwritealettertoLibrarianMurphy),IwouldpointtoFisher’s1946statementthatbiologistshavemadeclear“thatthegenesthroughwhichbiologicalhumaninheritanceistransmittedcometogetherinsuchwildlyprofusevarietythattheircombinationsaregoverned,apparently,assolelybychanceasisthecombinationofgrainsofsandinanyhandfulonepicksupfromaseasidebeach.…Inotherwords,eachhumanbeingis,atbirth,amassofcomplexpotentialities,unpredictableinanyindividualinstance.”Suchisnotthelanguageofaeugenicist.Fisher,AmericanPortraits19.3IdaH.Washington’sDorothyCanfieldFisheristhestandardbiographyoftheauthor;theonlyotherbiography,TheLadyfromVermont,isbyElizabethYates.MarkJ.MadiganhasalsopublishedanexcellentselectionofFisher’sletters,KeepingFiresNightandDay,whichincludesachronologyofFisher’slife(xvii-xx).
Keely,p.4
noting,“Iamofcoursefamiliarwithallthatcanbesaidonbothsidesofthequestion,
havingbeenbroughtuponthediscussionofitallmylife.”4
ShealsohadtheexperienceofEuropeaneducation,spendingayearinFrench
schoolswhileherartistmother,FlaviaA.CampCanfield,studiedinParis;later,Dorothy
studiedFrenchattheSorbonneinhermid-20s.SheearnedaPh.D.inFrenchliterature
fromColumbiaUniversityin1904butturneddownajoboffertobeanassistantprofessor
atWesternReserveUniversityinClevelandbecauseshewantedtostayclosertoher
parents.Instead,sheacceptedanadministrativepositionattheexperimentalHoraceMann
SchoolinNewYork,seeingfirst-handwhatprogressiveeducationlookedlikedaytoday.
In1906,sheco-wroteatextbook,ElementaryComposition,withGeorgeR.
Carpenter,arhetoricprofessoratColumbiaUniversity,butthereafterturnedherwriterly
attentiontofictionandnonfiction.ShemarriedfellowwriterJohnFisherin1907,andthe
couplemovedtoherfamily’shouseinArlington,Vermont,whereshehadspentsummers
andwhichshehadinherited.Althoughshemovedawayfromworkinginschoolsand
publishingtextbooksherself,hereducationworkcontinuedfortherestofherlife,
includingherserviceontheVermontStateBoardofEducation(shewasthefirstwoman
everappointedtotheboard),herpromotionofandexpertiseinadulteducation,her
powerfulroleontheboardofselectionoftheBook-of-the-MonthClub(wheresheserved
astheonlywomanfor25years),andherworkontheboardsoftrusteesofGoddard
CollegeandHowardUniversity.
Asignificanthighlightinthatlonghistoryofinterestandgrowingexpertisein
educationisFisher’s1911triptoRome,whereshemetwithDr.MariaMontessoriand
4May31,1923,lettertoMoody,inMadigan,Mark,105.
Keely,p.5
observedthechildreninMontessori’sCasadeiBambini.ShewastravelingtoEuropewith
herhusbandandtheirinfantdaughterandagreedtodoafavorforpublisherWilliam
Morrow,whowasgoingtoshortlybepublishingatranslationfromtheItalianofMaria
Montessori’sbookonhereducationaltheoriesandmethods;MorrowaskedFishertocall
onMontessoritodiscussoneofthechaptersinthebook.5Fisherwasprofoundlyaffected
andimpressedbywhatshesawandmadeseveralvisitstotheschool;uponherreturnto
theStates,shefrequentlyfoundherselfansweringquestionsfrominterestedparentsabout
theMontessorimethod,suchthatshewrotefirstonebookandthenanotheronthesubject:
AMontessoriMother(1912;reprintedin1965asMontessoriforParents)andAMontessori
ManualforTeachersandParents(1913).
Fisherdidnot,asisoftenerroneouslyclaimed,introduceMontessoritotheUnited
States.Infact,McClure’sMagazineinMay1911publishedalongcoverstoryonMontessori,
callingher“aneducationalwonder-worker.”ByOctoberofthatyear,McClure’shad
receivedsomanylettersfromreadersthatitannouncedaforthcomingseriesofarticles,
beginninginDecember1911,thatwouldanswerreaders’questionsabouttheMontessori
method.Moreover,thefirstMontessorischoolintheUnitedStatesopenedinTarrytown,
NewYorkinOctober1911,andanEnglishtranslationofMontessori’sownbook,The
MontessoriMethod,appearedin1912.6Itiscertainlyprobable,however,thatFisher’s
greaterliterarypopularitythanthatoftravelwriterJosephineTozier,whowrotetheinitial
McClure’sarticles,helpedpopularizetheMontessorimovementmorethanthemagazine
haddone.
5Yates105.6Tozier,“AnEducationalWonder-Worker”;“InformationabouttheMontessoriMethod”;Tozier,“MontessoriSchoolsinRome”;Willcott157-59.SeeGutekandGutek.
Keely,p.6
Andwhatwasthismovement,thispedagogy?InFisher’sdescription,Dr.
Montessori’spedagogyrestson“recognitionofthefactthatnohumanbeingiseducatedby
anyoneelse.Hemustdoithimselforitisneverdone.”7Montessorifocusedherworkon
veryyoungchildren,undersixyearsold,usingwhatToziercalled“therediscoveryofthe
tenfingers”throughasetofdidacticobjectsusedbythechildreninspecificwaysto
developtheirsenses.Thechildrenstackblocksfromlargesttosmallest,orplacecylinders
ofvaryingwidthsorheightsintheappropriate-sizedhole,orfeelthedifferencebetween
roughandsmooth,orpracticebuttoningortyingorotherfinemotorskills.Thechildren
arealmostentirelyself-motivatedand-directed,andbothTozierandFishercommented
particularlyontheneedforadultstopreventthemselves“fromrushingtotheaidofachild
whoappearstobeembarrassedandpuzzledinoneofhislittleemployments.Their
tendencyistosay,‘Poorlittlemite!’andhelphimout;therebydeprivingthechildatonceof
thejoyandtheeducationofovercominganobstacle.”8Fishersimilarlynotesthat“The
Montessoriapparatus–thewholeMontessoriidea–ismeanttofurnishappropriate
obstaclesforchildrenofthreeandfour,andfiveandsixyearsold.”9
FisherwasexplicitwithherAmericanaudiencethatDr.Montessori’sideaswerestill
indevelopmentandthattheythemselvesmustbewillingtoexperimentwiththe
methodologyandtoobservetheirownchildrenintheprocess.Forexample,shenotesthat
“NatureStudyisoneofthesubjectswhich(owingtoconditionsinRome)Dr.Montessori
hasnotyetfullyelaborated,sothatwhateverisdonenowinthatdirectionbyAmerican
mothers,usingherprincipleswithyoungchildren,mustbelargelytheresultoftheirown
7Fisher,TheMontessoriManual19-20.8Tozier,“AnEducationalWonder-Worker,”6,8.9Fisher,TheMontessoriManual107.
Keely,p.7
initiative.”10FisherconcludesAMontessoriMotherbyinvitingAmericansto“collaboratein
oursmallwaywiththescientificfounderoftheMontessorimethod,andcanhelphertogo
onwithhersystem(discoveredbeforeitscompletion)byassimilatingprofoundlyher
master-idea,andapplyingitindirectionswhichshehasnotyethadtimefinallyand
carefullytoexplore,suchasitsapplicationtothedramaticandaestheticinstinctsof
children.”11Fisherherselfwrotetwofurthernonfictionbooks,MothersandChildren(1914)
andSelf-Reliance(1916),thatbuildonMontessoriideas,notleastbecauseofthe
developmentofherownchildren,Sarah(born1909)andJames(1913).
However,FishergrievouslymisjudgedMontessori,whodecidedlydidnotwantany
“collaborators”inhermethod.Indeed,MontessoridisavowedFisher’smanuals,goingsofar
astowritealettertotheEducationalTimesSupplementofLondonsaying,“Ihavetakenthe
painstopreparemyselfahandbooktofulfillexactlythetaskwhichMrs.D.CanfieldFisher’s
bookhasthepretensionoffulfilling.Ishouldbeverygladifyouwouldgivemethe
opportunityofsayingthatIhavenotdeputed–anddonotproposetodepute–toothers
theworkofapracticalpopularexplanationofmymethod,asIhavetakengreatpainstodo
thismyself.Ihopemysystemwillnotbeheldresponsibleforanywantofsuccessthatmay
ariseoutoftheuseofotherbooksthanmyowninconnectionwiththeMontessori
apparatus.”12(Itwasexactlythistensionoverwhetherinnovationwasnecessary,possible,
orverbotenthatlatercausedthe“greatMontessorischism”betweentheAssociation
MontessoriInternationale(AMI),the“orthodox”branchthatdoesnotinnovate,andthe
AmericanMontessoriSociety,whichdoes.TheUnitedStatespatentofficehasruledthat
10Fisher,TheMontessoriManual103.11Fisher,MontessoriforParents238.12QuotedinGutekandGutek63.
Keely,p.8
“Montessori”isagenerictermthatcan’tbepatented,sobothbranchesmustsharetheterm
despitetheirdifferences.13)
Ihaven’tfoundaresponsefromFishertoMontessori’sreactiontoherwork,butin
1916shewrotedismissivelytoafriendabout“theusualferventAmericanreactiontoany
stimulant…thisisthewaythey‘tookup’theblueglasscraze,andping-pongandthe
Montessorisystem.”14Moreover,althoughMontessoriwasItalian,Fishersawsomethingin
Montessori’stheoriesthatwasdeeplyresonantwithAmerica’spastandthatdidn’tneed
thedoctor’stheoriestoappreciate:“Now,wheneverfrontierconditionsexist,people
generallyareforcedtolearntoemploytheirsensesundertheusualmodernconditionsof
specializedlaborperformedalmostentirelyawayfromthehome;andthoughformostof
ustheold-fashionedconditionsoffarm-lifesoidealforchildren,thefreeroamingoffield
andwood,thecareandresponsibilityforanimals,theknowledgeofplant-life,theintimate
acquaintancewiththebeautiesoftheseasons,theenforcedself-dependenceincrises,are
impossiblyoutofreach,wecangiveourchildrensomeofthebenefitstobehadfromthem
byanalyzingthemandseeingexactlywhicharetheelementsinthemsotonicand
invigoratingtochild-life,andbyadaptingthemtoourownchangedconditions.”15 Inthis
sentiment,sheechoestheideasofJohnDewey,whoarguesthat“Nonumberofobject-
lessons,gotupasobject-lessonsforthesakeofgivinginformation,canaffordeventhe
13Chertoff.14FishertoSarahCleghorn,September5,1917,inMadigan,Mark,72.The“blue-glasscraze”wasthepseudoscientificpracticeofchromotherapy,whichpurportedtocureillnesseswithcoloredlight.(Madigan,Mark,73)15Fisher,MontessoriforParents110.
Keely,p.9
shadowofasubstituteforacquaintancewiththeplantsandanimalsofthefarmandgarden
acquiredthroughactuallivingamongthemandcaringforthem.”16
CertainlybythetimethatFisherwroteUnderstoodBetsy–thatnovelthatsomany
scholarsseesimplyasafictionaldepictionofMontessorimethodology–shewascasting
hernetforprogressiveeducationmuchwiderthansimplyMontessori’swork,andshewas,
inparticular,FisherwasdeeplyimpressedbyJohnDewey.Shewroteadmiringprofilesof
himbothin1946andin1953,althoughIhaven’tyetfoundanydirectconnectionbetween
DeweyandFisherearlier;however,theyweretwoofthemostfamousVermontersinthe
country,nottomentionbothwell-knownnationally,andtheymusthavebeenawareof
eachother’swork.Forexample,JohnDeweypublishedanarticleonfreedomofthought
duringwartimeinTheNewRepubliconSeptember1,1917;thenextweek,themagazine
ranareviewofFisher’sUnderstoodBetsy.17 Fisherclaimsaregionalconnectionwith
Dewey,creditingVermontculturewithgivinghimhisideasaboutpedagogy,particularly
aboutstudentfreedomwithintheclassroom:“MuchofwhateverybodyaroundJohnDewey
tookforgrantedduringhisVermontyouthwasapprovedintheorybythosehefound
outsideofVermont.Butinpracticeitwasoftendecried,deridedandgreatlyfeared.”
Moreover,“MuchofwhathesawtakenforgrantedafterheleftVermont”–especiallythe
absoluteauthoritygrantedtoteachers–“wasashorrifyingtohimasitwasastonishing.”
Fisherfindssucheducationalauthorityun-American,teachingwhatisessentially“the
doctrineofthedivinerightofkings”tochildren.18Dewey’semphasisonmanualaswellas
intellectualworkwasinpartanattempttoeliminateanyachievementgabbetweenrich16Dewey,“TheSchoolandSociety”298.17Fisher,“JohnDewey,”inAmericanPortraits;Fisher,“JohnDewey,”inVermontTradition;Dewey,“ConscriptionofThought”;“AChildinArcadia.”18Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition374.
Keely,p.10
andpoor,whichFisheragaincreditsinparttohisbeingaVermonterratherthan“onewho
hadgrownupinthesocialassumptionthatwell-to-dopeoplehavemindsonly,andthe
lower-incomegrouphavehandsonly.”19Fisher’sVermontboosterismapparentlydoesnot
conceiveofclassprejudiceaspossibleinherbelovedstate.
Moreover,thehistoricalmomentinwhichFisherwrotehernovelisnotsimplythe
interestinMontessori’sworktotheUnitedStates(whichwasalreadydimmingbythat
time20)butalsoWorldWarI.Fisher’shusbandwasaQuakerwhoin1916decidedtogoto
Francetodriveanambulance.FisherremainedintheUnitedStateswiththecouple’stwo
childrenuntilshefinishedpreparationsofUnderstoodBetsyforpublication,atwhichpoint
thefamilyreunitedoutsideofParis.ThefactthatEuropewasinchaosnodoubtledFisher
toreflectlonginglyonanapparentlysimpler,morepeacefulpast,atthesametimethatshe
wasarguingforapedagogythatrecognizestheindividualityofeachchild.
ReadersatthetimedidnotparticularlyassociateUnderstoodBetsywithMontessori
theoriesbutratherwiththisharkeningforapurerAmericanpast.Forexample,the
reviewerforTheNewRepublicwasclearlyfamiliarwithFisher’sworkonMontessoribut
mentioneditonlytoillustratethecriticismthat,sincethepublicationoftheearlier
educationbooks,Fisherhas“growntroublinglywistful,anddoubtfulaboutcities.”The
reviewmentions“littleredschool-houses”andhighlights“theprobablyuniversaldesireto
havethechildrengrowuphealthyandself-reliant”butseesthisdesireasrootedina
returntoruralliferatherthanMontessorieducationalreform.Indeed,thereview,titled“A19Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition377.20Onereasonoftengivenforthequick,iftemporary,demiseofinterestinMontessorieducationinAmericaisthescathingreviewthatWilliamKirkpatrick,reformerJohnDewey’sformerstudent,wrotein1914,arguingthatMariaMontessori’smethodswereexactlywhatprogressivereformershadbeendoingsincethe1880s.SeeThayer-Bacon;Willcott.
Keely,p.11
ChildinArcadia,”findsFisher“alwaysextraordinarilylikable”butseesthenovelas
unfortunatelynostalgic“forpioneerconditions”andunrealistic.21
These“pioneerconditions”areabouttheprotagonist’scountryschoollifeandfarm
homelife,whichworktogetherinharmonytogiveameaningfulexistencetoachild
diminishedbymodernizationandurbanization.UnderstoodBetsy,serializedin1916inSt.
Nicholasandthenpublishedinbookformin1917,22isthestoryofnine-year-oldElizabeth
Ann,anorphanwhohasbeenraisedbyherAuntFrancesandFrances’smother,Aunt
Harriet.WhenelderlyHarrietbecomesill,presumablywithtuberculosis,andmustgotoa
warmclimateforherlungs,thelittlegirlissenttostaywiththePutneys,Vermontrelatives
whomHarrietandFranceshavealwayscastigatedas“astiff-necked,cold-hearted,
undemonstrative,andhardsetofNewEnglanders.”ThePutneys’worstcrimeagainst
humanityisthattheygivechildrenchoreswhilenotprofferingthetypeofsentimental
over-identificationwithachildthatFrancesprefers;itisnowonderthatHarrietrefersto
thePutneys’emphasisoncapable,independentchildrenas“starving…thechild-heart”(3).
Fisher’snarrativevoiceassumesthatthereaderlivesanurbanlifeliketheone
ElizabethAnnedoesbeforemovingtoVermont:“amedium-sizedcityinamedium-sized
stateinthemiddleofthiscountry;…youknowallaboutitbecauseitwasprobablyvery
muchliketheplaceyouliveinyourself”(1).Thaturbanenvironmentfeaturesnoise,
crowds,limitedfreshair,andfortheyounggirl,acomprehensivedistrictschool,a“big
brickschoolbuilding…[that]wasfourstorieshigh,andwhenalltheclasseswerein
sessionthereweresixhundredchildrenunderthatoneroof.Youcanimagine,perhaps,the
noisetherewasontheplaygroundjustbeforeschool!”(7).AuntFrancesalsogivesher21“AChildinArcadia.”22Rahn52.
Keely,p.12
nieceadditionallearningopportunitiesoutsideofschool,because“afterschoolandon
Saturdays…therewerelessons,allkindsoflessons–pianolessonsofcourse[because
AuntFrancisisapianoteacher],andnature-studylessonsoutofanexcellentbookAunt
Franceshadbought,andpaintinglessons,andsewinglessons,andevenalittleFrench,
althoughAuntFranceswasnotverysureaboutherpronunciation”(8).
Moreover,AuntFrancesherselfpursuestheeducationsheimaginessheneedstobe
agoodmother.Fishermakesfunoftheemphasison“scientificmotherhood”prevalentin
theearly20thcentury,inwhichmotherswereencouragedtoturntoauthorities–often
physicians–foradviceabouthowtoraisetheirchildren.23AuntFrances,intryingtobethe
bestmothershecanbetothebaby,“re-readonebookafteranotherwhichtoldherhowto
bringupchildren.ShejoinedaMother’sClubwhichmetonceaweek.Shetooka
correspondencecoursefromaschoolinChicagowhichtaughtmother-craftbymail”(3).
(Thereisalsosomeself-mockeryherefromFisher,whoofcoursehadwrittentwochild-
rearingmanualsherselfbythatpoint.)AndyetAuntFrancesissonervousandclingythat
littleElizabethAnnisananxious,fearful,dependent,passive,“white,tremblingchild”by
thetimesheisnineyearsold(18).
Thatweak,scaredchildisthrustbyhergreat-auntHarriet’sillnessintoanewworld
thatisnotentirely–orindeedatall–focusedonprotectingherfromeverything.Sherides
thetrainfromNewYorkCityuptoVermontalone,afterarelativehastakenhertotheeast
coastandputherontherighttrain,chargingtheconductortomakesureshegetsoffatthe
correctstop;sheissofrightenedbythetimeshearrivesthatshecan’twalk,andthe
conductorhastophysicallycarryheroffthetrain.
23Apple,esp.33.
Keely,p.13
AnditisinthisfirstmomentinHillsboro,Vermont,thatherprogressiveeducation
begins.HerUncleHenrywrapsherinacapetokeepherwarm,setsherdowninthefront
seatofthelumberwagonwithhim,andbeginsthejourneytothePutneyfarm,without
askingher“agreatmanytimeshowyouhad‘stoodthetrip’”(19),whichshehasalways
assumedwasanintrinsicfeatureofalltravel;inthisnewworld,strangeexperiencesare
notconsideredinevitablyjarringtodelicatenerves,largelybecausenervesarenot
consideredinevitablydelicate.ElizabethAnnstartstoworkherselfintoanervousfit,
imaginingherselffallingoutofthewagonandbeingcrushedbythewheels,butitturnsout
thatsuchflightsofhystericalimaginationrequireasympatheticaudience;UncleHenry,
insteadofintuitingherself-createdterrorandaskingto“hearallaboutit,”askshertotake
overthereinssothathecandosome“figgering”withpaperandpencil(19).Hegivesher
rudimentaryinstructions–“Youpullontheleft-handreintomake’emgototheleftand
t’otherwayfort’otherway,though’tain’tlikelywe’llmeetanyteams”(19)–andthen
leaveshertoitwhilehegetsonwithhismath.ElizabethAnnehas“instantabsorbed
interest”intheprojectathand,notbecauseshe’spleasedtobeaskedbutbecauseshe
wantstomakeexcusesaboutwhyshecan’tdoit,butUncleHenryispayingherno
attentionatall.Sheisdistractedfromherdistressbecausethehorsesstartwalkingtothe
leftside,andshe“hastilydecidedwhichwasherrighthand(shehadneverbeenforcedto
knowitsoquicklybefore)andpulledonthatrein.Thehorsesturnedtheirhangingheadsa
little,and,miraculously,theretheywereinthemiddleoftheroadagain”(20).Inother
words,thelittlegirlishavinganobjectlessonwithself-correctingdidacticmaterials,just
asMontessorirecommends.Thefactthatshehashadnochoiceinthematter,thatdriving
hasbeenthrustuponher,isnotwhatMontessorirecommends,butyoungElizabethAnne
Keely,p.14
hasspentnineyearshavinghercuriositydulledbyfearandanxiety;thereisnonew
knowledgethatshewillpursueonherownatthispoint.Thestakesarealsohigherhere
thanMontessoriwouldrecommend;inherflusteredforgetfulnessaboutwhichisherright
andlefthand,shethenpullsonthewrongrein,andthewagoncomesclosetotippingintoa
ditch.Indeed,FisherisheretreadinginthefootstepsofJohnDeweyratherthan
Montessori,fortheformerargues(inFisher’sownwords)thatoneroleofeducationis“to
providefor[thechild]opportunities(realones,nopretense,sinceallpretenseispoison)to
joinhelpfullyandcreativelyintheworkofhiscommunity.”24
Shesoonhasanepiphany–whatthenarrativevoicereferstoas“herbrain,waking
up”asshehasherveryfirst“wholethoughtofherveryown”(21)–whensherealizesthat
shedoesn’tactuallyneedtorememberwhichhandisrightandwhichisleft,aslongasshe
pullsthereininthedirectionthatshewantsthehorsestogo.Inadidacticmoment,the
narratorexplainsthat“Athome,AuntFranceshadalwaysknownexactlywhatshewas
doing,andhadhelpedheroverthehardplacesbeforesheevenknewtheywerethere;and
atschoolherteachershadbeencarefullytrainedtothinkfasterthanthescholars.Someone
hadalwaysbeenexplainingthingstoElizabethAnnsocarefullythatshehadneverfound
outasinglethingforherselfbefore.Thiswasaverysmalldiscovery,butitwasherown.
ElizabethAnnwasasexcitedaboutitasamotherbirdoverthefirsteggthathatches”(21).
Shethrowsherselfintothisdrivingproject,usinghernew-foundunderstandingand
concentratingasshehasneverdonebefore:“Nowforwhatseemedtoheralong,longtime
shedrove,drovesohardshecouldthinkofnothingelse.Sheguidedthehorsesaround
stones,shecheeredthemthroughfreezingmudpuddlesofmeltedsnow,shekeptthemin
24Fisher,“JohnDewey,”VermontTradition377.
Keely,p.15
theanxiouslyexactmiddleoftheroad”(22-23).Andshedoesthisallwithnoexternal
praise;therewardissimplythattheyeventuallyarriveatPutneyfarmthankstoher
driving.
Uponherarrivalatthefarm,sheispromptlyrenamed“Betsy”withnofanfare,and
thenewnamewillsignifynotonlyhernewsurroundingsbutalsothenewchild-rearing
philosophywithwhichshe’llbetreated.Thenovelreferstoherbybothnamesforfive
morechaptersbeforeBetsyhasfinallymaturedintohernewname.ElizabethAnnwas
alwayscarefullyawakenedbyherAuntFrances,whosupervisedherdressinganddidher
hair;Betsy,ontheotherhand,islefttolieinbeduntilshedecidestogetupanddress
herselfanddoherownhair.ElizabethAnnneverhadachore,whichwerethepurviewof
servants;Betsyisaskedtohelpwithonemealaday,andtheinstructionssheisgivenare
briefandincludeadvicetoaddsugartoapplesauce“tillittastesright”(78),requiringher
toexperimentwithdifferinglevelsofsweetenerandtomakeindependentdecisions.
ElizabethAnn’sappetitewascarefullymonitoredanddiscussedatthedinnertable;Betsy
isallowedtobypassthebakedbeansfordinnerandeatthreehelpingsoftheapplesauce
thatshemadeherself.ElizabethAnnwascarefullywalkedbackandforthtoschooltwicea
daybyAuntFrances,whocommiseratedovereverytestandperceivedslightbythe
teacher;Betsy,ontheotherhand,issentbyherselftowalktoschoolafterlunchonherfirst
dayinVermont.
TheschoolinHillsboroisaone-roomschoolhouse,sosmallthatBetsyiswalking
rightpastitwhentheteacher,MissBenton,runsouttogether.Thedesksareinrows–no
Montessorithrowrugsandtinytableshere–andcarvedupwiththeinitialsofgenerations
Keely,p.16
ofstudents.Thereareonlytwelvestudentsintheentireschool,however,rangingfromfive
throughpresumablytheupperelementaryschoolgrades.
OneprojectofthatinitialafternoonistogetBetsysortedoutintermsofher
academicachievementandthelevelofappropriatechallenge.Betsy’sexperienceofbeing
3A–thehighestlevelofthirdgradeinherpreviousschool–isthatshewillbeboredmuch
ofthetime,exceptforwhensheislostinmathclass.Herexperienceinreadinglessons,for
example,hadbeenthatall40studentsinher3Aclasssatwiththeirbookopenedtothe
samepassage;theteacherwentaroundtheroom,callingoneachchildinturntoreada
line,“untilyourturncametostandupandreadyoursentenceortwo,whichbythattime
soundedjustlikenonsensebecauseyou’dreaditoversomanytimestoyourselfbefore
yourchancecame.Andoftenyoudidn’tevenhaveachancetodothat,becausetheteacher
didn’thavetimetogetaroundtoyouatall,andyouclosedyourbookandputitinyour
deskwithouthavingopenedyourmouth”(57-58).Betsylovestoread,butthathasnothing
todowiththetediumofreadingclass.Butinhernewone-roomschoolhouse,sittingwith
theteacherandjusttwootherstudents,eachstudentreadsafullpage,andwhenthelevel
ofthepassageisobviouslyverylowforBetsy,herteacherhandsherthe7th-gradereader
instead.TheselectionisJohnGreenleafWhittier’s“BarbaraFrietchie,”andBetsyreadsitso
wellthattheentireclassstopstheirworktolisten;sheisafraidthattheotherstudentswill
laughather,butinsteadtheyareeagertohearwhathappensinthepoem.
Betsysadlytellsherteacherthatshecan’tbeallowedtoreadinthe7th-gradereader
becausehermathskillsaresoweak,butitturnsoutthathernewteachermeetseach
studentathisorherlevelineachfieldofstudy.Betsywindsupin2nd-grademath,which
confusesherterribly–howcanshebein7th-gradereadingand3rd-gradespellingand2nd-
Keely,p.17
grademath?–althoughtheteachertellsher,“Youaren’tanygradeatall,nomatterwhere
youareinschool.You’rejustyourself,aren’tyou?Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhatgrade
you’rein?Andwhat’stheuseofyourreadinglittlebabythingstooeasyforyoujust
becauseyoudon’tknowyourmultiplicationtable?”(64-65).Betsycanonlyreply,“Well,for
goodness’sakes!,”notentirelysureherselfwhysheissoconfusedbythisnewsystem,but
thenarrativevoicestepsintoclarifytheproblemBetsyisfacing:“Thematterwasthat
neverbeforehadsheknowswhatshewasdoinginschool.Shehadalwaysthoughtshewas
theretopassfromonegradetoanother,andshewaseversostartledtogetaglimpseofthe
factthatshewastheretolearnhowtoreadandwriteandcipherandgenerallyuseher
mind,soshecouldtakecareofherselfwhenshecametobegrownup”(65).
ThereareothersurprisesinstoreforBetsythatday.Oneisthatstudentstaketurn
gettingapailofwaterfromthepondfortherestoftheclasstodrink,similartothecooking
andhospitalityasksthatMontessoristudentsdoforoneanother.Theother,morestartling,
isthat,onceshehaslearnedthespellinglistshe’sbeenassigned,fasterthanherfellow
classmates,andsettlesherselfinfortheexpectedperiodofboredom,theteacherasksher
totakefive-year-oldMollyintoacornerandhelpherwithherreading.Hereisaperfect
exampleofMontessori’smulti-ageclassrooms,andtheexperienceisgoodforboth
children,justastheItaliandoctorwouldhavepredicted.Betsy“hadneverhadanythingto
dowithchildrenyoungerthanherself,andshefeltverypleasedandimportanttohave
anybodylookuptoher!...ElizabethAnncorrect[ed]Mollygentlywhenshemadeamistake,
andwait[ed]patientlywhenshehesitated.Shehadsofreshinhermindherownsuffering
fromquick,nervouscorrectionsthatshetookthegreatestpleasureinspeakingquietlyand
notinterruptingthelittlegirlmorethanwasnecessary.Itwasfuntoteach,lotsoffun!”
Keely,p.18
(62).Thetimefliesby,andBetsyissurprisedwhentheteacherasks“thoughtfully,justas
thoughBetsywereagrown-upperson,”aboutherassessmentoflittleMolly’sreadingskills
andwhethershemightbereadyforthesecondreader(62).
UnlikeMontessori,forwhomtheteacher’sprimaryroleistopreparethe
environmentinwhichthetoddlerswilllearn,Fisherarguesthatadultshaveanimportant
roleinmodelingbehaviorsandprovidingdirectinstructiontostudents.Earlier,observing
Montessori’sclasses,Fisherhadnotedthat“Itwasevidenttoherthattheusual‘class
recitation’and‘classlessons’wereoutofthequestion,sincetheycouldatthebest,possibly
fittheneedsofonlyonechildintheclass.Andyetitisobviouslyimpossible,astheworldis
madeup,tohaveateacherforeverychild.Therewasonlyonewayout–thingsmust
somehowbesoorganizedandarrangedthat,formostofthetime,thechildcanandshall
teachhimself.”25IntheHillsboroone-roomschoolhouse,however,thereareotheroptions:
studentscanteacheachother(asinBetsy’shelpingMollywithreading);classrecitations
andlessonscanbedonewithverysmallgroupsofchildren,aclasswithintheclass;and
sometimes,theteacherworksone-on-onewithastudent,ashappenswithBetsyandmath:
“assoonasMissBentonhadseentheconfusionofthelittlegirl’smind,thetwohadsettled
downtoaseriousstrugglewiththatsubject.MissBentonhadhadBetsyreciteallby
herself,soshewouldn’tbeflurriedbytheothers;andtobeginwithhadgoneback,back,
backtobedrock,tothethingsBetsyabsolutelyknew,tothe2x2’sandthe3x3’s.And
then,verycautiously,astepatatime,theyhadadvanced,stoppingshortwheneverBetsy
feltabeginningofthatbewildered‘guessing’impulsewhichmadeheranswerwildlyat
random”(123).Thisapproach–teacher-centricbutfocusedononeparticularchild–
25Fisher,TheMontessoriManual19.
Keely,p.19
works,and“Sheattackedapageofproblemsnowwithazestandself-confidencewhich
madeherarithmeticlessonsamongthemostinterestinghoursatschool”(124).
Assessmentintheschoolisongoingandentirelyformative,untiltheday“the
Superintendent,theall-important,seldom-seenSuperintendent,cametovisittheschool
andthechildrenweregivensomeexaminationsohecouldseehowtheyweregettingon”
(89-90).Betsyhasbeenconditionedbyheryearsatthebigcityschooltofear
examinations,whichdeterminewhetheronecanmoveontothenextgradeattheendofthe
year,andshethusregressestoheroldElizabethAnnselfandsuffersawholeslewof
anxioussymptoms:“Hermouthhadgonedryandherkneeshadshakenandherelbows
hadfeltasthoughtheyhadnomorebonesinthemthansomuchjelly,andhereyeshad
smarted,and,oh,whatanswersshehadmade!…shehaddisgracedherselftentimesover”
(90).SheseekssympathyfromherCousinAnnasshehadalwaysdonefromAuntFrances,
onlytodiscoverthatFrancesalwaysthoughtthatexaminationswereratherfun:“Like
takingadare,don’tyouknow.Somebodystumpsyoutojumpoffthehitchingpost,andyou
doittoshow’em.Ialwaysusedtothinkexaminationswerelikethat.Somebodystumps
youtospell‘pneumonia,’andyoudoittoshow’em”(92).Betsythinksthat’sallverywell
forAnn,butsheherselfhadgottenscaredandmadealotofmistakes:“Ispelled‘doubt’
withoutanyband‘separate’withane,andIsaidIowawasboundedonthenorthby
Wisconsin,andI…”SheisinterruptedbyCousinAnn,whopointsoutthat“itdoesn’tmatter
ifyoureallyknowtherightanswers,doesit?That’stheimportantthing”(92).However,
“ThiswasanideawhichhadneverinallherlifeenteredBetsy’sbrainandshedidnottake
itinnow”(92-93),evenwhenCousinAnnpointsoutthat“HemlockMountainwillstand
righttherejustthesameevenifyoudidforgettoputabin‘doubt’”(93).
Keely,p.20
Laterthatafternoon,theuselessnessofexaminationsfordeterminingrealgrowthis
drivenhomewhenBetsymustproveherproblem-solvingskillsinareal-life,ratherthan
created,situation.WhensheandlittleMollywalkbacktothefarmfromthesaphouse,
whereAnnhasbeenmakingmaplesyrup,theytakeawrongturnandaccidentallyheadup
HemlockMountainratherthandownit.Althoughdarkisfalling,Betsyisrelativelycalm,
figuringthattheycanjustturnaroundandgotheotherway,butthenMollytakesone
wrongstepandfallsintoadeeppit,whereariver-formedcavehadcollapsedlongago.
Betsy’sfirstthoughtistorunbacktothefarmandgethelp,butthefive-year-oldbecomes
hystericalatthethoughtofbeingleftinthepitaloneinthedark.Betsypullsherself
togetherandasksherself,“WhatwouldCousinAnndoifshewerehere?Shewouldn’tcry.
Shewouldthinkofsomething”(101).SoBetsylooksaround,assessingherresources,and
seesahugepinetreelimbwithbrokenbranchstubs.Sherealizesthatcouldworkasa
ladderifshecangetitintothehole.Ittakesusingastickasaleverforhertogetthehuge
treelimboutofthesnow,butshefinallydoesso,maneuversittothepit,tellsMollytoget
undercover,andslidesthelimbintothepit.Mollyquicklyclambersupandgetshigh
enoughthatBetsycanliedownflat,reachdownherarms,andpullthechildup.Justasthe
rescueisachieved,CousinAnnarrives,lookingforthechildreninthedark;thePutneysare
notgiventopraise,butAnnsays,“Well,now,thatwasquiteagoodideaforalittlegirlto
have,”whichmakesBetsy’sheart“sing[]joyfully”(103).Thatnight,asshecurlsupinbed,
“sheremembered,eversofaintly,assomethingofnoimportance,thatshehadfailedinan
examinationthatafternoon”(103).Shehasinternalizedthelessonthatwhatreallymatters
iswhatyouknowandwhatyoucandowithwhatyouknow,notwhataSuperintendent
thinksofyourspelling.
Keely,p.21
Butissucheducation–individualattention;thepracticalhandinhandwiththe
academic;anemphasisonrealgrowthratherthanprogressionthroughgrades–available
tomostchildrenin1916?(or1946?ornow?)IsFisher’snovelsimplyan“Arcadia,”asthe
NewRepublicreviewerfound,amomentaryescapefromthedangersofmodernityand
WorldWarI?Oristheresomethingforward-lookingaswellasbackward-lookingin
Fisher’sidealofruralone-roomschoolhousesandself-reliantfarmfamilies?
Thirtyyearslater,lookingbackafterasecondworldwar(oneinwhichFisherlost
herbelovedson),Fisherhypothesizedthat“Thoselocalfreehighschoolstwenty-fiveor
thirtyorfortyyearsagowerecertainlynotbettereducationalinstitutionsinthemselves
thantheexpensiveprepschools,asonemightatfirstthink.Buttheboysandgirlswho
wenttothosesmallsemi-ruralhighschoolsweresaturatedtothemarrowoftheirbonesby
constantcontactwiththefeelingofcommunalresponsibilityforunderstandingthe
workingsoflocalinstitutionsandforhelpingtokeepthemworking.”26 Issuchacommunity
feelingstillpossibleinaworldtornapartbymultipleworldwars,scatteredby
urbanizationandrelocation,andbereftofautonomybyindustrialization?Shenotes,“If
therearegreatpsychologicaldangerstoindividualdevelopmentformembersofverylarge
groups,andif,asseemsinevitable,humangroupingsaregoingtogetlargerandlargerin
thefuture,whatcanthoseofusacutelyconcernedforthewelfareoftheyounger
generationdoaboutit.”27
Fisheracknowledgesthatthissoundssomewhat“gloomy”butholdsouthopethat
educationwillprovidenewroadsforward:“Somethingofthiskindseemstohavebeenthe
guessofthoseeducatorswho,uptoashorttimeago,werecalledprogressive.Whatthey26Fisher,AmericanPortraits23.27Fisher,AmericanPortraits28.
Keely,p.22
werereallyafterwasnotsomuchachangeincurriculumordisciplineastoplacethechild
andtheadolescentinsurroundingswhere,asanaturalconsequenceofdailylife,hehas
real,notmake-believe,managerialpowerovertheconductofhisaffairs”28–theverything
thatcamenaturallytoBetsy,oncesheleftthecity.
Fisherconcludeswithanappreciationfortheongoingworkofprogressive
educatorsinaworldthatseemsdarkerthaninthoseearlydaysofthecenturywhenshe
wasobservingMontessori’sclassesinRome:“Theenlightenedmodernschoolteacheris
strugglingsotoarrangeschoollifethatboysandgirlsofthefuturemaybeabletoprofitby
theprodigiousmaterialadvantagesoflarge-scaleproductionanddistributionwithout
payingtoohighapriceintermsofweakenedindividualself-dependence.Heisfrightened
abouttheeffectontheyoungergenerationofthepresent.Heisevenmorealarmedabout
theimmediatefuture,when–asthemostcasualprophetcanguess–humangroupsare
goingtobemorearmy-likeinsizethaneverbefore.Theintelligentmoderneducatoris
doinghisbesttomakeclassroomlifeprovideforyoungAmericansmoreofthat
strengtheningexperienceofmanagingtheconductoftheirownlivesthatusedtobe
providedbythehuman-sizedgroupsofcommunitylifeofthepast.…Tothisgrandparent
thegoodmodernprogressiveschoollookslikeoneofthewaysopenintoavigoroushuman
future.”29
Inanationthatisnowevenless“human-sized”initsgroupingsthanFishercould
haveanticipatedsixtyyearsago,Iwouldloveforalleducators–thosewhoconsider
themselves“progressive”andthosewhoconsiderthemselves“traditional”–toreadboth
Fisher’sessayandhernow-most-famousnovel,UnderstoodBetsy.Allteachersacrossthe28Fisher,AmericanPortraits28-29.29Fisher,AmericanPortraits28-29.
Keely,p.23
spectrumwouldrecognizethatBetsy,whoturnsaconfidenttenattheendofthenovel,is
ineverywayamorevigorouschildthanthefrightened,weakElizabethAnnofayear
before.Couldallofthoseeducatorstalktooneanotherina“human-sized”community,one
thathas,deepinthemarrowofitsbones,a“feelingofcommunalresponsibilityfor
understandingtheworkingsoflocalinstitutionsandforhelpingtokeepthemworking.”30If
Fishercouldenvisionsuchinstitutionsin1916,andcouldmakeacallforsuchcommunities
in1946,couldweheedhercallinthisdayandage?
30Fisher,AmericanPortraits23.
Keely,p.24
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